Visual Arts Education in Turkey

Visual Arts Education in Turkey Vinita Israni April 26, 2013

Istanbul Modern, Turkey’s first private museum to organize modern and contemporary art exhibitions founded in 2004.

Interior view of Hagia Sophia, an iconic cathedral/mosque exemplifying a Byzantine architectural style.

Created for Global Urban Lab Rice University: School of Social Sciences & Kinder Institute for Urban Research

Table of Contents I. Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................... 2 II. Report ....................................................................................................................................................... 3 a. The Issue ............................................................................................................................................... 3 b. The Research ......................................................................................................................................... 3 Culture............................................................................................................................................... 3 Education and the Arts...................................................................................................................... 5 Education System .............................................................................................................................. 5 c. The Methods ......................................................................................................................................... 7 d. The Findings .......................................................................................................................................... 7 Culture............................................................................................................................................... 7 Arts Education ................................................................................................................................... 8 Education System ............................................................................................................................ 10 e. The Implications .................................................................................................................................. 11 What do the results show ............................................................................................................... 11 Concluding Thoughts ...................................................................................................................... 11 III. Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................ 13 IV. Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................... 15

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I. Executive Summary A key task of any university in the 21st century is to nurture visually literate students in the information age. From primary school through university, it is important that visual arts education is emphasized and expanded. The purpose of this paper is to understand the structure and focus of visual arts education in Turkey, spanning the range of a child’s educational experience, starting from primary school to the university level. To better analyze how visual arts are taught in schools in Turkey, I consider several factors, including: how the education system is organized as a whole, how art is valued within the culture, the training being received by art teachers, and subsequently what kind and quality of works are being produced by students.

The research shows correlations and trends between cultural artistic ideals of Turks and what implications that leaves for future generations.

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II. Report a. The Issue Education seeks to better prepare the next generation to progress further and faster into the future, to shape students’ perceptions of the world, and to help them toward their subsequent career paths. Visual arts education is a particular area of interest due to its expressive nature.

This research tackles the structure and focus of visual arts education in Turkey, a country entering the world’s art arena. The scope of this research spans the entire range of a child’s educational experience. Although visual arts education benefits cognitive processing and intellectual capabilities (Balkir), it is often the first area to receive funding cuts. In the United States, a large push has been made recently to increase arts education to better prepare the next generation to think creatively. With Turkey’s recent push to become part of the global arena, visual arts education is increasingly an issue looked upon for improvement. Thus, this paper seeks to answer the questions of how visual arts education in Turkey has changed over time (since the 1970s), what that tells us about the cultural artistic ideals of Turks with the progression of time, and what the implications of those responses are for the future generations.

b. The Research Culture

Art is an effective way of introducing children to both local and foreign culture, as the two are closely linked. Art enables people to view themselves through others’ lives and helps them associate with experiences of other people (Katter). It is a principal means of communicating cultural ideas, thoughts, values, and emotional meanings from one person, group, or generation to another.

People symbolize the experiences they have through different forms of art. They observe art and obtain new insights into their experiences and those of others. Therefore, art has a significant role in teaching children about cultures (McFee & Degge) and plays a vital role in giving children insight into various sources of culture (Fischer; Sahasrabudhe). From a practical point of view, cultural values facilitate the internalization of cultural identities and keep individuals together (Stupples). Cultural values develop continuously within the framework of various settings, including socioeconomic class and geographic location (Mason and Gearon).

In many cultural systems, art is used as a channel for self-expression during the processes of restructuring cultural identities and associating different cultures (McFee). Art activities reflect emotions and opinions, the characteristics of the cultural environment, and the meanings reproduced in this environment (Hague). Artists continuously express themselves and their environments and therefore associate culture with artistic representation process (Aland). The realm of art helps us understand social life as a whole and the social values available, past and the present (Mahlmann). In this respect, artists can explore, interpret and define their own cultures through art (Clarke). Similarly, Eisner emphasizes that art and art design processes are the fields where cultural values and specific characteristics can be clearly observed.

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Today the most important objective of art education is to associate cultural values with artistic representation: that is, to guide and encourage artistic representation within the context of awareness, culturalization and education. Students look for a direct cause-effect relationship between culture and artistic representation through the reflection of local elements, including the relationship between cultural developments and artistic production and the reflection of cultural internalization on artistic representation (International Journal of Arts in Society). According to Taggart et.al, most countries take similar objectives into consideration while developing their art education programs. In this respect, the most fundamental developmental goals of today’s art education include artistic skills and sensitivity, cultural awareness, and a multicultural point of view in terms of artistic sharing and interaction. In addition, the most significant point which today’s artistic representation focuses on is cultural education (Bamford; Robinson; Sharp and Le Métais; Taggart et al.).

Cross-cultural studies highlight differences between various cultures. For instance, one study examined the end-of-year summative art and design portfolios of 107 Canadian, English, and Dutch secondary school students (Blaikie, Schönau, & Steers). The aim was to determine whether students planning to pursue a college degree in art and design perceived these portfolios to be valid preparation for their future and, if so, to discern which aspects of the portfolios they valued most. Results showed that students simply preferred whatever system of assessment they experienced within their cultural context, regardless of the merits or deficiencies of that system.

Another study comparing the policies for education of art teachers in Taiwan and England suggested that art education theories in Taiwan could offer a better balance between local and global ideas (Lo). Observation and video recording during the study highlighted significant differences between the organization and management of art classes in these two countries. While Taiwanese children were considered capable of producing three-dimensional drawings from imagination, most UK teachers were observed as discouraging this practice with their students, instead encouraging the children to copy pictures from books (Cox, Perara, & Fan).

In another study, Australian, North American, Finnish, and Egyptian children were asked to draw story pictures (Wilson & Wilson). It was found that children from the three Western contexts perceived the world they were living in as a place full of competition and struggles. The drawings of the Egyptian children, on the other hand, often showed a concern for others and presented a model of caring, service, and sympathetic patronage. In their narratives, the American children drew contest/combat themes approximately 40% more frequently than the Australian and Finnish children did, and 72% more frequently than the Egyptian children did.

The artwork of the students represented their current cultural and social values and indicated that there was emphasis on certain themes within the culture.

Education and the Arts

Every educational system should meet criteria that establish quality in teaching and learning. These criteria are often provided by aims and objectives listed in school curricula (Illhan 255).

Since the foundation of the Turkish Republic in 1923, the educational system has changed in 4|Page

every aspect. The Ministry of Education invited the famous educator John Dewey to Turkey in 1925, and he proposed that art lessons should be given to all primary school teachers. In the same year, at the national inspectors’ conference on education in Konya (Central Anatolia), a report recommended opening art departments at all universities for training primary teachers. In 1926 a new educational program was introduced for future primary teachers to be educated in the arts. For this, well-known professors from Europe were invited to Ankara, the capital of Turkey, to give arts lessons attended by primary teachers from all around the country.

In 1961 the National Arts Commission explained that modern primary teacher education had not yet been established in the country, so Turkish children were not as educated in the arts as they should be. Some of the goals mentioned in this report were (Guezel Sanatlar Komisyonlari, 1961): 1. Children should have at least a basic general knowledge about the arts.

2. Children should understand the arts and culture of the area they live in 3. Children should be educated in the arts according to an appropriate learning psychology and pedagogy.

4. Teachers should be trained in learning psychology and pedagogy accordingly.

In 1968 arts education was officially included in teacher education at universities with a curriculum that specified ten goals, including expressing their views, thoughts, and feelings through artwork, developing a readiness to help others, and evaluating artwork.

The education of critical viewers starts with art teachers who appreciate and understand the embedded value of imagery within cultures, cultural differences, students’ knowledge and experience, critical thought, and reflection. The creation of progressive models in art teacher education that connect art and everyday life can help achieve this goal. An important function of education is to help young people become better critics and analysts of visual and popular culture as artists, critics, historians, and aestheticians (Clark & Zimmerman 37). This requires a critical pedagogy (Giroux; Tavin 2001 & 2003) and analysis of the media and visual culture.

Education System

Primary education is compulsory for every Turkish citizen between the ages of six and fourteen and is free in state schools. In 1997 the duration of compulsory primary education was extended from five to eight years. Prior to 1997, primary education was comprised of five years of primary school and three years of middle school, and the Primary School Diploma and Middle School Diploma were awarded at the end of their respective schoolings. These two diplomas have since been combined and replaced by a single diploma, the Primary Education Diploma, to be awarded to those students who successfully complete the 8-year basic education program.

The secondary education system can be separated into General High Schools and Vocational and Technical High Schools. The different kinds of high schools of the Turkish education system include general high schools, public high schools, Anatolian fine arts and religious high schools, science high schools, private high schools, and vocational high schools (MONE).

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At the end of high school, following the 12th grade, students take the National University Entrance Examination (the OSS) to continue their studies at a university or a two-year school.

Although students can take the test and try to get placed in any major, usually they practically opt to select a major related to their track in high school. The reason for this is that they lose points if they apply for a field different than their track. The entrance exam consists of about 180 multiple-choice questions to be answered in three hours covering general knowledge in mathematics, natural sciences, and social sciences.

Higher education institutions in Turkey fall into three categories: universities, military and police colleges, and vocational schools affiliated with ministries. Although higher education charges tuition, successful students lacking the means to continue their education are fully support by private individuals, organizations, and the state (“The Turkish Educational System�).

Figure 1 provides a visual layout of the Turkish educational system.

Figure 1: Turkish Educational System Diagram

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c. The Methods A thorough analysis of research articles, journals, interviews, and readings provided the understanding of visual arts education in Turkey. Conducting a literature review prior to the visit to Istanbul helped shape the questions asked to sources. While journals provided a strong background of the “facts” within Turkey, interviews answered many of the questions that remained. For the most part, the educational system up until the 1980s has not been fully documented in Turkey, putting greater importance on the “big picture” generalizations offered by the interviewees. Much of the research is observational, looking at preexisting infrastructures, perspectives, and policies.

d. The Findings Culture

Despite having a rich history of art, the average Turk today, according to my sources, lacks a full understanding of the value of contemporary art. In this Muslim country of 80 million, artists have minimal influence on social and political life at home. Public awareness of Turkish woven goods as art is still new (Ersoy, 1995), but is definitely recognized. The average Turk respects traditional cultural art more than the contemporary modern art created globally. For example, more Turks are willing to spend a fee to enter a state-funded museum full of Ottoman artifacts than to attend a free gallery on Istiklal Caddesi, one of the most famous streets in Istanbul. The concept of abstract and contemporary art is foreign to many, though not all, Turks.

Artists have grown up during a relatively free and prosperous time in Turkey and make up an elite that has more in common with their counterparts in other nations than with their own countrymen. In conversation they can easily shift from Turkish to European to American pop culture.

However, the art industry within Turkey has become a market for the elite class. Istanbul in particular has become a “hip city” where art is auctioned for millions of euros nearly every day. This distorts the standard monetary scaling system in Turkey, where lira are the dominant currency used. Unfortunately, the decisive input on how we evaluate art through pricing has also affected how artists think (Fatma Colakoglu). The sudden international interest in Turkish art also tempts artists to Orientalize themselves, making their art explicitly “Turkish” in response to the demand from the market.

However, many artists express anxiety about the rush of corporate money to the scene (N.B.: the Turkish government does not finance many art-related items). They complain that the funding doesn’t always go to the artists themselves, who desperately need money and spaces to experiment. Art criticism in Turkey is scarce; and things often move too fast without complete reflection. The intellectual versus commercial balance is at times “out of whack” (Hansen).

The Art Lunch Project, an international artistic collaborative effort where teachers work with students to reinterpret and create two- and three-dimensional artistic representations of lunch, found parallels with students associating cultural values with their art. Students who 7|Page

associated cultural value with artistic representations preferred to use the cultural values of the past as the theme for their compositions. The cultural values reflected on the artistic representation process of the students contain mainly traditional, local, and folkloric elements.

When the richness of Anatolian traditional cultural elements is considered, it seems inevitable for the students to have a tendency to use traditional values in their works of art (International Journal of Arts in Society).

While reproducing the relationship between the perceptions of culture and representation process in their works of art within the framework of this study, the undergraduate students receiving art education stated that they recalled cultural values and reinterpreted those values by using their imagination. In addition, they developed individual perspectives towards cultural values and reevaluated cultural differences in terms of aesthetical approaches. Finally, they reproduced the relationships among cultural values in an original way. In fact, cultural values helped individuals to determine their own criteria for certain cultures in terms of their choices, evaluations, judgments, and interpretations (Kluckhohn). The cultural themes emerging from the students’ association of cultural values with artistic representation were interpreted within the context of traditional approaches. Among the aforementioned themes are cultural figures, folkloric elements, and traditional handicrafts regarding life style (International Journal of Arts in Society).

With such a rich tradition of handicrafts, the definition of art is constantly being redefined in Turkey. Controversy abounds about the line between craftsmanship and art (Fatma Colakoglu). However, many fine arts departments in universities still straddle that line by reinterpreting artwork through a cultural approach (Çelebilik and Emine).

Arts Education

Despite the lofty goals set forth by the 1968 primary arts curriculum, the minimal change does not warrant any kind of idleness in arts education in the primary school curriculum. The 1982 report by the Turkish Art Education Work Group describes the problems of art education (Guezel Sanatlar Komisyonlari, 1982): 1.

2.

3.

4.

Although an art program exists, no applications or practice are taking place in the arts.

Art and music are only viewed as an extra burden for other lessons.

Primary teachers are not motivated to do work in art properly .

Art equipment is either non-existent or in poor condition in public primary schools.

A reduction of art lessons had taken place over the years, a development regressing from the goals set forth by the 1968 primary arts curriculum. As a result of this report, primary teacher education was raised from two to three years. In the 1981-1982 academic year, the total length of primary education was increased from five to eight years to prevent students in grade six from entering private Islamic schools. From this time on, this was possible only in grade nine.

In 1992 the Ministry of Education founded a special commission to implement a better educational program for the visual arts in Turkey with goals such as improving the communication skills of teachers and students, creating an environment of creativity, and developing technical skills for art products.

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In the 1992-1993 academic year, the visual arts curriculum was adjusted to meet the goals of the 1992 educational program for visual arts. The ongoing challenge for all teacher education is to train teachers to implement this program. For this reason, primary teacher education was extended from three to four years in the 1996-1997 academic year (Faculty of Education, Ankara University). The Educational Bureaucracy- the Ministry of Education, which is separate from the Board of Higher Education, determines the national art curriculum. Each faction has its own territory and rarely communicates with the other.

For higher education, problems in the arts focus on career choices. Art instructors in vocational high schools feel that all students should learn about the traditional art forms for alternative career choices and because more students attend vocational rather than academicoriented schools (Strokrocki and Kirisoglu).

Turkey has what some scholars call an authoritarian, studio-dominated curriculum. Teachers seldom ask students for their opinions. Students also get little feedback or dialogue regarding social criticism in Turkey. Due to Turkey’s current religious, political, and economic pressures, many teachers are afraid to broach the topic of conflict. However, Price and Swift noted the quality of art and craftwork is high because of time spent in studio training. They also noted that artwork seemed influenced by Western models of art education, such as academic copying of ancient Greek plaster models. The danger of traditional handicrafts is that repetition of symbols and patterns may lead to a lack of creativity (Strokrocki and Kirisoglu).

It is commonly advocated by visual culture art education (VCAE) proponents that students should be prepared to responsibly live within the contemporary sociological sphere. This pedagogical approach is shared by visual culture educators (Duncum, 2001, 2002; Freedman, 2000, 2003; Freedman & Schuler; Tavin, 2000, 2003).

Teachers themselves feel undervalued. Ten interviews with faculty revealed that many educators believed the value of art education has decreased over the years, and being an art teacher is a position to fund artistic ventures outside of academics. As stated by Fatma Colakoglu in an interview, “the teachers are bitter because they’ve been worked into the ground, and they pass on that tradition to the next generation; it’s not healthy.”

Visual arts departments within Turkish universities are intense as well. However, more institutions are trying to create a curriculum encouraging students to explore the arts. For example, Koc University recently opened a Media and Visual Arts department (lovingly referred to as MAVA), which brings together students studying from a wide variety of fields. However, these departments require a high amount of funding that is only possible at private institutions. A drawing and printmaking professor at Koc University, Ilgim Veryeri Alaca, stated that it is the “well-off” students that are able to help the university gain access to their own private family art collections. Therefore, universities can bring in more resources for students to experiment in various mediums.

Education System

Just as any educational system adapts to the needs of the society it serves, the infrastructure 9|Page

of the Turkish educational system would seem best served to address the issue of visual arts education in schools. For example, based on my interviews and research, at the primary school level teachers often report being overworked with teaching and planning responsibilities.

The entrance exam (OSM) that determines a student’s placement into university is competitive and nerve wrecking. In 2004 nearly two million applicants competed for only 120,000 vacant positions, a 7% placement rate (Illhan 255). According to Sarin Karel Bey, only one out of six every students is actually able to attend the university. This annual exam consists of 180 multiple-choice questions to be answered in three hours (one question per minute), which has generated special preparatory schools, teachers, literature, practice exams, and so on. This system has restrictive effects for a child’s creativity and open-mindedness. The exam is focused on math, natural sciences, and social sciences, with little to no emphasis on the arts.

Additionally, the Turkish government actually pays for education for all students under the age of 25 at any public university. However, private universities hold a higher prestige, at an extraordinarily high cost to the average Turk. Thus, if students do go to university, art is not a priority. Students are also physically and mentally drained by the time they reach the university level due to the rigor of the studies (interview), not allowing them to engage in any additional creative pursuits. The government has opened new high schools and universities in all 80 provinces in recent years, but a lack of adequate teaching staff and resources has left many edifices empty. After completing formal education, most graduates cannot find a job related to the subject they were trained for. This means a large waste of finances, time, and resources.

e. The Implications What do the results show

The arts play a minor role in the Turkish educational system (Balkir). Art lessons in secondary and high schools are often performed in a dull, repetitive manner concerned with seasonal changes and national ceremonies and do not provide clear education goals. This could be due to a lack of proper pedagogy from the art teachers, who are mostly trained in art production (Balkir). Teachers should be able to transfer their knowledge, thoughts, and feelings to their students and use tools and materials effectively. In particular, primary teacher education for visual arts is limited by a lack of practice and teacher motivation. The primary state of the art education system has to be simplified and unified with one emphasis on an up-to-date pedagogy.

Other difficulties for art education arise from the general belief that only gifted students should take art lessons. Furthermore, many parents view basic art equipment like paint or special paper as an extra expense they cannot afford because of poor living conditions. Similarly, in universities only affluent students can experiment with taking arts classes. Many students cannot attend university since the supply exceeds the demand. If the educational system were to change drastically to allow the majority of students to attend university, arts education might flourish, given a larger variety of students and less pressure.

Concluding Thoughts

As per the larger context of the Turkish art scene, only the future will show how the 10 | P a g e

demand of Turkish art will stabilize. While Turkish art is in demand internationally, within Turkey contemporary art is minimally understood and valued. The kind of art being created will also change, fluctuating between craftsmanship and abstraction. Students will create work in the context of the society, further reinforcing a certain style that becomes their cultural identity.

The future demand for Turkish art is not guaranteed. Those that invest money in Turkish art could eventually move on to another “hip city.” By doing so, the influx of currency into the Turkish economy will decrease, causing another flux in the fabric of Turkish art.

However, with Turkey’s recent push to become a part of the global arena, art has become an important factor to be improved upon. By starting with visual arts education and cultivating a visual culture, the next generation will be better equipped to bring Turkey onto the international stage.

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III. Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Michael Emerson for his continuous support of this project. His guidance and suggestions pushed this project forward.

I would also like to thank Mrs. Ipek Martinez, the Associate Dean of the School of Social Sciences and the Director of the Gateway program. Without her patience, enthusiasm, immense knowledge, and meticulous planning skills, our trip to Istanbul would not have been possible.

My sincere thanks also goes out to with Ilgim Veryeri Alaca, a drawing and printmaking professor at Koc University, and Fatma Colakoglu, a curator at Pera Museum, who were kind enough to take time out to sit and talk with me. Without these two individuals, the project would have not come to fruition.

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Lastly, my heartfelt thanks go to my fellow Global Urban Lab students with whom I was able to take an unforgettable journey, and my mom, for supporting me in whatever I decide to pursue.

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