the Bayeux Tapestry and Glen Ray Crack’s account of the Battle of Hastings
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hile the average English person would claim to know quite a lot about 1066, their knowledge is not often based on historical fact. The source of most of their information is the Bayeux Tapestry, that colourful depiction of how William the Conqueror invaded England with his Norman army in 1066. But the tapestry is not a docile, dead depiction - it’s alive with controversy and myth, providing us with a classic example of the old adage that history is written by the victors. The tapestry is probably the most important pictorial image of the 11th century. Arguably it is one of the most important pieces of medieval art from any century. A work of enormous skill, it has priceless value as a piece of art in itself, and it is also an important source - a vital piece of historical evidence - for a key moment in Britain’s national past. This does not, however, mean that its version of events is an entirely accurate one. To check the tapestry’s version of events, we need to compare it with another source - perhaps one with an English rather than a Norman slant. The main written source for English history at this time is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a kind of calendar of national life written by monks in a number of different places, and surviving in three different versions. Unfortunately for the historian there are gaps in the Chronicle, and only one version mentions the Norman invasion at all, disposing of it in little more than a single sentence: ‘And the while, William the earl landed at Hastings, on St Michael’s-day: and Harold came from the north, and fought against him before all his army had come up: and there he fell, and his two brothers, Girth and Leofwin; and William subdued this land.’ The tapestry, then, offers an early example of how unreliable historical sources can be. It also shows how political acts are justified after the event and how history bears down upon the present. And it shows the power of images - even 1,000-year-old images. The Bayeux Tapestry
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Proof of this power can be seen in the way that the tapestry’s version of the Norman conquest is so firmly planted in the minds of many British people. It combines visual simplicity with historical complexity, and thus can be read in many different ways. The tapestry was commissioned by William the Conqueror’s half-brother, Bishop Odo of Bayeux, depicting the events surrounding the conquest. It details events leading up to the invasion and shows the key aspects of the conquest itself, not least the Battle of Hastings. The tapestry is not a tapestry in the normal sense. It is actually an embroidery of at least eight coloured wools, worked into pieces of linen. It is divided into a series of connected panels, approximately half a metre wide and 70 metres long. It is probably incomplete. If we’re reasonably sure that it was commissioned by Odo, there is greater fuzziness over its designer and manufacturers. It is thought likely to have been created by English embroiderers, probably in the then famous embroidery works of Winchester; though some French historians maintain it was made in Normandy. Even the name is disagreed over, depending on which country you are in: to the French it is La Tapisserie de la reine Mathilde, or Queen Matilda’s Tapestry (Matilda was the Conqueror’s wife). The pictures of the tapestry tell the story of the adventures of Duke Harold Godwinson, brotherin-law of King Edward the Confessor, who was shipwrecked in Ponthieu in 1064. Following his rescue by William, Duke of Normandy, Harold is shown swearing to support William in his quest to succeed Edward the Confessor as King of England - a promise which he was later to break. We then see Harold returning to England and being acclaimed as king after Edward’s death. The tapestry approaches this piece of history from the Norman perspective, attempting to justify the invasion launched by William to claim what he believed was rightfully his. The image of Harold 10/1/11 11:58:02
that the tapestry projects is one of a double-dealer who broke a sacred promise to William. But the oath sworn by Harold to William is reported in only one other source - William of Poitiers’ ‘Deeds of Duke William’, another Norman account, written some ten years after the conquest. The Norman version clearly needed this event to have happened - but a historian cannot be sure whether it did, or did not, take place. Next we see William’s preparations for the invasion of England and the decisive Battle of Hastings. One of the most striking images is the one that depicts the slaying of Harold with an arrow through his eye. That Harold died in this way is a fact ‘known’ to almost every English schoolchild. But is it true? The inscription here reads ‘hic harold rex interfectus est’, with the name ‘harold’ written above a warrior with an arrow in his eye. But the words ‘interfectus est’ (has been killed) appear to refer to a second warrior being hacked down by a mounted Norman swordsman. The tapestry is our only source on this point, so we cannot know which of the two figures was meant to be King Harold. As well as being a source for political events, the tapestry is also a source for cultural history because it is a record of the way 11th-century people reflected on their world. It reveals something of how people represented themselves to each other. By show-casing the art and skill of designers and embroiderers, it tells us what early medieval people were capable of in their workshops. We can also see a little of how people lived. It demonstrates the style of castles at the time - they were originally built as wooden stockades placed atop artificial mounds. We gain a view of the interior of famous places such as Edward the Confessor’s palace at Westminster or William of Normandy’s court at Rouen. There are banquets, troop actions, grisly battle scenes.
constructed the vessels for the invasion fleet. One of the most famous images of this great campaign is of the Norman soldiers with their chain-mail and helmets with distinctive nose-guards. What English schoolchildren have in their minds when we think of Norman soldiers is the pictures based upon these images in the tapestry at Bayeux. The tapestry has survived through time by a combination of luck and good judgement. Indeed, its own history tells us much about France at various times. It is assumed that it was displayed in Bayeux for around 700 years after its completion, but it was put at risk at various points. It was nearly used as a tarpaulin to cover ammunition during the French Revolution and was moved around a lot during this time of incessant fighting. It became a subject of much interest to 19thcentury scholars and in 1818 an English draughtsman spent two years inspecting and cataloguing the work of art. This detailed examination included listing every pin-hole, and resulted in a plan for restoration which was completed in Bayeux in 1842. It had been kept on scrolls for many years and after it was restored the tapestry was displayed under glass. When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870, it was moved again and, later, it was spirited away during the Nazi invasion to prevent it being sent to Berlin like so much other foreign art. We have seen from our examination of the Bayeux Tapestry how problematic sources can be. History is often like this. What evidence of the past we have, has survived by chance or because it is valued and kept for all sorts of non-historical reasons. Sometimes historians simply don’t have enough evidence to be certain about what happened, and must fall back on educated guesswork. Even so, to be good history, whatever account they come up with must fit with what evidence there is.
We can also see craftsmen at work, as they The Bayeux Tapestry.indd 4
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Harold Godwinson confers with King Edward the Confessor and sets out on his journey.
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Harold and his men prepare for a sea voyage with a final prayer and meal. Then they board their ships, taking dogs and falcons with them.
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Their landing on the coast of France is met by the hostile Guy of Ponthieu.
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Harold is taken prisoner.
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While Harold talks with Guy, William of Normandy prepares a rescue mission.
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William’s men hurry to Beaurain.
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Guy surrenders his prisoner to William.
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Harold and William return to Normandy, where William’s daughter Aelfgifu is betrothed to Harold.
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Harold and William celebrate their new relationship by fighting together against Conan of Brittany, but disaster nearly strikes at Mont. St. Michel.
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The battles continue at Dol and Rennes.
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At Dinan, the Duke of Brittany surrenders to William.
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During the victory celebration William knights Harold, and Harold takes a solemn oath to become the man of William.
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Harold returns to England.
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Edward the Confessor dies.
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Harold is crowned King of England.
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Word of Harold’s coronation travels to William.
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William orders the Normans to begin building a fleet.
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The ships take on their supplies.
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The horses board, and the ships set sail.
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The fleet sails under the protection of the pope and lands at Pevensey.
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The Normans disembark and ride to Hastings.
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The cooks prepare food.
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William and his lords celebrate at a banquet.
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The Normans build their camp and prepare for battle.
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The Norman army assembles.
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The Normans ride out to meet the Anglo-Saxons.
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Harold is warned of the advance, and William gives a pep talk to his men.
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The Normans attack on horseback.
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The Anglo-Saxons meet their attack on foot.
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Harold’s brothers are killed in the battle.
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The battle rages.
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The Anglo-Saxons defend the top of a hill, and William must prove to his men that he is still in charge.
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Newly encouraged, the Normans attack viciously.
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Harold is struck in the eye by an arrow and dies.
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The Normans are victorious.
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The men, arms and armaments available to Harold to fight the Battle of Hastings. Kin and Country
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o mount any military exercise in medieval times was easier said than done. There was always a dichotomy between country and kinfolk, especially during harvest time. Alfred the Great knew this only too well. To combat this annual problem, he devised a system that took into account the prospective soldiers family and agricultural commitments. He also realised that an army really does march on its stomach and if the harvest is ignored, engagements cannot be fought. In fact many battles seemed to have a unsaid gentlemanly agreement attached to them in that they would only be fought at the “right time of year”. Alfred, to maintain a fighting force all year round, introduced a system that was still in use during the Battle of Hastings.
The Fyrd
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he problem Alfred had was how to maintain a fighting force ready for action 365 days a year. Desertion back to their farms or not just turning up at all were something Alfred had to address. He therefore devised the fyrd or militia into two separate groups. Each group would be required to be ready at short notice to serve the king for one month with the next two off. By having your kinfolk away whilst you were at home would ensure the harvest would be reaped. The king had the option to modify this in times on national emergency. This system was devised to operate generally on a shire basis for its own protection. The rules Alfred set down were quite specific. A ceorl (churl) would be given the right of thegnship and the privileges that the position commanded. It was the thegns position to organise the shire and maintain the fighting force. To become a thegn it was necessary to be a landowner, usually with tenants and of about 5 hides or more. The thegn would be given a horse a mail suit and sword and to use his king given power to protect the shire from The Bayeux Tapestry
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infiltrators and bandits. The distinction between the wealthy thegn and those that remained ceorls grew wider. The thegn was responsible to the ealdorman of that shire who in turn was responsible to the king. A thegn was required to attend Witan meetings. The system worked well until Canute became king. He preferred the use of housecarls or elite troops. These were used to protect the king and as professional soldiers who were trained to peak efficiency. They were maintained by a modified tax called danegeld (not to be confused with the Viking danegeld). This was unpopular but afforded the country a trained fighting force. To be a housecarl was considered a honour and Harold would rely heavily on them during his final battle with William.
Harold’s Men
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any lessons had been learnt when fighting the Vikings over the years. The housecarls still existed even when the Viking line of kings ended. It was seen that their existence was the protection this country needed against attack. In fact most of the systems that were used to fight the Norse men were copied from them. Such as the fortified towns or burrs. During the battle of Stamford Bridge, the housecarls were used to good effect to destroy Harald Hardrada and Tostig. the exact number of housecarls used was unknown but would have been between 2,500 and 3,000 men. Taking into account the dead and injured, Harold would have had about 2,000 available for Hastings. It is likely that some were lost, arrived late for the battle or went home on the march back to London, so a figure of about 1,000 seems reasonable. Gyrth and Leofwin, Harold’s brothers would each have had a body guard of housecarls . Including their contribution, plus their fyrd, would increase the number by about 1,500 to 2,000 men. the rest were from the fyrd who had fought at Stamford Bridge or who were recruited on the way back. Harold 17 10/1/11 11:58:40
would have lost a number through desertion during his stay in London before marching to Caldbec Hill. When he finally did march towards the south coast, his forces who would have eventually made it in time for battle has been estimated to be about 7,500 to 8,000. Also involved were a number of naturalized Danes. By the time of Harold, the fyrd commitment was two months service per year but was still using the five hide system. It was the duty of the these people to raise enough money to pay for that soldiers food and pay and could be as much as 20 to 30 shillings, which was a lot of money in those days. Using this system, considering the male population of 1.5 to 2 million, this would enable Harold to raise about 25,000 men. Communication was the biggest problem. so to raise as many as he did to fight this battle after Stamford Bridge was quite an achievement. Strangely enough, we know less about who fought with Harold than we do about William. Below, is a list of those we do know were involved.
Harold II: King of England. Leofwin: Brother of Harold and Earl of Kent. Gyrth: Brother of Harold and Earl of Essex. Harkon: Nephew of Harold who was held hostage by William from 1052 to 1064.
Aelfwig : Harold’s uncle and Abbot of Winchester.
Leofric: Abbot of Peterborough. Godric: Sheriff of Fyfield, which is in Berkshire. Aelfric: A Huntingdonshire thegn. Breme: Possibly one of Gyrth’s thegns. Esegar: Sheriff of Middlesex. Thurkill: From Berkshire (status unknown). 18 The Bayeux Tapestry.indd 18
Weapons, Armour and Logistics. Let Nothing Go To Waste
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fter fighting a successful conflict at Stamford bridge a few days earlier, The amount of captured weapons and equipment available for transfer to the south would have been considerable. If you remember how many boats Harald Hardrada arrived in and how many his defeated army required to return home, gives some impression of the stockpile of weapons that must have been available to Harold. It would not only have been weapons, but clothing, wagons, horses and stores. In fact everything that would have been needed by a campaigning army such as the Vikings. It was usual Saxon practice to share out the booty amongst themselves. After Stamford Bridge, Harold made a decision to collect it up for future use. This decision may have been prompted by his thought that William of Normandy was preparing to attack, and would do so the following spring or summer. Harold at this time had no idea that William was about to land on the English shore very soon.
Protection
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he protection of the body and head was of prime importance. The Saxon housecarl or thegn would wear armour. To resist the thrust and swipe of the sword, the hauberk was developed. The hauberk consisted of a leather or possibly cloth undergarment to which rings were attached or may possibly be an oversuit stretching to below the waist and sometimes to below the knee. It would have a slit in the left hand side where the sword would be positioned, especially when mounted on a horse. The legs would be protected by leather long johns or straps of leather wrapped around the legs to the knees. shoes would be of leather but would afford little protection. The head would be protected by a metal helmet with a nose extension piece. Shields were usually circular, made of wood with iron reinforcement rings. The Bayeux tapestry indicates that kite shape shields were used A Black Arrow resource
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quite commonly, especially in the shield wall tactic. These shields had the ability to protect the lower parts of the body. The fyrd men were not quite so lucky. The housecarl armour was extremely expensive to make and only the richest could adorn themselves with it. Fyrd would normally come as they were or wear a minimum of protection. This may amount to a leather overcoat or tunic. Archers were not used during Hastings on Harold’s side. Archers would be the least protected. Employed for their skill rather than close up combat. If the fyrd were protected during Hastings, it would have been with the war booty from Stamford Bridge. It is very likely. That the hauberks from fallen Saxon housecarls would have been reclaimed. So as far as protection is concerned, Harold’s men should have been as well catered for as they could possibly have been.
Weapons
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he housecarl would have his own sword. This was a personal attachment that he would be used to using and would be like an extension to his body. Developments in sword making came from the Danes. It was the process
of forging twisted bars of iron together to give a more durable implement. The terror weapon used by the Saxons was the Danish battle axe. this was a large axe whose honed edge was about 30 cm long. Swung from side to side, it had the ability to cut down a mounted soldier and his horse in a single blow. The blade was mounted on a handle at least 1 metre long. Smaller axes were used but were generally for agricultural purposes. Archers would use a long bow of about 1.5 metres in length with a range of about 100 to 200 metres. there is no evidence that Saxon archers were involved in the battle however. Spears of different lengths were used. The long ones mounted on poles were to stop cavalry charges in their tracks and short ones for stabbing. Swords and daggers were suspended around the waist with a leather strap called a baldrick. Various other implements such as maces and javelins were possibly used. There is no evidence that Saxon cavalry was used at Hastings, or that it was used in any battle, or that such a thing ever existed. The use of horses were purely for getting from A to B and as beasts of burden. During the battle they would be removed from the area and the soldiers fight on foot.
The men, arms and armaments available to William and the problem of crossing the English Channel. William’s Forces
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here as we know very little about the central characters of Harold’s army at the Battle of Hastings. This is not the case when it comes to the Normans. With careful research, a long list of eminent men come to light as the architects of the invasion force and their contribution as far as manpower and hardware is concerned. The Bayeux Tapestry is useful in this respect as a number of them are depicted on it. The named people involved are listed below. The Bayeux Tapestry
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Duke William: Who became known as
William the Conqueror or William I after the battle.
Odo: William’s half brother and Bishop
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Hugh de Grandsmesnil: A politician of some note in Normandy before the battle and was recorded as taking part in the battle.
Eustace, Count of Boulogne: Son of
Count Guy of Ponthieu, who himself was famous for capturing William on the beach following his mission in 1064. Eustace was thought to have been responsible for the Papal banner, but was injured in the battle. He was also thought to have been one of those inflicting the final death blows to Harold II.
Robert, Count of Mortain: Brother of
Odo and stepbrother of William. A confidant in the initial stages of William’s plan to invade England.
Ralf de Tosny: Half brother of William,
Count of Evreux and involved in battle and was rewarded, as most were, with large estates in England afterwards.
William, Count of Evreux: Second cousin of William and Half bother of Ralf de Tosny. Accepted as being involved in the conflict.
Robert, Count of Mortain: Another who was involved in the early stages of planning of the invasion. He was Odo’s brother and William’s half brother.
Hugh de Montfort: Another name who was possibly involved in the death of Harold II.
Robert de Vitot: Killed in the battle. His
attendance is chronicled by Ordericus the monk, who gained an endowment of land for the monastery of St Evroul. It is not certain if he died immediately or returned to Normandy before this grant was awarded.
Turstin: He was the son of the famous Rollo.
He was allegedly given the honour of carrying the Norman banner. Fate unknown.
Aimeri, Vicomte de Thouars: Another who was possible trusted by William with his initial ideas of an invasion. 20 The Bayeux Tapestry.indd 20
Robert fitzErneis: Killed in the battle. William fitzOsbern: Inspiration to William in his plans. His support for the invasion in the early stages was rewarded with the title of the Earl of Hereford after the battle.
William de Warrene: Distant cousin of
William, who was later made the Earl of Surrey for his loyalty and deeds in the battle.
Robert or (Roger) of Beaumont: Accepted as being involved in the battle. He was one of the only accounts of bravery that have been chronicled. He was made Earl of Leicester for his loyalty.
Walter Giffard: Another who was present and involved in the slaying of King Harold II.
Taileffer: He was a minstrel and psychiatric case brought over by William. He was said to have advanced in front of the Norman formation and encouraged them on. His solo suicidal attack on the English line instigated the start of the battle. He was the first casualty of the conflict. There were others involved but those above are some of the main characters.
Ships and More Ships
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o mount an operation in another country is difficult enough. To invade a country that has the luxury of being surrounded by the sea, adds a further difficulty. The first thing William had to do, after managing to persuade the aristocracy that such an exploit was feasible, was to have boats built or requisitioned that were seaworthy enough to make the English Channel crossing. To this end, he made it known that the main characters above would be expected to supply them, as well as the manpower for such an expedition. William was a wily character, and the promise of fortune and power far in excess of what they already had must have won the day. He also reminded them of their duties under the feudal tenure system. As mentioned earlier, he had an uphill battle to persuade them that A Black Arrow resource
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this exercise was feasible. The support of Rome and the Papal banner eventually won them over. The “crusade was on “.The ships made, were based on the Viking designs,which would be understandable considering Normandy was ceded to Rollo and his invaders many years earlier. The number of boats is not known, but has been calculated from a number of chroniclers to give a figure that was broadly accurate. Another approach was to calculate the number from the army William had available and work backwards. How many ships would he require to ferry that many men, weapons, horses, food and basically everything he would need for a successful mission? The number varies between 500 and 776. The lesser figure is more likely to have been closer to the actual number in the time available. To be able to construct this number is a great achievement from the time of Harold being made king and setting sail. A matter of only 9 months. How these boats were loaded is not really known, apart from what we learn from the Bayeux Tapestry. It is also unclear if the boat crews were involved in the conflict and how many crew were required to navigate across the English Channel or what happened to the boats after disembarkation. One must assume, some were used to build fortifications whilst the rest returned home for re-supplies. William knew that for him, this was going to be a one way, winner takes all trip. As mentioned earlier, under the feudal system, a subordinate owed allegiance to his lord. Below is a list of what was supplied by William’s subordinates and compiled around 1070. If you subtract about a third from this figure, you would be closer to the actual number. Name Ships Supplied Count Robert of Mortain 120 Bishop Odo of Bayeux 100 Count William of Evreux 80 Robert ( Roger ) of Beaumont 60 Roger of Montgomery 60 Count Robert of Eu 60 William fitzOsbern 60 Hugh of Avranches 60 Hugh of Montfort 50 The Bayeux Tapestry
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Gerold the Seneschal Fulk d’Aunou Walter Giffard Nicholas, Abbot of St Ouen
40 40 30 1
Manpower
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hese men were not only responsible for supplying the ships but also the manpower for the battle. Again the numbers involved are as speculative as the number of ships. It is thought however, that the number of combatants who actually fought on each side were roughly similar and would indicate about 7,500. As with the Saxon army whose numbers were made up with Anglo Danes, William had the support of the Flemish and Bretons. Below is a breakdown of possible numbers of each army. I have given a maximum and minimum figure for each, as there may have been more, for instance, Archers than foot soldiers. The figure varies widely. Norman Army controlled by William Cavalry 800 to 1200 Archers 500 to 800 Foot Soldiers 2,000 to 2,500 Flemish controlled by Eustace of Boulogne and William fitzOsbern Cavalry 300 to 400 Archers 350 to 450 Foot Soldiers 700 to 900 Bretons controlled by Alan Fergant Cavalry 500 to 600 Archers 300 to 450 Foot Soldiers 800 to 1,100
Protection The Cavalry The cavalry were made up of the better bred. Usually had a title or were knights. In fact a quarter of William’s force was mounted. For William to persuade so many top people to get involved indicates what a good job he did in acquiring Papal support. For without it, it is unlikely the invasion would ever have got off 21 10/1/11 11:58:42
the ground. These elite troops were the best protected of all. Like the English housecarl, they would wear a haurberk made of chain mail over a leather undergarment. Usually split from the Waste to below the knee for easy mounting and dismounting. It sometimes would be extended to cover the neck and head on which would be placed a conical metal helmet with a nasal guard. A slit would be cut in the left side to hold the sword scabbard a baldrick may have been used. His shield would have been circular but more commonly kite shaped and held behind him on a leather thong when riding. It would be made of wood with reinforcing pieces of metal around the perimeter to absorb blows. It was almost certainly have had his coat of arms on it. The horses were thought to be only stallions but were not large. Protection of the horse does not seem to have been of prime importance. The riding stile was of an upright nature with straight legs slightly angled forward to avoid being thrown off in a charge. Each Knight would have his own stable boy or helper who would care for his mount. These were probably a proportion of the foot soldier makeup. Unlike the Saxon force who did not rely on horses to do battle, they were an integral part of Norman and general French strategy.
Archers
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rchers wore no armour. Their function was to soften up the enemy before engagement by killing as many opponents as possible beforehand. It appears that archers were not expected to get involved in the hand to hand fighting that eventually ensued. Another reason is that to fire a bow wearing full armour must have been almost impossible. The life span of an archer must have been very short if the main battle line was ever broken through. In the Bayeux Tapestry on the other hand, there is an indication that some archers did wear armour. This would have been the exception rather than the rule.
Foot Soldiers
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rdinary foot soldiers would be protected by the use of the shield as used by the cavalry.
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More likely round than kite shaped although the kite shape is depicted more in the Bayeux Tapestry. Chain mail is depicted on foot soldiers but it hard to believe that this would have been used to any great extent because of the enormous cost of one of these outfits. It is possible that certain favourites may have been attired by their lords but unlikely to have been used universally. Protection would be afforded by the use of hide or leather. Metal helmets would have been used.
Weapons
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selection of weapons were used by the Normans which were not dissimilar to those used by the English. The sword carried by foot soldier and knight were personal and of great significance and would be considered an appendage during battle. The construction was reasonably similar to the English sword as most of the techniques for making them had come from the Vikings. The process of making steel and hardening and tempering was known if the science behind it was not. Swords usually had a hollow ridge down them to avoid suction effects when thrust into the human body. These large swords were used mainly for slicing rather than thrusting. and were particularly useful at decapitating heads and legs and splitting skulls, Kept in a oiled fur lined scabbard to avoid rust they would be honed prior to battle. The cavalry would have long spears which would be held over their shoulders when charging. Unlike the jousting events in latter times, they were one of devices that were usually released in the initial charge. The archers used bows which were between 150 to 180 cm long and had a killing range of about 100 metres. The judicial choice of arrow would be effective against certain types of chain mail. Archers did not carry swords but small knives or daggers if the worst came to the worst. Axes were used, but not like the English as a weapon of choice. Maces were used especially by the battling ecclesiastical contingent. It was considered acceptable to batter some ones head in as long as you did not draw blood. Odo as Bishop of Bayeux, would have used a mace rather than a sword. Crossbows were available for use by the Normans but there is no indication on the Bayeux Tapestry that they were present at the A Black Arrow resource
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battle. Having a range in excess of 300 metres, this weapon could have made a substantial difference to the battle. its biggest downfall was the strength
required to load it and the slow fire rate. It would have been more of a sniping weapon if used at all.
The Battle and Death of King Harold II on the 14th October 1066. Travelling South
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arold’s men had been arriving all day in small groups on the 13th October 1066. These men had fought a battle on the 25th September, 260 miles to the north and were now expected to fight another only a few days later. Despite the hardship of it all, the troops morale must have been quite high. Having defeated Hardrada would have boosted their confidence, But not their numbers. Edwin and Morcar declined to help on this occasion, preferring to mind their business in the north. This lack of support severely reduced the numbers Harold would be able to use in the battle. How many veterans of Stamford Bridge were at Hastings is not known. It is clear that he recruited many of his force on the trip south. His soldiers came from as far a field as Somerset and Devon in the west and from Essex and Kent in the south east. Harold knew that a battle was inevitable as no form of dialogue to end the dilemma seems to have been made. Harold made the decision to fight William before he could consolidate any further. The location of the battle was chosen with care by Harold. Caldbec Hill was chosen for a number of reasons. Firstly it was well known in the area. It gave a natural advantage to anybody wishing to fight from there because of its natural all round visibility. It was easy to reach by road or track from London and was close ( possibly too close ) to William’s position. By nightfall, at least 7,500 men should have arrived. Made up of housecarls and fyrd, preparations were laid to challenge William as soon as possible. This would be indicative of Harold’s impetuous nature. Why Harold chose The Bayeux Tapestry
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to fight William the next day has always been something of a mystery. If he had waited another day for his full force to arrive, the outcome may have been totally different. Many theories have been put forward for this. Harold always had a reputation for being impetuous and impatient. He may also have been informed of atrocities carried out by William on the population, so wanted to conclude this battle sooner rather than later. His hand may have been forced when William was informed of Harold’s arrival and pre-empted his first move. If Harold was nothing else he was his fathers son, a patriot through and through. His father defied the king when be refused to punish the people of Dover when they were abused by Eustace of Boulogne, and paid the consequences. The Godwin family were for the people.
Go On The Offensive
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illiam had now been in Hastings for almost two weeks. Food must have been in short supply, so he had soon to make a decision. Should he wait for Harold to come to him, or should he break out and go on the offensive? The decision was made for him. He was not prepared to be trapped or starved into submission. No mention seems to have been made about re-provision by sea. There was plenty of time for his ships to return home for supplies, conditions permitting. A theory has been put forward that William may have had his ships burned to stop desertion. He left his men in no doubt that this was a do or die expedition. The morning of the 14th October 1066 would be the culmination of a battle between two men who had politically and mentally been at war for many years. 23 10/1/11 11:58:43
Old Hoare Apple Tree
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ach side knew the location of the other. Harold on Caldbec Hill and its rallying point of the Old Hoare Apple Tree and William in Hastings. At first light, William assembled his men and informed them of what was expected of them through his generals. He would have had to send out his scouts to recall the foraging parties. Many atrocities were committed in this area and we can assume that foraging and ransacking went hand in hand. Prayers would have been said throughout the night prior to setting out. Weapons would have been sharpened and wagons loaded with armour and provisions. William’s men set off in a long column, due to the forest nature of the terrain at that time. William must have been relieved that the situation was coming to a conclusion as morale was possibly beginning to wane amongst the foot soldiers, who were less concerned about moral crusades and promises of wealth to the nobility, than staying alive.
Where Else Can We Fight?
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oday, we try to analyse the logic behind the battle tactics of Harold and William. We wonder why Harold chose Caldbec Hill. It was very close to William’s position in Hastings, which left himself open to counter attack. William seeing his opportunity, pounced upon it immediately. He knew what happened to Harald Hardrada and Harold’s surprise attack. He was not going to be caught the same way. Harold therefore could be accused of naiveté. For the reason mentioned above, his choice was considered appropriate for the tactics he must have had in mind. Even today this area is still very forested. The decision of where to have the battle may have been academic. It may have been the only piece of open ground in the area at that time large enough for the battle. Comments were made by chroniclers after the battle about how cramped the area was to stage such a thing. William’s troops advanced to this open area, known today as Senlac Ridge. Located due south of Caldbec Hill, the natural terrain slopes south from Caldbec Hill to William’s position. With natural depressions on either side and 24 The Bayeux Tapestry.indd 24
marshy ground and banks outside this area. It has always been considered an advantage to have the high ground, so Harold, in theory, was in the preferred location.
March North
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t would have taken William and his men about 1.5 to 2 hours to march the 6 miles north to Senlac Ridge from Hastings. Harold would have known that William had departed, from information received from scouts he would have sent out. Harold prepared for battle. William’s force consisted of three main forces. The Norman army, commanded by himself. The Bretons, commanded by Alan Fergant and the Flemish army commanded by Eustace of Boulogne and William fitzOsbern.
Surprise
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eeing William take the initiative must have come as a surprise to Harold. He totally miscalculated the invasion in the first place by dismissing his ships for the winter. Now he was being forced into battle before he was really ready. Before William could arrange his battle formation, he had to negotiate two streams and marshy ground that was between himself and the open battlefield. Once negotiated, his line was organized. Looking north, towards Caldbec Hill, the Bretons were on the left, the Flemish contingent were on the right and William’s Normans were in the middle. Taking up normal battle ranks of archers in the front row. Depending on the length of the line, behind the archers would be six or seven rows of foot soldiers. Behind them, would be the cavalry. William would have set up his command post behind the cavalry.
Lull Before The Storm
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o meet this challenge, Harold moved his men down from Caldbec Hill to within two hundred metres of William’s position. The Saxon way of fighting was different to that of the Normans. The housecarls were in the front rank and were responsible for forming the shield wall. This would be particularly effective against the initial onslaught. Behind the housecarls A Black Arrow resource
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were the fyrd or militia. Again, depending on the length of the line, would have been about ten deep. Harold set up his command post behind and centrally positioned to give him an elevated view of proceedings. The time would now have been about 09:30. In many of the battles through history of this type, there seems to have been a level of protocol that was adhered to prior to proceedings. Similar to a lull before a storm, a short period of recollection seems to occur followed by taunting of the opposition. The Saxon war cry was Ut,ut (or out, out), Godemite (God Almighty) and “Oli Crosse” (Holy Cross). The Normans would have responded in kind. The battle was about to begin.
A Minstrel Named Taillefer
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f the chronicler, Wace is to be believed, the battle commenced with a heroic but foolhardy one man attack on the English line by a minstrel named Taillefer. He was quickly cut down by the Saxon housecarls. This was the signal for the battle to begin in earnest. As was traditional in Norman assaults, the front row which consisted of archers, began to let loose their arrows in a concentrated barrage. This resulted in a limited success, due to the Saxon tactic of using the shield wall. This tactic had been developed by Alfred the Great and had been used ever since. It protected the front row of housecarls and the fyrd behind. The English had never used bows and arrows in battle and therefore could not return fire. This became a problem to William because it required an exchange of arrows to keep the ammunition levels up. The Normans, soon ran out of arrows. This reduced his efficiency somewhat. His archers were not attired for hand to hand conflict, nor were they trained or expected to. Debate concerns whether crossbows were used by William in the front row. They did exist but none are shown in the Bayeux Tapestry. It is possible that they were used, but because they were so deadly and accurate, they were frowned upon by the Church and were banned in battles against Christian enemies. If they were used here, it is not surprising that they do not appear on the Tapestry as it was commissioned by Bishop Odo. The Bayeux Tapestry
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The High Ground
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he English being on the high ground had the advantage. The Saxon line was virtually untouched. The arrows had done little damage. William ordered his foot soldiers forward. The English now responded. Not only were traditional weapons used but anything that could be collected in the vicinity. This would include rocks and home made slingshots which were particularly effective on the higher ground which afforded extra range. The barrage was very effective and caused serious problems to William’s men. Heavy casualties were inflicted on them and forced William to use his cavalry probably earlier than he wanted to. Ordering them to charge on the still intact shield wall, their tactics would have been to advance as close as possible and release their spears whilst turning back down the slope where a fresh spear could be collected. This was a difficult thing to achieve against a well drilled shield wall, especially on a slope as steep as this. Horses would have panicked or fallen under this onslaught by the Saxons who would have used their spears and axes to good advantage. The cavalry and infantry charges continued. The Saxons still held the upper hand. As hard as the Normans tried, they could not break down the shield wall. The use of the large Danish battle axe particularly came into its own on the cavalry. This weapon had the ability to bring down the rider and the horse with a single blow. The housecarls were particularly well trained in its use. By midday, the Normans were feeling the effect of the Saxon tactics. The Bretons on the left were having a particularly difficult time. They began to retreat back down the hill. William saw this from his command post and realised that this left his rear vulnerable from a pincer movement. Panic was now beginning to trickle from left to right. William had to do something or the battle would soon be over and his claim to the English throne in tatters.
William Is Dead
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rumour started to spread along the ranks that William had been killed. If this was so the battle would have been over. The panic was 25 10/1/11 11:58:45
now widespread amongst the Normans. The Bretons were now in full retreat back down the hill. The Saxons followed in hot pursuit inflicting carnage on them. The Bretons were slowed down on the lower slopes by the stream and marshy ground below them. This allowed the Saxons to inflict more casualties on them.
No, I Am Not Dead
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illiam made a bold decision. He decided to expose his face to his men to prove that he was still alive. Removing or lifting his helmet, he rode along the ranks that still existed to dispel the rumour. He was alleged to have reminded his men that there was no way back and that they were fighting for their lives. This seems to have had some effect. Odo seeing what was happening on the left flank, gathered up a number of his confused cavalry and rode to the area where the Saxons had advanced to. Seeing the horses advancing, they broke off battle and tried to return to their lines. The uphill trek was too far and they were cut down by the cavalry before they reached there. It is almost certain that this advance on the Saxon right was not sanctioned by Harold as it goes against all military strategy. He must have seen what was happening on the right and seems not to have taken up the challenge of a full frontal assault which would surely have defeated the Norman army. Harold’s brothers Gyrth and Leofwin were possibly killed at this time. This is included in the Bayeux Tapestry. It may be they who ordered this counter attack and therefore paid the consequences.
Everything Stops For Tea
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hat happened next is not completely clear. It would seem that there must have been a lull in the fighting. The Normans had begun to retreat and the advance Saxon force had been destroyed. There must have been some form of air gap between the forces. This would have given time for both sides and especially William to regroup, re-arm and to take some food and drink. The absurdity of the whole situation is highlighted by this episode. The time would have been around 2:00pm. Harold knew that he could win this battle if he just held on until darkness. 26 The Bayeux Tapestry.indd 26
William cold not stay in the area all night and would have to retreat. Harold knew that retreat meant defeat for William. William very well understood this also. Apart from his right flank, Harold and his men were in very good shape. William must have been at his lowest ebb at this time. He had to think of a new tactic to break down the Saxon defences.
Feigned Retreat
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illiam was rather stuck for ideas mostly because of the terrain. He could not try a flanking movement because of the trees and forest on either side. He was finding it difficult if not impossible to break the Saxon shield wall tactic, especially on a slope as steep as this. What he planned to do was to entice the Saxons forward using a tactic that has been discussed ever since. It has been called the “feigned retreat”. Observing what had happened on his left flank with the Bretons. If he could simulate that, and draw the Saxons forward, he might have a chance. Many historians have debated whether such a thing can possibly be pre-arranged in the heat of battle. Usually those that have had any military experience say it can’t. But the fact is that it was supposed to have been the deciding factor in this battle. The English lost, so something drastic must have gone dreadfully wrong with Harold’s tactics. Whatever was the truth, this is the story that survived nearly a thousand years.
Broken Ranks
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illiam had to decide, if he was going to attempt the feigned retreat tactic. How could he draw the Saxons forward by giving the impression that it was a genuine retreat, and not what it actually was, a tactic? To this end he resumed battle. His infantry advanced but with limited success. He had briefed his cavalry, who would be responsible for putting his plan into operation. There was no way his infantry could all have been informed of this plan and were probably used as cannon fodder to the overall picture. The cavalry advanced up the hill and engaged the Saxons and gave the impression that they were turning and running. How the Saxons A Black Arrow resource
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came to this conclusion is still unclear in the melee. It must have been pre planned that they all turned away at the same time to make it seem as though some order to retreat had been given. Whatever the Norman cavalry did, it forced the Saxon army to break ranks and follow them down the slope. Another question surrounds whether Harold gave the command to pursue them or not. I have been very critical of Harold so far. If he did make this crucial decision, he could be accused of total stupidity. The true facts will never be known, only the result. The Saxon line broke and the Normans were followed down the hill. Many housecarls and fyrd were killed in their enthusiasm to finish the fight. Harold must have become very worried at this development.
had been withdrawn for safety. The battlefield was littered with the dead and injured of both sides and Norman horses. The Saxon line was now broken. All that was left was a mopping up operation and the Kings housecarls who were prepared to continue the fight. They valiantly surrounded their dead or dying king and with their battle-axes and swords, fought almost to the last man, as was their tradition. The Normans finally broke through where they saw the King lying. A knight run his sword through his thigh or decapitated his leg. This so infuriated William that he stripped him of his knighthood and threw him out of the army. The ridge was captured. William had won against all the odds.
The Archers
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p until this stage in the late afternoon, things had been going very well for Harold but now were about to change. It is written that William used the feigned attack at least twice. Harold still held a reasonably strong position at the high point of the ridge. It was at this point that William risked everything. It was getting late, and the battle had to be concluded one way or another. William decided to use another plan. His archers who had run out of arrows in the early stages, were brought up close to the battle lines where they could collect their arrows. Firing over the heads of their own men so that they would land on the rear English lines, caused a number of casualties.
Harold Is Dead
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t was at this point in the battle it is thought that a stray arrow killed or injured Harold by inflicting a wound in the eye. There is scant evidence to show that this is how Harold died. It is mainly taken from scene in the Bayeux Tapestry. The death of Harold soon spread amongst his men, causing derision. William ordered his infantry to stage a full frontal attack on the Saxon line. Fighting to the point of impossibility, the Saxons retreated up the hill and into the forest on the other side, possibly in the direction of London taking any horses that The Bayeux Tapestry
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The Malfosse Incident here remains one incident that occurred after the main battle had finished. It is known as the Malfosse incident. It was becoming late in the afternoon and it was beginning to darken, so around 5:30pm, when in pursuit of fleeing Saxons they encountered a number of Saxons who obviously had not been involved in the battle but had arrived later. It would appear that these men taunted the Normans into charging them. If they chose where to stand beforehand it was a good choice because it was behind an invisible ditch or pit, which later became known as the Malfosse or evil pit. Many of the horses and men tumbled into this pit where presumably they were finished off by the Saxons. This was a side issue that would have made no difference to the overall outcome of the battle. By 6:30pm it would have been too dark to proceed with rounding up any more Saxons. The injured had to be tended and the dead buried. The Malfosse incident is strange because nobody has been able to locate its position or confirm that it ever really happened at all. Harold’s Standards of the Fighting Man and the Red Dragon were captured and sent to the Pope in Rome. It was not the end - but the start of a new beginning for England. Š copyright Glen Ray Crack 27 10/1/11 11:58:46
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