Issue 14

Elements The Scientific Magazine of the University of Puget Sound

Amazing Glass Animals Exploring the Brain All is Fair in Love and War: Updates from the Plant K ingdom

Clouds, Clouds & More Clouds!

Spot the Difference: Issue 14, Fall 2013

Slater Edition

University of Puget Sound

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Letter From The Editor

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Credits

Editor-in-Chief: Kathryn Papoulias Content Manager: Jordan Dilley Head Layout Editor: Kira Thurman Head Copy Editor: Krista Haapanen Staff: Angelica Kong & Lake Thelen Campus Outreach: Jeremy Parke-Hoffman Front Cover Photo: Dylan Witwicki Back Cover Photo: Dylan Witwicki Table of Contents Photo: Kathryn Papoulias Allium Cover: Kathryn Papoulias CosmoNerd: Peter Siegenthaler CosmoNerd Photo: Kathryn Papoulias

Acknowledgments We would like to thank the following organizations and individuals: the ASUPS Media Board for providing endless support, The Trail for loaning us their computers and software, and everyone we coerced (nicely) into helping out!

Contact & Publishing

E-mail: elements@pugetsound.edu Web: http://clubs.ups.edu/clubs/elements Mail: ASUPS - Elements, University of Puget Sound, 1500 N Warner St. #1017, Tacoma, WA 98416 Published by QC Graphics LLC 1819 Central Avenue S, Suite 80, Kent, WA 98032 This issue was published on paper from wellmanaged forests, controlled sources and recycled wood or fiber.

Recent science discoveries got you excited?

There’s a place for you here at Puget Sound. Elements wants writers, editors, media designers, and photographers interested in producing a scientific magazine once a semester. Make like margarine and support the spread of science!

What’s it gonna be, the red pill or the blue pill?

Express your interest at elements@ups.edu

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mongst copious amounts of baked goods, scattered notes, and musical hits from the 1990s on repeat, we somehow managed to create a magazine. An entire magazine! Apparently, when you take a couple handfuls of full-time, working students, add a dash of passion for science, and a sprinkle of insanity (to get that special touch of sure-I’ll-stay-up-late-on-a-Friday-night-doing-layout), you can end up with a pretty fantastic magazine issue. By the power invested me as Editor-in-Chief, I’d like to take this opportunity to tell you, dear reader, a little bit about what you’ll find inside these pages and to wholeheartedly thank the many people that made Elements possible. And if I’m missing anyone, you can blame my slightly sleep-deprived state and I promise to bake you cookies.

Now I don’t want to brag, but Elements magazine is pretty unique. We are a collaboration between artists and scientists, striving to make the amazing world of science accessible to everyone - from the tiniest microbe to the largest macrobe. Or, you know, from your youngest literate cousin to your grandmother. And this issue has content for everyone! Whether your head’s in the clouds or, err, in your head (I’m looking at you, neurobiologists), we’ve got you covered.

In this issue, you’ll find some incredible new medical therapies, a variety of both transparent and nontransparent animals, incredibly devious plants, and a handy guide to cloudspotting 101, among many other topics. We had a great time putting all the pieces together to make this giant puzzle we call Elements, and we hope you have a great time reading.

Onto the thank you speech, I’m still in awe of the amazing and hilarious articles we received from our peers - students in a variety of fields of study, all of whom are wonderful writers that taught the staff more information than we ever thought we could know. Without the talent of Puget Sound students, we wouldn’t have an issue. So first, hats (brains?) off to you - thanks for making this job so fun!

To my awesomely creative and tireless staff, thank you.

You make every aspect of the magazine more fun, and if it weren’t for you all I would have definitely lost my sanity halfway through the semester. Alone, we may just be drops of sentient water proficient in editing and design, but together, we are a sea of unstoppable creative force! Casual editing dance parties in the Media House and synchronized frustration over very slow computers, we’re just livin’ the dream over here.

I would also like to thank the Media Board for their constant support and making me feel welcome among the ASUPS Media community. (Shout out: thanks for hiring me!) Thanks to Dylan Witwicki for providing the gorgeous photos that sandwich this issue, and to the numerous artists who somehow turned my childlike stick figure drawings into beautiful comics and pieces of art. Additionally, thank you to all my peers and University of Puget Sound faculty members for letting me pester you with new ideas, and for providing Elements with absolutely incredible content for this issue. Your photos, art, and quotes have not gone unappreciated! Last but not least, thank you to our faculty advisor Jeff Tepper for being there in case we needed any assistance (and for providing a pretty hilarious idea for a book!).

To this semester’s Cosmonerd, I’d like to thank Peter Siegenthaler (and the rest of the Fossil Record course) for letting me pose your half-naked body to suit my photography needs. The miscellaneous geologic items really completed the look - thank goodness the Geology students always carry a hand lens and rock hammer on field trips! You’re a great sport, Peter, and dirty research clothes never looked so good.

And now, let’s get this show on the road. We hope you learn something new, realize how beautiful science can be, and maybe giggle a bit at the puns scattered throughout the issue (especially in The Allium - watch out). Thanks for reading, and enjoy the Elements!

Sincerely, Kathryn Papoulias, Editor-in-Chief

Elements Magazine

Table of Contents Clouds Above Puget Sound 4 Megan Reich

Phantom Limb Pain: Benefits of Mirror Therapy for Amputee Patients

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From Stream to Sea to Stream: Salmon Find Their Way Home

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Katherine Padgett Rosa Brandt

“My Brain Made Me Do It!� The Future of Neurolaw

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Gold Nanoparticles: Is Cancer Research Finally Panning Out?

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A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence: Technology Through the Ages

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Orchids: The Reason I Have Trust Issues

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The Biological Glass Menagerie

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The Wondrous World of Research: Student Experiences

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Poisonous Passions: An Evolutionary Arms Race

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The Benefits of Brain-Mapping and Neurofeedback

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Zuri Johnson Emily Brown

Calder Whiteley Tony Charvoz

Stephan Raiders

Kira Thurman and Margaret Cowles David Ho

Margaret Cowles

THE ALLIUM Book Reviews 24 Elements Staff

The Thompson/Harned Olympics 25 Kathryn Papoulias

Holiday Songs from Elements 26 Kathryn Papoulias and Angelica Kong

Spot the Difference

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Kathryn Papoulias

Elementian Humor 28 Sal Greenberger and Marissa Croft

Clouds Quiz 29 Angelica Kong

Citations 30 CosmoNerd 31 University of Puget Sound

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by

M egan R eich

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ear after year, there comes a point in the first semester when a sudden realization hits students and staff at the University of Puget Sound: the dreaded dark winter months of gloom have fallen upon the Northwest. There’s no turning back now – until the budding hints of spring, one can be assured that campus will become shrouded by an almost continual cover of grey. To some, this claustrophobic ceiling in the sky seems like the one glaring drawback of Puget Sound’s campus – and, unfortunately, the one element that can’t be repainted or renovated. How does one brave the damp and dismal, dodge the plaguing onslaughts of Seasonal Affective Disorder, and make it to sunnier months while still remaining

ing particles - can interact and collide with water vapor. This process of condensation leads to a build-up of water droplets around the aerosols. As these droplets stick together, clouds form.1 This whole process doesn’t just happen out of the blue, however (or should I say - out of the sky?). In order to consummate sticking, the amount of water in the air needs to be high enough that the atmosphere cannot hold any more water, and the air must have cooled to its dew point, that is, the point at which condensation must occur. In short, our wonderful clouds form as air rises and cools. The decreased ability of colder air to hold water vapor results in the condensation that forms clouds as we see them from below.1

sane? Though it may seem contradictory, the answer is: look up. One of the most underappreciated fascinations of nature is something we pass under without thought almost every day: clouds. On the surface, clouds seem quite simple – just another step of the water cycle, or a foreboding warning to the anxious picnicker. Every cloud, however, has a silver lining. And it just so happens that, located near the shores of the Puget Sound’s waters and parked on flat, sky-opening land, UPS stands as a prime location for cloud-spotting.

Welcome to Cloud-Spotting 101

What are clouds, exactly?

Despite possessing the same molecular composition and structure, the water droplets and ice particles that make up clouds can take on a myriad of fascinating forms. But how exactly does this take place? When water evaporates into the air, the resulting vapor can condense into visible droplets or crystals. Up in the atmosphere, aerosols - salt, dust, and other tiny float-

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In order to truly appreciate the heavens above, a watcher of the clouds should have some sense of what exactly they are looking at. Enter the art of cloud classification. To a novice cloud-spotter, the taxonomy of cloud types is surprisingly complex. Let’s go over some of the most common cloud types and characteristics in a bit more detail: The beginnings of establishing a system of organization for clouds can actually be traced to 1803, with the publication of Englishman Luke Howard’s The Modifications of the Clouds.1 The terms used by the amateur meteorologist have since been expanded by the World Metereological Organization to ten main groups of clouds known as “genera”. Yes - like plants and animals, clouds are classified by a Latin “Linnean” system.

From here, subsequent “species” of cloud types are organized based on their size, shape, and level in the atmosphere.2

Elements Magazine

Cumulus

“Look, it’s a bird! It’s a plane! Its… Actually, it’s just a speedy cumulus cloud.”

Cumulus species are the classic representation of the cloud.

With the prefix cumolo-, meaning “heap”, Cumulus clouds are found as individual clumps with flattish bases and cauliflowerlike tops.3 These clouds are found in three species: small and low humilis, moderately-tall mediocris, and the ominous, storm boding congestus.4 Watch with caution as a Cumulus vertically develops in size from its harmless, non-precipitating form to its towering, rain-potential final form.3 In the right conditions (enough moisture, atmospheric instability, and strong updrafts), the Cumulus cloud can transform into the thunderstorm-producing Cumulonimbus cloud.4 Cumulus cloudlets graze through the open horizon from the second floor of the sub at Puget Sound.

Stratus “Misty… mysterious…perfect weather for zombie hunting.”

The Stratus cloud is the lowest-forming cloud of all types, and is the source of the ever-dreaded grey, overcast sky.4 Stratus is unique in that it can form from three distinctive origins: moist air blowing over a cool surface (such as the waters of the Puget Sound), the cooling of air as it rises (such as moving up the slopes of Mt. Rainier), or the lifting of overnight fog by wind (common in the Northwest’s damp winter months). Yes, indeed, Stratus is no stranger here in Tacoma. When reaching ground level, Stratus becomes fog.5 The flat-grey dull of Puget Sound’s signature Stratus cloud reigns once again.

Stratocumulus “This ‘aint your average overcast, kids.”

Stratocumulus is easily one of the most underappreciated cloud types. A hybrid of Cumulus and Stratus, these clouds appear very widespread and are continuously distributed to form an overcast sky.4 But don’t stop reading there – the clumpy nature of these clouds can produce interesting variations in shape and tone through turbulence on other clouds, breaking the monotone dull of a Stratus. Rain isn’t a problem either - Stratocumulus only produces a drizzle at most.4 Stratocumulus

clouds prove that beautiful, too.

overcast

can

be

University of Puget Sound

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Altocumulus “The sunset was beautiful tonight… That is, the reflection of low energy photons off the shadows of westward Altocumulus clouds was beautiful tonight.”

A mid-level cloud, the Altocumulus forms from mid-level turbulence or rise of an expanded air layer.5 This varied cloud type is found in grouped rolls or clumps of medium size that generally appear as a white or grey color. Because of their level in the sky, however, Altocumulus can be shaded by the sun.1 With this in mind, Altocumulus stand out in that they can produce spectacular colors from the rays of a rising or setting sun.4

Altocumulus takes the stage in this typical sunset on a summer evening on the Puget Sound campus.

Nimbostratus “I’m going to go curl up in my bed and read a book with my fireplace on and hot chocolate and a giant sweater and…”

An ominous Nimbostratus descends upon the terrain of Klamath Falls, Oregon.

Nimbostratus is one of the only clouds that is guaranteed not only to always produce precipitation, but to rain constantly and consistently for hours at a time.4 This thick, dark, featureless cloud forms from either the rise of expanded layers of air or by the lowering of the tamer Altostratus, and is set apart from this similar type by its ragged patches that form as a result of falling precipitation.5 The Nimbostratus, although depressing at times, should be recognized for its role as the classic rain cloud.

Cirrus “It’s like a paintbrush stroke in the sky.”

Found in the higher level regions of cloud-bearing atmosphere, Cirrus clouds are made entirely out of ice crystals.3 Harsh upperatmosphere jet streaks cause these crystals to become shaped by the wind in a way that makes them appear as soft, wispy brushstrokes, technically referred to as “fallstreaks”. Cirrus clouds produce neither rain nor snow, and thus are often seen gracing otherwise empty sunny skies. However, their appearance can sometimes mark the beginning of a gradual thickening progression to Nimbostratus – a possible foreshadow to darker days.4 Cirrus clouds gently stroke the sky on a sunny afternoon at Puget Sound.

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Elements Magazine

Special Features and Effects

Iridescence

P h oto s by M e g a n Re i c h

Cloud-spotting doesn’t end just there. Add a bit of wind or sun to the mix and familiar forms can shift to portray exotic forms and host stunning optical illusions. The rarity of some of these effects can make finding one of these a bit like catching a legendary Pokémon. We’re not just talking about rainbows.

Crepuscular Rays

Look in the center of the photo - a very faint occurrence of Iridescence can be seen during this autumn sunrise of the University of Puget Sound campus.

Crepuscular rays project from a Cumulus cloud in the skies of Portland, Oregon.

It’s not just a word to describe a vampire in the sun or to perfect a poetic phrase. Iridescence is a cloud-light phenomenon that occurs when sunlight travels through a thin cloud (such as Cirrus) to produce a rainbow of pastel color on the cloud. As the photons disperse through the cloud, the different wavelengths are spread out in different amounts to create the rainbow effect.4

W i k i m ed i a C o m m o n s

When a halo of sun rays appears to burst from behind a Cumulus or through an opening in the overcast cover of a Stratocumulus, you’re looking at a Crepuscular Ray. This heavenly light is created when tiny atmospheric particles make the sunlight’s pathway appear visible. The way the rays radiate outward from the cloud, however, is an optical illusion created by perspective – the rays are actually approximately parallel to one another.4

These controversial lumps are causing quite the ruckus among the scientific community: Asperatus or merely more Cumulunimbus?

I can tell a Cumulus from a Cirrus. Now what?

It is important to understand that these clouds and effects represent only the tip of the iceberg in terms of cloud varieties. And although this cloud classification business seems fairly simple, identifying cloud from cloud can quickly become complex. Endless shifts of wind, temperature, and light can produce hybrids and troublesome “accessory” clouds that allude a labeled name. With this notion in mind, cloud experts from the Cloud Appreciation Society are fighting for official classification of a “new” cloud type – Asperatus. A rare formation that often arises from Cumulunimbus storms, the chaotic wave-like base of this cloud seems to defy all other labels.4 Such struggles in the world of cloud classification, however, are only expected in the efforts to establish a black and white taxonomy on the ever-changing forms above. Maybe these clouds simply want to avoid being stereotyped by our foolish designations. Whether you enjoy seeking new cloud types or simply appreciate the beauty of these graceful nebulae, however, hopefully you’ve come to the realization that clouds can be more than a piece of rainy gloom. Clouds are a source of enjoyment and enthrallment that can be counted on – and the sky will always be there, no matter how far away you are from home.

University of Puget Sound

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Phantom Limb Pain

Benefits of Mirror Therapy for Amputee Patients K atherine Padge t t

M

any people who go through the terrible experience of losing an appendage have to undergo further pain when their brains have trouble coming to terms with the fact that the appendage is, in fact, gone. After amputation surgery, 50-85% of patients experience pain where the appendage used to be.1 This sensation is known as phantom limb pain because the patient experiences pain in the limb as though it was still intact. The pain that these patients experience is very real, even though their appendage is no longer there. Though various drug treatments have been developed to treat phantom limb pain, mirror therapy has been proven to be one of the most successful treatments for phantom limb pain.

In the context of a leg amputation, mirror therapy works so well because mirror neurons fire when the patient is moving their remaining leg (while thinking that it’s the one that they’ve lost).

Thus, when performing exercises with the remaining leg, the mirror neurons tell the brain that the exercise is being done to the amputated leg, relieving pain. Through the use of this technique, patients can begin the process of releasing the pain in their phantom limb.

Mirror therapy is a treatment for phantom limb pain that involves using a mirror to create the illusion that the reflection of a patient’s remaining limb is the amputated limb. This allows the patient to perform exercises with their remaining limb that reduce the phantom limb pain. For example, consider a patient with an amputated leg. During treatment, the patient would put a mirror where their leg used to be, enabling them to see the reflection of their remaining leg. This creates the illusion that they still have both legs. By looking in the mirror and doing various exercises with their remaining leg, the patient can release pain in their phantom limb.

Not only is this treatment named for the use of mirrors, but it’s also named for the role of mirror neurons, which are the key to relieving patients’ pain in mirror therapy.

Several studies have investigated the efficacy of mirror therapy. In one study, an above-elbow amputee patient reported a 8/10 on the pain scale, even with prescribed drug medication. After three months of mirror therapy, the patient reported an improved 4/10 on the pain scale. Though pain never completely subsided, there was a significant decrease in pain that the patient felt was due to the effectiveness of mirror therapy.

In addition to phantom limb pain, mirror therapy has been identified as effective in upper limb treatment for stroke and Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS).3,4 In these cases, mirror therapy allows the brain to activate as if the body were performing the action, even in the absence of actual movement.

Consider stroke victims who lose motor function on one side of their body. Mirror therapy, in which the patient perMirror neurons fire when a person obforms exercises with the extremities on serves a physical action. the unaffected side of the body, causes the damaged area of the brain to activate in response to movement of the unaffected extremity. This activation is crucial to recovery of the damaged area of the brain,

Neurons are specialized cells that send messages to and can be difficult to achieve when the patient observes no one another in order to let the brain know when physical pain is execution of movement in their affected extremity.4 being felt, or that the body is coming into contact with an object. Mirror neurons are a special type of neuron that fire when Ultimately, while there’s no guarantee that the pain will completely stop, mirror therapy has proven to be very useful a person observes a physical action, such as walking or lifting for relieving phantom limb pain in amputee patients and paan arm. Not only do they observe the motion, but they actually tients with impaired motor function. Many drug therapies are have neurons firing in their brain, mimicking that action. These available for the patients but, as the case study indicates, mirneurons mirror the actual action and have therefore been given ror therapy is often more effective for relieving pain than drug the name mirror neurons. There’s no difference between mirror therapy. Thus, despite the misfortune of losing a limb, amputee neurons firing while an action is performed and firing while patients may experience some relief as a result of mirror therapy. that same action is observed.2

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Elements Magazine

I l l u s t r at i o n by J o rda n D i l l ey

by

From Stream to Sea to Stream

R osa B randt

W i k i m ed i a C o m m o n s

by

Salmon find their way home

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t’s quite well-known that dogs have a significantly better sense of smell than humans, but few are aware that salmon have a remarkably strong olfactory sense as well. While humans have 5 million scent receptors and a Fox Terrier dog has an astounding 147 million, an even larger part of a fish’s brain is devoted to its sense of smell. In fact, they are able to travel hundreds of miles upstream and find their way back to the exact location where they hatched using mainly the olfactory sense.

Specifically in the Pacific Northwest, Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka), Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), and Chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta)1 are able to perform this amazing feat of natal homing. While each species has a different life cycle (for example, some species live multiple years in the ocean before migrating back upstream), they all have one thing in common: the ability to use their sense of smell to find their way back home.

I l l u s t r at i o n by Ro s a B r a n d t

Imprinting is biologically relevant learning that occurs during a sensitive period of development, usually a particular developmental stage or physiological state2. Olfactory imprinting is

Figure 1: How salmon find their way home.

Pacific salmon return to their stream.

possible for salmon because all rivers have different rocks, soil types, and plants, which make the river’s chemistry slightly different from other bodies of water.3 At a certain point in their development, salmon learn the odors of their ‘home’ stream.

After they have migrated to the ocean, spent a year or more feeding, and matured, they are attracted back to the learned odors of their natal river. Through a series of steps (Fig. 1), they swim upriver into streams, tributaries, and side-channels and keep going until they have found the exact spot they were born. Completing their lifecycle, they spawn in that same location.

Olfactory imprinting is only one of several methods of salmon homing that is currently being studied. Another example is the pheromone hypothesis, which states that each species of salmon leaves behind a population-specific odor that can be detected by the salmon migrating back to spawn. However, all the studies have shown one major conclusion: that homing is based on learned information only, and is not an instinctual behavior in salmon.3 That leaves us to wonder whether salmon imprint just once, early on in their lifetime, or multiple times on their long journey. As additional studies add to our knowledge of salmon, we should keep in mind this amazing ability they have to leave their home and later travel hundreds of miles to find that same bend in the river again. Because natal homing is a major aspect of the salmon life cycle, it is extremely crucial to their survival. In this way, homing plays a large role in the decision of how to best protect salmon species.

University of Puget Sound

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“My Brain Made Me Do It!”

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The Future of Neurolaw

Z uri J ohnson

W

W i k i m ed i a C o m m o n s

dala and the increase in violent behavior delayed Long’s hat if a criminal could point to a brain scan multiple death sentences.3 and say, “Right there is the reason why I killed that person”? With new advances in neuroAnother common tool in neurolaw is Functional Magscience, this could be reality in the near future. Brain imnetic Resonance Imaging, or fMRI, which determines ages are already offered in legal proceedhow long and how hard different regions ings for a variety of reasons, including to of the brain are working during particular prove incompetence to stand trial and to The fMRI machine works by using “Could we neurologically tasks. mitigate sentences. For example, in the a primary magnetic field to measure blood screen children’s brains to oxygenation levels in different regions of 1992 case of People v. Weinstein a defendant introduced images of a brain defect identify future criminals?” the brain because, similar to how muscles in order to support his argument that he need more oxygen while they are exerciswas not responsible for strangling his wife ing, regions of the brain need more oxygen and throwing her from a twelfth floor winif they are working harder.4 This ability to 1 dow. This intersection of neuroscience and law that used measure the differences in blood oxygenation levels is to be seen as science fiction is now a growing field in the used in fMRI lie detection because the brain is working academic world called neurolaw. harder when producing a lie.5

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Since 1985, Positron Emission Tomography or PET scans have been provided as evidence in the court of law. PET scans work by tracing the metabolism of an injected substance called a radiotracer, commonly flurodeoxyglucose (FDG), through the bloodstream.

The human body metabolizes FDG similarly to glucose because it is a naturally occurring radioactive glucose.

As the FDG moves down the bloodstream it releases positrons which quickly breakdown and release high energy gamma waves.

These waves are detected by the PET scanner and are displayed on a computer screen.2 Bobby Joe Long, a convicted serial killer known as the “classified-ad rapist”, underwent a neurological PET scan and when Gur, a psychology professor at University of Pennsylvania, studied the scans he found that Long has a damaged amygdala, which is the integrative center for emotional behavior and motivation. Gur discovered that Long had been in a motorcycle accident and it was only after the accident that he had violent tendencies. Being able to show the connection between the damaged amyg-

The plausibility of fMRI lie detection was shown in a study done in 2002 by Langleben and Schroeder using the Guilty Knowledge Test. In the Guilty Knowledge Test, subjects were given a playing card and then asked to lie about its identity. The subjects were placed in a fMRI and shown a series of cards. The subjects were asked if each card was the one that they had been given and Langleben found that the level of blood oxygenation in certain regions of the brain varied depending on whether the responses were deceptive or truthful.

Deceptive responses were generally accompanied by increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), the superior frontal gyrus (SFG), and the left premotor, motor, and anterior parietal cortex.6 These results indicated that there are cognitive differences between deceptive and truthful responses that can be detected by fMRI, which was a major breakthrough in the plausibility of a fMRI lie detector.7 Cephos corporation and No Lie MRI are currently in the process of developing fMRI lie detectors that could be used in courts, but the machines have to undergo exten-

Elements Magazine

by Dr. Adrian Raine of the University of Pennsylvania, that correlates to higher rates of antisocial behavior. Raine also studied brain scans of convicted murderers Lawrence Farwell developed another and found they had enlarged corpus calmethod of lie detection using neurosci“Similar to how a per- losums and smaller and less active amygence which he coined “Brain Fingerson’s muscles need more dalas and prefrontal cortexes. A further printing.” Brain Fingerprinting takes the study done by Raine showed that the deoxygen while they are crease in the size of these structures could subjectivity out of lie detection because instead of focusing on factors an indiexercising, regions of the be implicated in causing criminal behavior vidual can manipulate like heart rate and brain need more oxygen if rather than the criminal behavior reducemotion, it uses brain waves to detect ing the size of the structures. This was a they are working harder.” longitudinal study on fraternal and idenconcealed information stored in the brain.

Brain fingerprinting detects spikes in the tical twins, which was necessary because brain called P300 MERMER (Memory the scans of identical twins brains over and Encoding Related Multifaceted Electroencephalotime showed how environment changed the structure of two graphic Response) that happen up to 1200 milliseconds brains that started out identical.10 after a subject is shown a word or a picture that is relevant to the crime. In the field on neurolaw, pictures, words, Another neuropsychologist found that psychopaths have less or phrases containing salient details about the crime are gray matter in the paralimbic system which is the area of put up on a computer screen and the responses to the the brain that is believed to regulate emotion. This abnorstimuli are measured. If the analysis finds the charactermality was found by performing fMRI scans on three thouistic P300- MERMER spike then there is a statistical sand convicted criminals and would explain some common probability that the information is stored in the brain of characteristics of sociopaths like pathological lying, a lack the suspect. Brain fingerprinting leaves no room for subof empathy, impulsiveness and glibness.11 After numerous jectivity or interpretation because it is simply a determiexperiments showing a correlation behind childhood brain nation of “information present” or “information absent”.8 structures and criminal behavior, some scientists in the field The FBI, CIA, and US Navy have done both laboratory argue that all young children should be screened for brain and field tests with Brain Fingerprinting and have found abnormalities in order to prevent future crimes. The field that 100% of the determinations are correct with no false of neurolaw is steadily growing and is likely to influence our positives or negatives.9 legal system from fMRI lie detectors to the screening of children for criminal characteristics.

Could we neurologically screen children’s brains to identify future criminals? The field of neurocriminology tries to address this question by using neuroscience to predict and potentially reduce crime. Research has already been done in this field that has identified certain neurological markers in young children that correlate to higher rates of criminal behavior or criminal characteristics like antisocial behavior.

One example of this is a brain abFunctional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) shows how brain activity changes with different activities, including emotional regulation. Each panel above compares brain activity when people view normality found negative images. The brain behaves differently when people try to suppress their emotions, change in fetuses called their emotions (from stress to calm, for example), or view passively. In court, fMRI scans could be cavum septum used when suspects are presented with images of a crime scene; a suspect who’s trying to keep pellucidum, found calm and tell a lie wouldn’t be able to conceal the truth in a brain scan.

University of Puget Sound

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O p e n-i

sive peer-reviewed studies to be considered reliable and valid.6

Gold Nanoparticles

E mily B rown W i k i m ed i a C o m m o n s

by

Is cancer research finally panning out?

C

ancer seems to be the disease that just won’t die; it has been around since prehistoric times1 and is currently the second leading cause of death in the U.S.2 There are over 200 different types of cancer, plus individual differences between patients, so there’s no one-size-fits-all answer to finding a cure3. Radiation and chemotherapy (or drug therapy) are two of the most common treatments, but they each have limitations. The main problem is that these therapies aren’t specific to cancer cells, so they kill healthy cells too.4,5 This lack of selectivity leads to negative side effects such as nausea, fatigue, vomiting, infection, hair loss, and permanent hearing loss, some of which can even occur years after treatment.4,5 Gold nanoparticles are tiny bits of gold (or bits of other materials coated in gold) with diameters about 100 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair. Recent research points to nanoparticles as a viable way to improve current therapies like chemo and radiation.

Tumors have their own network of blood vessels that is more leaky than the blood vessels in the rest of the body. Tumors also don’t get drained by the immune system, which means that when a solution of gold nanoparticles is injected into the bloodstream, the particles leak into the tumors and stay there, while any that remain are cleared from the body. These qualities of Gold nanoparticles synthesized in a lab.

Structure of a gold nanoparticle.

tumors can can help gold nanoparticles fight cancer in a variety of ways.

Gold nanoparticles, like other objects, absorb radiation, which causes them to heat up. The frequency of the radiation they absorb depends on their shape and size, so they can be designed to absorb frequencies that living organisms can’t, particularly in the near infrared region (NIR). This means that tissue in the human body won’t be affected directly by the radiation, but gold nanoparticles inside the body will still heat up because of it.

Since the gold nanoparticles accumulate inside tumors and are expelled from the rest of the body, radiation can be targeted to kill only the cells in the tumor. Gold nanoparticles can be used for this purpose on their own, or in conjunction with surgery to get rid of any cancer cells that were missed by the knife.6 In addition to absorbing radiation, the surface of gold nanoparticles is easy to attach to other molecules. If a cancer-killing drug is attached, it will end up in tumors instead of healthy cells, which means there’s finally hope to have cancer-specific chemotherapy. Researchers in the 1990s tested a drug called tumor necrosis factor-alpha, but it was found to be extremely toxic in humans. Now gold nanoparticles are able to safely deliver it to tumors, opening doors for the safe use of other previously dangerous drugs as well.7

P h oto by K i r a T h u r m a n

Similarly, dye molecules or other light-scattering particles can be attached to gold nanoparticles and captured by tumors to provide novel imaging techniques. Besides offering information about location, imaging with gold nanoparticles can be used to simultaneously determine many other things about tumors, such as where they originated and how likely they are to spread to other parts of the body.7,8 These cancer therapies are still in clinical trials and waiting for government approval, but nano-treatments are predicted to skyrocket before the decade is up.8 In the fight against cancer, gold seems to provide a wealth of opportunities.

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A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence

Technology through the ages C alder W hit el e y

rtificial beings appear in literature centuries before the Greeks. Today, artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the theory and development of computer systems able to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making, and translation between languages.1 More generally, AI can be defined as the power of a machine or object to copy intelligent human behavior. Throughout history, humans have sought or believed in AI, attributing human-like intelligence to non-human objects or beings.

considered intelligent.3 AI research became an academic discipline in 1956 after a group of scientists, organized by Marvin Minsky, began to contemplate designing an artificial brain. The first mechanical neural network, the Stochastic Neural Analog Reinforcement Calculator (SNARC), was created by Minsky and Dean Edmonds. SNARC is one of the first self-learning intelligent machines. Minsky went on to spearhead research into AI for many years following. Carnegie Mellon University, MIT, the Stanford AI Project, and the AI Laboratory at Edinburgh University became the prominent locations for AI Research, but in the mid 1970s several problems emerged.4 Though expectations were high, few results and limited computing power to accomplish anything significant resulted in a loss of funding.

Artificial intelligence can be traced as far back as the 10th century BCE, and is referenced in literature and mythology from Ancient Greece (5th century BCE) and the Middle Ages (5th15th century AD). In the 10th century BCE, The 1980s lead to the rise of a new focus in King Mu of Zhou was presented with a lifethe programming of AI. “Expert systems” size mechanical humanoid by Yan Shi that was were created with very specialized funccapable of walking, head movement, and singtions, rather than programs designed for ing.2 Greek mythology asserts that Hephaestus general knowledge.4 Funding returned to constructed two giant golden robots to help him move around, and the story of Galatea of AI research in the governments of the UnitPygmalion says the sculptor Pygmalion fell so ed Kingdom and Japan, the Microelectronin love with one of his creations that he sought Disclaimer: this is not what ics and Computer Technology Corporation, Deep Blue looks like. to bring her to life.3,4 In the Middle Ages, aland the Defense Advanced Research Projects chemy was an explanation for the rumored creAgency (DARPA), and in the last decade AIs ation of synthetic life, such as the Takwin technique: creation have come a long way.4 In 1996 Deep Blue, IBM’s chess-playing of synthetic life in the laboratory, the goal of certain alchemists. supercomputer, won a single game but lost the match against the Another such rumored creation was the Golem of Prague, reigning world chess champion, Garry Kasparov.4 However, a known as Yossele, which was created by Rabbi Judah Loew ben year later Deep Blue won a best of six rematch with Kasparov.

Bezalel to defend the Jewish people of Prague from persecution In 2005, a Stanford robot won a DARPA challenge by driving by the Holy Roman Empire. Yossele was an animated anthroautonomously for 131 miles in unknown terrain and a few years pomorphic being, created entirely from inanimate matter. later, a CMU robot won a similar DARPA challenge by driving for 55 miles through an urban environment while obeying Leibniz, Hobbes, and Descartes proposed that rational all traffic laws. In 2011, IBM’s Watson supercomputer trounced thought, systems of which had been developed by several anBrad Rutter and Ken Jennings on Jeopardy, both of whom are cient civilizations as early as the first millennium BCE, could considered the greatest Jeopardy champions to date. be reduced to a discipline equivalent to mathematics.4 In the 20th century the work of Gödel, Turing, and Church proved A new focus in AI research, the “intelligent agent”, appeared in there were limits to what mathematics and logic could solve, but the 1990s. The intelligent agent is designed to perceive and anaalso suggested that any line of mathematical reasoning could lyze its environment and follow a course of action to maximize be mechanically proceduralized. Actual calculating machines its chance of success. Everyday technologies, such as web crawlhave been built throughout history by many mathematicians. ers for Google’s search engine, speech recognition, banking softThe first modern computers were code breaking machines from ware, and medical diagnosis all depend on the intelligent agent WWII, several of which were developed by John Von Neualgorithms originally created by AI researchers.5 AI has come 4 mann, a Hungarian-American mathematician. a long way, and is now widely used, but it also raises numerous ethical and philosophical questions. What defines human intelIn 1950, Turing proposed the possibility of the creation of ligence? Will machines become smarter than humans? Over the machines with true intelligence. What became known as the next few decades, advances in AI will continue to challenge our Turing Test stated that if a machine could hold a conversation perceptions of intelligence and humanity. that was indistinguishable from one with a human, it could be

University of Puget Sound

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I l l u s t r at i o n by J o rda n D i l l ey

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by

Orchids

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The reason I have trust issues

Tony C harvoz

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floral rewards and attract pollinators using a couple of different wily tactics.

One of these schemes is to mimic nectar-bearing flowers that insects normally visit in order to collect nectar. Orchids have evolved flowers that are similar in color, size, and shape to other flowers that typically offer rewards.1 Some orchid flowers will even mimic color spectra visible to insects but invisible to humans, such as ultraviolet light.

Furthermore, orchids can complete the picture by producing a fragrance that resembles a nectar reward.

An unsuspecting bee or other insect on a mission for nectar investigates the mimic and finds not a spot Trust us - this Ophrys umbilicata isn’t photoshopped, and is ready of nectar! Not only that, Many species of orchids for some bee-lovin’! but the bee now has pol(family Orchidaceae) lack linia (sacs containing anywhere from 50 to 1000 pollen grains) from the deceptive orchid stuck to it, and betrayed and cursing, the bee leaves the flower. Insects seem to fall for this trick repeatedly, and thus unwittingly spread pollen among orchid plants and help them reproduce. any of us are familiar with the iconic relationship between flowering plants and insect pollinators. Plants produce dazzling flowers in the hopes of attracting insects or other pollinators, and reward them with nectar for visiting the plant and collecting pollen. Everybody wins! But did you ever wonder if plants try to cheat this system, enticing insects to visit their flowers but ending up confusing the poor critters? One group of plants has done just that, and they continue to baffle pollinators with their oddly-attractive flowers devoid of scrumptious nectary treats.

Orchids also take advantage of insects by toying with their hearts. Some orchid species (many living in Australia and on the Mediterranean coast) have evolved flowers that closely imitate female insects and attract lustful males!2 Orchids may specialize on mimicking a female of a certain insect species, and some even mimic the behavior of the females. For example, there are certain species of wasps that mate in a very unique manner. The female wasp is incapable of flight, and crawls to the top of a plant when she’s ready to mate. There she waits, releasing pheromones that alert males to her presence, until she catches the attention of a male flying by. The male will lift the female off of the plant and mate with her mid-flight while erotic melodies of “A Whole New World” mingle with flickering candlelight. Passionate indeed. Naturally, Clearly Orchis galilaea is dressed to impress. the devious orchid exploits such behav-

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What a happy little heart-breaker! Orchis italica might be a little too happy here...

a set of chromosomes from each parent to create offspring would suffer the most from wasting costly sperm. However, most deceptive orchid species are pollinated by solitary haplodiploid species, whose females have the ability to produce male offspring even when there is no other parent involved in reproduction! When orchids, instead of female wasps, receive the wasp sperm, females give birth to a greater proportion of male offspring. This benefits both parties by providing the orchids with more potential male pollinators to charm and then dupe, and by increasing the overall number of males in the wasp populations to offset the harmful cost of premature ejaculation. In general, a haplodiploid mating system seems to be necessary for the pollinators in order to keep orchid deception from causing the extinction of pollinator species that fall for orchid shenanigans.

It seems that humans aren’t the only organisms capable of deception and exploitation. Now you have to wonder if plants actually mean all the nice things they say to you, or whether they’re just using you for their own personal gain. Be wary of that attractive individual giving you bedroom eyes at the bar next time you’re out on the town; behind that dreamy smile may be a cunning plant looking to exploit you for its own reproductive benefit.

ior for its own gain. Some orchids use female wasp-like structures to lure in prowling male wasps, and when a male tries to lift the mimic structure off the flower, he is unable to do so because “she” is connected to the plant! In some cases the force of the male trying to sweep her off her wasp feet causes him to brush against the pollinia of the flower. In other cases, the connection between the mimic structure and the flower causes the exertion of the male to send him hurtling headlong into the pollinia.3

Ophrys bornmuelleri displays orchid deception at its finest.

P h oto s by B e t s y K i r k p at r i c k

On top of each of these artful reproductive strategies, there are still more orchids that have come up with creative ways to spread their pollen and procreate using naïve insects. Orchids and other flowering plant species possess a specialized petal known as the labellum that often functions as a landing platform for potential insect pollinators. Whereas the orchids mentioned before exploit the insects’ sexual behavior, others need only to be touched in the right place in order to cover the insects in pollen. The sensitive labellum on some orchids that resemble reward-bearing flowers will catapult the unsuspecting insect into a curved hood. The only way for the insect to escape is by brushing past the reproductive structures, and in doing this they deliver pollen to the present plant and acquire more pollen for transport to the next!

Naturally, these deceptive tactics seem to operate at the expense of the pollinator. Sometimes, a male in the throes of passion releases his seed all over that naughty flower. Ejaculation of the male orchid dupe wasp (Lissopimpla excela) in response to floral stimuli has been studied in order to determine how this wasp species continues to survive while getting repeatedly robbed of precious sperm by orchid mimics. As it turns out, this relationship persists due to chromosome-level reproductive characteristics and the mating system of the pollinators.4 Diploid species that require

University of Puget Sound

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The B iological G lass M enagerie by

S t ephan R aiders

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othing will make you want to switch your career to field biology faster than glass animals, that is animals that are either partially or completely transparent. Transparent animals come from places all over the world and fill many interesting niches in their respective ecosystems, from the deep ocean to tropical rainforests and in all shapes and sizes. This fascinating adaptation is usually found in Pelagic Zone (deep sea) marine animals because the transparency of cytoplasm (cell goo) is close to that of water and affords a simply elegant method of camouflage.

Although glass animals are more prevalent in the oceans, there is still a enthralling array of land animals that employ transparency.1 These animals tend to be much more fragile (because of the loss of structural proteins that block light) than their pigmented counterparts, making their use of this unique form of camouflage a significant gamble for the organism.2

Glass Octopus

Di d

you kn o The Glass Octo- The w p lura ? pus is a uniquely l of i s transparent octooc t opo octopu pus found in tropide s s ! cal and sub-tropical waters around the world.

Their bodies are completely transparent, concealing them against predators. Octopodes have developed many interesting traits to avoid predators, including their boneless bodies, the ability to move quickly and squeeze into tight spaces, as well as their famous ink spray. There are also other Transparent camouflage developed over time as an evolutionary arms race beadaptations that various species of octopodes tween predators and prey. An example of this phenomenon can be found in the have developed, transparency being one of Barreleye Fish (also known as a Spook Fish). The barreleye is normally pigmented the more interesting examples. To improve like other fish, except that the top of its head is completely transparent. The fish upon the transparent concealment, Glass Occan orient its barrel-shaped eyes (hence the name) straight upward to detect the topodes have their internal organs oriented silhouette of available prey. Since transparency makes the animal more fragile, it along the length of their bodies so that when is beneficial for the barreleye to be only partially transparent. It typically swims they are situated vertically in the water (their below its prey and can hide in the darker and lower layers of the ocean. This alpreferred position) their internal organs will lows it to use its dark pigmentation to hide just as effectively as if the fish were cast a smaller and therefore less noticeable 6 completely transparent.3 shadow.

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W i k i m ed i a C o m m o n s

Barreleye Fish

Glass Frog

While most glass animals reside in the ocean, there are still examples of transparency on land. One of the most famous examples is the glass frog, found in Central and South America. At this time they are the only known four-legged chordate (meaning they have a spinal cord) with transparent skin. Their abdominal side (belly) is transparent, which reveals their organs. From the perspective of a scientist, glass frogs provide an excellent opportunity to observe living organs in action because it doesn’t require harming the animal via surgery to observe the internal organs directly. In nature, it is believed that the transparent abdominal skin allows the frog to blend in to the green leaves on which they reside. Light can pass through their entire bodies except the intestines and heart - even their bones are green!1

Salp

Due to the issue of fragility and the fact that cytoplasm is more opaque than air, transparent land animals tend to use transparency to complement other methods of camouflage. Glasswing butterflies are an astonishingly beautiful butterfly that look exactly like the name implies. They have delicate clear wings ringed by brown pigment on the edge, which, along with their dark brown bodies, helps them to blend in with vegetation.

They are found in Latin America and are called by the locals “espejitos” which translates from Spanish to “little mirrors.”

They have managed this tiny miracle by never developing the colored scales that most butterflies do. Additionally, the adults are toxic due to the poisonous plants they consume as caterpillars, lending them another unique method of survival.5

Glasswing Butterfly

Many marine animals do not have their own form of locomotion, and therefore require camouflage to evade predation. A notable example of a transparent animal that depends entirely on camouflage for survival is the Populous Salp. Salps live in the open ocean in colonies that form long chains. Their bodies are essentially clear tubes through which they filter water in order to catch plankton for food. Salps have an interesting reproductive cycle that includes both asexual and sexual reproduction. It is interesting to note that salps have a notochord, which is essentially an underdeveloped spinal cord. Salps have to be transparent due to the large size of these colonies. Since their movement is dependent on tides, they cannot escape oncoming predators and therefore benefit from avoiding being seen from a distance.4

University of Puget Sound

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The Wondrous World of Research Student Experiences

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he University of Puget Sound is well known for amazing opportunities for undergraduate research. As our students can attest, many of our science classes have mandatory lab requirements that can necessitate about as much time as the lecture portion of the course. But for those students enamored with the idea of research as a career, beyond independent projects for class there are a multitude of research opportunities just around the corner! Whether you apply for a grant through the university, work on a summer internship at a lab off campus, or conduct research in another country, the possibilities are endless! Read on for some student experiences doing research off campus...

Bacterial plates in the lab.

Off Campus Internship

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K ira Thurman

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ast summer I had the wonderful opportunity to work at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), a U.S. Department of Energy national research laboratory located in Richland, Washington.

Nanotechnology is a relatively new field in chemistry and has a myriad of applications ranging from electrical to biochemical and medical uses. The nanoparticles I worked with were used as sorbents to remove heavy metals from waste water and as antimicrobial agents.

The antibacterial and antimicrobial properties of nanoparticles are of significant interest to scientists as more bacteria become antibiotic resistant. Strains can become resistant through natural selection and by the overuse or improper use of antibiotics. Found in hospitals and nursing homes, these emerging antibiotic resistant bacterial strains have become a problem around the world, and new antimicrobial agents are required to combat them. There are many nanoparticles that have antimicrobial properties, such as silver, copper, and zinc, to name a few. While these nanoparticles have been successful in inhibiting bacteria growth, they are also toxic to human cells. Still, you have to start somewhere!

Lab work at PNNL differed vastly from lab courses I have taken at Puget Sound. Having just taken analytical chemistry, I had some experience at making precise measurements. However, at PNNL, most of the synthesis work I performed required only approxi-

mate values for pH. Safety was emphasized much more heavily at PNNL as well. The safety lecture at the beginning of a chemistry lab course at Puget Sound typically entails watching a 10-minute safety video from the 90s and a brief lecture on the first day of lab. In contrast, at PNNL I spent about 20 hours completing several training courses including cyber security training, emergency eyewash and safety shower training, and biosafety cabinet training. In addition, every piece of equipment I used and each lab I had access to had an associated training course. The other big difference was the one-on-one attention.

In school lab courses, the ratio is typiIron Oxide cally 15-18 students with one professor Nanoparticles. and one CA. At PNNL, I worked oneon-one with a research scientist. Due to the increased training and close supervision, I was able to use equipment and chemicals that I have not yet used here at Puget Sound, such as acid dilutions with pure nitric acid (always add acid to water!) and a rare earth magnet, which is very powerful.

P h oto s by K i r a T h u r m a n

Researching Nanoparticles

Last summer was an amazing, rewarding experience and one that I would recommend to every science major. I would like to thank Cindy Bruckner-Lea and Marvin Warner for making this opportunity possible for me and especially my mentor, Cindy Warner, for her time and patience.

We asked professors about their favorite aspects of research and any advice they had for students...here’s what they had to say: In contrast to many other aspects of college, scientific research requires immense self-motivation and comfort pursuing “no right answer” work. It’s a know-thyself pursuit - a career in research is exceptionally rewarding for some, and frustrating for others - the traditional metrics of professional structure, requirements, and expectations are not always clear or relevant.

-Dr. Kena Fox-Dobbs, Geology Dept.

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[I like doing research because] you can be the first one to know the answers.

-Dr. John Hanson, Chemistry Dept.

Working with Global Medical Brigades Study Abroad Internship M argare t C owl es

T

his past summer I worked with Global Medical Brigades in the Durien region of Panama as a summer intern, along with 30 other college students from across the nation. We analyzed community water quality (chlorine and pH imbalance lead to most of the medical problems in the area) and waste management techniques (to create an effective landfill). We also spent a day building compost latrines with community members. We learned about tropical diseases and ran a clinic, shadowed doctors, and took vitals for more than 150 patients. We also taught various health topics, from dental hygiene for kids to sex education for adults. Using our research and observations of both the indigenous and Latino communities, my research group formulated a feasible project and proposed a plan for implementation in the following months.

The Darien communities were receptive to our presence and our proposal. Through observation, surveys, and clinical experience, the need for more accessible health care was clearly established; therefore, my group and I proposed implementing community health workers to help create more accessible health care services.

within communities is to provide the citizens with better health education, as well as access to immediate medical assistance. This program is a vital tool for Global Brigades in implementing the Sustainable Transition Strategy in the communities during the upcoming years. In other words, the aim of the program is to help the community help themselves by providing the training and resources for the community to thrive without the long-term dependence of Global Brigades. With CHWs, the community can take steps to better the health care that is already available to them through MINSA (Ministerio de Salud de la RepĂşblica de PanamĂĄ, the ministry of health in Panama), a valuable future partner.

The CHWs would be trained to recognize signs and symptoms of common illnesses and injuries, identify emergencies and act accordingly, effectively refer patients to the correct health centers, prevent disease, provide support for patients with chronic illness, advocate for individuals and community health needs, collect data to identify community health needs, and be a means of communication between the community and health centers. The overall goal of CHW implementation is to facilitate the Sustainable Transition Strategy of Global Brigades Medical/Dental and Public Health Programs. Furthermore, CHWs provide the community with the resources to assess health care needs while giving the community local assistance from someone they know and trust.

P h oto C o u r te s y of M a r g a r e t C ow l e s

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International fieldwork provides not just rewarding research opportunities but also cultural experiences, including flying in a small plane while seated on a propane tank, learning that mindless government bureaucracy apparently exists in all countries, and smiling and nodding a lot when local accents and slang prove challenging to interpret.

-Dr. Peter Hodum, Biology Dept.

P h oto s C o u r te s y of D e [a r t m e n t / I n d i v i d ua l

The Darien health care system has numerous constraints, including limited knowledge about disease prevention, long lines at clinics, and medicine shortages at health centers.

One of the most efficient solutions to these problems is the implementation of commuMargaret shadowing a doctor in nity health workers (CHWs) within comPanama. munities. These CHWs are members of the Working and researching abroad is an amazing community who are chosen by their peers and experience. Spending a month in the middle of Global Brigades staff to provide basic health and medical care to the jungle in Panama, though very hot and humid, allows for perthe community. sonal growth, unique interactions and learning opportunities, and fun stories to tell your friends! Whether you work abroad indeThe establishment of CHWs coincides with Global Brigades’ ho- pendently like I did, or through the University of Puget Sound, listic model in regards to current medical programs. In addition I highly recommend it to everyone. Going outside your comfort to Darien, Global Brigades has successfully established this pro- zone can open doors you may not have known existed! gram in Zurzurlar, Honduras. The goal of implementing CHWs

I love doing research at a field station because of the amazing community of scholars found there. Conversations are always interesting, I laugh a lot, but I also work really hard. It feels great to be totally immersed in doing the work that I love while surrounded by others who are doing the same.

-Dr. Stacey Weiss, Biology Dept.

University of Puget Sound

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Poisonous Passion

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An evolutionary arms race

D avid H o

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hat happens when you get cyanide poisoning? You start experiencing difficulty breathing because the cyanide binds to and stops cytochrome c, a key enzyme in cellular respiration, from functioning.1 This is not a pleasant feeling, and that is exactly what plants that produce cyanide-related compounds want. Plants, when threatened or in danger, can’t engage in flight or fight as animals do; therefore, plants have to evolve other mechanisms to protect themselves, including production of poisonous chemical compounds.

Generalized herbivores eat a wide variety of plants and have the ability to move on to a different species when they have ingested a high amount of poison from a particular species.

However, for specialized herbivores - animals that feed only on one or on very few plant species - there are only two options in response to high levels of poison: succumb to death and eventual extinction when the plant outsmarts them, or evolve ways to counter those defenses.

Specialized interactions between herbivores and plants sometimes lead to a battle of coevolution, where each species evolves a response to the other. Theoretically, this can only end with one winner: the herbivore or the plant.

W i k i m ed i a C o m m o n s

vacuoles are broken, the glycosides and enzymes come together, and poisoning begins!1 While this mechanism of avoiding herbivory is useful against a wide range of herbivores, there seems to be one group of 39 butterfly species that Passiflora cannot harm.

Heliconius butterflies are able to avoid certain death by using the poison to their advantage. These beautiful and sneaky butterflies specialize on Passiflora and eat and lay their eggs exclusively on them.

Just a single caterpillar is able to eat all of the leaves of a plant!

The feeding caterpillars have evolved a mechanism to incorporate the poison into their own bodies, effectively turning themselves poisonous to avoid being eaten by their own predators.1 Besides using the poison directly, studies have also shown Passiflora, the The beautiful flower of Passiflora cerulae. that the caterpassion vine, is pillars are able a genus of about to remove the 500 species disnitrogen from the cyanogenic glycosides in order to use it in persed globally in the tropics. These plants produce juicy passion their own metabolism.1 So what is a plant to do when its chemifruits, a part of many tropical countries’ cuisine. Many species cal defense is now ineffective against Heliconius butterflies? of Passiflora are able to deter herbivores by creating chemicals called cyanogenic glycosides and putting them in storage units Since Heloconius butterflies lay eggs on the leaves of the vine, called vacuoles in their cells. In separate vacuoles, there are ensome species of Passiflora turn to deception and pretend to be zymes that are able to turn the cyanogenic glycoside into cyaanother plant. They have modified their leaves to look like the nide. When pesky herbivores bite down on the leaf tissue, the

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leaves of their non-Passiflora neighbors, hoping to fool butterflies into laying their eggs elsewhere. However, even trying to be inconspicuous to avoid their parasitoid enemies does not always seem to be completely effective. Heliconius butterflies can not only visual cues, but also chemical cues to identify Passiflora.2 Once found, some Passiflora have evolved another form of deception: modified structures on their leaves that resemble the Heliconius eggs.2 By doing this, they take advantage of the cannibalistic nature of the caterpillars; female Heliconius butterflies are less likely lay their own eggs on leaves already bearing eggs, fearing theirs would be eaten by another female’s offspring.3

Though we may not realize it, plants are not immobile and helpless. They are not always fighters in the classic sense of killing or calling for help, but can evolve means of defense through poison and deceit. When their herbivore enemies then evolve to escape the plant’s defenses, this forces the plant to evolve new defenses, each driving the evolution of the other. Passiflora vines are currently in this coevolutionary arms race against Heliconius butterflies that seem to be able to thwart the vine at every turn. Will the passion vines win in the end or will the butterflies prevail? Will there be a winner at all? Only time can tell what new tricks Passiflora can come up with to stop Heliconius butterflies once and for all.

P h oto by Dav i d H o

For certain Passiflora species that might not have egg mimics, a different defense is employed to prevent herbivory: killing the eggs. Some Passiflora species, like P. antigua, have long appendages at the base of their leaves called stipules on which the eggs are laid. Once the stipules grow to a certain size they drop to the ground - eggs and all. Other Passiflora have hair-like growths on their leaves called trichomes that could pierce a newly hatched caterpillar when it moves on the leaf. Unfortunately, some Heliconius caterpillars are able to get around trichomes by covering them in protective silk mats or biting off the hook-shaped tips.4

The last Passiflora defense involves the help of insect defenders.

Some Passiflora species have extra-floral nectaries located on the base of their leaves, which secrete nectar to attract ants or wasps.

While floral nectaries in flowers serve as a reward for pollinators that transfer pollen between individual plants, these extra-floral nectaries secrete nectar for the sole purpose of attracting ants or wasps. The ants and wasps protect the plant and its nectaries from any incoming butterflies that want to lay their eggs on the plant. Some wasps even allow Heliconius eggs to be laid but the wasps end up parasitizing the eggs with their own!5 Have these species of Passiflora finally found a way of defending themselves indefinitely from Heliconius butterflies by recruiting ant and wasp defenders?

A Heliconius butterfly in Costa Rica.

University of Puget Sound

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The Benefits of Brain-Mapping and Neurofeedback by

M argare t C owl es

A

re you recovering from a concussion? Suffering from anxiety, depression or ADD/ADHD? Plagued by migraines? Having trouble sleeping? Over the last 40 years, a new technique called neurofeedback has been explored as a means to treat these neurological problems. This technique targets areas of the brain identified as lower functioning, and “re-trains” them by offering the patient positive stimuli in response to desired brain behavior, and negative stimuli in response to undesirable brain behavior.1 To observe these behaviors, brain activity is monitored using electroencephalograph (EEG). Through computerized stimuli and effectively placed sensors on the scalp and ears, neurofeedback allows the patient to train their brain to behave in specific ways, thereby aiding with ADHD, insomnia, anxiety, and more.2 Neurofeedback, also known as EEG biofeedback, is a specific type of self-regulation training that focuses on improving the function of the central nervous system. Neurofeedback is a type of biofeedback; biofeedback uses measurement of bodily functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle tension, whereas neurofeedback refers specifically to the use of information from the central nervous system. Both are used by patients to learn to control and change these bodily functions.

wires attached to their head with what looks like slimy goo.

The wires are connected to a computer program and the patient must calm their brain waves to complete a computer game or task.1 Depending on the treatment center, the method of treatment varies. In my experience with neurofeedback, I watched a movie and every time my brain did something outside the set parameters, the movie paused until I was able to self-calm my brain to re-start the movie. There are also games involving brain functionality. One of these involves essentially driving a car with your brain; more desirable brain activity causes the car to go faster, while less desirable activity leads the car to slow or crash temporarily until the patient is able to self-calm and focus. These games subconsciously train the brain to calm itself down and function optimally. Different parameters target different areas of the brain, helping patients with depression, anxiety, ADHD, etc.

W i k i m ed i a C o m m o n s

Neurotherapy, the general concept of using neurofeedback to train specific areas of the brain, is especially helpful for decreasing the intensity of specific emotional problems, such as traumatic memories, attention deficit, sleep problems, excessive anger or fear, depression, and anxiety.3 This form of therapy is a learning process for the brain. Teaching the brain to remember how to calm itself under stressful circumstances can take time.

This technique, however, has had significant long term or even permanent, positive results for many, increasing the quality of life for patients with previously unsuccessful An example of a neruofeedback therapy session. treatments.3

Neurofeedback relies upon brain mapping and the EEG, which measures the electrical patterns or brain waves that are reflected on the scalp from the interior cortical activity. A qEEG is the quantitative analysis of an EEG, which provides a visual representation of the patterns of brain waves.2 These visual representations appear as a colorful map showing the quantitative tendencies of a person’s brain waves, recorded by a computer.2 These ‘brain maps’ give neurofeedback experts an idea of what parts of your brain are ‘low functioning,’ or aren’t processing at their highest potential. For example, concussions can change brain chemistry and affect the brain in ways MRIs and CT scans cannot detect. Sometimes specific parts of the brain begin functioning at a lower level, causing symptoms such as difficulty focusing. Through brain mapping with qEEG, the part of the brain that is struggling can be pinpointed, and through neurofeedback can be re-trained to function at a higher level.

During neurofeedback therapy, patients sit in a comfortable chair facing a computer screen with electrodes connected to

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Clinically shown to improve symptoms of patients with ADHD, biofeedback is now considered an evidence-based treatment and is increasingly being used to treat a variety of psychological disorders.2 Biofeedback is a treatment approved for both children and adults struggling with ADD/ADHD, anxiety, sleep disorders, autism, migraines, and several other challenges.4 It has also been shown to help organic brain conditions like cerebral palsy, seizures, and all levels of autism.5 After several concussions and a traumatic experience, I began suffering from severe migraines, sometimes three and four times a week. After neurofeedback, the frequency, duration and severity of my migraines declined. Personally, I recommend biofeedback as a non-invasive alternative to drugs and pharmaceutical solutions.

Elements Magazine

The Allium from

“ Recip The Joy o f e Mate : The I-ha Cooking : Tho rials ven’t

-left: cra mpso Tho yfis n

/Har mpso Arab h from A n ned i n idop nima -3-d E sis le onio a ys-I’m dition” aves, l Phys, d ns (n -Star ecea chop onan SD b ving sed p roth e t d h ropo Dinn from herb m er orph Gene s of c i c), d Meth tics S hoic hone e ic torer ods: y fro oom ed m Th from Gre boil enho DI w omps use a

on in sa ter in ro undfety h

boil botto cr o m fla

cara ayfish in od sk wi meli ze on flask th he

heat ion & atin SD b g ma roth

drizz Arab ntle w le cr i i d t h opsis herb ayfis

serve l eave s to h atop s in h

onio with herb infuse oney ns & -infu Arab s e d S idop sis on D broth a pet ri d ish

P h oto by K at h r y n Pa p o u l i a s

Disclaimer: Here at Elements, we are always cooking up a storm of scientific ideas... and recipes!

Turns out our brains need lots of energy to keep those creative (onion) juices flowing, and thinking scientific minds need to refuel. Just be careful not to chop too many onions in the process... chances are you might cry. Or you might find The Allium, our comedic section, so hysterical you might just end up crying anyway.

Bon Appétit!

University of Puget Sound

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Book Reviews Elements staff reviews recent books published

by University of Puget Sound professors

P h oto s by J o rda n D i l l ey u si n g W i k i m ed i a C o m m o n s

How to See Every National Park in the Continental U.S. in 24 Hours

by Barry Goldstein Barry Goldstein knows there’s always room for more minerals in your day. This comprehensive guide explains how you can enjoy Olympic rainforests, scale the slopes of Rainier, stay cool in Death Valley, climb Yosemite, and raft the Grand Canyon before an early breakfast at the Crater Lake Lodge on the road to Zion. This edition includes bonus trips to Denali and the Hawai’i volcanoes for the true voyager.

Statistics, Squirrels, and You

by James Bernhard

The Many Ways to Die by Mary Rose Lamb

Prehistoric Vocalizations by Eric Scharrer

From a student reader: “I came to college totally undecided about how I wanted to die. Thanks to Professor Lamb’s new book, I have so many possibilities. From polar bears in the arctic to the Great Blood Bank in the Sky, her suggestions are immortal!” Sometimes bad things happen to good chromosomes, err, people. And when those things happen, Professor Lamb is here to save the day!

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S q u i r r e l P h oto B y J a m e s B e r n h a rd

Dr. Bernhard’s latest work explains the basics of statistics in an easy-to-read format, all the while using everyone’s favorite small furry rodent. Use squirrel data to learn about hypothesis tests, confidence intervals, and more!

So easy you’ll go nuts!

Elements Magazine

Talk like a triceratops, shout like a stegosaurus, and WOW friends with your brachiosaurus bellows! Eric’s how-to guide will prepare you for any type of interaction, whether steric, esoteric, Jurassic, or geriatric.

People will be diggin’ this literary artifact for 65 million years! *CD INCLUDED!*

THE THOMPSON/HARNED OLYMPICS COMING SPRING 2014 Have you started training to compete in next year’s Thompson/Harned Olympics?

Biology vs. Chemistry!

Geology vs. Physics!

Math vs. Computer Science!

SPORT

Come one, come all!

Be sure not to miss these intense events...

LOCATION

Seastar Wrestling Rock Lifting Diving Roller-Chair Derby

Marine Biology Lab Geology Resource Rm. Courtyard Fountain Laps 1st, 2nd, 3rd

Floor TH/HA Precision Parabolas Math Dept. Chalkboard Clock that Reaction Organic Chemistry Lab Pipette Tip Javelin Cell Biology Lab Guess the Vector Angle Physics Resource Rm. Capture the Flag Oppenheimer Peak

Staring down the competition . . .

Armed and ready for battle!

P h oto s by K at h r y n Pa p o u l i a s

AND THEY’RE OFF!

How far can you launch the pipette tip?

Thanks to these competitors for letting us photograph their rigorous training: Bonnie Wirth, Kelsey Crutchfield-Peters, Carlo Balleria, Spencer Gordon, Anne Fetrow

University of Puget Sound

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and now...

HOLIDAY SONGS from ELEMENTS

On the twelfth day of Christmas, my true love gave to me...

by Angelica Kong

Twelve Hypoglossal, the m o r f Eleven Accessory, idays ! l o H e Ten trips down to Vagus, appy rbor Vita e matter H it A Nine Glossopharyngeal, a wh . f o Eight Vestibulocochelar, ming istmas.. a e r D Seven dwarves got Facials, Chr Six pack of Abducens, Five Trigeminal!

Four sips of Cochlear, Three Oculomotor, Two eyes to the Optic, and One nerve in the Ol’factory!

Dremel, Dremel

by Kathryn Papoulias

I l l u s t r at i o n by L a ke T h e l e n

I have a little dremel, I use it to drill holes Now the fossil’s ready, I’ll try to keep it whole

Oh dremel, dremel, dremel,

I use it to drill holes

Oh dremel, dremel, dremel,

fossil-hunting I will go!

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Elements Magazine

P h oto by L a ke T h e l e n u si n g W i k i m ed i a C o m m o n s

The Twelve Cranial Nerves of Christmas

University of Puget Sound

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Answers: one large carnivore has his head replaced, two quills decide to switch, a tanager and toucan are replaced by close relatives, two frog skulls jump places, a wing and egg change color, and a rogue bat appears.

P h oto s by K at h r y n Pa p o u l i a s

CAN YOU SPOT THE DIFFERENCE?

comic by Sal Greenberger

E l e m e n t i a n

H u m o r

When scientists discovered that the majority of dinosaurs had feathers, the T. rex was a little disappointed with the results.

comic by Marissa Croft

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Elements Magazine

Elements Personality Quiz A ngelica K ong

Scoring

What is your ideal first date? a) Coffee shop, bro (1) b) Skydiving (4) c) Petting zoo! Petting zoo! (3) d) Teach me how to Dougie (2) If you had to knit a sweater for your grandma, what color would you choose? a) Eyelashes (3) b) Neon-anything (2) c) Gray (1) d) Iridescent (4) What is the snazziest form of water? a) Mist (1) b) Melted polar ice caps (3) c) Thunderstorm rain (2) d) The seven seas (4)

5-10: Mushroom Cloud All others beware…your explosive personality could detonate any second!

One instant you’re chillin’ out, the next you are all over the place! When something sets you off, who knows the extent of the outcome. The bottom line is: You are the BOMB.

10-15: Magellanic Cloud Out Of This World! You have a very cosmic view on life and an all-encompassing perspective of the Earth. While you may find yourself naturally inclined to shoot for the stars, chances are you are already there.

Favorite superpower? a) Telepathy - I read ALL the minds (4) b) Flying... I love heights, yo (2) c) Invisibility. I stay on the down-low. (1) d) Shape-shifting. Look at me now. (3) You are in an airplane and look out the window. What is the first thing you notice/think? a) Are there any birds up here?? (2) b) CLOUDS (3) c) I hate flying (1) d) The world is mine! (4) What’s that?!?! a) Pterodactyl! (3) b) What’s... what? (1) c) Squirrel! (2) d) The fabric of space and time (4)

0-5: Fog You are very down to earth, and quite the mist-ical human being. You like keeping it on the down-low, and sometimes people seem to walk straight through you. You don’t mind, though. Despite your subtle presence, people can always sense you when you’re around.

W i k i m ed i a C o m m o n s

by

What kind of cloud are you?

15-20: Kangaroo Cloud Sometimes you may ask yourself, “What am I?” or “Why am I shaped like a kangaroo?”, when in reality you are just a fantastically odd, creative being who tends to see things in a new way. Besides, being a kangaroo definitely has its advantages.

You can always find a way to add some extra bounce into your step.

University of Puget Sound

20-25: The Cloud You are all knowing. And you know it! People just want to share all their secrets with you. You’ve got the dirt on everyone and everything - needless to say you are the best blackmailer in the world! Hey, you can’t help it if you’re so trustworthy and reliable!

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I l l u s t r at i o n by L a ke T h e l e n

CITATIONS

Clouds Above Puget Sound 1. Met Office. Cloud Names and Classifications [Internet]. United Kingdom: Met Office, Crown copyright [modified 2013 April 22; cited 2013 Sep 29].

Available from: http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/clouds/cloud-namesclassifications 2. Weather UK. Weather Facts: Cloud Classification [Internet]. United Kingdom: WeatherOnline, c1999-2013. [cited 2013 Sep 30]. Available from: http://www.weatheronline.co.uk/reports/wxfacts/Cloud-classification.htm 3. National Weather Service Louisville, KY Weather Forecast Office [Internet].

Cloud Classification and Characteristics. Louisville, KY: National Weather Service [modified 2011 July 2; cited 2013 Sep 29]. Available from: http:// www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/?n=cloud_classification 4. Pretor-Pinney, G. The cloudspotter’s guide. NY: Penguin, 2006.

5. Clouds-Online Could Atlas [Internet]. Berlin, Germany: Stefan Bauer. [cited 2013 Sep 29]. Available from: http://www.clouds-online.com Phantom Limb Pain 1. Kim SY, Kim YY. Mirror therapy for phantom limb pain. Korean J of Pain.

2012; 25(4):272-274.

2. Ashwell K. The brain book. Buffalo: Firefly, 2012.

3. Ezendam D, Bongers RM, Jannink MJA. Systematic review of the effectiveness of mirror therapy in upper extremity function. Disability and Rehabilitation. 2009; 31(26): 2135-2149.

4. Sutbeyaz S, Yavuzer G, Sezer N, Koseoglu F. Mirror therapy enhances lower-extremity motor recovery and motor functioning after stroke: a randomized control trial. Arch Med Phys Rehabil. 2007. 88.

From Stream to Sea to Stream 1. Lohmann K, Putman N, Lohmann C. Geomagnetic imprinting: A unifying hypothesis of long-distance natal homing in salmon and sea turtles.

PNAS [Internet] 2008; 105(49). Available from: http://www.pnas.org/content/105/49/19096.full 2. Hudson R. Olfactory imprinting. PubMed [Internet] 1993. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8219720 3. Quinn T. Homing and Straying, Part II [Internet PDF]. University of Washington; Available from: http://courses.washington.edu/fish450/Lecture%20 PDFs/home_stray_2.pdf “My Brain Made Me Do It!” 1. Jones O, Shen FX. Law and neuroscience in the United States (October 15, 2011). In: Spranger TM, editor. International neurolaw: a comparative analysis. Springer-Verlag, 2012; Vanderbilt Public Law Research Paper No. 1-5., 349.s 2. Clin N. Positron emission tomography for neurologists [Internet]. NCBI. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2009 Feb 27 [cited 2013 Oct 15].

3. Rosen J. The brain on the stand [Internet]. In: The New York Times, 2007 Mar 11 [cited 2013 Sep 30].

4. Buckholtz J, Jones OD, Schall D, Marois R. Brain imaging for legal thinkers: a guide for the perplexed. Stanford Technology Law Review 2009; 5: Vanderbilt Public Law Research Paper No. 10-09.

5. Brown TR, Murphy ER, Through a scanner darkly: functional neuroimaging as evidence of a criminal defendant’s past mental states. Stanford Law Review 2009; 62. In: Gruter Institute Squaw Valley Conference: Law, Behavior & the Brain.

6. Simpson J. Functional MRI lie detection: too good to be true? Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online, 2008; 36(4):491498.

7. Vartanian O, Peter JK, David RM, Fethi B, Ann N, Ingrid S, and Quan.

Right inferior frontal gyrus activation as a neural marker of successful lying.

NCBI. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2013.

8. Farwell LA, Richardson DC, Richardson GM. Brain fingerprinting: let’s focus on the science—a reply to Meijer, Ben-Shakhar, Verschuere, and Donchin Cogn Neurodyn. Cognitive Neurodynamics, 2013; 7(2):159–166.

9. Law Enforcement. Brain Fingerprinting Laboratories [Internet]. Brain Fingerprinting Laboratories, 2003 [cited 2013 Oct 1].

10. English M. Could brain scans ID potential criminals? Beta DNews [Internet]. Discovery News, 2011 [cited 2013 Nov 1].

11. Haederle M. Brain function tied to risk of criminal acts [Internet]. Los Angeles Times, 2013 [cited 2013 Nov 1].

Gold Nanoparticles 1. Johnson G in New York Times [Internet]. New York (NY): The New York Times Company; c2013. Unearthing Prehistoric Tumors, and Debate; 2010 Dec 27 [cited 2013 Oct 31]; [1 page]. Available from: http://www.nytimes. com/2010/12/28/health/28cancer.html?_r=2& 2. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts & Figures 2013 [report on the Internet]. Atlanta (GA): The Society; c2013 [cited 2013 Oct 31]; [64 pages].

Available from: http://www.cancer.org/acs/groups/content/@epidemiologysurveilance/documents/document/acspc-036845.pdf 3. Cancer Research UK [Internet]. How many different types of cancer are there? Updated 17 April 2013 [cited 2013 Oct 31]; [1 page]. Available from: http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/cancerquestions/how-many-different-types-of-cancer-are-there 4.National Cancer Institute [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Institutes of Health. Radiation Therapy. Updated 2010 June 30 [cited 2013 Oct 31]; [1 page]. Available from: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/ Therapy/radiation

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5. US National Library of Medecine [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Institutes of Health. Chemotherapy. Updated 22 March 2013 [cited 2013 Oct 31]; [1 page]. Available from: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/ article/002324.htm 6. Jain S, Hirst DG, O’Sullivan JM. Gold Nanoparticles as Novel Agents for Cancer Therapy. Br J Radiol [Internet]. 2012 February [cited 2013 Oct 31]; 85(1010): 101–113. doi: 10.1259/bjr/59448833. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pmc/articles/PMC3473940/ 7. Bragg J in Phys.org [Internet]. Phys.org; c2003-2013. Gold nanoparticles: A new delivery for cancer drugs; 2013 May 8 [cited 2013 Oct 31]; [1 page].

Available from: http://phys.org/news/2013-05-gold-nanoparticles-deliverycancer-drugs.html 8. Trafton A in MIT News [Internet]. Cambridge (MA): Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Targeting tumors using tiny gold particles; 2009 May 4 [cited 2013 Oct 31]; [1 page]. Available from: http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2009/gold-cancer-0504.html A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence 1. 2013 [Cited 2013 Nov 10]. al-Jazrī. Encyclopedia Britannica [Internet].

Available from: <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/301961/alJazari> 2. Needham J. Science and civilization in China: volume 2. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd; 1986.

3. Russel SJ, Norvin P. Artificial intelligence: a modern approach. 2nd ed.

Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice Hall; 2003.

4. McCorduck P. Machines who think. 2nd ed. Natick (MA): A.K. Peters, Ltd; 2004.

5. Berlinski D. The advent of the algorithm. Harcourt Books; 2000.

Orchids 1. Peter CI, Johnson SD. Mimics and magnets: the importance of color and ecological facilitation in floral deception. Ecology 2008; 89(6):1583–1595.

2. Gaskett AC. Orchid pollination by sexual deception: pollinator perspectives. Biological Reviews 2011 86(1):33–75.

3. Gaskett AC, Winnick CG, Herberstein ME. Orchid sexual deceit provokes ejaculation. The American Naturalist 2008; 171(6):E206–E212.

4. Gaskett AC, Herberstein ME. “Colour mimicry and sexual deception by tongue orchids (Cryptostylis). Naturwissenschaften 2010; 97(1):97–102.

The Biological Glass Menagerie 1. Johnsen S. Hidden in plain sight: the ecology and physiology of organismal transparency. Biol Bull 2001; 201:301-318.

2. Johnsen S. Transparent animals. Scientific American 2000; 80-89.

3. Lovett RA. Weird fish with transparent heads. National Geographic 2009.

4. Miller RL. Timing of sperm shedding and release of aggregates in the Salp Thalia democratica. Marine Biology 1997; 129:607-614.

5. Binetti VR. et al. The natural transparency and piezoelectric response of the Greta Oto butterfly wing. Integr Biol 2009; 1:324-329.

6. Weigand, A. M. New Zospheum species from 980 m depth in the Lukina Jama-Trojama cave system. Subterranean Biology 2013; 11:45-53.

Poisonous Passions 1. Engler HS, Spencer KC, Gilbert LE. Preventing cyanide release from leaves. Nature 2000; 406:144.

2. Gilbert LE. The coevolution of a butterfly and a vine. Scientific American 1982; 110-121.

3. Williams KS, Gilbert LE. Insects as selective agents on plant vegetative morphology: egg mimicry reduces egg laying by butterflies. Science 1981; 212:467-469.

4. Cardoso, MZ. Herbivore handling of a plant’s trichome: the case of Heliconius charithonia (L.) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) and Passiflora lobata (Killip) Hutch. (Passifloraceae). Neotropical Entomology 2008; 37:247-252.

5. McLain, DK. Ants, extrafloral nectaries and herbivory on the passion vine, Passiflora incarnate. American Midland Naturalist 1983;110:433-439.

The Benefits of Brain-Mapping and Neurofeedback 1. Ellison K. In New York Times: Health [Internet]. New York (NY). Neurotherapy gains popularity and lab attention; 2010 [cited 2013 Oct]. Available from: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/05/health/05neurofeedback. html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 2. Arns M. In QEEGsupport [Internet]. Neurofeedback is an ‘Evidence-based’ treatment for ADHD; 2009 [cited 2013 Oct]. Available from: http://qeegsupport.com/neurofeedback-is-an-%E2%80%98evidence-based%E2%80%99treatment-for-adhd/ 3. Brose DC. In Neuro Therapy Tacoma [Internet]. Tacoma (WA); Peak Performance Processing. Neurofeedback; 2009 [cited 2013 Oct]. Available from: http://www.neurotherapytacoma.com/neurofeedback.php 4. Rothman S. Biofeedback & Neurofeedback Solutions [Internet]. Biofeedback Solutions; 2008 [cited 2013 Oct]. Available from: http://www.biofeedbacksolutions.com/ 5. Othmer S. EEG Info [Internet] Unlock your Brain’s Potential; 2013. Available from: http://www.eeginfo.com/what-is-neurofeedback.php

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