Grammar Express 4th Ed. by Les Éditions CEC

Anne Gagnon Pierre Richard Robert Thérien

Express 4

GRAMMAR

th EDITION

ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4th Edition

Essentials of English Grammar

Anne Gagnon Pierre Richard Robert Thérien

4thEDITION

GRAMMAR

Express

This new edition offers simpler, quicker and easier-to-understand charts of essential English grammar. Designed for learners at the secondary level, it can be used in conjunction with any material. This reference work covers a broad range of useful grammar points for autonomous learning or in-class use. The content is divided into four sections to facilitate ease of use:

Common preposition combinations and confusing expressions.

Sentence structure, transitional expressions, punctuation and advanced sentence errors

Overview of verb tenses and form; question formation, modal auxiliaries, gerund forms and phrasal verbs

Articles, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions

Grammar Express 4th Edition is also available in PC, Mac, iPad and Android versions on myCECZone.com.

4thEDITION

ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR

GRAMMAR

Express

Anne Gagnon Pierre Richard Robert Thérien 9001, boul. Louis-H.-La Fontaine, Anjou (Québec) Canada H1J 2C5 Téléphone : 514-351-6010 • Télécopieur : 514-351-3534

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GRAMMAR EXPRESS

TABLE OF CONTENTS Section 1 Parts of Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Articles (a, an, the) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Prepositions and Adverbs: Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Prepositions and Adverbs: Movement and Manner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Section 2 Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Verb Tense Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Simple Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Present Continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Non-continuous Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Simple Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Past Continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Present Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Present Perfect Continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Past Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Past Perfect Continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Simple Future: Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Future Form: Be Going To . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Future Continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Future Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Future Perfect Continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 More on Verb Form and Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Verb Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Verb Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Question Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Modal Auxiliaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Present and Future Meanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Past Meanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Question Words with Modals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Active and Passive Voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Verbs as Gerunds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Common Verb-Prepositions followed by Gerunds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Verbs of Perception and the Gerund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Common Phrasal Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Section 3 Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Sentence Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Conditional Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Capitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Direct vs. Indirect Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Transitional Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Advanced Sentence Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Section 4 Helpful Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Common Preposition Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Verb/Adjective + Preposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Confusing Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Words that Sound the Same or Look Alike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Common Irregular Verbs by Sound and Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Common Irregular Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Punctuation and Capitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 TABLE OF CONTENTS

iii

Parts of SPEECH Articles: a, an, the. ..................................... 2 Type of Article ...................................................... 2

Indefinite articles a, an. ...................................... 2 Definite article the. . ............................................ 2 No article........................................................... 2

Nouns............................................................... 3 Type of Noun............ ............................................ 3 Countable noun. . .... ............................................ Uncountable noun.. ............................................ Groups of uncountable nouns. ............................ Common uncountable nouns. ............................. Collective nouns. . ...............................................

Plural Form............... ............................................

Regular spelling: Add –s and –es. ........................ Noun ending with –f or –fe.................................. Noun ending with –o. ......................................... Noun ending with –y........................................... Irregular spelling.... ............................................ Always plural.. ....................................................

PARTS OF SPEECH

3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Possessive Forms, Time Periods and Noun Modifiers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Possessive forms and the apostrophe.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Decades and centuries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Nouns as modifiers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Pronouns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Subject, Object, Possessive Pronouns.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Type of Pronoun: Reflexive, Demonstrative, Relative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Type of Pronoun: Indefinite .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Adjectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Placement.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Verbs as Adjectives (–ing, –ed forms). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Possessive Forms (my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equative Forms.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparative and Superlative Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9 9

9 10 10

Irregular Adjectives: Comparative and Superlative.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Adverbs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Type of Adverb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Frequency, manner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Degree or intensity, place, time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Quantity, sentence adverbs, comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Prepositions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Type of Preposition.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Time, position, movement, manner................... 14

Prepositions and Adverbs: Position (Images).. . . . . . . 15 Prepositions and Adverbs: Movement and Manner (Images).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Conjunctions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Type of Conjunction.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Coordinating.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Subordinating.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

PARTS OF SPEECH

Articles: a, an, the

An article is indefinite (a, an) or definite (the).

An article is placed before a noun, or before a modifier and a noun. In many cases, no article is used before a noun.

article modifier noun

article noun article noun

noun

An apple is a fruit.

We stayed in a large hotel.

Chocolate is so delicious.

The apple is on the table.

They went to the new cinema.

I prefer pears over kiwis.

Type of Article

Rule

Example

Indefinite articles

The indefinite articles a and an express a category.

A banana is a fruit.

a, an

The indefinite articles a and an express a non-specific thing or person.

Please open a window; it’s warm in the room. I think I saw a man waiting outside.

Use a with a noun or modifier that begins with a consonant sound.

A mother often tells a long bedtime story to a child. Mom went to a university. (consonant sound you)

Use an with a noun or modifier that begins with a vowel sound. Remember that some words begin with a silent h.

an apple, an egg, an iPad, an orange, an umbrella She is an honest person. (h is silent) Tommy is an hour late. (h is silent)

The refers to a specific person, place, object or abstract idea.

The apple in my hand was picked yesterday. Let’s go play in the park across the street.

Use the when the same subject is mentioned a second time.

A man robbed the bank. The man stole a lot of money.

Use the with an uncountable noun only when the noun describes something specific.

The coffee in this can comes from Brazil. I saw a beaver in the water.

The is also used with inventions and species of animals.

The computer replaced the typewriter decades ago. The giant panda is in danger of extinction.

Use the before names of most bodies of water, mountain ranges, deserts, forests and gulfs.

the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, the St. Lawrence River, the Rockies, the Alps, the Middle East, the Sahara Desert, the Black Forest, the Gulf of Mexico

No article is used in front of plural nouns when you make a generalization.

Cars are not so expensive these days. Dogs are like children for many people.

Do not use the before the names of lakes, a single mountain, continents, states, provinces, cities, countries and streets.

Lake Memphremagog, Lake Superior, Mont-Orford, Mont-Tremblant, Europe, North America, Vermont, Alberta, Toronto, France, King Street, 5th Avenue

Country names that include united, a plural form and of require the.

the United States, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, the People’s Republic of China

Definite article the

No article

Articles: a, an, the

Nouns

A noun is a person, a place, a thing, an idea or an activity. girl • school • skateboard • peace • fishing

A noun is countable, uncountable or collective. Countable noun: a teenager, a bus Uncountable: water, air Collective: a herd of cows, a flock of sheep

Type of Noun Countable noun

Rule The articles a, an or a number usually come before a countable noun.

a chair, an ear, etc. Uncountable noun air, water, work, etc.

Groups of uncountable nouns

Common uncountable nouns homework, information, etc. Collective nouns a herd of cows, etc.

Do not use a or an before an uncountable noun. Do not add –s or –es to an uncountable noun.

Example They have a child. I have seen an elephant before. Yes, there is a chair in this room. Peace is often difficult to find. Jamie can hear thunder from afar. Can you give me water? I don’t have homework today. Can you hear a thunder?

Uncountable nouns can be put into categories: natural phenomena

lightning, thunder, snow

sports, games, activities

hockey, golf, shopping

solids, liquids, gases

butter, beer, oxygen

particles and material

grain, paper, rice, salt, silk

abstract ideas

beauty, hate, peace

groups of things made of similar items

clothing, equipment, furniture, garbage, jewellery

Many nouns that are countable in other languages are uncountable nouns in English. The articles a or an do not come before these uncountable nouns. These nouns never use the –s or –es in the plural form.

acceptance, accommodation, advice, baggage, bread, coffee, conscience, furniture, homework, information, love, money, news, pasta, permission, progress, research, stuff, travel, waste

Use special expressions a/an + noun + of to describe a group of things, animals or people.

an army of ants, a bouquet of flowers, a bunch of grapes, a flock of sheep, a gaggle of geese, a herd of cows, a litter of puppies, a pride of lions, a team of athletes, a troop of monkeys

Nouns

Nouns (continued) Plural Form Regular spelling

Spelling Rule

Example

Add –s to most countable nouns to form the plural.

apple apples, individual tree trees

Add –es when a singular noun ends with –s, –z, –ch, –sh or –x

class bush

Add only –s when a final –ch ending sounds like / k /.

stomach

Noun ending with –f or –fe

When a one-syllable noun ends with –f or –fe, change the –f or –fe to –ves.

knife knives, leaf leaves, life self selves, shelf shelves

Noun ending with –o

Usually when a noun ends with consonant + –o, add –es.

hero heroes, mosquito tomato tomatoes

When a noun ends with vowel + –o, add only –s.

patio

patios, radio

Noun ending with –y

When a noun ends with consonant + –y, replace –y with –ies.

lady

ladies, library

When a noun ends with vowel + –y, add only –s.

day

days, tray

Irregular spelling

Some nouns have irregular plural spellings.

child children, foot feet, goose man men, mouse mice, person tooth teeth, woman women

Some nouns do not have a change in spelling in the plural form.

deer deer, fish fish, means means, moose moose, sheep sheep

Nouns from Latin and Greek keep the plural form from their original language.

alga algae, analysis analyses, criterion criteria, larva larvae, phenomenon phenomena, thesis

Add –s or –es

Always plural

Some nouns are always in the plural.

individuals,

classes, buzz buzzes, couch bushes, tax taxes stomachs, monarch

couches,

monarchs lives,

mosquitoes, potato

radios, zoo

zoos

libraries, party

trays, valley

potatoes,

parties

valleys geese, people,

theses

clothes, (a pair of) glasses, (a pair of) jeans, (a pair of) pants, (a pair of) scissors, (a pair of) shorts

Nouns

Nouns (continued) Possessive Forms, Time Periods and Noun Modifiers Possessive forms and the apostrophe –’s, –s’

Decades and centuries the 1920s, the ’20s, etc. the 20th century, the twentieth century, etc.

Nouns as modifiers noun + noun

Spelling Rule

Example

To show possession, use the apostrophe and –s at the end of a singular noun. Also add –’s to the end of a plural noun that does not end with –s.

I found Nancy’s shoes under her bed. The children’s parents were sad to see them leave for school.

To show the possession of a plural noun that ends with –s or –es, add the apostrophe after the –s.

He read the students’ reports. I don’t know who the horses’ owner is.

When the name of a person ends with –s, add –’s or only an apostrophe at the end of the name.

Thomas’s mother is taking night classes. Thomas’ father is working in Toronto.

An –’s is used with the indefinite pronouns someone, somebody, nobody, anyone to show possession.

Just to be sure, ask somebody’s opinion. Louise is nobody’s fool. It’s anybody’s guess what will happen next.

When describing things, use a phrase with of.

the leg of the chair, the colour of the room, the sound of his voice, the size of the house

Use –’s with expressions of time.

yesterday’s storm, a week’s visit, today’s class

References to decades do not take an apostrophe; add –s only. Some decades are spelled out with the … and –ies.

the sixties, the seventies, the eighties, the 1920s, the 1960s, 2000s, 2010s

If the decade is written without the century, use an apostrophe in its place.

the ’60s, the ’70s, the ’90s

For decades in this century, write out the whole number with a hyphen and –s.

the two-thousands, the twenty-tens

For complete centuries, use the ordinal form of the number.

the 18th century, the eighteenth century the 20th century, the twentieth century the 21st century, the twenty-first century

The first noun in a noun + noun combination is called a noun modifier, and it is similar to an adjective. A noun modifier never takes –s in the plural form.

My friend had four guitar lessons. I like the shower curtains. Do you have a bank account? My friend had four guitars lesson.

When a combination of two or more nouns precedes another noun, this combination is an adjective and must be hyphenated. These adjectives do not take the plural form with –s.

The one-hundred-dollar bill is made of plastic. My nine-year-old nephew is at camp this summer. My five-years-old sister is very tall.

Nouns

Pronouns

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun (they, them).

A possessive pronoun (hers) and possessive adjective (her dog) express possession.

For more on possessive adjectives (my, your, his, etc.), see the bottom of page 9.

direct object indirect object

Subject pronoun: She is an exchange student. Object pronoun: I mailed it. I gave him the message. Possessive pronoun: That project is ours.

Subject Pronoun

Object Pronoun

Possessive Pronoun

Rule

The subject pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they replace nouns. Use subject pronouns so you do not repeat the noun.

Each subject pronoun has an object pronoun. The object pronouns me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them are the objects of verbs.

The possessive pronouns mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs describe possession.

Example

I don’t have any money. You are late for school. He was hungry. She is a mechanic. It is sleeping. We need a quiet place. You are lucky. They are happy.

Give me a piece. See you at the concert. Jane loves him a lot. Renny only likes her. The police officer saw it. The teacher is proud of us. The principal wants to see all of you. We’re giving them a chance.

This backpack is mine. The backpack over there is yours. His is the red one. Hers is much better than Lucy’s. Due to its complexity, they failed the test. This project is ours. Yours is over there. The top floor is theirs.

Object pronouns are direct or indirect.

Rule

A direct object is the primary receiver of the action.

An indirect object is the secondary receiver of the action.

Example

He loves Jim. She helped him. I don’t know them.

Read the book to me. (book = primary receiver, me = secondary receiver) I gave him the message. (him = secondary receiver, message = primary receiver) Please read the directions to us. (directions = primary receiver, us = secondary receiver) She passed him the salt. (him = secondary receiver, salt = primary receiver) Pronouns

Pronouns (continued) nn

Other types of pronouns reflect the subject (myself), demonstrate a relationship with a noun (these), give details about a noun (that) and describe a non-specific number (some, none). Reflexive pronouns: I can do it by myself. Demonstrative pronouns: These rules are confusing. Relative pronouns: The example that you gave is confusing. Indefinite pronouns: Some is better than none.

Type of Pronoun Reflexive myself, yourself, etc.

Demonstrative

Rule

Example

Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence. They are used when the subject and object are the same. Reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis when the object is the same as the subject of the sentence.

I talk to myself when I’m alone. You should do it yourself. He drove to Montréal by himself. She always wants to do it herself. We congratulated ourselves. You must write the essay by yourselves. They were left all to themselves.

When reflexive pronouns are preceded by the preposition by, this expression means alone.

She did it by herself. I can do this by myself.

Use this and these if the person, place or thing is close.

this, these, that, those Use that and those if the person, place or thing is far.

Relative who, which, that, whose, to whom

Far

Singular: This is your phone. It’s under your arm.

Plural: Yum! These chocolates are the best!

Singular: I find that garbage can across the street disgusting.

Plural: I think those shoes over there are yours.

The relative pronouns who, which and that give more details about a person or thing in a relative clause. Use who and that for people. Use which and that for things.

I know the man who won five million dollars. She saw the woman that ran across the street. The girls watched the movie which starred Ryan Gosling.

Use whose to describe possession.

I met a girl whose father was an astronaut.

Use to whom for people in formal writing. Use a subject pronoun + verb with to whom.

I don’t know to whom I wrote the message. (formal)

To express additional information not relevant to the main idea, use who and which. Separate the information from the sentence with a comma or commas.

These girls, who went to the movies alone, had fun. The Magdalen Islands had volcanoes in the Mississippian Period, which was a very long time ago.

To express information relevant to the main idea, use who and that without commas.

Only girls who went to the movies alone had fun. The bike that I want is too expensive. Pronouns

Pronouns (continued) Type of Pronoun Indefinite anybody, something, both, etc.

Rule

Example

Use singular verbs with singular indefinite pronouns: anybody, anyone, anything, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, no one, somebody, someone, something

Anybody has talent. Anyone who plays for the team can come. Everybody participates in theatre in our school. Everything is free at my camp. Nobody makes money volunteering. Somebody helps the elderly in my apartment building. Someone has my car keys.

Use plural verbs with plural indefinite pronouns: both, many, most, others, several, some

Both of us have $50. Although many do, this college doesn’t accept students with learning difficulties. This ski resort doesn’t make artificial snow, but most do. This school doesn’t have exams at all. Others have them each term. Several of us spend a lot of money on online games. This exam is easy but some are difficult.

A few means more than two. Use the quantifiers a few and few with countable nouns. A little is positive. Use a little and little with uncountable nouns. Few and little have a negative meaning similar to not enough or almost nothing.

Most of my friends work, but a few don’t. Few were present at his party. I rarely eat meat, but I’ll have a little. We have very little, but we’re glad to share.

a few, few, a little, little, all, some, any, none, etc.

Use the indefinite pronouns all and some followed by a singular or plural verb, depending on the antecedent or the noun that conjugates with the verb. All and some are singular only when they refer to uncountable nouns.

Any is normally used in questions. Examples of affirmative answers to a question with any are some and a lot of. Negative answers use not … much for uncountable nouns, not … many for countable nouns or not … any.

All of the water are contaminated. All of the water is contaminated. All of the children are playing. Some of the snow are melting. Some of the snow is melting. I have no money. Do you have any? I have some money. My parents don’t make much. She has twelve cats. Do you have any? Not many. I have one cat. Sami doesn’t have any cats.

Pronouns

Adjectives adjective

Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns; they are placed before the noun or after stative verbs.

Verbs are often changed into adjectives using their –ing and –ed forms.

Possessive adjectives express ownership or possession.

noun

noun to be adjective

Before the noun: This is a big house. After the verb to be: My car is cheaper. adjective

noun

possessive adjective

noun

Adjective with an –ing form: The shocking accident happened on Highway 10. Possessive adjective: That is our project.

Placement

Rule

Example

Before the noun short hair, big eyes, etc.

Adjectives modify nouns and never take the –s or –es word ending.

After the verb to be and other stative verbs It sounds good.

Adjectives are placed after to be and stative verbs. Stative verbs express thoughts, emotions, senses, and measurements. Examples of stative verbs include appear, feel, look, sound, seem, etc.

She is tall. It appears complicated. I feel weary.

Word order beautiful big eyes

Use this mnemonic, or memory aid, to place a series of adjectives in the right order: Not only Sam and Sharon collaborate on major projects. number + opinion + size + age + shape + colour + origin + material + purpose

Did you see these two scary black dogs? The group climbed the difficult mountain face. I love the black Italian granite counters in your kitchen. That beautiful long blue raincoat is in the store window. I don’t like that big old square English sports car.

Verbs as Adjectives

The olds chairs in her house are for sale. The old chairs in her house are for sale. They have larges hotels in New York City. They have large hotels in New York City. The car looks expensive. That soup smells good. The noise sounds strange.

Rule

Example

The –ing form confusing problem

Many verbs can be changed into –ing adjectives. These adjectives express the characteristic of a person, thing or situation.

The students were planning an exciting trip to Nepal! The embarrassing moment was recorded and uploaded on social media.

The –ed form confused student

Many verbs can be changed into –ed adjectives. These adjectives express a feeling or emotion.

We were a very excited group of students in class today. The embarrassed singer went into hiding for a month.

Possessive Forms Possessive adjective my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their

Rule The possessive adjectives my, your, his, her, its, our, your and their are always used with a noun to describe possession. They cannot stand alone.

Example My car is very old. Your shoes are expensive. Let’s go to his party. The lion caught its prey.

Our trip is next month. When is your vacation? Their vacation ends next week.

Adjectives

Adjectives (continued) nn

There are three degrees of comparison: equality, inferiority and superiority.

Use the equative form to compare two or more people, places or things that are equal or unequal in one quality.

Use the comparative form to compare two or more people, places or things that are unequal.

Use the superlative to compare three or more people, places or things that are unequal.

Equative Forms

Rule

Example

Comparing degrees of equality

To compare the equality of two things, use as … as; the form of the adjective never changes.

Montreal is as beautiful as Paris. The blue hat is as attractive as the brown one.

Comparing degrees of inferiority

Use less … than to show the comparative degree of inferiority.

Money is less important than good health. August is always less cold than February.

For informal situations, the form: not as … as can be used.

It is not as cold as yesterday. Often, people are not as timid as they appear.

Comparative and Superlative Forms One-syllable adjectives

Rule

Example

Comparative: add –er to the adjective + than Superlative: use the and add –est to the adjective

old

older than

fast

faster than

small

smaller than

old

the oldest

fast

the fastest

small

the smallest

One-syllable adjectives ending with consonant-vowelconsonant

Comparative: double the final consonant and add –er and than Superlative: double the final consonant and add the and –est

thin

thinner than

big

bigger than

hot

hotter than

thin

the thinnest

big

the biggest

hot

the hottest

Two-or-more-syllable adjectives

Comparative: use more and than

famous childish

more famous than more childish than

exact more exact than handsome more handsome than

Superlative: use the most

famous childish

the most famous the most childish

exact the most exact handsome the most handsome

Comparative: change the –y to –i and add –er and than

easy

easier than

funny

funnier than

tasty

tastier than

Superlative: use the, change the –y to –i and add –est

easy

the easiest

funny

the funniest

tasty

the tastiest

Two-or-more-syllable adjectives ending with –y

Irregular Adjectives

Comparative

Superlative

good

better than

the best

bad

worse than

the worst

Adjectives

Adverbs adverb of frequency

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases and sentences.

Some adverbs are formed by adding –ly to adjectives (normal normally; rapid rapidly).

adverb verb of manner

verb

adverb of intensity

adverb

He usually makes breakfast. Terri ran fast. They finished the exam very quickly. adverb of time

sentence adverb

phrase

They will be here as soon as they can.

Type of Adverb

main sentence

Unfortunately, it rained during our canoe trip.

Rule

Example

Frequency

An adverb of frequency has three positions:

often, sometimes, usually, etc.

Before most verbs

He usually wakes up early. Toni frequently got sick last year. Johan continually interrupts me.

After the verb to be

She is always late. Our answers are generally correct. They were repeatedly without an excuse. I was never absent.

Between the modal and the main verb.

He can often be irritating. We must sometimes do things we don’t like.

Manner

An adverb of manner has two positions:

quickly, slowly, well, etc.

After the verb (most common placement) Adverbs of manner not ending with -ly (hard, fast, etc.) can be placed only after the verb and object.

He ran quickly to beat the rain. Naomi drives carefully. Rachel speaks German well. Dylan skates fast. You have well played your part. You have played your part well.

Between the auxiliary and the main verb.

You have beautifully crafted that boat. I must reluctantly agree.

Adverbs

Adverbs (continued) Type of Adverb

Rule

Degree or intensity

An adverb of degree or intensity has two positions:

extremely, very, well, etc.

Before a verb, an adjective or another adverb

Example adjective

verb

He felt very sick last night.

She really tried hard. adverb

She did fantastically well at the audition. After the verb to be.

Jamal’s arrival was so unexpected. He is extremely demanding.

Place

An adverb of place has many positions:

far, near, somewhere, etc.

At the end of a sentence

These ants are everywhere! The end is near.

He couldn’t have gone far. It must be here somewhere.

At the beginning of a sentence to indicate emphasis or an exclamation

Here comes the sun. There goes Monique now.

Here it comes! There you are!

After the main verb to be

It was nowhere to be found. Her house must be somewhere around here!

After a question word.

How far could he have gone?

Time

An adverb of time has three main positions:

ever, now, soon, etc.

At the beginning or end of a sentence

Today we are reviewing adverbs. Afterwards, we went out to eat. Now we can get started. Yesterday we had a lot of fun. I’ll know then. I’ll finish it tomorrow. You can tell me later. You aren’t ready yet.

Between the auxiliary and main verb

We might still catch the bus. He will soon arrive.

At the beginning of a subordinate or adverbial clause.

We can go when you are ready. Clean your room before you go. After you clean up, you can go.

We have just finished. Can you ever forgive me?

Adverbs

Adverbs (continued) Type of Adverb

Rule

Example

Quantity

Place adverbs of quantity:

mostly, somewhat, enough, etc.

After the verb to be or the auxiliary and the main verb

I am almost at the end of the story. She has mostly finished with her homework.

Between verb and adjective

We are somewhat afraid of seeing that movie.

After the verb and before the object.

I don’t have enough sugar. It will take much effort to complete this on time.

Sentence adverbs

Use sentence adverbs:

fortunately, apparently, firstly, etc.

After the verb to be

She is clearly the best student. It was certainly an unexpected ending. They are actually good films. He is unquestionably the best choice.

At the beginning or end of a sentence.

Clearly, he is the best student. Apparently he will arrive on time. Stupidly, I forgot my homework. Surely someone will be able to explain all this. Firstly, use a wet towel. Then, coat the wood. She has decided to help us, fortunately. This isn’t the best colour for the room, admittedly. She will have a total recovery, luckily.

Comparison Comparative and superlative degrees of adverbs are formed in the same way as adjectives.

Comparative degree of equality

To compare two things equally, use as before and after the adverb. The form of the adverb never changes.

She draws as beautifully as her sister. They will sing as well as they did at last year’s recital.

Comparative degree of inferiority and superiority

To form the comparative degree of inferiority for adverbs, use less and than. To form the comparative degree of superiority for adverbs, use more and than.

He drives more / less carefully than he used to. Use more / less sugar than the recipe recommends. My goal is to get Bs more / less often than before.

For the superlative degree of inferiority, use the least followed by the adverb. For the superlative degree of superiority, use the most followed by the adverb.

My house is the most / the least badly renovated on the block. That was the most / the least enjoyable film I have ever seen. This is the most / the least exciting party ever.

Adverbs

Prepositions Type of Preposition Time

Prepositions, as well as adverbs, express relationships to time, position, movement and manner.

Prepositions require an object: they modify a noun or a phrase. Adverbs do not.

Rule Prepositions: around/about, at, by, during, for, from/to, in, on, since, etc.

Use during with a noun only, not an amount of time.

Example About two hours ago, the plane arrived. The bank opens at 10:00 a.m. It should be here by Monday. During the game, I caught a puck! I’ve lived here for two years. I fell asleep during three hours.

It takes five hours to drive from Montréal to Toronto. The bus will arrive in 15 minutes. Anne’s birthday is on July 21. I’ve lived here since 2010. I fell asleep during the show.

Adverbs: before, after, at the beginning of, at the end of, in the middle of, in time, on time, etc.

Before, we always played outside. She was angry, but she felt better after. At the beginning, it’s always harder. Someone screamed at the end.

At the movies, I like to sit in the middle. Will he arrive in time? The bus arrived on time.

Prepositions: above, across, against, among, around, at, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, by, down, in, inside, near, next to, on, outside, over, under, underneath, etc.

My computer is sitting beside my printer. The closet is beneath / under the stairs. The bike is inside the garage.

There is an excellent café down the hill. The memo he sent is among my papers. The presents are under / underneath the tree. I was at the store when you called.

Prepositional phrases: in back of, on top of, at the bottom of, at the head of, at the top of, in front of, etc.

We hid the presents in back of the tree. The baby was at the top of the stairs when the guests arrived. Wait for me at the bottom of the ski hill.

Mom was at the head of the table where Dad used to sit. The driver in front of me was honking his horn. The book is on top of the bed.

Use at when describing the location of things at a specific place, for a specific reason.

Let’s meet at the Metro station.

We got together at the festival.

Movement

across, around, at, down, into, out of, over, past, through, to, toward(s), under, up, etc.

We went through the tunnel that links France to Italy. I’m going to the store.

I walked into the room. They ran out of the burning building. He walked toward his parents.

Manner

as, by, in, on, with, etc.

I worked as a babysitter for a long time.

We accept your invitation with pleasure.

Position

Prepositions

Prepositions and Adverbs: Position above

She is above the clouds.

across

The big doors are across the street from us.

at the bottom of

The woman is at the bottom of the stairs.

They are at the mall.

between

He is between two rock faces.

on (3)

The motorcyclist is on his bike.

among

There is one red apple among the green ones.

behind / in back of

His fingers are behind his back. His hand is in back of his body.

Someone’s hand is in the cookie jar!

inside

The smaller doll is inside the larger doll.

on top of

We’re on top of the mountain.

over

The hand is over the candle.

around (1)

The girls are peeking around the corner.

below

The sofa is below the frame.

near

The ball is near the line.

around (2)

The child’s arms are wrapped around the tree.

beside / by / next to

Each person is standing beside / by / next to a box.

on (1)

She is lying on the beach.

outside

The washroom is outside the house. Prepositions

on (2)

Darn. Now I have a spot on my shirt.

under / underneath

His head is under / underneath his laptop. Prepositions and Adverbs: Position

Prepositions and Adverbs: Movement and Manner across

She is running across the finish line.

around

The ride goes around twenty times.

down

The skier went down the mountain.

into

The boy is looking into the bag.

past

The sedan went past the SUV.

He is dressed (up) as Santa Claus.

through

The arrow went through the apple.

They go there by bus.

along

He is walking along the river.

He is knocking at the door.

onto

The milk is being poured onto the cereal.

The hand is coming out of the ground.

over

The taxi is driving over the bridge.

under

The train is passing under the bridge.

in (1)

The woman is dressed in red.

They are walking away from us.

out of

toward(s)

She is walking toward(s) us.

away from

She is climbing up the stairs.

in (2)

The father yelled inÂ anger. Prepositions

They went there on foot.

Prepositions and Adverbs: Movement and Manner

Conjunctions independent clause

Many long sentences consist of independent and dependent clauses.

A compound sentence requires two independent clauses and a coordinating conjunction.

A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one dependent clause with a subordinating conjunction.

conjunction

independent clause

Compound sentence: It was Stephane’s birthday, so I baked him a cake. independent clause

conjunction

dependent clause

Complex sentence: He checked his bags when he arrived at the airport.

Type of Conjunction Coordinating*

Meaning

Rule

Example

Use the coordinating conjunctions for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so to join two independent clauses. Note the use of a comma before each conjunction.

Drinking coffee keeps me awake, yet I drink it anyway. The cat is very playful during the night, but it’s as lazy as a sloth during the day.

If nor is used to join two independent clauses, the subject and verb are inverted after nor.

He didn’t come to the party, nor did he apologize for it.

For is used to add a reason. For is used most often in formal writing. It is more common to use because.

The boat rocked from side to side, for the wind was strong and steady. Formal: They broke out the champagne, for their engagement was music to everyone’s ears. More common: They broke out the champagne because their engagement was music to everyone’s ears.

And is used to add information.

Richard is charming to everyone he meets, and he works hard. I want to travel, and I want to buy a car.

Nor is used to add more negative information to the first independent clause. The auxiliary and subject are inverted in a nor clause.

Adrian doesn’t like following trends, nor does he like popular music. I don’t like horror movies, nor do I like ghost stories.

But is used to add contrasting information.

Shona is outspoken at school, but she’s quiet at home. I want to travel, but I need to buy a car first.

Or is used to add an alternative idea.

He may go to university, or he may travel for a year. They could go today, or they might leave tomorrow.

Yet is used to express an unexpected contrasting statement.

Katia was a serious student, yet she had a crazy social life. The wind was bitterly cold, yet the sun was bright and unusually warm.

So is used to express a reason.

The phone was on sale, so I bought it. I won the lottery, so I paid off my parents’ mortgage.

* Use the mnemonic FANBOYS to remember the coordinating conjunctions. • F = for • A = and • N = nor • B = but • O = or • Y = yet • S = so

Conjunctions

Conjunctions (continued) Type of Conjunction

Rule

Example

Subordinating

Use a subordinating conjunction at the beginning of a dependent (or subordinate) clause. The clause can be at the beginning, middle or end of a sentence. The dependent clause alone is not a complete sentence; it only adds to the meaning of the independent (or main) clause.

After they accepted our gifts, they said thank you. Although he is very tired, he will not rest. As he was speaking, I left the room. He spoke in a high-pitched voice as if he had inhaled helium. I cannot go because I’m too busy. Even though he is rich, he is not a happy person. If I say yes, will you lend me your scooter?

He said that he would never do anything to hurt her. Though I am not hungry, I will have another piece of cake. Whenever he is in town, he calls on his friends. We can text one another wherever we go. I will go downtown whether or not my friends come with me. Our house was broken into while we were travelling in Europe.

Meaning

To express cause and effect, use as, because, since and so that.

The winds blew harder as the storm was approaching the shore. As the night drew to a close, we stood up and thanked our kind hosts for their company.

Since I did not study, I failed the exam. She turned on the air conditioning since the room was so hot. We had a fundraiser so that we could go on a field trip to Boston.

To express condition, use as if, as though, even if, even though, if, unless, when, and whether or not. Whether or not is separable.

As if we had not done enough, then we had to wash the dishes, too. He acted as though nothing had happened. Even if you beg, you are not borrowing the car. He failed the exam even though he studied very hard. If he breaks his arm, he won’t play hockey this year.

You will not graduate unless you pass the English exam. When I am sick, I stay in bed. We will finish this work whether or not you help us. We will finish this work whether you help us or not.

To express time, use after, before, until, when, while and wherever. It is common to use a continuous tense with while. Use whenever with simple tenses.

After you finish, put your exams on my desk. Before Thomas returned home, his friend had called three times. I didn’t believe he had won until I saw it on TV. We can go when you are ready.

I got a phone call, while I was watching my favourite movie. While his parents were arguing, Jimmy was watching TV. Wherever we go away on vacation, it always rains at our destination. She gets angry whenever you lie.

To express a contrast between ideas, use although, even though, though, whereas and while. Use a comma with whereas and while whether they are at the beginning or the end of a sentence.

Although they act like a happy couple, they are far from being so. They slept at the top of the mountain even though the weather was freezing cold. We were very happy though times were very difficult.

Whereas he is poor, she is rich. She is rich, whereas he is poor. While July is hot in the northern hemisphere, it’s cold in the southern hemisphere. Jeremy likes rap, while Carolyn prefers jazz.

Do not use an auxiliary when a noun clause beginning with a question word (when, where) is a statement.

I skied the Rockies a lot when did I live in Canmore, Alberta. I skied the Rockies a lot when I lived in Canmore, Alberta.

He remembers where did he left his homework. He remembers where he left his homework. Conjunctions

Anne Gagnon Pierre Richard Robert Thérien

Express

GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4th Edition

Essentials of English Grammar

Anne Gagnon Pierre Richard Robert Thérien

GRAMMAR

Express

Articles, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions

Overview of verb tenses and form; question formation, modal auxiliaries, gerund forms and phrasal verbs

Sentence structure, transitional expressions, punctuation and advanced sentence errors

Common preposition combinations and confusing expressions.

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4thEDITION