Issue7_art9

-ETAPHORS OF 3ELF IN #ONFUCIUS AND $ESCARTES -ARY ) "OCKOVER

!BSTRACT 0RESENTED IN THE EXTREME THE !NALECTS OF #ONFUCIUS GIVES US A VIEW OF SELF THAT APPEARS TO BE EXCLUSIVELY RELATIONAL /NE S SELF IS ESTABLISHED BY THE APPROPRIATE CONDUCT LI AND SPIRIT REN THAT CONNECTS ONE TO OTHERS THERE IS NO SELF IN ABSTRACT ISOLATION 4HIS VIEW OF THE SELF MAY BE CONSIDERED IN CONTRAST TO THE VIEW SET FORTH IN THE -EDITATIONS OF $ESCARTES 4HE #ARTESIAN hTHING WHICH THINKSv IS ESSENTIALLY AND EXCLUSIVELY SELF DEl NING SET APART FROM WHAT IS OTHERˆBE IT THE BODY OTHER THINGS LIVING OR NOT LIVING PERSONAL OR NONPER SONAL OR EVEN 'OD 4HIS ARTICLE EXPLORES THESE DIFFERENT METAPHORS OF SELF AND SOME OF THEIR MORAL AND SPIRITUAL IMPLICATIONS ;! STUDENT ASKED #ONFUCIUS= h7HY DON T YOU TELL ME WHAT IT IS YOU WOULD MOST LIKE TO DO v 4HE -ASTER SAID h) WOULD LIKE TO BRING PEACE AND CONTENT MENT TO THE AGED TO SHARE RELATIONSHIPS OF TRUST AND CONl DENCE WITH FRIENDS

AND TO LOVE AND PROTECT THE YOUNG v

#ONFUCIUS AND THE #OMMUNAL 3ELF

!

S AN ETHIC #ONFUCIANISM IS CONCERNED WITH RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE !S A RELIGION IT IS CONCERNED WITH THE EMBEDDING OF THE HUMAN SPIRITˆOF GOODNESS BENEVOLENCE OR REN ˆIN A LARGER NETWORK

AS THAT SPIRIT m OWS BETWEEN PEOPLE (EAVEN AND %ARTH AND ALSO BETWEEN THE LIVING AND THE DEAD "OTH ETHICALLY AND SPIRITUALLY THE ROLE OF REN IS TO POSITIVELY STRENGTHEN THESE CONNECTIONS 4HROUGH THE BASIC #ONFUCIAN VIR TUE OFF REN N WE CAN LIVE A GOOD LIFE AND MAKE THE WORLD A BETTER PLACE 7HEN ONE LIVES A GOOD LIFE THEN IT IS NOT ONLY A PERSONAL ACHIEVEMENT IT IS ALSO A SOCIAL HISTORICAL AND SPIRITUAL FACT 4HE -ASTER SAID h)T IS THE PERSON WHO IS ABLE TO BROADEN THE WAY DAO NOT THE WAY THAT BROADENS THE PERSON vv >HHJ: D8ID7:G

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(OW DOES ONE LIVE A GOOD LIFE ACCORDING TO #ONFUCIUS 4HE SHORT ANSWER IS BY EXPRESSING REN THROUGH LI OR THE RITUALIZED NORMATIVE CONVENTIONS THAT TIE HUMANITY TOGETHER IN A MEANINGFUL WAY 4HE UNIVERSAL HUMAN SPIRIT OF GOODNESS REN REQUIRES CULTURALLY RELATIVE CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS LI IN ORDER FOR US TO BE ABLE TO RECOGNIZE AND RESPOND TO THAT GOODNESS IN A SIMILARLY CIVILIZED FASHION 2EN REQUIRES LI FOR US TO BE ABLE TO hTAKE OUR STANDv I IN THE HUMAN COMMUNITY OR TO INTERACT MEANINGFULLY AND HARMONIOUSLY IN A SPECIl C HUMAN CONTEXT 3O WHILE LII IS THE TANGIBLE MANIFESTATION OF REN REN INFUSES THOSE CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS WITH THE HUMAN SPIRIT THAT GIVES THEM THEIR BEAUTY AND DIGNITY 4HE -ASTER SAID h)N REFERRING TIME AND AGAIN TO OBSERVING RITUAL PROPRIETY LI

HOW COULD ) JUST BE TALKING ABOUT GIFTS OF JADE AND SILK !ND IN REFERRING TIME AND AGAIN TO MAKING MUSIC HOW COULD ) JUST BE TALKING ABOUT BELLS AND DRUMS vv &OR EXAMPLE ALL HUMAN CULTURES HAVE WAYS OF BEING REVERENT AND WAYS OF GRIEVING BUT HOW THEY ARE EXPRESSED IS SOCIALLY CONDITIONED 4HE SPIRIT OR CONSCIOUS AIM REN REQUIRES A CONCRETE SOCIAL CONVENTION LI TO BE ACTIVATED #ONVENTIONS THAT CAN BE RECOGNIZED AND RESPONDED TO ARE NECESSARY FOR CIVILIZED HUMAN ACTIVITY TO OCCUR )N THIS WAY THE hUNIVERSALv HUMAN SPIRIT OF GOODNESS CAN ONLY BE EXPRESSED BYY LII THAT IS hRELATIVEv OR PARTICULAR TO A CULTURE .OTE THAT WHILE SUCH CONCEPTS AS UNIVERSAL AND L PARTICULARR OR RELATIVE ARE CAST IN THE 7EST AS BEING MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE THEY ARE THOUGHT IN THIS I #ONFUCIAN CASE TO BE MUTUALLY ENTAILING 2EN AND LI ARE NECESSARY ASPECTS OF A GREATER REALITY A HUMAN REALITY OF MUTUAL SUPPORT AND WELLBEING 4O CONTINUE WITH THE EXAMPLE GRIEF IS EXPRESSED IN VARIOUS FORMS DE PENDING ON THE LII OF THE CULTURE BUT THE GRIEF ITSELF IS UNIVERSAL FOR EVERY HUMAN CULTURE HAS PROPER WAYS OF EXPERIENCING EXPRESSING AND RESPONDING TO GRIEF 2EVERENCEˆTO SUGGEST ANOTHER EXAMPLEˆCOMES IN VARIOUS FORMS THAT ARE PARTICULAR TO THE CULTURE BUT REVERENCE IS A PART OF THE HUMAN WAY THAT HAS BEEN CELEBRATED DOWN THROUGH THE AGES AND AROUND THE GLOBE 4HE EXPRESSION hSACRIl CE AS THOUGH PRESENTv IS TAKEN TO MEAN hSACRIl CE TO THE SPIRITS AS THOUGH THE SPIRITS ARE PRESENT v "UT THE -ASTER SAID h)F ) MYSELF DO NOT PARTICIPATE IN THE SACRIl CE IT IS AS THOUGH ) HAVE NOT SACRIl CED AT ALL vv 4HE -ASTER SAID h(IGH OFl CE l LLED WITH MEN OF NARROW VIEWS

RITUAL PREFORMED WITHOUT REVERENCE THE FORMS OF MOURNING OBSERVED WITHOUT GRIEFˆTHESE ARE THINGS ) CANNOT BEAR TO SEE vv /N AN INDIVIDUAL LEVEL LEARNING HOW TO EXPRESS REN THROUGH LII REQUIRES US TO LEARN HOW TO l LL PARTICULAR SOCIAL ROLES IN WHICH WE RELATE TO OTHERS IN

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-ETAPHORS OF 3ELF IN #ONFUCIUS AND $ESCARTES

A HARMONIOUS AND DIGNIl ED MANNER )NDEED FROM A #ONFUCIAN PERSPECTIVE ONE S SELF IS DEl NED BY ONE S RELATIONS TO OTHERS (AVING CHILDREN DEl NES ONE AS A MOTHER OR FATHER HAVING A HUSBAND DEl NES ONE AS A WIFE HAVING STUDENTS DEl NES ONE AS A TEACHER 4HE !NALECTS LISTS l VE RELATIONSHIPS AS BASIC TO THE EXPRESSION OF REN THROUGH LI &ATHER SON (USBAND WIFE /LDER BROTHER YOUNGER BROTHER 2ULER SUBJECT "ENEFACTOR TEACHER BENEl CIARY STUDENT ) HAVE ARGUED THAT THIS #ONFUCIAN VIEW OF WHAT IT MEANS TO BE A PERSON CAN CERTAINLY BE RELEVANT IN TODAY S WORLDÂ&#x2C6;A WORLD THAT NOW REQUIRES A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVEÂ&#x2C6;BUT IT MUST BE RECAST TO CAPTURE THE SPIRIT OF #ONFU CIAN THOUGHT WHILE DISCARDING IRRATIONAL ARBITRARY AND UNJUSTIl ED FEATURES

SUCH AS THE EVIDENT MALE BIAS IN THE !NALECTS MODEL !NOTHER ASPECT OF THE !NALECTS VIEW OF RELATIONSHIPS IS THEIR HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE 4HOSE OF US RAISED IN A CULTURE THAT VALUES EQUALITY AMONG PERSONS l ND THIS FEATURE INCREASINGLY UNATTRACTIVE AND INAPPROPRIATE TO MANY OF OUR RELATIONSHIPS ) HAVE THEREFORE PROPOSED A CONTEMPORARY MODEL WHICH PRESERVES THE FEATURE CRITICAL TO ALL OF THESE RELATIONSHIPSÂ&#x2C6;THEIR INTERDEPENDENCEÂ&#x2C6;WHILE THEIR HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE WILL REQUIRE A MORE DETAILED EXAMINATION )NDEED

THE PRINCIPLE OF INTERDEPENDENCY IS BASIC NOT ONLY TO #ONFUCIANISM BUT TO ALL TRADITIONAL #HINESE PHILOSOPHIES 0ARENT CHILD 0ARTNER PARTNER /LDER RELATIVE YOUNGER RELATIVE /Fl CIAL CITIZEN 0ERSON PERSON 4HIS CONTEMPORARY MODEL OF #ONFUCIAN RELATIONS CLEARLY REm ECTS A CON CERN FOR EQUALITY BY REMOVING THE SEXIST LANGUAGE BUT NOT BY REMOVING THE HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF THE RELATIONS )N PRINCIPLE ANYBODY CAN OCCUPY AN AUTHORITATIVE POSITION AS LONG AS THAT PERSON TAKES RESPONSIBILITY FOR IT !NYBODY WHO IS QUALIl EDÂ&#x2C6;THOUGH ADMITTEDLY THE CRITERIA DETERMINING THIS WILL BE CUL TURE SPECIl CÂ&#x2C6;CAN OCCUPY A POSITION OF SOCIAL AUTHORITY &ROM A CONTEMPORARY 7ESTERN PERSPECTIVE THIS SHOULD BE A BASIC hRIGHTv IRRESPECTIVE OF GENDER CLASS

RACE AGE AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION /N THE SAME POINT THE PARTNER PARTNER RELATION REPLACES THE HUSBAND WIFE RELATION IN THE MODEL TO ALLOW FOR EQUAL ITY INSTEAD OF THE ORDINATE SUBORDINATE HIERARCHY ONCE ALMOST UNIVERSALLY CHARACTERISTIC OF THE TRADITIONAL RELATION BETWEEN HUSBAND AND WIFE >HHJ: D8ID7:G

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4HE RESTRUCTURING OF THE RELATIONS IN THE CONTEMPORARY MODEL ALSO MAKES THEM MORE GENERAL TO ACCOMMODATE THE COMPLEXITIES OF OUR GLOBAL IZED WORLD )N THE CONTEMPORARY MODEL THE CATEGORY OF PERSON PERSON

REPLACING BENEFACTOR BENEl CIARY IN THE TRADITIONAL MODEL IS RECAST NOW TO COVER A MUCH WIDER RANGE OF POSSIBLE RELATIONS NOT SPECIl ED IN THE FOUR PREVIOUS PAIRINGS 0ERSON PERSON MAY INDICATE RELATIONS TO FAMILY FRIENDS

COLLEAGUES TEACHERS STUDENTS AND IN A COMMERCIAL SOCIETY A CONSUMER S RELATIONS TO CLERKS BUSINESSPEOPLE ARTISANS TECHNICIANS LAWYERS BUILDERS

CONTRACTORS ACCOUNTANTS MECHANICS AND SO FORTH )N THE #ONFUCIAN VIEW ALL THESE VARIOUS RELATIONS MAKE UP THE PERSON THEY ARE HOW A PERSON IS IDENTI l ED BOTH BY HIMSELF OR HERSELF AND BY OTHERS 4HE CHANGE TO PERSON PERSON ALSO ALLOWS FOR GREATER EQUALITY )T IS WORTH NOTING THAT -ENCIUS RECAST THE l FTH CATEGORY AS FRIEND FRIEND WHICH MADE HIS VIEW MORE EGALITARIAN 4HREE THINGS SHOULD BE NOTED AT THIS JUNCTURE &IRST EXECUTING ONE S ROLES WITH EXCELLENCE DE PRODUCES MORE GOODNESS IN THE WORLD BY PROVIDING AN EXAMPLE OF ROLE DEPENDENT GOODNESS FOR OTHERS TO FOLLOW 3ECOND EVEN THOUGH THE #ONFUCIAN PERSON IS A SOCIAL BEING THAT PERSON IS STILL A UNIQUE INDIVIDUAL DEl NED BY HIS OR HER PARTICULAR MANNER OF SUP ! PARENT IS ONLY A PORTING THOSE RELATIONSHIPS 4HIRD FOR #ONFUCIUS THE ACT OF BEING A PERSON WHICH IS TO SAY BEING A UNIQUE NEXUS OF PARENT WHEN HE OR SHE SOCIAL ROLES HAS INHERENT NORMATIVE CONTENT &OR INSTANCE

BEING A FATHER IS NOT JUST A BIOLOGICAL FACT IT IS A SOCIAL AND FULl LLS THE ROLE OF PARENT SPIRITUAL ACCOMPLISHMENT WHICH REQUIRES THAT PERSON IN THE ROLE OF FATHER TO ADOPT THE PROPER CONSCIOUS ORIENTA TION TO HIS CHILDREN THE PROPER REN SPIRIT NECESSARY TO DO APPROPRIATELY ING JUSTICE TO THAT ROLE WHICH IN THIS CASE IS COMPASSION )T IS NOT THAT ANYONE WITH A CHILD IS A PARENT RATHER A PERSON IS ONLY A PARENT WHEN HE OR SHE FULl LLS THE ROLE OF PARENT APPROPRIATELY ! CHILD IN TURN HAS THE RECIPROCAL DUTY TO BE l LIAL TO HIS OR HER PARENTS WHICH IS THE CONSCIOUS ORIENTATION THAT A CHILD SHOULDD TAKE WITH RESPECT TO THEM AS WELL AS WHAT IT MEANS TO BE SOMEONE S CHILD &OR #ONFUCIUS THERE IS NO DIFFERENCE BETWEEN S DESCRIPTIVE AND NORMATIVE TERMS WHEN IT COMES TO BEING HUMAN #ONFUCIUS VIEW OF PERSONHOOD IS THAT GOOD ACTION IS REQUIRED IN ORDER FOR SOMEONE TO BE WORTHY OF BEING CALLED A hPERSONv IN GENERAL AND AS WE HAVE JUST SEEN IN ORDER FOR SOMEONE TO BE A PARTICULAR PERSON WITH A UNIQUE IDENTITY DERIVING FROM THE ROLES THAT PERSON EMBODIES IN HIS OR HER LIFE /NE REALIZES ONE S HUMANITY THROUGH FULl LLING ONE S OBLIGATIONS TO OTHERS AND

BY ACTING WITH THE VIRTUE APPROPRIATE TO THE PARTICULAR RELATION IN QUESTION !GAIN CONSIDER THE PARENT CHILD RELATION WHICH #ONFUCIUS CONSIDERED TO BE THE MOST IMPORTANT MOST FORMATIVE AND MOST SELF DEl NING OF ALL RELATIONS /NE CANNOT BE PROPERLY CONSIDERED TO BE A PARENT IF ONE IS NOT COMPASSION

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-ETAPHORS OF 3ELF IN #ONFUCIUS AND $ESCARTES

ATE TOWARD ONE S CHILD IF ONE S CONSCIOUSNESS IS NOT DIRECTED TOWARD ONE S CHILD TO BENEl T THAT CHILD EVEN AT THE EXPENSE OF ONESELF 4HE PARENT SHOULD BE COMMITTED TO CARRYING OUT HIS OR HER ROLE WITH EXCELLENCE 4HUS BEING A PARENT IS NOT ONLY A SOCIAL ROLE BUT IS ALSO A SPIRITUAL REALITY FULl LLED THROUGH REN OR THROUGH ACTIVATING THE HUMAN SPIRIT OF GOODNESS IN THIS PARTICULAR PARENT CHILD CONTEXT !S SUCH THE NORMATIVE AND SPIRITUAL ASPECTS OF OUR HUMANITY GO HAND IN HAND 0ARENTS FULl LL THEIR ROLE IN COMPASSION THEN AND CHILDREN FULl LL THEIRS IN l LIAL PIETY OR DEVOTION TOWARD THEIR PARENTS #ONFUCIAN RELATIONS ARE RE CIPROCAL 4HEY ARE ALSO m UID #ONSIDER THAT A PARENT IS ALSO THE CHILD OF HIS OR HER PARENTS AND HAS LEARNED HOW TO BE A PARENT FROM THEIR HOPEFULLY GOOD EXAMPLE 4HUS IN PROPERLY FULl LLING THE ROLE OF PARENT A PARENT IS TEACHING HIS OR HER OWN CHILD

BY EXAMPLE HOW TO BE A PARENT IN TURN 4HE VIRTUES CORRESPONDING TO THE VARIOUS SOCIAL ROLES CAN BE DISTIN GUISHED FROM EACH OTHER IN CONCEPT BUT THEY ARE NOT EXCLUSIVE TO ANY ONE ROLE )T IS NOT THAT PARENT AND CHILD ARE THOUGHT OF AS ESSENTIALLY DIFFERENT KINDS OF HUMAN BEINGS !LL THE #ONFUCIAN VIRTUESÂ&#x2C6;LOVE OR COMPASSION REN l LIAL PIETY XIAO RIGHTEOUSNESS YI PROPRIETY LI LOYALTY ZHONG

G AND RECIPROCITY SHU Â&#x2C6;CAN BE SEEN AS FULl LLING THE SAME NATURAL DECREE 4O E REALIZE OUR HUMANITY THROUGH GOODNESS REN !LL ARE WAYS OF BEING GOOD IN ANY NUMBER OF HUMAN CONTEXTS AND ACCORDING TO THE ROLES THAT RELATIONALLY

MAKE US WHO WE ARE AS PERSONS 4HE BASIC #ONFUCIAN RELATIONS ARE PERSONAL ROLES AS WELL AS SPIRITUAL I REN !GAIN LI IS THE CONDUCT I ASPECTS OF OUR SELVES REALIZED THROUGH LI AND APPROPRIATE TO THE RELATION AND REN IS THE HUMAN VIRTUE THAT N LI EXPRESSES I 6IRTUE DOES NOT EXIST WITHOUT PRACTICE AND NO GOOD ACTIVITY EXISTS WITHOUT REN 4HESE ARE INTERDEPENDENT ASPECTS OF OUR HUMANITY THE hHUMAN WAYv WHICH HAS A POWER DE THAT IS COEXTENSIVE WITH AND GUIDED BY THE GREATER WAY OF (EAVEN "ECOMING A PERSON IS THUS A CREATIVE ENDEAVOR WITH PROFOUND SPIRITUAL SIGNIl CANCE )N A SENSE PERSONHOOD IS SELF CREATED BUT NOT IN ISOLA TION IT IS ALWAYS CREATED IN COMMUNITY OR IN RELATION TO OTHERSÂ&#x2C6;TO OTHER PERSONS LIVING AND DEAD AND MORE BROADLY TO (EAVEN AND TO %ARTHÂ&#x2C6;BUT WILL DEPEND UPON HOW PEOPLE ARE CONCEIVED IN THEIR OWN PARTICULAR CONTEXT )N ANY CASE THE MORE VIRTUOUS PERSONS ARE THE MORE ABLE THEY WILL BE TO BRING PEACE AND ORDER TO THEIR COMMUNITY AND THE MORE APPROPRIATE IT WILL BE FOR THEM TO GUIDE THE ACTIONS AND PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT OF OTHERS

BY THEIR OWN GOOD EXAMPLE 4HE -ASTER SAID h'OVERNING WITH EXCELLENCE ;DE ; = CAN BE COMPARED TO BEING THE .ORTH 3TAR THE .ORTH 3TAR DWELLS IN ITS PLACE AND THE MULTITUDE OF STARS PAY IT TRIBUTE v >HHJ: D8ID7:G

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7HILE THE RENDAO OR hHUMAN WAY v IS THE CENTRAL THEME OF #ONFUCIAN ISM DAO IS ALSO A CENTRAL THEME OF $AOISM AND #HINESE "UDDHISM EVEN THOUGH THE hWAYv IS INTERPRETED DIFFERENTLY 7HAT IS THE SAME DESPITE THE VARIETY OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPLICATIONS IS THAT EACH ONE IS A WAY OF HARMONY

BALANCE AND UNITY 7HEN APPLIED TO THE HUMAN COMMUNITY DAO GUIDES RELATIONS TO BE PEACEFUL ORDERLY AND COOPERATIVE ,II AND REN CAN ONLY BE N SEPARATED FOR THE PURPOSE OF ANALYSIS BUT IN REALITY THEY ARE TWO ASPECTS OF THE SAME HUMAN WAY WHICH IS HARMONIOUS HUMAN INTERACTION 4OGETHER THEY COMPRISE A WAY LARGER THAN ANY INDIVIDUAL PERSON IT IS A WAY THAT RE QUIRES PERSONAL INTERACTION AND SOCIAL EMBEDDEDNESS !ND IF WE HAVE NOT LOST OUR WAY THE HUMAN WAY IS A MICROCOSM OF THE WAY OF (EAVEN 3OMEONE ASKED THE -ASTER FOR AN EXPLANATION OF THE IMPERIAL ANCESTRAL SACRIl CE AND HE REPLIED h) DON T HAVE ONE !NYONE WHO DID KNOW HOW TO EXPLAIN IT COULD RULE THE EMPIRE AS EASILY AS HAVING IT HERE v !ND HE POINTED TO THE PALM OF HIS HAND ;REPRESENTING THE MAGICAL EFFECT OF RITUAL IN ORDERING THINGS= ,IKE THE INTERDEPENDENCY BETWEEN PEOPLE AND BETWEEN REN AND LI THE INTERDEPENDENCY OF THE COSMIC FORCES OF YIN AND YANG TOGETHER MAKE UP THE 'REAT 5LTIMATE $AO OR 7AY OF THE UNIVERSE $AO THE SOURCE AND SUSTAINER OF ALL ACTIVITY IN THE UNIVERSE PROVIDES A 7AY AND A 0OWER THAT NOT ONLY BAL ANCES (EAVEN HUMANITY AND %ARTH IT ALSO FUNCTIONALLY HOLDS THEM TOGETHER &ROM THIS RELATIONAL VIEW OF THE WORLD IT FOLLOWS THAT ONE S PERSONHOOD DEPENDS ON ONE S SOCIAL STATUS AND IF ONE HAS NO SIGNIl CANT RELATIONS THEN ONE MAY WELL BE CONSIDERED LESS OF A PERSON 4HIS CLEARLY HAS MORAL IMPLI CATIONS ! 7ESTERNER MIGHT ASK 7HERE IS RESPECT FOR THE INDIVIDUAL $ON T PEOPLE HAVE RIGHTSÂ&#x2C6;THE KIND OF RIGHTS THAT PROTECT INDIVIDUAL FREEDOMS )N THE MAIN FROM A #HINESE PERSPECTIVE THE ANSWER IS NO !LTHOUGH HUMANS HAVE A CLEAR #ONFUCIAN DUTY TO TREAT OTHERS AS PERSONS THAT IS ACCORDING TO REN N AND LI AS IN THE CASE OF A PARENT HAVING A DUTY TO BE COMPASSIONATE AND A CHILD TO BE l LIAL IT IS HARDER TO MAKE THE CASE FOR JUST HOW IT FOLLOWS THAT A PARENT HAS A RIGHT TO l LIAL TREATMENT AND A CHILD TO PARENTAL COMPASSION 4HAT REQUIRES A FURTHER ARGUMENTÂ&#x2C6;ONE THAT IS NOTABLY ABSENT IN #HINESE THOUGHT 4HE POINT HERE IS ONLY THAT THE #HINESE FOCUS IS NOT AND HAS NEVER BEEN ON INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS PRECISELY BECAUSE hINDIVIDUALSv ARE CONCEIVED AS CONSISTING OF THE SUM TOTAL OF THEIR RELATIONS 4HE #HINESE FOCUS WHICH CAN BE SEEN CLEARLY IN THE !NALECTS IS NOT ON RIGHTS BUT IS PRIMARILY ON THE OBLIGATION TO DEVELOP AND TAKE RESPONSIBILITY FOR ONE S ROLES 4HE IMPLICATIONS OF THIS #ONFUCIAN VIEW OF SELF WILL BE JUDGED FAVORABLY OR NOT DEPENDING ON THE CULTURALLY CONDITIONED PERSPECTIVE OF THE PERSON MAKING THE JUDGMENT 7E ALSO TEND TO NOTICE THE EXTREMES BUT THE EXTREME

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-ETAPHORS OF 3ELF IN #ONFUCIUS AND $ESCARTES

HERE IS A METAPHOR 4HE IDEALIZED NOTION OF THE COMMUNAL SELF IS NOT TOTALLY AND LITERALLY TRUE OF THE #HINESE WORLD 7HY IS THIS VIEW NOT LITERALLY TRUE &ROM A METAETHICAL VIEWPOINT THE ANSWER IS THAT THE UNIVERSAL SELFÂ&#x2C6;WHAT O IS ESSENTIAL TO ALLL PERSONS DESPITE MARKED CULTURAL DIFFERENCESÂ&#x2C6;ALSO INCLUDES SUCH FEATURES AS RATIONAL FREE AGENCY THAT DISTINGUISH US AS SELF AWARE INDI VIDUALS AND NOT JUST AS SOCIAL RELATIONS "Y WAY OF INTERESTING CONTRAST THE 7ESTERN TRADITION OFFERS MANY EXAMPLES OF VIEWS AT THE OPPOSITE EXTREME

VIEWS THAT CONCEIVE OF THE SELF IN EXCLUSIVELY INDIVIDUALISTIC TERMS ) WILL TURN NOW TO A 7ESTERN METAPHOR OF SELF THAT CAN BE RADICALLY CONTRASTED WITH THE #HINESE ONE JUST DISCUSSED 4HE 3OLITARY 3ELF OF THE 7EST $ESCARTES ) AM THEREFORE TO SPEAK PRECISELY ONLY A THINKING BEING THAT IS TO SAY A MIND AN UNDERSTANDING OR A REASONING BEING WHICH ARE TERMS WHOSE MEANING WAS PREVIOUSLY UNKNOWN TO ME ) AM SOMETHING REAL AND REALLY EXISTING BUT WHAT THING AM ) ) HAVE ALREADY GIVEN THE ANSWER A THING WHICH THINKS )N THE HISTORY OF 7ESTERN THOUGHT 2EN£ $ESCARTES n PROVIDES A PERFECT EXAMPLE OF A SELF IN ISOLATION A hTHING WHICH THINKSv AND WHICH KNOWS ONE TRUTH MOST CENTRALLY AND IMMEDIATELY THAT OF ITS OWN EXISTENCE $ESCARTES ALSO PAINTS A PICTURE OF EXACTLY WHAT THAT EXISTING THINGÂ&#x2C6;ONE S SELFÂ&#x2C6;CONSISTS OF 7HAT IS IT THAT COMES TO KNOW OF ITS OWN EXISTENCE WITH TOTAL VERACITY 4HE ANSWER IS THE VERY SAME hTHINGv ASKING THE QUESTION IN THE l RST PLACE THAT hTHING WHICH THINKSv "UT WHAT THEN AM ) ! THINKING BEING 7HAT IS A THINKING BEING )T IS A BEING WHICH DOUBTS WHICH UNDERSTANDS ;WHICH CONCEIVES = WHICH AFl RMS WHICH DENIES WHICH WILLS WHICH REJECTS WHICH IMAGINES ALSO

AND WHICH PERCEIVES "ROADLY CONCEIVED THEN THE SELF OR WHAT THINKS IN US IS WHAT QUESTIONS

REASONS DOUBTS PERCEIVES SPECULATES DREAMS AND SO ON )T IS NOT JUST WHAT THINKS IN THE MORE TECHNICAL SENSE OF EXERCISING REASON BUT WHAT MAKES ALL CONSCIOUS ACTIVITY POSSIBLE AWARENESS ITSELF -ORE CRITICALLY THIS SELF

MIND OR CONSCIOUSNESS IS DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHERS INCLUDING THE BODY THAT HOUSES IT $ESCARTES MIND BODY DUALISM IS A DISTINCTION IN KIND BROUGHT TO US THROUGH ONE OF THE MOST PROFOUND MEDITATIONS OF 7ESTERN PHILOSOPHY $ESCARTES MEDITATIONS TAKE US ON A JOURNEY INWARD l RST TO THE ONLY hTHINGv THAT CANNOT BE DOUBTED AND THAT IS THEREFORE ESTABLISHED AS THE FOUNDATIONAL AND INDUBITABLE TRUTH UPON WHICH ALL OTHER TRUTH RESTS >HHJ: D8ID7:G

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(IS METHOD WAS TO CONCEPTUALLY STRIP AWAY EVERYTHING ELSE THAT COULD BE DOUBTED IN THE LEAST #OGITO ERGO SUM OR h) THINK THEREFORE ) AMv GIVES M $ESCARTES PHILOSOPHY OF MIND IN A NUTSHELL IN EXPLICITLY EXPRESSING THAT THE THING WHICH THINKS IS THE ONLY INDUBITABLE PREMISE FROM WHICH EVERYTHING ELSE THAT CAN N BE DOUBTED IS DEEMED REAL AND TRUE IN THE END h) THINK THERE FORE ) AMv DOES NOT JUST MEAN THAT MY EXISTENCE CAN BE CONCLUDED FROM THAT FACT THAT ) THINK )T MEANS THAT ) EXIST MOST ESSENTIALLY AS A THINKING THING G 4HE THING WHICH THINKS IS THE ESSENCE OF MIND OF SELF OF CONSCIOUSNESS BUT CALL IT WHAT ONE MAY THIS SEAT OF SUBJECTIVITY IS THE ONLY SELF EVIDENT TRUTH WE CAN DISCOVER 4HIS IS WHAT $ESCARTES METHODIC MEDITATION SETS OUT TO PROVE WITHOUT DOUBT "UT THERE IS MORE FOR THIS SELF JUSTIFYING TRUTH ALSO SERVES AS A META PHYSICAL l RST PRINCIPLE FOR HIS LATER MEDITATIONS FROM WHICH HE ATTEMPTS TO S SHOW HOW THE WORLD OF OTHERNESSÂ&#x2C6;INCLUDING THE BODIES WHICH HOUSE OUR MINDS THE MATERIAL WORLD AND OTHER PEOPLE ANIMALS AND THINGS THAT POPU LATE THAT WORLD AND EVEN 'OD 'ODSELFÂ&#x2C6;CAN FOLLOW 4HROUGH CONTINUED MEDITATION WE l RST GET 'OD BACK IN ORDER TO JUSTIFY THE REST OF EXISTENCE THE REST OF OUR EXPERIENCE OF OTHERNESS !LL OF THIS HOWEVER IS GENERATED FROM THE FACT THAT MIND HERE BEING THE EXPERIENCE OF OUR OWN CONSCIOUSNESS IS THE ONLY THING WE CAN KNOW WITH ABSOLUTE CERTAINTY (OW DID $ESCARTES ARRIVE AT THIS TRUTH (OW DID HE l ND THE ESSENCE OF SELF OR OF WHAT MOST ESSENTIALLY IT MEANS TO BE A PERSON (E BEGINS WITH THE DREAM HYPOTHESIS WHICH ALLOWS ONE TO QUESTION THE FACULTY OF PERCEPTION 7HEN ) CONSIDER THESE MATTERS CAREFULLY ) REALIZE SO CLEARLY THAT THERE ARE NO CONCLUSIVE INDICATIONS BY WHICH WAKING LIFE CAN BE DISTINGUISHED FROM SLEEP THAT ) AM QUITE ASTONISHED AND MY BEWILDERMENT IS SUCH THAT IT IS ALMOST ABLE TO CONVINCE ME THAT ) AM NOW SLEEPING 3O WE MUST BE ABLE TO IMAGINE THAT EVERYTHING THAT IS PERCEIVED IS A DREAM )T IS NOT REAL BUT A l CTION OF THE MIND !LL OUR PERCEPTIONS WHILE WE ARE AWAKE CAN BE DOUBTED SINCE OUR BELIEF IN THEM CAN BE NO DIFFERENT THAN OUR BELIEF THAT OUR DREAMS ARE REALÂ&#x2C6;AT LEAST WHILE WE ARE DREAMING THEM ,IFE SOMETIMES FEELS LIKE A DREAM AND SOMETIMES WE HAVE A LUCID EXPERIENCE IN DREAMING SO THAT IT SEEMS AS REAL TO US AS THIS VERY WAKING MOMENT DOES 4HE POINT OF THE DREAM HYPOTHESIS IS SIMPLE 7HETHER YOU ARE FOOLED BY SEEING A STICK IN THE WATER AS BEING BENT WHEN IT hREALLYv IS STRAIGHT OR SEEING THE HOT ROAD MELTING IN FRONT OF YOU WHEN IT IS hREALLYv INTACT OR WHETHER YOU ARE DREAMING AS IF SOMETHING WERE REAL OR WHETHER YOU ARE FEELING THAT LIFE IS BUT A DREAM THE PERCEPTIONS UPON WHICH ALL OF

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-ETAPHORS OF 3ELF IN #ONFUCIUS AND $ESCARTES

THESE EXPERIENCES ARE BASED CANNOT BE TRUSTED WITH ABSOLUTE CERTAINTY 4HEY CAN BE DOUBTED AND WHERE THERE IS DOUBT THE INDUBITABLE hCLEAR AND DIS TINCTv TRUTH THAT $ESCARTES IS LOOKING FOR CANNOT BE FOUND )T IS NOT MERELY THAT SPECIl C PERCEPTIONS CAN BE DOUBTED 4HE POINT RUNS DEEPER THE FACULTY OF PERCEPTION ITSELF HAS BEEN CALLED INTO DOUBT AND SO WHAT WE CAN KNOW WITH ABSOLUTE CLARITY MUST BE FOUND ELSEWHERE Y %VERYTHING WHICH ) HAVE THUS FAR ACCEPTED AS ENTIRELY TRUE ;AND AS SURED= HAS BEEN ACQUIRED FROM THE SENSES OR BY MEANS OF THE SENSES "UT ) HAVE LEARNED BY EXPERIENCE THAT THESE SENSES SOMETIMES MISLEAD ME AND IT IS PRUDENT NEVER TO TRUST WHOLLY THOSE THINGS WHICH HAVE ONCE DECEIVED US $ESCARTES THEN GIVES US THE EVIL GENIUS HYPOTHESIS TO SHOW THAT EVEN CONCEPTUAL TRUTHS CAN BE DOUBTED ) WILL THEREFORE SUPPOSE THAT NOT ;A TRUE= 'OD WHO IS VERY GOOD AND WHO IS THE SUPREME SOURCE OF THE TRUTH BUT A CERTAIN EVIL SPIRIT

NOT LESS CLEVER AND DECEITFUL THAN POWERFUL HAS BENT ALL HIS EFFORTS TO DECEIVING ME 7HAT IS THE POINT OF THIS HYPOTHESIS 7E MAY AGREE WITH $ESCARTES THAT PERCEPTION IS AN UNRELIABLE FACULTY BUT STILL HOLD THAT CONCEPTUAL TRUTHS SUCH AS THE TRUTHS OF MATHEMATICS ARE ABSOLUTELY TRUE $ESCARTES EVIL GENIUS HYPOTHESIS CHALLENGES JUST THIS VIEW 7E CAN IMAGINE THAT THERE IS AN EVIL GENIUS WHO HAS THE POWER TO TWIST OUR MINDS INTO SYSTEMATICALLY BELIEVING THAT TWO PLUS TWO MUST ALWAYS EQUAL FOUR WHEN IN REALITY IT EQUALS l VE )N OTHER WORDS IT IS CONCEPTUALLY POSSIBLE THAT OUR FACULTY OF THOUGHT COULD BE COMPROMISED INTO GIVING US hTRUTHSv AND EVEN SYSTEMATICALLY SO THAT ARE FALSE IN REALITY $ESCARTES DOES NOT BELIEVE THERE IS SUCH AN EVIL FORCE DOING THIS HE IS USING THIS HYPOTHESIS TO CONTINUE WITH HIS MIND EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT THE MIND CANNOT BE TRUSTED TO GIVE US THE TRUTH ABOUT ANYTHING EXCEPT T OUR OWN EXISTENCE AS A THINKING THING 7HAT WE THINK CAN BE QUESTIONED HOW WE THINK CAN BE QUESTIONED BUT W THAT WE THINK IS INDUBITABLE AND THIS T IDENTIl ES WHAT WE MOST ESSENTIALLY ARE 4HAT THINKING IS SO BASIC TO THE SELF CANNOT BE DOUBTED FOR EVEN IN A STATE OF DOUBT THE SELF IS STILL AWARE E G OF ITSELF IN DOUBT /F EQUAL IMPORTANCE IS THAT THIS SEAT OF SUBJECTIVITY IS ONLY CONTINGENTLY CONNECTED WITH A BODY WITH OTHER PEOPLE WITH COMMUNITY AND EVEN WITH 'OD 7E LEARN THE TRUTH ABOUT THESE THINGS ONLY AFTER AND FOUNDED UPON THE CLEAR AND DISTINCT TRUTH OF OUR OWN SEPARATE CONSCIOUS EXISTENCE

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#OMPARATIVE 6IEWS OF 3ELF #ONFUCIUS AND $ESCARTES $ESCARTES MEDITATIONS HIS CONCENTRATED AND SUSTAINED FOCUS ON ONE PROB LEM LED TO ONE OF THE GREATEST DISCOVERIES IN THE HISTORY OF 7ESTERN THOUGHT THAT BEING A PERSON MOST ESSENTIALLY IS DEl NED BY ONE S OWN CONSCIOUS NESS /NE IMPLICATION OF $ESCARTES CONCLUSION IS THAT ONE S SOCIAL ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES ARE NOT CONSIDERED ESSENTIAL TO BEING A PERSON 4HIS EXCLUSIVELY INDIVIDUALISTIC VIEW OF WHAT IT MEANS TO BE A PERSON CONTRASTS SHARPLY WITH THE #HINESE VIEW DISCUSSED IN THE l RST SECTION &OR THE #HINESE

hEXTERNALv REALITIES SUCH AS AGE GENDER FAMILY STANDING AND SOCIAL STATUS ARE THE DEl NING FEATURES OF BEING A PERSON INSTEAD OF MERE CONTINGENCIES THAT ARE PERIPHERAL TO OUR hSELVES v "UT TO DEl NE PEOPLE EXCLUSIVELY IN TERMS OF SOCIAL ROLES IS TO TAKE AN EXTREME POSITION AND THE 7ESTERN DEl NITION OF PEOPLE IN TERMS OF THEIR OWN SUBJECTIVITY IS EQUALLY PROBLEMATIC !ND BOTH THE #HINESE AND 7ESTERN VIEWS ARE PROBLEMATIC FOR THE SAME "OTH THE #HINESE AND REASON THEY EXCLUDE VITAL ASPECTS OF PERSONHOOD .EITHER AN EXCLUSIVELY RELATIONAL VIEW OF THE SELF NOR AN EXCLUSIVELY THE 7ESTERN VIEWS OF INDIVIDUALISTIC #ARTESIAN VIEW OF THE SELF CAN BE TOTALLY OR LITERALLY TRUE OF REAL PEOPLE 4HIS IS BECAUSE THE UNIVERSAL SELF ARE PROBLEMATIC SELFF IS BOTH H ESSENTIALLY SOCIAL ANDD CONSCIOUS IN NATURE

WHICH WILL NOW BE SHOWN IN LIGHT OF HOW THINKING REQUIRES PROPER SOCIAL CULTIVATION TO DEVELOP INTO THE VIRTUE OF WISDOM 4O MAKE THIS ARGUMENT ) l RST NEED TO REMIND THE READER THAT WHILE $ESCARTES IS TRADITIONALLY TRANSLATED AS REFERRING TO A hTHING WHICH THINKS v WHAT HE MEANS IS REALLY BROADER (E IS REFERRING TO THE CONSCIOUSNESS BASIC TO ANY EXPERIENCE THAT WE CAN BECOME AWARE OF REm ECTIVELY THROUGH THE SELF hMEDITATINGv ON THE NATURE OF ITS OWN ACTIVITIES ,ATER PHILOSOPHICAL DISCUSSIONS HAVE ALLOWED US TO DISTINGUISH TWO OF THESE ACTIVITIESÂ&#x2C6;REASON AND AUTONOMYÂ&#x2C6;SO THAT WE HAVE ANOTHER DISTINCTIVELY 7ESTERN FORMULATION OF BEING A PERSON A RATIONAL FREE AGENT #ONCEIVED IN THESE MORE SPECIl C +ANTIAN TERMS ) WOULD ARGUE THAT THE hTHING WHICH THINKSv WOULD NOT JUST THINK FOR ITS OWN SAKE BUT WOULD AIM TO THINK WELL OR IN A WAY THAT FULl L LLS THE FUNCTION OF THAT ACTIVITY -OREOVER

AT LEAST ONE IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF THINKING IS THE EFFECTIVE EXECUTION OF FREE AGENCY "UT IN THIS CASE THE SELF CANNOT REMAIN IN ISOLATION BECAUSE FREEDOM OF THOUGHT WILL OR ACTION REQUIRES SOCIAL CULTIVATION FOR IT TO BE RESPON SIBLE *UST AS THINKING OR REASON NEEDS GOOD SOCIAL CULTIVATION TO BE WISE

SO FREEDOM NEEDS GOOD SOCIAL CULTIVATION TO DEVELOP INTO ITS CORRESPONDING VIRTUE OF RESPONSIBILITY 4HE l NAL AIM OF FREEDOM IS TO ACT RESPONSIBLY NOT JUST TO BE FREE FOR ITS OWN SAKE

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-ETAPHORS OF 3ELF IN #ONFUCIUS AND $ESCARTES

-Y ARGUMENT THAT FREEDOM BECOMES MORAL RESPONSIBILITY WHEN DEVEL S OPED IS AS FOLLOWS "Y ITS VERY NATURE CONSCIOUSNESS LINKS THE SELF TO OTHERS $ESCARTES FOCUSED OUR ATTENTION ON THE MIND BUT WAS NOT SO INTERESTED IN THE FACT THAT WITH EVERY ACT OF CONSCIOUSNESS WE ARE AWARE OF SOMETHING OR SOMEONE ELSEÂ&#x2C6;OF WHAT

BY DEl NITION IS OTHER 3ELF AND OTHER ARE NOT R MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE TO THE CONTRARY THEY ARE INTERDEPENDENT ASPECTS OF CON SCIOUSNESS %VEN THE +ANTIAN VIEW OF MIND WHICH FOCUSES ON RATIONAL FREE AGENCY ONLY DRAWS OUR ATTENTION TO AN INDIVIDUAL CAPACITY AND DOES NOT FULLY ACCOUNT FOR WHAT IT MEANS TO BE A PERSON FOR IT DOES NOT ACCOUNT FOR THE NECESSARY CONNECTION BETWEEN SELF AND OTHER EITHER 4HE FUNCTION OF FREEDOM IS TO ACT RESPONSIBLY OR IN A WAY THAT TAKES SERIOUSLY WHAT CON SCIOUSNESS HAS GIVEN US BY ITS VERY NATUREÂ&#x2C6;A CONNECTION TO OTHERS 4HIS IS WHAT MAKES THE UNIVERSAL SELF A MORAL SELF AS WELL WE MUST ACT IN A WAY THAT SERVES OUR OWN BEST INTEREST AS WELL AS THE INTEREST OF OTHERS 4HAT IS WHAT HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS CALLS US TO DO WHEN INDIVIDUAL CAPACITIES DEVELOP OR MATURE INTO SKILLFUL SOCIAL INTERACTION $ISTINGUISHING 3ELF AND /THER 0OSES A &ALSE $ICHOTOMY 4HE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY BOTH %AST AND 7EST HAS GIVEN RISE TO MANY FALSE DICHOTOMIES OR DISTINCTIONS THAT IN LOGICAL TERMS WOULD HAVE US TAKE ONE SIDE OF A DISJUNCTION I E AN EITHER OR STATEMENT TO BE TRUE AT THE EXPENSE OF THE OTHER SIDE BEING FALSE 3UCH DICHOTOMIES DISTINGUISH MATTERS IN A MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE WAY SUCH THAT EITHER 8 ONE SIDE IS TRUE OR 9 THE hOP R POSITEv SIDE IS TRUE BUT NOT BOTH 4HIS LAST ASSUMPTIONÂ&#x2C6;THAT BOTH SIDES OF THE DISJUNCTION THAT DICHOTOMIZES 8 AND 9 IN SUCH A WAY THAT THEY CANNOT BOTH BE TRUEÂ&#x2C6;NEED NOT FOLLOW FOR LOGIC INFORMS US THAT DISJUNCTIONS CAN BE ALSO INCLUSIVE (ENCE BOTH SIDES OF WHAT IS CAST IN EITHER OR TERMS MAY BE TRUE )N EFFECT THE TRUTH MAY BE MORE MIXED THAN WE MAY HAVE CONCEIVED IT TO BE OR THE CONNECTION BETWEEN hTHINGSv THAT WE SEPARATE CONCEPTUALLY MAY BE MORE ESSENTIAL THAN WE MAY HAVE THOUGHT -OST MATTERS ARE NOT MUTU ALLY EXCLUSIVE 7E HAVE SEEN HOW THIS WORKS FOR THE DICHOTOMY BETWEEN SELF AND OTHER AS THEY ARE REALLY INTERDEPENDENT ASPECTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS THAT HAVE INSTEAD BEEN FALSELY DISTINGUISHED LITERALLY BY $ESCARTES INTO SEPARATE EVEN EXCLUSIVE REALITIES #ONSCIOUSNESS THEN DOES ESSENTIALLY GIVE US A SENSE OF OUR OWN SUB JECTIVITY ESPECIALLY IN ITS REm ECTIVE MODE 4HUS IT IS REASONABLE TO DEl NE ONE S SELF IN TERMS OF INDIVIDUAL CAPACITIES SUCH AS THE IMMEDIATE EXPERI ENCE OF ONE S OWN SUBJECTIVITY AS $ESCARTES MAINTAINED OR AS A RATIONAL

FREE AGENCY AS +ANT MAINTAINED "UT CONSCIOUSNESS IN ITS ESSENCE IS ALSO >HHJ: D8ID7:G

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OTHER DIRECTED FOR IT LINKS US TO OBJECTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS BY ITS VERY NATURE !WARENESS IS ALWAYS AWARENESS OF SOMETHING SO THE MORE INDIVIDUALISTIC OR hSELF ORIENTEDv FEATURES OF MIND AND THE MORE SOCIAL OR hOTHER ORIENTEDv FEATURES OF MIND ARE ACTUALLY MUTUALLY INTERDEPENDENT 4O CONTINUE A SUB JECT IS DEl NED BY HIS OR HER ABILITY TO BE AWARE OFÂ&#x2C6;AND SO BE DISTINGUISHED FROMÂ&#x2C6;THE OBJECTS OF HIS OR HER EXPERIENCE $ISTINGUISHING SUBJECT FROM OBJECT DOES NOT WEAKEN THE NECESSARY CONNECTION BETWEEN THEM 4O MAKE THE POINT IN THE OTHER DIRECTION OBJECTS ARE ALWAYS OBJECTS OF EXPERIENCE FOR SOME SUBJECT h3UBJECTv POINTS TO THE LOCUS OF CONSCIOUSNESS OR WHOO IS CONSCIOUS AND hOBJECTv POINTS TO WHAT ONE IS CONSCIOUS OF OR ABOUTÂ&#x2C6;THE T PERSON PLACE THING PROCESS OR EVENT THAT THE SUBJECT IS AWARE OF "UT THIS HAPPENS THROUGH A MUTUAL ENTAILMENT BETWEEN SUBJECT AND OBJECT FOR IT IS THE FUNCTION OF CONSCIOUSNESS TO TIE SELF AND OTHER TOGETHER #ONSCIOUSNESS IS ALSO DEVELOPED OVER TIME AND IN THE PROCESS OF PERSONAL MATURATION !S ONE S AWARENESS OF ONE S CONNECTION TO OTHERS IN CREASES SO DOES OR SO SHOULD ONE S SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY TOWARD THEM 4HAT IS PRECISELY WHAT MAKES MORAL SENSE OF OUR FREEDOM THAT IT INCREASES OUR SPHERE OF MORAL AGENCY "UT MORAL AGENCY OPERATES IN A SOCIAL SPHERE PEOPLED WITH OTHERS NOT IN AN INDIVIDUALISTIC SPHERE WITH SELF REFERRING CAPACITIES ONLY /UR FREEDOM REQUIRES THAT WE TAKE RESPONSIBILITY FOR OUR ACTIONS WHICH DO NOT OCCUR IN AN INDIVIDUALISTIC VACUUM )F THEY HAVE MORAL SIGNIl CANCE AT ALL OUR ACTIONS NECESSARILY CONCERN OTHER THINGSÂ&#x2C6;OTHER R PEOPLE OR hTHINGS WHICH THINK v AS WELL AS ANIMALS THE ENVIRONMENT THE COSMOS AND THE DIVINEÂ&#x2C6;WHAT #ONFUCIANS REFERRED TO AS THE WAY OF HUMAN ITY (EAVEN AND %ARTH )N CONCLUSION AN ADEQUATE ACCOUNT OF WHAT IT MEANS TO BE A PERSONÂ&#x2C6;A SELF MIND OR SELF CONSCIOUS BEINGÂ&#x2C6;MUST INCLUDE AN AWARENESS OF ONE S OWN SUBJECTIVITY AS WELL ASS AN AWARENESS OF OTHERS )N THE EXTREME THE #ONFU CIAN METAPHOR OF THE COMMUNAL SELF ERRS IN DEl NING THE SELF EXCLUSIVELY IN TERMS OF THE OTHER WHILE THE EXTREME 7ESTERN VIEW ERRS IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION BY REDUCING OTHERNESS TO THE STATUS OF MERE CONTINGENCY &OR THE SAKE OF ESTABLISHING HARMONIOUS HUMAN RELATIONS ON A GLOBAL SCALE ONE THAT WOULD BE APPROPRIATE FOR THE HUMAN RACE TODAY WE NEED TO EMBRACE A MORE INCLUSIVE VIEW THAN #ONFUCIUS AND $ESCARTES GAVE US SO MANY CENTURIES AGO )N THE END THESE GREAT PHILOSOPHERS GAVE ONLY PARTIAL ACCOUNTS OF WHAT IT MEANS TO BE A PERSON AND THEIR METAPHORS DID NOT CAPTURE HUMAN NATURE IN ITS FULLNESS s

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-ETAPHORS OF 3ELF IN #ONFUCIUS AND $ESCARTES

.OTES 4HE !NALECTS OF #ONFUCIUS TRANS 2OGER !MES AND (ENRY 2OSEMONT *R .EW 9ORK "ALLANTINE "OOKS

BOOK PASSAGE !LL QUOTATIONS FROM THE !NALECTSS ARE FROM THE !MES 2OSEMONT TRANSLATION UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED 2EN ˌ AS USED IN #ONFUCIANISM HAS BEEN VARIOUSLY TRANSLATED AS GOODNESS

BENEVOLENCE NOBILITY KINDNESS COMPASSION LOVE HUMAN HEARTEDNESS HUMANENESS

HUMANITY AT ITS BEST AND AUTHORITATIVENESS AMONG OTHERS 4HE WORD APPEARS MORE THAN A HUNDRED TIMES IN THE !NALECTS !NALECTS

,I ᔪ AS USED IN #ONFUCIANISM HAS BEEN VARIOUSLY TRANSLATED AS RITUAL RITE CEREMONY

PROPRIETY CONVENTION AND NORMATIVE CONDUCT AMONG OTHERS !NALECTS

AND )BID

)BID

4HE !NALECTS OF #ONFUCIUS TRANS !RTHUR 7ALEY .EW 9ORK 'EORGE !LLEN 5NWIN

6INTAGE "OOKS

3EE -ARY "OCKOVER h4HE 6IRTUE OF &REEDOMv IN 0OLISHING THE #HINESE -IRROR ED R -ARTHE #HANDLER AND 2ONNIE ,ITTLEJOHN #HICAGO /PEN #OURT )N THIS ARTICLE ) ALSO ARGUE THAT THERE IS A CONCEPT OF INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS THAT FOLLOWS FROM THE BASIC #ONFUCIAN IDEA THAT ROLES ENTAIL RESPONSIBILITIES DUTIES &ROM THE FACT THAT WE HAVE DUTIES TO OTHERS AND FULl LLING THESE IS WHAT MAKES US HUMAN IT FOLLOWS THAT THE VIOLATION OR FAILURE TO FULl LL THESE DUTIES IS DEHUMANIZING AND CAN BE SEEN AS ENGENDERING AN hENTITLEMENTv FOR THOSE WHO OUGHT TO HAVE THOSE DUTIES MET &OR EXAMPLE A CHILD HAS A RIGHT TO PARENTAL COMPASSION AND PROPER TREATMENT AS AN EXTENSION OF THE PARENTAL DUTY TO PROVIDE IT 4HE DAOO FEATURES PROMINENTLY IN THE 9IJINGG OR "OOK OF #HANGE AS A WAY OF CHANGE THAT CAN BE AFFECTED BY THE SPIRITUAL AGENCIES OF DIVINATION 4HROUGH CONSULTING THIS GREAT #HINESE ORACLE ONE PRESUMABLY CAN l ND A WAY OF RESPONDING TO SITUATIONS IN LIFE WITH PROPER ANTICIPATION AND GUIDANCE )N IT THE TRADITIONAL TRINITY OF THE DAOO WAS INTIMATED AS A WAY OF HEAVEN OF HUMANITY AND OF EARTH 4HE ROLE OF DAOO IN $AOISM IS ALSO CLEARLY CENTRAL WITH THE ROLE OF HUMANITY BEING DOWNPLAYED IN COMPARISON WITH NATURE OR THE REST OF THE MYRIAD CREATURES FOR ,AOZI AND IN COMPARISON TO THE LARGER MYSTERIOUS COSMOS FOR :HUANGZI 4HE ROLE OF DAO FOR #HINESE "UDDHISM IS ALSO PROMINENT ON A METAPHYSICAL LEVEL AS THE WAY OF ULTIMATE REALITY OF "UDDHA OR "UDDHA NATURE THE WAY OF TRUTH ETC AND ON A PERSONAL OR KARMIC LEVEL AS A WAY OR PATH TO THE ENDING OF SUFFERING AND ABIDING JOY OF NIRVANA 4HIS IS MORE SPECIl CALLY REFERRED TO AS THE hMIDDLE WAYv OR THE hNOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATHv ! POLITICAL THEORY OF hRIGHTSv IS A DISTINCTIVELY 7ESTERN CREATION 3EE *OHN ,OCKE S 4WO 4REATISES OF 'OVERNMENT WHERE THE l T RST EXPLICIT FORMULATION OF POLITICAL RIGHTS CAN BE FOUND 4HIS 7ESTERN FOCUS ON INDIVIDUAL ENTITLEMENTS CAN BE SHARPLY CONTRASTED WITH THE TRADITIONAL #HINESE APPROACH TO ETHICS AND POLITICS WHICH FOCUSES MORE ON SOCIAL ROLES AND THEIR CORRESPONDING RESPONSIBILITIES ᅮ ALSO FREQUENTLY TRANSLATED AS VIRTUE POWER GOOD CONDUCT 2EN OR HUMAN GOODNESS WOULD NECESSARILY MANIFEST AS COMPASSION OR PARENTAL LOVE WHEN DIRECTED TOWARD ONE S CHILD BUT IT WOULD MANIFEST OR BE DISTINGUISHED AS SOME OTHER VIRTUE SOME OTHER FORM OF GOODNESS WHEN DIRECTED TOWARD ONE S PARTNER

E G LOYALTY OBEDIENCE CHIVALRY OR THE DESIRE TO PROTECT OR EVEN ROMANTIC LOVE .OTICE

>HHJ: D8ID7:G

-ARY ) "OCKOVER THE DIFl CULTY OF DISTINGUISHING WHAT IS hNATURALv FROM WHAT IS hCONSTRUCTEDv IN LIGHT OF THIS AND IN LIGHT OF THE FACT THAT IT IS NATURAL FOR US HUMAN BEINGS TO CONSTRUCT OURSELVES )N TURN THE VIRTUES THAT ARE hNATURALv TO OUR RELATIONS WILL DEPEND ON HOW GOODNESS IS CONCEIVED AND CONSTRUCTED IN OUR CULTURE 3EE (ERBERT &INGARETTE #ONFUCIUS 4HE 3ECULAR !S 3ACREDD .EW 9ORK (ARPER AND 2OW

,ONG 'ROVE ), 7AVELAND 0RESS

AND -ARY ) "OCKOVER h4HE 2EN $AO OF #ONFUCIUS ! 3PIRITUAL !CCOUNT OF (UMANITY v IN #ONFUCIUS .OW #ONTEMPORARY %NCOUNTERS WITH 4HE !NALECTS ED $AVID *ONES #HICAGO /PEN #OURT

!NALECTS

4HIS INCLUDES BEING EMBEDDED IN A HISTORY AS WELL A COSMOSÂ&#x2C6;WHICH IS WHY GENEALOGY THE ANCESTRAL SACRIl CE RESPECT FOR BOTH THE AGED AND FOR GREAT ACTIONS OF PAST GENERATIONS TAKE ON SO MUCH SIGNIl CANCE FOR THE #HINESE !NALECTS

4HIS IS DIRECTLY REm ECTED IN THE HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF THE #ONFUCIAN RELATIONS THAT ONE IS ORDINATE TO THE OTHER E G FATHERÂ&#x2C6;SON HUSBANDÂ&#x2C6;WIFE THE FORMER IN THE PAIR HAVING GREATER AUTHORITY THAN THE LATER %VEN FOR #ONFUCIANISM ESPECIALLY AS IT EVOLVED OVER THE CENTURIES IT CAN BE ARGUED THAT PERSONHOOD IS NOT EXCLUSIVELY SOCIAL 4HIS IS NOT TO BE SO PRESUMPTUOUS AS TO THINK THAT A VIEW CAN TRANSCEND HUMAN VALUE -ETAETHICS IN THIS CONTEXT IS COMPARATIVE ETHICS 4HROUGH THE COMPARATIVE E ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS AND EVEN VERY DIVERSE ETHICAL SYSTEMS A LARGER VARIETY OF VALUES CAN BE USED TO DEl NED HUMANITYÂ&#x2C6;THAT IS FROM A MORE hUNIVERSALv STANDPOINT 2EN£ $ESCARTES -EDITATIONS TRANS ,AURENCE * ,Am EUR )NDIANAPOLIS "OBBS -ERRILL

!LL QUOTATIONS FROM THE -EDITATIONSS ARE FROM THIS SOURCE )BID

)BID

! SIMILAR POINT ABOUT THIS CONFUSION BETWEEN DREAMING AND WAKING CONSCIOUSNESS IS MADE IN THE :HUANGZI h/NCE :HUANG :HOU DREAMT HE WAS A BUTTERm Y 3UDDENLY HE WOKE UP "UT HE DIDN T KNOW IF HE WAS :HUANG :HOU WHO HAD DREAMT HE WAS A BUTTERm Y OR A BUTTERm Y DREAMING HE WAS :HAUNG :HOU v 4HE #OMPLETE 7ORKS OF #HUANG 4ZU TRANS "URTON 7ATSON .EW 9ORK #OLUMBIA 5NIVERSITY 0RESS

-EDITATIONS

)BID

4O REITERATE THE UNIVERSAL SELF IS MORE HOLISTIC INFORMED BY A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SELF THAT DRAWS FROM A VARIETY OF CROSS CULTURAL VIEWS IN ORDER TO EXPAND THE CONCEPT OF WHAT IT MEANS TO BE A PERSON IN A WAY THAT MAKES IT MORE APPROPRIATE IN THIS PERIOD OF GLOBALIZATION 3EE +ANT S 'RUNDLEGUNG ZUR -ETAPHYSIK DER 3ITTEN N 'ROUNDWORK FOR A -ETAPHYSIC OF -ORALS l RST PUBLISHED IN 4HIS IS NOT TO DENY THAT THERE WILL NOT BE CONm ICTS BETWEEN WHAT SERVES ONE S OWN INTERESTS AND WHAT SERVES THE INTERESTS OF OTHERS 4HIS IS THE hSTUFF v OF ETHICS AFTER ALL ) THINK THIS TENDENCY OF THE MIND TO BECOMING ATTACHED TO FALSE DICHOTOMIES IS WHAT THE "UDDHA WAS REFERRING TO IN SPEAKING OF hTHE TWIN BARBS UPON WHICH OUR CONSCIOUSNESS IS IMPALED v

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