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How relevant is the psychological and scientific study of composition to design practice?

Chapter I The principle of composition in image making is difficult to define. Its use has varied across several periods and practices - from linear perspective in Renaissance art to isometric perspective in Japanese and Chinese painting (Hockney, D and Gaynor, M. 2016). All of which may see influence of in contemporary design practice.

The Cleveland Institute of Arts, in their ‘Glossary of Terms’, best defines the principle of composition to introduce the context in which it will be analysed in this essay: “The organising of elements of an artwork into a unified whole; the arrangement of pictorial elements in a picture plane” (Cleveland Institute of Art, Glossary of Terms) The core argument of this essay will be constructed surrounding the psychological and scientific study of art by theorists Rudolf Arnheim (1974) in “Art and Visual Perception”, Denman Ross (1907) in his text “A Theory of Pure Design”, and Gestalt Psychology. Through the study of the human eye and mind, these theorists focus upon the importance of composition through the defining principles of balance, order, harmony and rhythm. This will be further supported by the practice or comment of past and present art and design practitioners.

The relevance of these psychological and scientific theories to contemporary design practice will be explored though three primary methods of analysis: The first chapter relates the key theories to the core constructs of design practice – visual appeal, function or legibility and creative problem solving.

The objective being to further understand how understanding such theories can benefit and, or correlate with the necessary elements of a design work.

The second chapter evaluates the works of contemporary designers in relation to these theories, whether used consciously or unconsciously within their practice, to understand the relevance of these principles to the present day design industries.

The third and final chapter analyses a body of work, one part of which has been created with the conscious use of compositional rules derived from the theorists stated above, and another two parts made through creative intuition and then purposefully breaking these outlined principles. By evaluating the success of each set of images, this practical work aims to judge the effect of creative intuition against rule-led image making as well as question the importance of balance and order to image making – can chaos be beautiful?

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Chapter II This chapter outlines the core purpose and arguments of scientific and psychological theory in relation to composition, put forth by Arnheim (1974), Ross (1907) and Gestalt Psychologists. The key points of these arguments will compared alongside comments of art practitioners, to access their relevance to design practice. It first seems necessary to define the function and validity of these theoretical studies of art, as they will be forming the foundation of our argument.

A core text in the evaluation of these considered compositional principles will be Rudolf Arnheim’s “Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye”. A study of art in relation to modern psychology, Arnheim (1974) puts the experience of viewing or creating art into psychological terms. This provides an insight into how the human eye reads pictorial elements.

Arnheim (1974) argues that vision is defined by the interplay and nature of two properties: the artwork or object in question, and its audience. If you remove subjective taste or cultural influence, the human eye has the same fundamental properties and functions. Through an analysis of this we can obtain an objective perspective on the core principles of image making, that can help “distinguish between adequate and inadequate conceptions of reality” (Arnheim, R, 1974. Pg6).

This is supported by Denman Ross, an American painter and professor of art and design theory during the late 1800s - in his book “A Theory of Pure Design” (Ross, 1907) he argues that design can be distilled into a series of fundamental terms or principles: “Art is regarded as the one activity of man which has no scientific basis, and the appreciation of art is said to be a matter of taste in which not two persons can be expected to agree. It is my purpose in this book to show how, in the practice of art, as in all other practices, we use certain terms and follow certain principles.” (Ross, 1907) Ross states this text to be “a contribution to science rather than to art” (Ross, 1907), and as an artist himself, a means through which to understand his practice rather than produce works of any great significance (Ross, 1907).

The scientific analysis of art is supported by Jonathon Gottschall (2014) - an American professor and scholar specialising in literature and evolution. He believes in the fundamentality of beauty to the human experience, calling for scientific theory to shed light on our relationship with art (Gottschall, 2014). He

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disapproves of the common belief that the analysis of beauty destroys its potency for the viewer: “There’s the unexamined assumption that something in art makes it scienceproof. There’s a widespread, is usually unspoken, belief that art is just a frill in human life – relatively unimportant compared with the weighty stuff of science.

And there’s the weird idea that science necessarily destroys the beauty it seeks to explain (as though a learned astronomer really could dull the star shine.)” (Gottschall, 2014) The origins of many theories discussed in this essay can be traced back to Gestalt Psychology, founded by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. The word Gestalt is a common German noun for shape or form and has been used in reference to scientific principles formed upon experiments in sensory perception (Arnheim, 1974). It is based on the phenomenon of viewing an image as a unified whole before being perceived in its individual parts (Cleveland Institute of Arts). This phenomenon is achieved through a series of principles – similarity, continuation, closure, proximity, figure and ground and symmetry – that according to Creative Bloq (2017), when used effectively, can make a design feel more “connected, coherent and complete” (Creative Bloq, 2017).

Arnheim (1974) is one of these theorists that attribute the foundations of his study in visual perception to the work of Gestalt psychologists (Arnheim, 1974). He underlines the importance of the viewing an image as a unified whole - arguing that vision is the process of understanding the interrelation and pattern of visual elements (Arnheim, 1974), and as a result of this: “Before we identify any one element, the total composition makes a statement that we must not lose” (Arnheim, 1974. Pg8) According to Arnheim (1974), in an extension of writings by Cesare L. Mussatti, the principles of Gestalt psychology can be distilled into one singular rule of similarity. This rule of similarity can then be applied to different factors that define the elements of an image such as location, shape or colour to achieve a unified whole (Arnheim,1974).

“A visual object is the more unitary the more strictly similar its elements are in such factors as colour, brightness, and speed and direction of movement” (Arnheim, 1974. Pg88) Steven Bradley (2010) founder of online design blog “vanseodesign.com” and author of “Design Fundamentals: Elements, Attributes & Principles”, argues that there must be a balance between visual unity and variety within a design.

Similarly, to Arnheim (1974) and Gestalt Psychologists he argues for the importance of a unified whole, yet states that “too much unity can be dull and lifeless” (Bradley, 2010) and that a sense of variety can add “interest and energy to a design” (Bradley, 2010).

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Arnheim (1974) argues that only through an overruling principle of similarity can a viewer compare and contrast visual elements. This he calls ‘subdivision’, which is when the similarity of one visual principle across the elements of an image – such as shape – then leads to a secondary grouping of these elements according to their differences in principles such as colour or location (Arnheim, 1974).

“Similarity is a prerequisite for the noticing of differences” (Arnheim, 1974.

Pg79).

Ross (1907) is unwavering in his assertion that nothing must compromise the structure of the whole in design. He argues for the rule of simplicity over complication, identifying the compulsion of some designers to add ‘decoration’ as a one of the principle mistakes that diminishes “the order of the whole” (Ross, 1907): “I object to the word ‘decoration’ as commonly used by designers, because it implies that additions are likely to be improvements, that to multiply features, to enrich surfaces, is worthwhile or desirable … As designers’ we ought to avoid additions, if possible. We ought to make them only when in so doing we are able to increase the order of the whole.” (Ross, 1907.)

The power of simplicity in design is echoed by Alan Fletcher (2001), graphic designer and author of “The art of looking sideways”, who argues that: “The quality of a design depends on the economy of means used to achieve it.” (Fletcher, 2001. Pg270) Arnheim (1974) relates the experience of simplicity in artwork to direct and effective communication. He defines simplicity not as a reduction of visual elements but a similarity in the ‘structural features’ of those elements, such as the angles or lines of a shape. This he claims to be ‘absolute simplicity’, and then emphasises the importance of a second form - ‘relative simplicity’, which is the interrelation of two principles: parsimony and orderliness; parsimony being the formation of the simplest visual structure and orderliness the organisation of that structure into a whole (Arnheim, 1974).

“Relative simplicity” in the formation of artwork is able to function at a higher level of complexity (Arnheim, 1974). Similarly, to the argument of Bradley (2010) addressed earlier, Arnheim (1974) expresses the need for both complexity and simplicity in artwork to meet the desires of the human mind: “Simple objects may please and satisfy us by serving limited functions appropriately, but all true works of art are quite complex even when they look ‘simple’.” (Arnheim, 1974. Pg59)

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This concept also correlates with the theories of Ross (1907), as according to Arnheim (1974) it facilitates a method of constructing an image that does use any visual element without purpose whilst still maintaining a sophistication that appeals to the human eye and mind: “The great works of art are complex, but we also praise them for “having simplicity”, by which we mean that they organise a wealth of meaning and form in an overall structure that clearly defines the place and function of every detail in the whole.” (Arnheim, 1974. Pg60) William Hogarth, a painter of the 18th century, describes beauty to be a similar relationship between complexity and simplicity: “ … variety without confusion, simplicity without nakedness, richness without tawdriness, distinctness without hardness and quantity without excess.”

(Hogarth in Fletcher, 2001. Pg308) Ross (1907) argues that beauty in design is founded in three forms of order: harmony, balance and, or, rhythm. It is the culmination of these principles that achieve “a supreme instance of order”, which he believes to be the closest possible definition of what we may perceive to be beautiful. He asserts that, although these principles can result in a product that does not reflect this experience in the viewer, beauty in design cannot be achieved without them: “The beautiful is revealed, always, so far as I know, in the forms of order, in the modes of harmony, of balance, or of rhythm. While there are many instances of harmony, balance and rhythm which are not particularly beautiful, there is, I believe nothing really beautiful which is not orderly in one or the other, in two, or in all three of these modes.” (Ross, 1907) Joseph Campbell (2014), a lecturer and writer who reflects upon many aspects of the human experience –including religion and mythology, provides a similar argument when commenting on James Joyce’s theory of ‘Aesthetic Arrest’. This term attempts to explain the feeling of being in the presence of beauty, more specifically beauty in a work of art, that leaves us feeling somehow altered or elevated by the encounter (Create Shift, 2015). In Campbell’s (2014) summary of Joyce’s words, he attributes this experience to the rhythmic relationships of an image and, similarly to Arnheim (1974) Ross (1907) and Gestalt Psychology, to the achievement of a unified whole: “ … seeing it as one thing you become aware of the relationship of part to part, and part to the whole and the whole to the parts. This is the essential aesthetic factor – rhythm. The rhythm, the rhythmic relationships and when a fortunate rhythm has been struck by the artist that is the radiance, that is the epiphany.” (Campbell in Campbell Extracts, 2014).

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The argument of experiencing beauty in design through modes of order and the unified whole can be further supported by design practitioners. William Burtin, an influential modernist graphic designer and theorist, argues that: “Beauty is not necessarily a matter of form of style, but a result of order achieved.” (Burtin in Fletcher, 2001. Pg309) In the documentary “Why Beauty Matters” Roger Scruton argues the importance of beauty of art arguing it to be “not just a subjective thing but a universal need of human beings” (Why Beauty Matters, 2009).

This is supported by Gottschall (2014) who argues that our relationship with art, and our need for beauty, is one of the key human attributes, alike to our language and use of tools, that may separate us from other species, stating that: “There is nothing so central to human life that is so incompletely understood” (Gottschall, 2014) Just as Gottschall (2014 and Scruton (2009) argue that the presence of beauty is an essential part of the human experience. Arnheim (1974), similarly, emphasises the importance of balance and order to the human psyche: “Man strives for equilibrium in all phases of his physical and mental existence” (Arnheim, 1974. Pg36) This human desire for equilibrium could be rooted in the idea that beauty, which according to Gottschall (2014) and Scruton is an essential part of our existence, is, as proved above, produced by systems of balance and order in design. This correlation between beauty and order, and therefore the human eye’s need for balance in design can be further supported through the evidence of order in the everyday – such as architecture, furniture and even nature.

The golden mean is a mathematical ratio derived from the Fibonacci sequence. It is believed to create harmonious proportions through asymmetry that can be seen in nature and in Greek architecture (Creative Bloq, 2017).

Scott Olsen (2006) in his book “The Golden Section” evidences this ratio being used in works by Leonardo Da Vinci and Salvador Dali. Olsen (2006) argues, alike to the principles of Gestalt Psychology, the use of the golden ratio in art creates a harmonic unified whole: “By carefully linking the ratios and proportions of a work of art, ensuring that the parts reflect and synchronise with the whole, a painter can create an aesthetic, dynamic, living embodiment of the harmonic and symmetrical principles lying behind nature itself.” (Olsen, 2006. Pg36)

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Although these mathematical and scientific formulas or theories may seem highly applicable to design – as they claim an insight into the formation of beauty and function – it could be argued that they remain irrelevant to design practice as they are neither applied consciously or in everyday effect. This is supported by Fletcher (2001), who in comment of the golden mean claims it to be an exceedingly dry subject that almost terminated his interest in art. In talking about the role of creativity he further argues that designers should create their own formulae for their practice, referencing the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein: “By the way a game, according to the celebrated formulation by Wittgenstein, consists of the rule by which it is played. So if you want to win – make up the rules” (Fletcher, 2001. Pg270) This is supported by writer and design consultant Ralph Caplan who argues that creatives can tolerate imbalance and chaos, it is the commercialisation and audience-facing nature of art practices, such as design, that generates the need to erase any inconsistencies. He believes that if creatives were to comply with this demand: “… nothing worth reading would get written, nothing worth seeing would get painted, nothing worth living with and using would ever get designed” (Caplan in Fletcher, 2001. Pg34) This need for free-flowing creativity, without a limitation of rules, is supported by neurologist Oliver Sachs who argues that: “Creativity … involves the power to originate, to break away from existing ways of looking at things, to move freely in the realm of imagination, to create and re-create worlds fully in one’s mind – while supervising all this with a critical inner eye. Creativity has to do with inner life – with the flow of new ideas and strong feelings” (Sachs in Fletcher, 2001. Pg34) Ross (1907) in his writing acknowledges the unique creativity and imagination of the practitioner, recognising that unlike his forms of order this element of artistic expression is beyond “measurable quantities and qualities” (Ross, 1907). He does argue, however, that it is the terms and principles of design that he outlines in his writing that form the foundation for “the peculiar ability or genius of the artist himself” (Ross, 1907) to flourish: “Underlying this element of personality are the terms and principles of art. In them the artist has found the possibility of expression; in them his inspiration is conveyed to his fellowmen.” (Ross, 1907) Arnheim (1974) claims that his analysis of visual elements using psychological terms is not an attempt to replace or undermine creative intuition but simply to make their application more effective:

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“ … this survey of formal mechanisms aims not to replace spontaneous intuition but to sharpen it” (Arnheim, 1974. Pg8) Charles Eames, modern architecture and furniture designer, working during the 1900s, similarly to Ross (1907) and Arnheim (1974) believes in the use of constraints when creating design (Eames in Fletcher, 2001. Pg270). This is supported by Rem Koolhaas, an architect and architectural theorist in urban design, who argues: “Without firm limits there is no play” (Koolhaas in Fletcher, 2001. Pg273) There is a clear debate between whether imposing rules or formulas derived from theoretical study can impede or facilitate creativity in design. This discussion also opens up the question as to whether creativity is a consequence of order and balance, or if it directly leads to the destruction of what Arnheim (1974) or Ross (1907) would consider to be successful composition. In both of their theoretical study, and supported by the comments of artist practitioners, intuition and imagination is an unavoidable, if not, a necessary part of the creative process. Therefore if it is the later, it would seem that their theories would be non-applicable to design practice.

The theories posed through scientific and psychological study may be relevant in the anatomical study of design, as they offer an understanding of the construction of beauty, simplicity and legibility that appeal to an audience; however analysing design through theoretical study, is different to the active application of that theory to the design of an image. The following chapters continue this discussion of whether it is possible to use the outlined theories in conscious design practice.

Chapter III All the designers and illustrators discussed in this chapter are currently working within today’s creative industries. This focus on contemporary design practice is to provide an understanding of the current relevance of the scientific and psychological theories evaluated within this essay. The works of the selected practitioners all demonstrate a graphic and compositional sensibility, as well as an aesthetic style that correlates with my own personal interests.

Following a detailed description of the considered work, each practitioner will undergo two forms of analysis in relation to the scientific and psychological theories outlined in chapter II: the first being a theoretical analysis of the success of a specific image within their portfolio and the second, a broader understanding of their creative process in relation to the stated theories.

Rob Lowe is a graphic artist who works under the pseudonym ‘Supermundane’. Now a freelance designer working across a number of different contexts, his background mainly lies in graphic design – designing

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magazines such as Anorak and Fire & Knives. His work is a culmination of geometric shapes defined by thick line and optical patterns, bright colours and experimental typography.

Supermundane’s hand painted mural (figure 1) for Moo headquarters in London – an online print and design company – is a composition of overlapping geometric and abstract shapes, all defined by his signature thick black line. The shapes differ in their visual definition some filled only with block colour and others with patterns consisting of stripes or dots. The mural has a varying and bright colour palette of blues, yellows, purples and greens of different hues and brightness.

In the theoretical analysis of this image, we will be considering how effectively it achieves the desired aesthetic of a unified whole, expressed by Gestalt psychologists, Arnheim (1974) and Ross (1907). As a mural, its purpose seems purely for decoration, therefore it would be inappropriate to analyse in relation to how effectively the subject matter is communicated to its audience.

Although the mural is made up of varying shapes, there is repetition in the size, thickness or angles that define them achieving a common flow throughout the image. This correlates with Arnheim’s (1974) theory of ‘absolute simplicity’, which is achieved through a similarity of ‘structural features’ of the elements within an image. This also could be said about the unwavering quality of line – in its thickness and colour – that outlines each of these shapes within the mural.

The use of pattern, consisting of dots and stripes, to fill a number of these shapes could be seen to conflict with Ross’ (1907) theory of ‘pure design’.

He argues that additions to an image must be avoided unless it intentionally adds to the overall structure of whole (Ross, 1907). These patterns could therefore be considered unnecessary and compromising with the visual unity of the mural.

In the intentions of the practitioner, the aim of these images is to use line and pattern to provide unexpected perspectives (Glug, 2017). These images are partially inspired by architecture, and one could argue that the use of pattern – whilst perhaps according to the theory of Ross (1907) may be considered unnecessary – identifies different layers within the image generating a sense of depth.

“At the basis of it is this love of line for the sake of line. I use them optically, I try to use weird perspectives, or in my more organic drawing, where every line intersects with every other line and because of that they create this idea of depth that isn’t there.” (Lowe in Glug, 2017) Arnheim (1974) states that the importance of balance and order within an image is to remove any ambiguity within the artistic statement. In complete

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contrast to this Supermundane, although aiming for simplicity within his images, intends to achieve a sense of ambiguity: “I put simplicity at the heart of everything. Even though some of my work can be complex it is still simple … I like leaving a bit of ambiguity so people can bring some of themselves to anything I do.” (Lowe in Butler, 2015) One could argue, however, that this is the luxury of work such as a mural in which it purely aims to please and enliven an environment rather than communicate a direct concept to its audience. Theories such as Arnheims (1974) would therefore better correlate with design work that has a purpose of communication as well as that of visual appeal.

Composition is at the heart of Supermundane’s practice, and he places importance on balancing elements within his images (Butler, 2015). It seems, however, that this is more of an instinctual process not dictated by any formulae or rules. Similarly to the statements of Sachs and Caplan (2001) in the previous chapter, Supermundane believes in the free reign of creativity in creating something that has originality and pertinence within design practice: “In terms of creativity I think we need to have space. The creative world exists in the border between fact and fiction and sometimes everything needs to so quantified and proved that the factual elements punch out creativity. I work in quite an instinctive way, but when you have to prove everything then it becomes very tiresome and very hard to make mistakes or produce something that’s new.” (Lowe in Its Nice That, 2016) *Yet to do a second case study on practice of Malika Favre.

Chapter IV The following chapter evaluates a body of work comprising of three sets of images - each made out of a creative process focusing on either the use of disuse of compositional rules. These compositional rules were formed out of the study of psychological and scientific theories, previously mentioned, championed by Rudolf Arnheim (1974), Denman Ross (1907) and the phenomenon of Gestalt Psychology, and are as follows: *list of rules The purpose of each image-making process was to achieve a sense of harmony, order and balance amongst all visual elements. This objective is first attempted through play, experimentation and the practitioner’s own sense of creative intuition. The second series of images was then made following the outlined rules, and then the third purposefully breaking them. Each image consists of similar geometric and abstract shapes, so that the subjective taste of the subject and content can be better removed when it comes to judging the influence of each process on the outcomes.

This project was formed on the basis of two main objectives:

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The first purpose was for the practitioner to gain a deeper understanding of the mechanics of image making in order to develop their own practical skills, and achieve a greater sense of craftsmanship and visual appeal to their work.

Despite working primarily within the field of illustration, a natural sensibility for simple, graphic and shape-based communication led to this analysis of composition in the broader discipline of design practice.

The more specific aim of achieving a sense of harmony, order and balance in these images derives from the clear link between visual appeal and such compositional principles according to theories previously discussed in this essay. Both Ross (1907) and Arnheim (1974) attribute the success of an image to such compositional principles. This is supported by James Joyce’s theory of ‘Aesthetic Arrest’, who, summarised in the words of Campbell (2014), draws a direct link between beauty and the rhythmic relationships of visual elements in an image.

The second objective was investigating the results of a practical application of these compositional theories. Before beginning this project, the practitioner had only used processes derived from their own sense of creative intuition.

The following practical work aims to question whether a rule led image-making process can either facilitate or impede the production of beauty in creative practice. *To follow: an analysis of the successes of the resulting practical work, and how this has extended my knowledge on the subject in reference to the essay question.

Conclusion • • •

• •

•

There is relevance in these psychological and scientific theories in the study and deconstruction of design work.

It improves ones ability to identify principles that help a design to work more cohesively and have greater visual unity.

The theory of beauty being founded in constructions of order and balance seems valid in that humans often, as we crave beauty, desire such principles in our everyday items or surroundings: such as in architecture or interiors.

The distance lies between theoretical study and the practical conceiving of a design work.

It seems rare that designers consciously apply formula or rules to the formation of their images, and many place importance on the freedom of creative intuition in producing something with originality.

However, creativity of concept is not the same as creativity of visual design. It is a possibility that one could be creative in their problem solving and idea conception, whilst still applying a conscious effort to achieve a form of simplicity and order to the visual aesthetic of a design.

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Figure 1

Rob Lowe/Supermundane. Moo Mural. London: Moo Headquarters.

Available from: http://supermundane.com/work/moo-mural/ Bibliography Books Albers, J. (2013) Interaction of Color. 4th edn. New Haven & London: Yale University Press.

Arnheim, R. (1974) Art and Visual Perception. Rev. edn. Berkeley, Los Angeles & London: University of California Press.

Denman, R. (1907) A Theory of Pure Design. Boston & New York Houghton: Mifflin and Company Olsen, S. (2009) The Golden Section. Glastonbury: Wooden Books Ltd. Rand, P. (1985) A Designer’s Art. New Haven & London: Yale University Press.

Fletcher, A. (2001) The art of looking sideways. London: Phaidon Press.

Heller, S. (1999) Paul Rand. London: Phaidon Press.

Hockney, D and Gaynor, M. (2016) London: Thames & Hudson.

Online Articles

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Himelfard, E. (2014) Rob Lowe’s love/hate relationship with his Supermundane moniker. Available at : https://eyeondesign.aiga.org/illustrator-rob-lowe-sheds-his-supermundanemonkier/ (Accessed 08/11/17) Butler, A. (2015) Interview with artist and designer Rob Lowe AKA Supermundane. Available from: https://www.designboom.com/art/interview-supermundane-05-30-2015/ (Accessed 08/11/17) Creative Bloq. (2017) The designer’s guide to Gestalt Theory. Available from: http://www.creativebloq.com/graphic-design/gestalt-theory-10134960 (Accessed 30/10/17) Gottschall, J. (2014) There can be no science of art. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/jan/12/what-scientific-idea-isready-for-retirement-edge-org (Accessed 27/10/17) Creative Bloq. (2017). The designer’s guide to the Golden Ratio. Available from: http://www.creativebloq.com/design/designers-guide-golden-ratio12121546 (Accessed 30/10/17) Videos Glug. (2017) Glug Birmingham: Supermundane. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NP0fCKEeGmE (Accessed 08/11/17) Dzierza, M. (2014) Creative types: Rob Lowe AKA Supermundane.

Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wRz8Y9L0t2g (Accessed 08/11/17) Its Nice that. (2016) Nicer Tuesdays: Supermundane. Available from: https://www.itsnicethat.com/watch/nicer-tuesdays-2016/supermundane (Accessed 08/11/17) Tufte, E. (2013) Inge Druckery: Teaching to see trailer. Available from: https://vimeo.com/67108069 (Accessed 09/11/17) Campbell Extracts. (2014) On James Joyce’s Epiphany. Available from: https://vimeo.com/89773884 (Accessed 21/11/17) Films The 100 years show (2015) Directed by Alison Klayman [Film]. Netflix.

Teaching to See (2012) Directed by Andrei Sevemy [Film]. Available from: http://teachingtosee.org/film/TeachingToSee.html

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Why Beauty Matters (2009) Directed by Louise Lockwood [Film]. BBC Two.

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