Jade Qursha- Tundra and Permafrost: The Frozen Landscapes of the North……………6
Ayesha Majid- Unprecedented Flooding in the Sahara Desert………………………………..8
Chloe Andrews- Tsunamis- Nature's Most Powerful Waves………………………………….11
Human geography
Katie Campbell- The Unknown Drug War between
Alize
Kamala Bates- How has the colonisation of Australia led to alcohol and drug issues within Aboriginal communities?.......................................................................................19
Andrew Cumming and Finley Norton- The ‘Qatar-Strophic’ 2022 World Cup: The Side Nobody Saw...............................................................................................................21
Darya Mostovaya- How are sustainable engineering practices being integrated into the development of smart cities to address urbanisation challenges?............................23
Jessica Harris- The Fall of Coal and the Rise of Feminism…………………………………..25
Arhan Lakhiani- How Will Trump's Presidency Affect Globalisation?.......................27
A note from the editor
Working on the first-ever geography journal has been such an exciting project for myself and the editorial team. The inaugural edition of Terra Nova has allowed many GCSE and A-level students to explore beyond the geography curriculum into an area of their interest. Reading these articles has not only taught me so much about the world of geography but has also reinforced why this journal is so important. This edition of Terra Nova has exposed topics such as the floods in the Sahara desert and China’s soft power within physical and human geography, and it has most certainly built the scope of geography that can and will benefit you as a reader. We also invited the lower school to participate in a geopolitical cartoon competition with the topic of Donald Trump and the recent US election. With an overwhelming amount of amazing cartoons submitted, we selected the top three artworks to put in Terra Nova which we hope you enjoy looking at!
Thank you to our aspiring geographers who have taken the time to research and write for this magazine- the writing produced is captivating and well-informed. We look forward to seeing what you will produce for future Terra Nova editions and what area of geography interests you next. Amidst a busy first term, we hope you enjoy taking some time to read the various articles that have been published.
Katie Campbell and the 2024 editorial team- Kaila Jafar and Kamala Bates
A note from Ms Quigley
Welcome to Terra Nova
In a world grappling with conflict, climate crises, geopolitical tensions, and growing inequality, geography stands as the discipline that connects the dots. It is the lens through which we understand the delicate interplay between humanity and the environment, empowering us to find solutions to some of the most pressing challenges of our time.
This inaugural edition of Terra Nova is a testament to the intellectual curiosity and passion of our Geography students. Their articles traverse topics as diverse as shadowy drug wars, the threatened Tundra, China's soft power play, urban resilience in megacities, vanishing permafrost, and the ethics of migration. Each piece reflects not only their academic rigor but also their commitment to making sense of a rapidly changing world with an increasingly uncertain future.
The last few weeks alone have seen challenging climate negotiations in Azerbaijan at COP 29, devastating floods in Valencia, the election of Donald Trump, and Iceland's seventh eruption on the Reykjanes peninsular just weeks after our GCSE Geographers were stood on the very same spot that is now Iceland's latest lava field. Geography reminds us that every place, every system, and every decision is interconnected. Let Terra Nova inspire you to explore, question, and act—because the world needs geographers now more than ever.
Ms Quigley - Head of Geography
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Tundra and Permafrost: The Frozen Landscapes of the North
The tundra is one of the Earth's most extreme and fascinating environments. Found primarily in the Arctic regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. This biome is characterised by freezing temperatures, limited vegetation, and vast areas of ice and snow, these landscapes are unique and play a significant role in the global climate system. A key feature of tundra regions is permafrost a layer of soil that remains frozen all year round. This frozen ground not only shapes the physical landscape but also plays a significant role in the global carbon cycle. However, as climate change accelerates, the tundra and its permafrost are facing incomparable changes, with extensive consequences for the environment and humanity.
Characteristics of Tundra Regions
Tundras are defined by their harsh climate, with temperatures that can drop as low as -30°C in winter and summers that are short, cool and average around 10°C at most. These extreme conditions limit the growing season to just a few weeks each year, where the uppermost layer of soil, called the active layer, thaws slightly, allowing for some plant growth. However, below this lies permafrost, a permanently frozen layer that can extend hundreds of meters deep. Due to these harsh conditions, the vegetation in tundra regions is limited to specialised species, like lichen, grass and low shrubs, that can withstand the cold and lack of nutrients. Trees are absent because the permafrost prevents deep roots from taking hold, making the landscape appear barren and stunted in comparison to other biomes. Despite this, the tundra does support a range of animal life that has adapted to survive in these tough conditions. Caribou, Arctic foxes, and polar bears are some of the key species found here, as well as various migratory birds that leave during the harsh winter and come back during the short summer to breed.
Understanding Permafrost
Permafrost is a defining characteristic of the tundra, and it's essentially soil that remains below 0°C for at least two consecutive years. In many tundra regions, permafrost has existed for millennia, providing a stable base for the ecosystem above. Additionally, its ability to store a vast store of carbon in the form of dead plants and animals that couldn’t decompose fully due to the cold, makes it a carbon sink. Estimates suggest that permafrost contains nearly twice as much carbon as is currently present in the atmosphere, making it a critical component of the Earth's carbon balance.
Beyond its role in carbon storage, permafrost also affects the entire tundra ecosystem. For example, it affects soil stability, hydrology, and vegetation patterns. In areas where the active layer above the permafrost thickens due to seasonal thawing, the ground can become unstable, leading to uneven terrain and features like thermokarst, which is a type of terrain characterised by very irregular surfaces of marshy hollows and small
hummocks. These changes can disrupt plant communities, alter water flow, and create challenges for wildlife.
Impacts of Climate Change on Tundra and Permafrost
One of the biggest threats to tundra regions and their permafrost is climate change. The Arctic is warming at more than twice the rate of the global average, which is causing permafrost to thaw. When permafrost defrosts, the organic material within it begins to decompose, releasing greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere. This process creates a feedback loop: as more greenhouse gases are released, global temperatures rise further, accelerating the thawing of permafrost. The consequences of this are massive, not just for the tundra but for the entire planet. Thawing permafrost can release significant amounts of methane, a potent greenhouse gas that has a much greater warming effect than carbon dioxide. This contributes directly to global warming and could make it even harder to manage climate change. Moreover, the thawing of permafrost affects the physical landscape and human infrastructure in these regions like destabilising infrastructure, including roads, buildings, and pipelines, posing risks to human communities living in these regions. This is a big issue for communities living in the Arctic, as it threatens their homes, livelihoods, and access to resources. These changes can have cascading effects on local ecosystems, altering habitat availability and the distribution of plant and animal species. The melting ground can lead to more erosion, changing river flows, and the formation of new lakes and wetlands can disrupt habitats, making it harder for species to survive. Some animals, like the polar bear, are already struggling due to the loss of sea ice, and changes in the tundra only add to their challenges.
Conclusion
The tundra and its permafrost are facing significant changes due to climate change. As one of the most sensitive regions on Earth, the Arctic serves as an indicator of the broader impacts of global warming. Protecting these fragile ecosystems is not just about preserving a unique environment; it's also about addressing a key piece of the puzzle in the fight against climate change. By taking action to reduce emissions and better understand these changes, we can work towards safeguarding the tundra for future generations.
Jade Qursha
Unprecedented Flooding in the Sahara Desert
The Sahara is one of the driest places on earth and the world's largest non-polar desert at 9.4 million square kilometres. Between September 7th and 8th, the region experienced the first floods in half a century. Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya received 203 mm (8 inches) of rain (suggested by NASA satellite data). Precipitation in the Sahara is not uncommon as it is a massive, diverse region. Nonetheless, this deluge exceeded yearly averages of rainfall, of around 80 mm per year, in the Sahara leading to monsoons and flooding in North Africa. Consequently, temporary lakes and lagoons emerged among the steep rolling sand dunes. Flooding was unexpected as last year was Morrocco’s driest year in 80 years with a 48% drop in rainfall. According to Moshe Armon, an atmospheric scientist at ETH, 'larger portions of the Sahara are being inundated, where it is usually drier.
The unusual torrential downpours have been categorised as an 'extratropical storm' by meteorologists. Proposing this might alter the climate and weather conditions of the area in the coming months or years. South-east Morrocco experienced intense rain that was pushed across northwestern Sahara due to a low-pressure system (where hot air rises, cools and condenses to form clouds). The water flowing over the harsh desert terrain created a new landscape, which is reminiscent of how it must have appeared around 8000 years ago when the Sahara used to be green. NASA satellite images have been coloured to highlight the areas of floodwaters and newly formed lakes across swaths of the northwest Sahara emphasising the stark alterations of the desert due to the significant downpour. The two images are September 10th and August 14th (before the storm), the blue areas show water, light or dark depending on the depth and the green areas show vegetation.
In southeast Morocco, flash floods filled Lake Iriqui (a lakebed between the towns of Zagora and Tata) that had been dry for 50 years. The town of Tagounite, 450km south of Morocco’s capital Rabat, recorded more than 100mm of rainfall within 24 hours, (which has not happened in decades). The Deluge etched new lakes in the tourist oasis town of Merzouga and replenished the Yasmina Lake. Locals are expectant as the lake enhances tourism opportunities. The rain has
partially helped fill some reservoirs and replenish aquifers. Moshe Armon and colleagues analysed the period of 2000-2021 and used IMERG data (which estimates rainfall accumulation) to identify that out of the hundreds of events in this region, only 6 had led to lake filling. Palm trees became submerged in water, up to the crown of their leaves. Dry soil in the desert cannot absorb the massive amounts of water and there is a lack of verdant vegetation. Hence, surface runoff increases and water gathers in valleys or depressions, creating temporary lakes.
There were detrimental impacts, as crops were destroyed, ruining farmer's harvests, and there was a strain on dammed reservoirs especially in the southeast of the Sahara. The government had to allocate relief funds for farmers. Most of the rain fell in sparsely populated, remote areas, but some did fall in Morocco’s towns and villages. Flash floods in Morocco and Algeria killed 18 people, 56 homes collapsed and 9 went missing. Critical infrastructure - drinking water, electricity, roads, bridges and trains – suffered major damage. The impact also stretched to regions that had already been destroyed due to a deadly earthquake one year ago (Morocco’s High Atlas).
Rachid El Khalfi, Morocco’s Interior Ministry spokesperson, said that the government was working to restore communication and access to flooded regions and urged people to use caution. As well as this, in Algeria, the government sent thousands of civil protection and military officers to help with rescue and response efforts.
Predicted reasons for the flooding include an erratic hydrological cycle, an extremely unstable tropical air mass and an extratropical cyclone. A cyclone in the Atlantic Ocean pulled moisture from near the equator and then was pushed far north leading to torrential rain in the Sahara. Another factor is The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The ITCZ is a belt near the equator, where the air from both the northern and southern hemispheres meets, the belt carries clouds, rains and storms. In 2024, the ITCZ shifted north, therefore it is now over the Sahara, this was predicted to be due to global warming. Fatima Driouech, a Moroccan climate scientist, said "Everything suggests that this is a sign of climate change, but it's too early to say definitively without thorough studies”. There is also a debate between metrologists on whether this event is due to the Earth's natural climate change or human-induced climate change. Some scientists predict that the flooding was a result of a subdued Atlantic hurricane season, as meteorologists noticed that this was the first Labour Day weekend in 27 years without a named storm in the Atlantic. We also saw a transition from La Niña to El Niño conditions in the middle of 2023, meaning warmer temperatures, which may have aided and provoked a storm as it provides ideal conditions.
Climate change will cause storms to move northwards, impacting the Atlantic hurricane season. Meaning dry regions may receive more rain, while others that need it may get
less. USC’s AWARE Center published research suggesting that floods, not droughts, are becoming the primary threat to arid desert climates. Increasing temperatures accelerate the water cycle, and scientists predict that by 2100, monsoon rains will move northward, bringing extreme rainfall to typically dry regions like the Sahara. Although increased rainfall could improve water supply, in the event of flash floods, regions may not have the infrastructure to cope. Moving forward, it is imperative that advanced satellites are used to monitor arid watersheds like the Sahara and Arabian Peninsula to help reduce risks.
Ayesha Majid
Tsunamis- Nature's Most Powerful Waves
Tsunami – 2006 Thailand
Tsunamis are huge natural hazards that occur all over the world causing major economic, physical, and social disasters in affected areas. A tsunami is multiple large ocean waves triggered by seismic activity underwater such as an earthquake or a volcanic eruption. This change in the ocean floor causes displacement to occur and waves radiate from the source in all directions under extreme force. This water is then pulled back down due to gravity. The energy is transferred into the water and travels through it like a wave. These powerful waves can travel to speeds of up to 800km/h in the deep ocean where they are often unnoticed, this is until water then begins to shallow and friction levels will increase, therefore the height of the wave rises dramatically to up to 30m. When a tsunami reaches the shore, the tsunami’s trough (the lowest point of it, under its crest) usually reaches first. When it does reach land, it sucks the coastal water towards the sea, exposing sea floors in the process as part of a vacuum effect. This then increases the energy and power of the wave increasing the amount of destruction it has on the coastline. Tsunamis are known for their devastating effect on the coastline, destroying infrastructure, the loss of lives, and affecting communities, making it one of the most destructive hazards globally.
In 2004 a deadly tsunami occurred on Boxing Day, with a 9.1 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Indonesia. Over a quarter of a million people were killed and 1.7million displaced from their homes making it the deadliest tsunami ever. The initial earthquake occurred as the Indian plate (part of the Indo-Australian plate) subducted underneath the Burma plate (part of the Eurasian plate) the crustal rocks stuck, as they moved past one another the pressure build-up was too great and the crustal rocks snapped, causing an earthquake off the island of Sumatra. The waves built up, with speeds reaching between 500-800km/h and then hit the Indonesian islands with heights of more than 30 meters when reaching the shoreline. Over seven hours starting from 7:59 AM, this immense tsunami hit 14 different countries in the Indian Ocean and had huge devastation to coastal regions. Each of the 14 countries that were hit had a high death toll and millions in economic/environmental damage, with a total of over $10 billion worth of damage and over $5 billion estimated for reconstruction costs. Not only were there huge economic and social effects there were major environmental consequences. Many of the countries affected rely locally on fishing and farming, the saltwater from the waves contaminated agricultural land which caused a reduction in the availability of fertile land, as well as contaminating freshwater systems which caused a huge loss of nature and ecosystems. This damage further led to an increase in job losses which caused economic problems everywhere. This is an example in coastal communities in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand which rely on the fertile coastal plains for farming, and the nearby waters for fishing both essential to their economies and food security.
Even though there were many short- and long-term effects for every country it also had one significant positive: due to this tsunami occurring it provided crucial lessons on prompting a global reflection of the vulnerabilities of coastal regions and the true nature of natural hazards. This disaster acted as a catalyst for countries to reassess their preparedness for natural events like tsunamis and to invest in disaster resilience. Countries that were affected were then able to develop disaster tsunami programs and increase the amount of research and predictions done to prevent this catastrophe from happening again. Early warning systems were placed in all majorly affected countries including Thailand and Indonesia, alerts will go out if any seismic activity is detected off the coastline, giving communities enough time to evacuate to higher ground. A movie called ‘The Impossible’ was also created as an awareness symbol of how devastating this tsunami was, based on the true story of a family of four and the horrors of what nature can do if nothing is done to stop it.
In conclusion, tsunamis are one of the earth's most destructive hazards, causing global damage not only physical but also mental. They leave behind scars, and people will live with trauma and anxiety for life, as communities come together in the struggle to rebuild the infrastructure and security of their homes.
Chloe Andrews
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
The Unknown Drug War Between Mexico and the US
Drug use in Latin America dates back centuries, shifting from a religious practice to a billion-dollar industry fueling U.S.-Mexican conflicts over the past century. What many don’t know is that drug use in Latin America dates back to the 16th century, under Spanish rule. With drug taking connected to religious beliefs, Hispanic people had firm trust in drugs for several reasons: it would connect people to god, and it would treat illnesses and pain. However, drug use in the modern world has shifted from a religious perspective to a money-making scheme with up to $40 billion made each year. The war on drugs has been a rival for the US and Mexican governments, with World War two and the tightening control of drugs in the United States of America, drug cartels in Mexico have only thrived and accelerated since.
The history of drugs in Mexico begins with Spanish colonisation, spanish settlers brought about the movement of drugs in that they created complex trade routes and political systems that allowed the transport of drugs to be as smooth as possible. Drugs were a common practice in Mexican culture, deriving from religion to connect people with god. Since the USA and Mexico share a 3145km border, drugs could easily be taken from Mexico to the USA for recreational use.
The climate between Mexico and the USA meant that drugs had to become illegal, despite legalising them in the 1940s, but as the pattern follows, this boosted the informal economy of drug trafficking. Submarines during WWII meant that drugs could not be transported from Europe or Asia so organised crime had to adapt and start creating drugs themselves. Figures such as Lucky Luciano moved in and monopolised the trade of drugs from Mexico to the USA. This was centered in Sinaloa which predominantly produced opium and marijuana to transport to America. A journalist explained that the drugs weren't just coming from the villages but that they mainly came from the government itself. The Sinaloa government had a state monopoly over the illegal drug trafficking industry. After being asked to prove themself, the journalist went to buy 50 lbs of opium from the governor of Sinaloa. With concrete evidence of the Mexican government running the drug trafficking industry that they had previously agreed to criminalise, they had to agree to US rules from the late 1940s.
Despite the attempts to shut down the trafficking in Mexico that was infecting America, the industry saw a huge increase in profits. Hippies, poets, and authors turned to drugs to challenge societal conformity with the main drugs being marijuana and heroin. On top of this, the soldiers from the Vietnam War returned home in the late 1960s. They had mostly all become addicted to heroin so they also turned to the Mexican drug market to get their supply of heroin. By 1975, Mexico went from providing around 15% of the USA heroin market to providing 90%.
In the early 1970s, President Nixon declared the war on drugs which President Echeverria followed. In 1976, Operation Condor was born where they sent in the army to burn down marijuana and opium fields. Whilst they had safe intentions to shut down illegal drug markets, this mostly affected poor farmers. Those farming these drugs often did not know what they were growing as they were paid to just farm it, the armies also burned down other types of farms, such as cornfields, that were necessary for feeding the population and these farms were a form of income for poor communities. To add to this, the armies used violence to shut down any signs of drug use/trafficking. The US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) was sent in to help the Mexican government shut down drug trafficking. Anyone who was considered a leader of these trafficking schemes was wanted dead.
It became evident to the US government that the Mexican Secret Service was protecting the major players in the drug trade so the DEA went after these players in Sinaloa. Being one step ahead, the players moved to Guadalajara where they invested money and formulated a plan to make the drug trade tenable despite US government pressure. This occurred at the same time that the market was shifting away from marijuana and heroin to cocaine since the US government was hammering the Colombian cocaine traffickers. So, Mexico took control and the Colombians paid Mexicans to take cocaine overground into the USA.
However, in the mid-80s, the biggest marijuana farm was discovered by the DEA. ‘El Bufalo’ was over 1300 hectares of around 2500-6000 tonnes of marijuana but most importantly, it had links to Guadalajara. Those working on the farm were found to have secret service cards once again meaning the government still had control over the drug economy. To add to this, in 1985, a DEA agent, Kiki Camarena was found dead on the plantation after being tortured. Camarena came close to exposing the top leaders of the drug pipeline which ultimately cost him his life. With his death came a new sense of urgency and pressure from the American government. By the late 1980s, the Guadalajara cartel fell apart and dispersed into a different cartel. Consequentially, violence erupted from the splitting of the Guadalajara cartel in which 40-50 groups involved in the drug trade were caught in a civil war-like era.
In 2006, Felipe Calderon took office marking a new wave of the war on drugs. Drug traffickers are moving away from marijuana and to other drugs such as heroin since it has a huge market in the U.S. Until 2006, opiates were legal in the USA and they were prescribed. Opiates were banned in 2006 so Mexican traffickers and US sellers moved in. On December 10th 2006, Felipe Calderon launched Mexico’s war on drugs by sending 6500 troops into Michoacan. Since 2008, the USA has donated at least $1.5 billion to stop drug trafficking. Since 2007, Mexico has spent $54 billion on security and defence but failed to clamp down on violence. The vast efforts, funding, and
collaboration from the US have still resulted in over 400,000 people dying due to drug cartel violence.
As it stands today, drug trafficking and violence remain as Mexico and the USA’s top concern especially as the climate of the industry grows to become more dangerous with battle-like scenes breaking out between opposing cartels. The drug market has also shifted towards fentanyl participating in the current fentanyl epidemic in America. Though the drug industry is one to shut down, it contributes up to $45 billion of annual revenue for Mexico which consequentially benefits the Mexican economy. Without drugs, the government would have to turn to tourism or cartels would enhance human trafficking to create money.
Katie Campbell
China's Soft Power Play: Redefining Global Influence
The term 'soft' often connotes passivity, acquiescence, and weakness. But, in the complex sphere of international politics, 'soft power' is a critical strategy enabling countries to exert political and co-optive influence. Introduced by Joseph Nye in the 1990s, soft power is a subliminal tool, using intangible resources including cultural, ideological, and economic appeal to persuade rather than coerce. Political leaders have long understood how attractive ideas instead of active control can help further their political agenda. The Soviet Union, for instance, leveraged communist ideology and transnational institutions to gain influence in the post-war period. Today, the use of soft power is prominent in China’s foreign policy, positioning it at the heart of the contemporary geopolitical landscape.
China, ranked third in the global soft power index, set its international agenda along guidelines proposed by President Xi Jinping calling for national efforts to “give a good Chinese narrative, and better communicate China’s message to the world”. With notable projects like the $1 trillion Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), investing in over 150 developing and emerging countries, China is challenging the USA’s political hegemony and triggering a gradual shift of the world’s economic ‘centre of gravity’ toward multipolarity. The BRI aims to enhance regional connectivity by expanding the Silk Road Economic Belt, and Maritime Silk Road, and building railways, roads, ports, and telecommunications infrastructure. Simultaneously, China funds special economic zones, creating jobs and encouraging countries to embrace their tech offerings - like Huawei’s 5G network. Thus, China is strategically altering the paradigm of Western dominance in the technology sector which plays a significant role in setting a new international economic order. The BRI also promotes the Chinese Renminbi as an international currency; improved relations facilitate unimpeded trade by reducing regulatory hurdles ($19.1 trillion worth of goods were traded between China and BRI countries in the past decade). Many believe this infrastructural support acts as a diplomatic "charm offensive", transforming China’s image from threatening to benign, from danger to benefactor and benevolent lender. However, it has been labelled as "debt-trap diplomacy": extending loans to poorer nations for expensive projects, knowing they may struggle to repay, ultimately giving China control over strategic assets.
In Africa, China’s economic influence is particularly visible. While the BRI provides ostensibly massive opportunities to African nations, it exploits African resources by securing access to raw materials. Critics continue to question whether the Sino-African relationship is unilateral and neo-colonial, based on economic and political gain, wherein China benefits from Africa’s raw materials but gives little in return. Or, whether it’s a developmental relationship of altruistic intentions.
China’s augmentation of soft power in Africa is also propagated through cultural means, notably the proliferation of Confucius Institutes. CIs promote Chinese culture, language, and ideology while countering the China threat theory: “Confucianism extols a king who relies on moral force not physical force, believing that the kindly way triumphs over the hegemon’s way. ” This presents a more favourable and innocuous perception of China’s rise to power. With 61 CIs established in 46 African countries, China fosters deeper diplomatic and cultural ties, in turn supporting its broader political goals.
In conclusion, soft power is crucial in shaping global influence through economic connections and cultural appeal. China's success illustrates how such strategies can shift global dynamics, though concerns about transparency and true intentions persist.
Alize Zobairi
How has the colonisation of Australia led to alcohol and drug issues within Aboriginal communities?
To understand the current issues faced by Indigenous Australians, it is vital to appreciate Australia’s colonial past. From the first fleet landing in what is now Sydney in 1788, to the final and first free colony in South Australia in 1829, Australia has been a key resource to the British Empire. It evolved into a self-governing and autonomous region in 1901, and then further gained independence with the relinquishing of all British powers in 1986. However, not all Australians were able to benefit from that independence.
As a penal colony, Australia developed from the forced labour of a large population of the British Empire. Convicts sent to this isolated location carved out their own culture of the region. They believe that Australia was Terra Nullius – a Latin word meaning that it was unoccupied – a land belonging to no one. Together with the developing societies' belief that there were no local laws and customs to take into account, the land was rapidly cultivated to meet the empire's agricultural needs. The effect was a devastating displacement of the indigenous people, both physically and socially. This displacement and lack of recognition have thus had ever-lasting effects, whereby a marginalised ethnicity exists within the country today.
Despite the groundbreaking legal decision in the Mabo case whereby Aboriginal people finally had their land rights recognized, and the resulting financial compensation that came with that, there remain deep social scars. One of the impacts has been widespread substance abuse in Aboriginal communities. Among the reasons for this issue, including the evidence for it being disproportionately prevalent, is the erosion of Aboriginal traditions, values and suppression of the people, and the lack of generational awareness and education surrounding the use of such substances.
Colonialism bred a culture of intergenerational trauma that, due to abhorrent historical injustices, has resulted in a society riddled with severe drug and alcohol-related issues and addictions. As settlers moved in, missionaries often aimed to “civilise” Indigenous peoples, imposing European values and practices while disregarding and devaluing Aboriginal ways of life. With this came the already prevalent European culture of brewing and consuming alcohol. This played an intense role in destabilizing the Aboriginal cultural values: coupling displacement and marginalisation with unrestrained accessibility. From the moment of first contact between Western settlers and the native Australians, Aboriginal people have been subject to violent and unjust mistreatment. They face disproportionate discrimination compared to all other races in the country, which has resulted in hampered social, financial, and structural development of the Indigenous community. Also, since there was an asymmetrical development of the nation, with non-indigenous communities benefiting from greater resources and social development from being the dominant governing force, a vast majority of the Indigenous children
have lived in a state of poverty without equal access to necessities to enable learning opportunities.
Due to the disparities between different socioeconomic groups in Australia, Aboriginal people today are at a far greater risk of becoming subject to alcoholism, or other forms of addiction. Based on the Australian government’s 2021 census showed that 52% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 15-64 were unemployed. This is a statistic that is staggeringly higher than any other ethnic group in the country. This factor then only exaggerates the issue of alcoholism that is now ingrained in these societies, whereby we see an inability to support themselves and their families. Consequently, such a large body of people having to operate with such limited financial resources means that matters such as quality health and higher education get pushed aside in order to provide basic necessities. Therefore, we witness a pattern across this group in that the barriers to employment and training to gain skills vital to be serviceable in the economy, disproportionately in one group, increase vulnerability to substance abuse as individuals seek relief from stress and despondency as coping mechanisms.
This is exacerbated as the cycle of dependency and addiction is normalised in the younger generations. It is not exclusive to the Aboriginal youth, that when surrounded frequently by adverse behaviours by role models, children will often accept them and adapt to mimic and accommodate.
A horrifying statistic that can be linked to these issues is that according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics [2024 census data], 33% of all prisoners in Australia were made up of Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders, with 91% being males and 9% being females. This fact is extremely worrying when we consider that this group of people only make up 3.8% of Australia's entire population of over 27,000,000 people. Of this section of incarcerated people, the average age is 33.2 years old, with the youngest imprisoned Aboriginal person being only 10 years old, and the eldest being 75 years of age. Incarceration is so often associated with substance abuse issues. It is abundantly obvious that these people are on the forefront of a battle against a past of widespread cruelty and bloodshed, that has now created an endemic of severe drug and alcohol addictions that fester and destroy communities. This then manifests itself as this demographic becomes unable to break the cycles of addiction in new generations, as this feat is nearing impossible, as their entire lineage has been radically abused and marginalised for hundreds of years, resulting in fierce stigmas against these people from across all sections of society.
Kamala Bates
The ‘Qatar-Strophic’ 2022 World Cup: The
This article covers the tragic facade of the Qatar World Cup in 2022. The enthralling competition generated millions of tourists along with billions of dollars and provided priceless entertainment for the billions of passionate viewers worldwide. The extraordinary wealth of the Qatari government covered a $220 billion USD investment - which is a staggering 15 times more than Russia did in the 2018 World Cup – to provide tourists with the experience of a lifetime. However, all was not as it seemed...
To begin with, the monstrosity of the Qatar World Cup in 2022 resulted in vigorous damage to the environment. The total Carbon Dioxide emissions from the tournament was 3.6 million tons. 3.6 million. This is an unheard-of figure which scales to almost 1.5 million tons more than the previous World Cup, hosted in Russia; and exceeds the annual emission levels of 70 countries worldwide. One primary cause of the severe environmental damage was the amount of travel into and out of Qatar over the course of the month-long tournament, which tallied up to be over 90 flights a day and 1,586 flights over the competition. One singular flight can be the sole emitter of 90kg of Carbon dioxide per person every hour. Another root cause of this destruction was the construction of over 100 hotels to host the 32 teams, 1.5 million fans, and countless sponsors. In addition to that, 7 new state-of-the-art stadiums were built to be utilised during the World Cup; which is more than any other previous World Cup, that was built by the thousands of exploited foreign, minimum-wage workers.
One of the main concerns that surfaced from the World Cup was the prominent lack of human rights as well as the inhumane exploitation of workers. Qatari officials reported that 37 workers had died in the decade-long process of constructing the site, including hotels, stadiums, and other tourist attractions/facilities. However, these officials were severely criticized as this figure was a ‘vast undercount of human tragedy’, after Hassan al-Thawadi, secretary general of Qatar’s World Cup organizing committee was interviewed by Piers Morgan and reported that an unconfirmed figure of a staggering 400 and 500 migrant worker deaths were caused from the erection of sites. Countless deaths were caused due to a lack of care for health and safety for the minimally paid migrant workers who were imported, almost as if they were goods, for the job of constructing sites for the tournament. The number of migrant workers who were working in construction was expected to be around 36,000; every single worker down to the last man that was interviewed by Amnesty International reported abuse in some form which included: poor/squashed accommodation; paying large fees to receive a job in Qatar; (almost all) reported salaries which were outrageously lower than promised and in some cases less than half; confiscation of passports to prevent workers from leaving, holding them against their will; receiving threats for complaining about conditions. Over the 5 years building up to the tournament FIFA had promised on a number of occasions to respond and correct the problem of worker exploitation with events associated with football. So, who is to blame, FIFA? Qatar? Or both?
Another major concern that arose during the Qatar 2022 World Cup was the poor organisation that occurred during the treacherous tournament. To begin with, the timing of the event taking place in the Winter broke the usual tradition of the prestigious World Cup tournament, which normally takes place in the Summer. This
heavily disrupted the football in other major leagues around the World, causing jarring issues in scheduling and timing. The mid-season timing of the tournament also meant that players did not have sufficient time to recover from existing injuries, or injuries and fatigue that occurred during the tournament; this meant that fans who travelled from across the globe missed out on watching world-class talent and their favourite players in action. Additionally, the sacred elixir of the sport, alcohol, was banned in the coming days of the tournament. This confused all fans, mainly those of European descent as these fantastic fans expected different regulations. This ban also impacted sponsors, particularly the company Budweiser, which is a colossal FIFA partner. Finally, the lack of critical accommodation also proved to be an inhumane issue for travellers. Qatar’s small size and limited hotel infrastructure resulted in some fans having to camp out in undesirable desert tents, which were criticized for being overpriced and uncomfortable. It really is mind-boggling how a country that had anticipated hosting the event for such an extended period of time was so poor in its execution.
To conclude this exceptionally interesting, yet tragic topic, it must be said that the Qatar World Cup of 2022 has left us at a complete loss for words: a festival of phenomenal football, finished off by one of the greatest and most thrilling matches in football’s history; sharply contradicted by a seemingly never-ending list of flaws and failures. The thousands of workers who were mistreated and exploited simply cannot be reasoned for, which brings us to the conclusion that the nature of our beautiful game is no longer filled with such beauty; corrupt and destroyed by the parasite we call money. Therefore, this hidden side of the tournament, concealed by lies, can clearly only be labelled as catastrophic.
Andrew Cumming and Finley Norton
How are sustainable engineering practices being integrated into the development of smart cities to address urbanisation challenges?
According to the World Bank Group, the urban population was at 57% or 4.6 billion of the world’s population in 2023 and the UN predicts it to rise to 68% in 2050. As the world rapidly urbanizes, cities face several challenges, such as environmental degradation, resource management and congestion. With the advent of smart cities –cities that use technology to collect data and optimize operations to improve quality of life – sustainable engineering practices can be leveraged to alleviate these problems and meet the current population’s needs without limiting future generations from meeting theirs.
Currently, urban areas face problems such as water pollution, air pollution, and waste management, which is a great threat to health. A potential solution is the development of green infrastructure; sponge cities- cities with abundant green space - provide critical areas for biodiversity and water infiltration, reducing street flooding. Comparably, blue-green walls– plant walls that percolate greywater - reduce the heat island effect and improve air quality, removing carbon dioxide, and filtering greywater for non-potable uses. This lessens reliance on power-intensive filtering and decreases water use in dry areas like Australia.
Furthermore, smart cities utilize advanced technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) and data analytics to optimize resource use. For example, water management systems use sensors to monitor water consumption, detect leaks, and replace inefficient pipes, minimizing waste and ensuring an efficient supply. Moreover, modern filtration, such as adsorption and membranes, are used to clean water of heavy contaminants in an energy-efficient manner, allowing it to be recycled.
Similarly, waste management systems can monitor areas most affected by sanitation issues and allow disease prevention methods to be preventative rather than reactive. In combination with Container Baser Sanitation services such as Monsan, which provide community-led mobile sanitation and use waste for agricultural fertilizer (or potentially waste-to-energy), low-income families can access adequate sanitation. Alternatively, Smart bins equipped with sensors notify waste management providers when they are full, optimizing collection and reducing costs, allowing sanitation to be supplied to more people.
Transportation is a significant challenge in urban areas, often resulting in congestion, pollution, and inefficiency. To solve this, smart traffic management systems use real-time data to manage traffic signals and provide route optimization, reducing congestion and lowering emissions. For example, adaptive traffic signals adjust their timing based on current traffic conditions, which can significantly reduce idling and improve traffic flow.
Finally, urbanization increases energy use in cities, depleting fossil fuel resources with low efficiency. One solution is using smart energy systems, which can combine renewables such as solar and wind, with traditional power systems to result in a stable energy source, even in peak times. In addition, power can be directly transferred to where it is needed and turn heating on/off during peak times and based on need, decided using weather forecasts. Finally, Power-To-X can be used to convert power excess to hydrogen power during excess, fueling large industrial operations.
In conclusion, integrating sustainable engineering practices into smart cities has the potential to solve widespread urbanization challenges, by monitoring and optimizing the use of resources, protecting the environment, and supplying the population’s needs. However, several of these solutions require upfront investment, interdisciplinary collaboration and a willingness to change our cities for the better.
Darya Mostovaya
Did the decline in coal mining in Britain lead to a rise in female empowerment?
The closure of the collieries was a turning point for many communities in the 1960s and 70s in Britain. The decision to decommission the coal mines impacted people across the country, with areas in North England and South Wales being impacted the most. Coal mines in these areas provided stable male employment meaning that there was nearly total reliance on the wages provided by them; this included all other industries in coal mining areas. By 1994, over 950 mines were closed by the UK government, consequently causing a shift within communities that were previously so reliant on the collieries. This had a large impact on the role of women and encouraged their position and role in society to shift.
While the people working in the collieries were predominantly men, women in the 1800’s were still employed to work underground. However, after the Mines and Collieries Act of 1842, it was made illegal for women and boys under 10 to work underground in the collieries. Before this Act, over 2,350 women and girls were working in UK coal mines. Following the Act’s introduction, many women lost their jobs, and there was a shift in the role of women within the collieries. Many acquired jobs on the surface of the coal mines, such as pushing the coal for weighing, cleaning, sorting and removing dirt from the coal. These women were generally paid less than the men as they were viewed as cheap labour. However, these laborious roles were also made redundant in the 1950s, due to increased developments in technology and mechanisation. This greatly impacted women working in the mines as they could no longer contribute a source of income for their families.
The decimation of coal mining and its predominant male employment, led to a societal shift, as men were no longer earning an income for their families. These families that had relied on the collieries for their main or only source of income, were put at risk. This led to an increased importance on the income provided by women, who sought out employment in the factories which emerged in the often subsidised Industrial Estates within the former coal areas. Though earning much less money, they became the sole source of income within many families and were now financially dependent on them, which was a major shift in societal norms and family dynamics.
This shift is only further emphasised by many women participating in picket lines and protesting, even forming the “Women Against Pit Closures” (WAPC). The WAPC
movement was formed by Jean McCrindle and other women in 1984 to support the miners and their families during the strike. They organised and participated in protests to stop the closure of the mines, as well as providing secondary support through the organisation of food collections, setting up soup kitchens, speaking at rallies and writing articles. This female-led body empowered many women, allowing them to support their families, and have an impact on their community. Additionally, this movement supported the free speech of women around Britain, encouraging them to take a public role and be involved politically for the first time, with many attending conferences with the WAPC. By having such visibility, at the front of picket lines or performing speeches, these women were very influential and perhaps more importantly inspired many other women to challenge their preconceived gender roles.
As Leader of the Conservative Government, Margaret Thatcher’s role in the pit closures in the 1980s had a paradoxical impact on feminism in the UK. During her tenure, Margaret Thatcher was not a feminist. Margaret Thatcher considered herself a stand-alone figure and did not seek to represent the power that women may have, actively removing herself from women ’ s causes and feminism. Her individuality was more important to her than standing for female accomplishments or what women could do if given the chance to be put in positions of power. This meant that while her presence in the position of Prime Minister was groundbreaking, and had an impact on the respect women could command, she did not use her position to fight for women ’ s rights or cultivate a more feminist country. Even though Margaret Thatcher is not considered a feminist icon, she did have a large impact on how women were viewed, being the first female prime minister, and holding such an important position of power for three terms. Margaret Thatcher, “The Iron Lady”, was a strong woman, and her plans for the pit closures were massively ambitious and she pursued them despite the public backlash and strikes. Even with this pressure, she maintained her position of closing the mines, withstanding political and social unrest, presenting herself as a strong forceful woman. Even if she chose not to represent women and empower them herself, her position alone accomplished that on some level, and her strengths reflected the potential for female power in the future.
In conclusion, I believe that while the closure of the mines caused social unrest and disrupted the economic stability of many areas in the UK, it has also created opportunities for female empowerment; either by the awakening and changing of women ’ s roles in areas impacted and the presence of the first female leader of government (even if a reluctant female role-model).
Jessica Harris
How Will Trump's Presidency Affect Globalisation?
Globalisation is the process of people and countries becoming more integrated and interconnected. Recently, countries have decided to become less globalised as they feel they have become over-reliant on some countries (especially after COVID) and Trump’s presidency may only further lead to the world becoming more deglobalised due to his commitment to ‘America First’ by implementing certain policies. The three policies that could significantly change the economic and political landscape of the world are: tariffs on Chinese imports, reduced participation in Global Alliances and restricting immigration and labour access.
Is Deglobalisation harmful?
Deglobalisation can be harmful as it has many negative effects. For example, it can impact trade around the world. This is because if one country becomes more closed off by adding quotas, it means other countries may react in a similar way which would result in more goods purchased domestically and less internationally. It can also result in higher prices for certain products as it could affect the global supply chain which could lead to a higher production cost. These higher prices could be passed on to consumers which would take a larger proportion of their income and reduce their standard of living. Thus, deglobalisation is harmful and many people are against the policies Trump is planning on implementing.
Tariffs on Chinese Imports
Trump takes protectionism very seriously as he feels this is a great way to help boost the US economy and help America become great again. While this is true, it can have negative consequences for other parts of the world. This is because by implementing a 10% universal tariff and a 60% tariff on Chinese imports, Trump hopes to reduce dependency on foreign goods, primarily China’s which will disrupt global supply chains and increase costs of imported goods which may incentivise some companies to move to the US for manufacturing. This will therefore bring lots of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) into the economy which can help stimulate economic growth and create jobs. Trump is specifically targeting China more than other countries mainly for two reasons. One is because of the US and China's trade imbalance with the US being in a 300 billion dollar deficit at its peak. Trump argued that the Chinese government was to blame as they were subsidising their firms which put American firms at a serious disadvantage. The second reason is because China is seen as a global superpower with rising global influence and Trump feels threatened and slightly intimidated. Hence, imposing these tariffs on China reduces dependence on China and decreases its power. While this seems like a good strategic decision from Trump, there may be retaliation from China, for example, China could increase its tariffs and add their own protectionism rules to help reduce the number of imports
coming from the US. Additionally, China may also reduce the supply of technology to the US as another form of retaliation which will negatively affect the US as technology is crucial for any country to advance this would thus have negative impacts on China as it may lose out on revenue but the US as well as they may miss out on crucial pieces of development for the economy. Other countries may also be affected due to the supply chain of technological products as different components of a product are made all over the world and not just in one singular country: for instance, Apple has its products made in 43 countries all over the world which emphasises the importance of globalisation. Furthermore, if Trump implements these policies, of becoming more switched off, it will reduce IO’s (International Organisations) power such as the WTO and IMF as the US is the world’s largest economy and these IOs will have less influence and power over them. This could thus lead to less peace and more political conflicts as IOs are known for solving problems and issues between countries due to the number of countries associated with them.
Reduced Participation in Global Alliances
Another change Trump may implement is less participation in Global Alliances. In Trump’s previous administration, he wished to reduce US involvement in NATO and military commitments which he wants to continue now that he is in office. This may reduce the US’s engagement with global security alliances thus making them less connected politically with the global world. Trump also follows the same strategy by not participating in international agreements such as the Paris Climate Accords which could create huge issues in the future of climate change - a crucial topic. Since Trump does not want to participate in these global events, it makes the US less globalised and also begins to start some issues with other countries as they may not react positively to the US leaving imperative global issues.
Restricting immigration and labour access
Trump has shown to have strong opinions about immigration and he blames them for most of the problems faced in the US; consequently, he is going to tighten the immigration laws and reduce the number of people allowed in the country. This could have negative impacts as it could limit collaboration and communication with parts of the world and result in the US missing out on several opportunities such as receiving talented workers who could have high potential and benefit the US economy. It also limits political connections and makes the US more closed off from other parts of the world which makes them even more disconnected. In addition to this, not only is Trump just restricting immigration but is also mass deporting immigrants out of the US. This can have negative impacts as it could lead to political tensions between countries as well as issues with the US’s productivity as it has an ageing population which means it heavily relies on younger immigrant workers to fill the labour shortages. Therefore, if Trump follows through on his mass deportation plan, it could lead to significant economic issues.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Trump has the right intentions of improving the US’s economy, however, his process of executing his plans is very narrow-minded as he does not consider the repercussions of his actions on the global world and the impacts they may have on other countries as well as his own in the long run.
Arhan Lakhiani
The lower school geopolitical cartoon competition
Winner:
Yuhan Jiang
Second Place:
Anna Bailey
Third Place:
Elisa van den Peereboom
Honourable Mentions:
Guarika Gupta
Adam Ahmad
Jiwon Yu
Dikuo Bai
For the first edition of Terra Nova, we wanted to include the lower school to empower the youth’s involvement and understanding of geopolitics. As one of the most prevalent issues affecting the globe, we selected the 2024 US Election as the theme which invited ideas about Trump’s policies on the climate, relations with China, the new administration, and the integrity of America. All cartoons submitted reached extremely high standards of creativity and sophistication within the humour generated. We look forward to seeing these budding geographers continue to tackle global challenges with the same ingenuity and insight showcased in their work a promising start to what we believe will be remarkable contributions to future discussions.
