Peace Practices among the Iroquois Douglas George-Kanentiio Abstract: The author, a Mohawk scholar and roiiane, or representative, describes the founding of the Six-Nation Iroquois Confederacy according to the “Great Law of Peace” and the associated rituals of atonement, condolence, and other peacemaintaining practices. This article appeared in Religion East & West, Issue 9, October 2009.
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The Bringing of Peace and the Establishment of the Iroquois Nation
laborate rituals to insure that peace and harmony are restored after the ebb of conflict constitute a critical part of Haudenosaunee culture—the culture of the Six-Nation Iroquois of northeastern North America. These acts and ceremonies, songs and customs, can be traced to the formation of the Iroquois Confederacy in the twelfth century, when a prophet called Skennerahowi, “the Peacemaker,” entered the homeland of the Iroquois. Skennerahowi was able to bring an end to war by creating an alliance system of nation-states based upon a common set of rules called Kaiienerekowa, or “the Great Law of Peace.” Where chaos, violence, and warlords had reigned, Skennerahowi established procedures for resolving disputes. Working in concert with his principal disciples, Aiionwatha (Hiawatha of the Onondagas) and Jikonsawseh (Seneca), Skennerahowi persuaded the Iroquois to cease fighting among themselves and cede partial authority to a Grand Council of all the Iroquois nations: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca, with the Tuscaroras joining after they fled North Carolina in 1715. This “league of the Iroquois” became the most formidable native organization in North America, with its influences felt far into the continental interior. The confederacy was, and is, a democratic entity in which each representative to its Grand Council must be selected by his or her
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respective fellow citizens in a series of public forums open to all regard less of age or gender. These representatives are called roiiane in Mohawk, meaning “nice people.” Referred to as “chiefs,” they are held to strict codes of behavior and may be recalled for breach of duty. Each candidate is selected by a female leader called a kontiianehson, or clanmother. Her duties stem directly from Jikonsawseh, the first human being to embrace the teachings of Skennenrahowi and subsequently the first clanmother. No male may assume a position of leadership without first securing the nomination of the clanmother and the endorsement of his clan. Skennenrahowi instructed the Iroquois in the rituals they were to preserve in order to live in a state of peace. He created a system of fifty roiiane and an equal number of kontiianehson. To each of these he assigned an assistant, or sub-chief, called raterontanonha (“one who takes care of the tree”). He also appointed a female faithkeeper, called iakoterihonton, and a male faithkeeper, called roterihonton. Skennerahowi conThese two were to advise the roiiane and kontiianehson on spiritual matters, in part by ensuring that the ceremonial vinced many Iroquois activities were conducted at an appropriate time and in an appropriate manner. The result was that the governing that there was an council of the Mohawks, for example, consisted of forty‑ five individuals (roiiane, kontiianehson, iakoterihonton, alternative to conflict. and roterihonton). Each of the three Mohawk clans had three roiiane as titled male leaders. There are, in general, nine clans within Iroquois society, which are divided into ecological realms: hawk, snipe, and heron from the sky; bear, wolf, and deer from the earth; and turtle, eel, and beaver from the water. (The Mohawks and Oneidas have only three: bear, wolf, and turtle.) Clans are essential to Iroquois life. Disputes, property disbursement, ceremonies, marriages, and political stature all are rooted in clan affiliation. Each citizen of the confederacy must have membership within a clan, which follows a maternal line. However, by a process of naturalization or adoption called rotishennakehte (“they carry the name”), a person born of another nation may be accorded all the rights and duties of all other Iroquois. Adoptees are given a clan name, and they are free to take part in the activities of their respective communities, except that they may not hold elective office. In many instances in the past, the adoptions were made to replace someone who had died in warfare. The adoptee assumed the dead person’s identity, social standing, name, occupation, and family obligations. The adoptee’s former self was entirely obliterated. After decades of inclusion beginning in the seventeenth century, the Iroquois had become a complex mixture of dozens of native peoples such as Huron,
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Tutelo, Susquehanna, Mohican, and many others. Added to this in later years were captured Europeans and a few Africans who escaped slavery to find refuge within the confederacy. The Practice of Atonement In this tradition, when an offense has occurred, the clan leaders—the roiiane and kontiianeshon—serve as arbitrators and judges. The Iroquois justice system is based on reconciliation and atonement, as opposed to the Western system of adversaries and punishment. All efforts are made to have the offending party acknowledge his or her wrong and make amends to the injured person in order to make things whole and complete. Removing the offender from the community is not an option except when a serious crime such as rape or murder has been committed. In such cases, capital punishment may be imposed. Under traditional law, a sentence of death is also considered when children are sexually abused. A person found guilty of a lesser crime must make amends through the issuing of a formal apology before a public assembly. The offender is then assigned a series of tasks designed to reinforce good behavior while satisfying the person who has been wronged. All victims have a right to determine the degree of punishment, but they must not remove the offender from his or her normal duties, and they are required to restore them to good standing. Compensation is also ordered; the offender either gives wampum to the victims, restores stolen goods, or renders physical labor until the victim can return to his or her former condition. In all instances, the Iroquois strive to return to a state of mental, emotional, and spiritual clarity called kanikenriio (the good mind). This can only occur when a person is free of guilt and the compulsions of hatred and revenge. At the time of Skennenrahowi, the Iroquois were consumed by wars, which were particularly harsh given the Iroquois’ common heritage. After great effort, Skennerahowi convinced many Iroquois that there was an alternative to conflict using the principles of the Great Law of Peace, but he had yet to find a way to alleviate the personal anguish felt by those who had suffered the loss of family and friends. It was Aiionwatha who came up with a solution in which atonement without revenge and forgiveness without sacrifice were possible. Aiionwatha became, along with Jikonsawseh, the most effective advocate for the establishment of the confederacy. But he was confronted by the Onondaga warlord and sorcerer Atotaho, who was said to have the power to command the winds. Atotaho was thoroughly evil, his appearance marked by snakes entangled in his hair and seven Issue 10, October 2010
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crooks in his twisted body. Deformed and suspicious, he was given to the consumption of human flesh. He responded to Skennenrahowi’s peacemaking and Aiionwatha’s advocacy by keeping the Onondagas in a state of terror by threatening to murder anyone who embraced the Great Law. His rage against his kinsman Aiionwatha was so great as to cause him to kill all seven of Aiionwatha’s daughters. Aiionwatha went insane with grief, stumbling about for many days until he reached a small lake south of the main Onondaga towns. There he sat, with the intensity of his sadness so great as to cause the water birds to flee from his presence, taking the lake’s waters with them. Aiionwatha had sufficient awareness to notice this strange event. He saw clusters of snail shells on the lake bottom. He gathered the snail shells into a string and held them in his hand, uncertain if his suffering would ever be relieved. At that time Skennenrahowi approached, singing a chant that restored Aiionwatha’s reason and brought him to kanikenriio. The words of healing, first spoken by Skennerahowi 800 years ago, were used when the Iroquois as a group approached the evil sorcerer Atotaho, who used every tactic and power he had to defeat them, only to be subdued by the power of Skennenrahowi’s songs. He was the last to accept the Great Law of Peace, and in recognition of his conversion, he was given the role of chairperson of the new confederacy. Atotaho had to acknowledge his past before his mind and body were healed. He grasped the string of shells brought by Aiionwatha and accepted his fate. Rather than have the sorcerer executed, Skennenrahowi converted his power from evil into a force which propelled the confederacy into being. The Condolence Ritual and the Transfer of Power All roiiane had to have a title name that was decided upon at the time of the formation of the confederacy. The names are permanent and clanspecific. They are transferred to a roiiane at the time of his installation in a ceremony called a “condolence,” which commemorates the death of the roiiane whom the new roiiane is to replace. Skennenrahowi created the procedures by which a condolence takes place. Upon the death of a roiiane, the mourning nation will send out strings of wampum to each of the other nations. The person carrying the strings, known as a “runner,” calls the nations to gather to replace the former roiiane with another. Once the confederate representatives have assembled, the words of Skennenrahowi are spoken in a long chant in a sort of eulogy. The singers begin, symbolically, at “the edge of the woods,” just as Skennenrahowi emerged from the forest to the clearing before
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Atotaho. These songs cite the grief felt by all the people at the loss of a clan leader and then cite the formation of the confederacy. These “Hai Hai” songs may take hours to complete. They express not only sadness but also the joy at the knowledge that the Great Law of Peace endures. For this event the confederacy divides into two sections: the “younger brothers (or nephews),” meaning the Oneidas, Cayugas, and Tuscaroras, who speak and sing the words of condolence to the “elder brothers (or uncles),” the Mohawks, Onondagas, and Senecas. A restoration of the mind is called for, along with an alleviation of sorrow. If the older brothers have suffered the death of a roiiane, then the younger ones will conduct the grieving rituals, a situation which is reversed if the younger ones have experienced a death. The speakers in a condolence ceremony will make use of symbols, such as the skin of a fawn, which is used to wipe the eyes clear of tears; a feather, to open the ear channels; and pure spring water, to remove the blockage in the throat. The speakers recite how the confederacy came to be and call off the title names of each of the fifty roiiane. Tobacco is placed into an open fire as part of the ritual as an offering meant to carry the words of the people to the universe. Some Examples of Ritual Symbology The purple and white colors of beads drilled from quahog clam shells were deemed sacred by the Iroquois, and these beads would in time replace the shells. The colors represented the transition from the blood, which pools beneath the surface of the skin (purple), to the clarity of healing (white). Called anonkoha in Mohawk, the beads would be woven in belts and strands, the alignment and patterns having specific meaning. These wampum beads were vital to the culture of the Iroquois and would, during the American colonial period, be used as currency, a practice quite distinct from its original intent. Besides the strings and belts of shells, Skennenrahowi used universal symbols to represent the events of the day. He said the eastern white pine, the tallest of the northeastern trees, would represent the confederacy, with its roots deep into the ground and its top touching the clouds, connecting earth and sky while visible to all human beings. The four roots of the great tree of peace were white and gleamed in the sun, extending in the four sacred directions. They were meant to be followed to the tree itself. All nations and individuals were free to walk alongside the roots and secure physical, spiritual, and moral shelter beneath the branches of the tree. On top of the tree Skennenrahowi placed an eagle to watch Issue 10, October 2010
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for anyone approaching and to call to the people below to be alert to possible dangers. Before the confederacy was formally established, Skennenrahowi caused the tree to be uprooted from the ground, and in the resulting large cavity he pointed out a fast-flowing underground stream. He had all the former warlords and warriors throw their weapons into the hole, where the waters carried the weapons away. He replanted the tree and said that the casting away of the weapons meant warfare was forever outlawed among the nations of the confederacy and their allies. Besides being thrown onto a fire during the condolence process, tobacco is smoked by the roiiane from white clay pipes during the installation of ceremonies. It is said that the tobacco plant was brought to earth from the sky-world and is the means by which human prayers are most effectively carried, not only to the world of humans but also to the spiritual beings that monitor human activity. When tobacco is placed into fire and becomes smoke, words become power and thoughts have physical substance. It is considered evil to misuse this power, and there are severe repercussions for those who employ it for purposes other than prayer, thanksgiving, or clarity of mind. Due to its close association with humans, tobacco is called oionkwa'onwe, a word that has the same root as the word for “human beings.” Peace-Seeking during the Colonial Period The removal of sorrow and anger is a necessary function of all Iroquois social, ceremonial, and political activities. No important session can begin without the recitation of the ohenten kariwahtekwen, the “words which come before all else.” This recitation speaks directly to the different elements of the planet, beginning with the earth and proceeding to water, fishes, insect, plants, animals, birds, winds, thunder, moon, stars, spiritual beings, and the creator. Gratitude is expressed to all of these entities and then is carried over to the actual communal function. The recitation is also meant to remove any feelings of hostility by placing the human experience within a broader natural and spiritual cycle. Once the emotions of the moment are swept away and clarity of mind is restored, the matters at hand may be addressed free from the encumbrance of spite. The Iroquois have used these methods of peace-thinking and peace-acting for generations. The historical record lists hundreds of events marked by the “cleansing of the mind” and the “raising of the tree” between the Iroquois and their European neighbors. Beginning with the encounter with the French explorer Jacques Cartier in 1534, the Iroquois have used the power of imagery, ritual, and music to effect
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peace. Wampum diplomacy was initiated with the Dutch in the second decade of the seventeenth century, followed by the use of the “silver covenant chain” between England and the confederacy in 1677. Earlier, in 1653, a formal treaty of peace and friendship was made with the French; it was marked by the planting of a “maypole tree” in Quebec. Although this compact was not to last, a permanent treaty guaranteeing peace with the French was signed in 1701. That agreement is still held to be in effect by the confederacy. As part of the formal negotiations with the European nations, the confederacy performed acts of atonement prior to discussions of what the terms of a given treaty would be. Speakers would rise, express their sorrow, appeal for healing, and then give belts of wampum as compensation for any losses. The European delegation would reciprocate. The language and rituals of Native-European treatymaking took root with the Iroquois. The employment of phrases such as “as long as the grass grows” began in the northeast, as was the smoking of tobacco in “peace pipes.” The requirement that no Native lands could be transferred without the consent of national governments stemmed from the Iroquois complaining to the British concerning avaricious land speculators trespassing on Native territory, entering into fraudulent sales agreements with individuals, and then using force to remove the natives. This insistence on a formal set of rules led to the enactment of the Royal Proclamation of 1763, outlawing intrusions into Indian lands west of the Allegheny Mountains. This agreement proved to be one of the primary causes of the American Revolution. The Revolutionary War and Its Aftermath The Revolutionary War, which the confederacy perceived as a family fight among the Europeans, drove a deep wedge among the Iroquois as factions within the league elected to fight for or against the rebellious Americans. As brutal as the conflict was on the frontier, it was equally destructive to the Iroquois. Dozens of Iroquois towns were destroyed, hundreds died of starvation, and entire populations were relocated to Upper Canada (now Ontario). Yet the Haudenosaunee Confederacy endured, and a sufficient number of representatives were summoned to meet with the Americans in western New York in the fall of 1794. The result, after the rituals of condolence, was the one and only treaty between the Iroquois as a collective and the United States. In subsequent years, the Iroquois lost most of their lands. The greater part of the population moved into Canada, north of the Great Lakes, or Issue 10, October 2010
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even further west to Wisconsin. A group of Senecas and Cayugas settled in northeastern Oklahoma, while a small band of Mohawks secured land in north-central Alberta. Under this stress of displacement and reduced political influence, the Iroquois degenerated into a period of chaos marked by widespread alcohol abuse. This destructive behavior was brought under control as a result of the religious teachings of Skaniateriio (Handsome Lake), a Seneca prophet. He had a series of visions beginning in 1799, in which he was shown how the Iroquois might survive in a distinctly different world. Skaniateriio stressed the need for the public admission of transgressions. He introduced the practice of holding a string of sacred wampum while making a confession during one of the thirteen ceremonies that mark the Iroquois lunar year. He taught that without a purging of guilt there would be severe repercussions in the spirit-world. Prior to this, the Iroquois perception of the afterlife was one of release and awareness: the spirit was liberated from the body to return along a star path to a place of living light, an actual planet in the Pleiades cluster. While on this journey, the spirit would come to know the mysteries of the universe and would be thereby enlightened. Punishment for acts of evil beyond the clan sanctions was meted out at the time of death; the offending spirit was denied enlightenment. Skaniateriio expanded upon this, describing in vivid detail a version of hellfire and damnation radical enough to counter the moral anarchy threatening to overwhelm ancestral customs. Skaniateriio succeeded in part because he did not try to suppress Skennenrahowi’s principles but to strengthen them by emphasizing the need to maintain the traditional rituals. The result was a body of ethics called “The Code of Handsome Lake.” It is recited entirely by memory each year among the Iroquois, with each community sponsoring the recital on a rotating basis. The fundamental elements of Iroquois society have endured into the twenty-first century. Clan affiliation is stable even as the Iroquois language endures great stress. The ceremonial cycle is followed in most territories, but as for the ancient practices of atonement as witnessed by the community, these are only a whisper of what once was, and they are no longer central to resolving disputes. An Iroquois citizen who breaches the law is more likely to be imprisoned than reconciled. Compensation is made difficult because crimes against property have become commonplace. The roiiane and kontiianehson no longer serve as arbitrators. As in many other areas of life, Canadian and American justice methods have supplanted the ancient customs.
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On the Universal Church Wilson Van Dusen Abstract: The following memoir, drawn from two interviews, recounts the remarkable spiritual life of a twentieth-century visionary and mystic, Wilson Van Dusen. He was known for his writings on Swedenborgianism but thought of himself as a “member of all religions,” which he considered to be equal in their attempts to represent spiritual truth. This article appeared in Religion East & West, Issue 5, October 2005.
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grew into spirituality as an infant, at the age of one. I still remember it—I was lying in the crib, and as I turned sideways, sunlight was coming in through a window and motes of dust were floating in the light, and as they turned they gave off rainbow colors. And I went into a kind of ecstasy about the beauty of the world. Ever since then, I haven’t needed all the doctrine and all the nitpicking things to have the experience of God. I’ve never had spiritual training, church training, religious training of any sort. Even after I joined churches and became active in the Swedenborgian Church, spirituality has always been a kind of private, direct way for me. What I need is to be left alone, taking my time, and I look to see what is present and what is leading me or speaking to me inwardly or intuitively, and I’m back to the direct experience of God. That’s how I did it as an adolescent. It just happened over and over and over again, and it still works for me. It’s stayed with me all during my life. I’ve never hooked my experiences onto any of earth’s representations of God. I could say that in a way all the ways that the religions represent God are okay by me, or none are okay—it amounts to the same thing. For me, there is no one right way to represent God. I don’t think of any earthly representation as “This is the one I’m talking to.” I consider myself a member of all religions. I have known for a long time that I am of the Universal Church, which is not a particular structure anywhere. It is everywhere. And I’ve learned that, in my reading, I can walk with spiritual people of all times, all places, all religions.
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