Wiki_Reader by Emily Maxwell

Trilobite Trilobites are a fossil group of extinct marine arthropods that form the class Trilobita. Trilobites form one of the earliest known groups of arthropods. The first appearance of trilobites in the fossil record defines the base of the Atdabanian stage of the Early Cambrian period (521 million years ago), and they flourished throughout the lower Paleozoic era before beginning a drawn-out decline to extinction when, during the Devonian, trilobite orders except Proetida died out. Trilobites finally disappeared in the mass extinction at the end of the Permian about 250,000 years ago. Trilobites were among the most successful of all early animals, roaming the oceans for over 270 million years.

By the time trilobites first appeared in fossil records they were already highly diversified and geographically dispersed. Because trilobites had wide diversity and an easily fossilized exo-skeleton an extensive fossil record was left behind, with 17,000 known species spanning Paleozoic time. The study of these fossils has facilitated important contributions to biostratigraphy, paleontology, evolutionary biology and plate tectonics. Trilobites are often placed within the arthropod subphylum Schizoramia within the Arachnomorpha super class (equivalent to the Arachnata), although several alternative taxonomies are found in the literature.

Exoskeleton

Morocco

Morocco officially the Kingdom of Morocco, Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an is a country in the Maghreb region of Northern elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds Africa. Geographically, Morocco is characterized vast executive and legislative powers, especially by a rugged mountainous interior and portions the military, foreign policy and religious affairs. of desert. It is one of only three countries (with Executive power is exercised by the government, Spain and France) to have both Atlantic and while legislative power is vested in both the govMediterranean coastlines. ernment and the two chambers of parliament, Morocco has a population of over 33.8 million the Assembly and the Assembly of Councillors. and an area of 446,550 km2 (172,410 sq mi). Its The king can issue decrees called dahirs, which political capital is Rabat, although the largest city have the force of law. He can also dissolve the is Casablanca; other major cities include Tangier, parliament after consulting the Prime Minister Tetouan, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Kenitra, and and the president of the Constitutional court. Nador. A historically prominent regional power, Morocco has a history of independence not shared by its neighbors. Its distinct culture is a blend of Arab, indigenous Berber, Sub-Saharan African, and European influences.

An exoskeleton is the external skeleton that supports and protects an animal’s body, in contrast to the internal skeleton (endoskeleton) of, for example, a human. In popular usage, some of the larger kinds of exoskeletons are known as “shells”. Examples of exoskeleton animals include insects such as grasshoppers and cockroaches, andcrustaceans such as crabs and lobsters. The shells of certain sponges and the various groups of shelled mollusks, including those of snails, clams, tusk shells, chitons and nautilus, are also exoskeletons. Exoskeletons contain rigid components that fulfill a set of functional roles including protection, excretion, sensing, support, feeding and acting as a barrier against desiccation in terrestrial organisms. Exoskeletons have a role in defense from pests and predators, support, and provide an attachment framework for musculature. Ingrowths of the arthropod exoskeleton known as apodemes serve as attachment sites for muscles. These structures are composed of chitin, and are approximately six times as strong and twice as stiff as vertebrate tendons. Similar to tendons, apodemes can stretch to store elastic energy for jumping, notably in locusts. Many different species produce exoskeletons, which are composed of a range of materials. Bone, cartilage, or dentine is used in the Ostracodermfish and turtles. Chitin forms the exoskeleton in arthropods including insects, arachnids such as spiders, crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters, and in some fungi and bacteria. Calcium carbonates constitute the shells of molluscs, brachiopods, and some tube-building polychaete worms. Silica forms the exoskeleton in the microscopic diatoms and radiolaria. One species of mollusc, the scaly-foot gastropod, even makes use of the iron sulfides greigite and pyrite.

1) social response, 2) physical mirror inspection, 3) repetitive mirror testing behavior, and 4) the mark test; which involves the animals spontaneously touching a mark on their body which would have been difficult to see without the mirror. Chimpanzees and other apes – species that have been studied extensively – compare the most to humans with the most convincing findings and straightforward evidence in the relativity of selfawareness in animals so far. Dolphins were put to a similar test and achieved the same results. Diana Reiss, a psycho-biologist at the NY Aquarium discovered that bottlenose dolphins can recognize themselves in mirrors.

Whales

Self-awareness is the capacity for introspection and the ability to recognize oneself as separate from the environment and other individuals. It is not to be confused with consciousness in the sense of qualia. While consciousness is a term given to being aware of one’s environment and body and lifestyle, self-awareness is the recognition of that awareness. Studies have been done mainly on primates to test if self-awareness is present. Apes, monkeys, elephants, and dolphins have been studied most frequently. The most relevant studies to this day that represent self-awareness in animals have been done on chimpanzees, dolphins, and magpies. Self-awareness in animals is tested through mirror self-recognition. Animals who show mirror self recognition go through four stages

Self Awareness

Whale is the common name for a diverse group of fully aquatic marine mammals. They are an informal grouping within the infraorder Cetacea, excluding dolphins and porpoises, so to zoologists the grouping is paraphyletic. There are 40 extant species of whales. The two parvorders of whales,Mysticeti and Odontoceti, are thought to have split apart around 34 million years ago. Whales, dolphins and porpoises belong to the order Cetartiodactyla with even-toed ungulates and their closest living relatives are the hippos, having diverged about 40 million years ago. Whales range in size from the 2.6 metres (8.5 ft) and 135 kilograms (298 lb) dwarf sperm whale to the 34 metres (112 ft) and 190 metric tons (210 short tons) blue whale, which is the largest creature on earth. Several species exhibit sexual dimorphism, in that the females are larger than males. They have streamlined bodies and two limbs that are modified into flippers. Though not as flexible or agile as seals, whales can travel at up to 20 knots. Balaenopterids use their throat pleats to expand the mouth to take in gulps of water. Balaenids have heads that can make up 40% of their body mass to take in water. Odontocetes have conical teeth designed for catching fish or squid. Mysticetes have a well developed sense of “smell”, whereas odontocetes have well-developed hearing − their hearing, that is adapted for both air and water, is so well developed that some can survive even if they are blind. Some species are well adapted for diving to great depths. They have a layer of fat, or blubber, under the skin to keep warm in the cold water.

ticated species are often bred to be suitable for different uses and conditions, especially horses and working dogs. Working animals are usually raised on farms, though some are still captured from the wild, such as dolphins and some Asian elephants. People have found uses for a variety of abilities found in animals and even in industrialized society many animals are still used for work. The strength of horses, elephants and oxen is used in pulling carts and logs. The keen sense of smell of dogs is used to search for drugs and explosives as well helping to find game while hunting and searching for missing or trapped people. Several animals including camels, donkeys, horses and dogs are used for transport, either riding or to pull wagons and sleds.

A working animal is an animal that is kept by humans and trained to perform tasks. They may be close members of the family, such as guide dogs or otherassistance dogs, or they may be animals trained to provide tractive force, like draft horses or logging elephants. The latter types of animals are called draft animals (draught animals) or beasts of burden. Most working animals are service or draft animals. They may also be used for milking or herding, jobs that require human training to encourage the animal to cooperate. Some, at the end of their working lives, may also be used for meat or other products such as leather. The history of working animals may predate agriculture, with dogs used by our hunter-gatherer ancestors. Around the world, millions of animals work in relationship with their owners. Domes-

Work Animals

are crucial. These interactions and socializations help to develop emotional stability and flexibility for the span of the animal’s life. The antonym to a social animal is a solitary one. Some insects such as the locust have both solitary and gregarious phases. Sociality refers to the extent of organization of their social behavior. The levels of sociality include eusocial, presocial (solitary but social), subsocial, and parasocial (including communal,quasisocial, and semisocial). Animal social behavior is studied in comparative psychology, ethology, sociobiology, behavioral ecology and computer science.

Social Animals

Social animals are those animals that interact highly with other animals, usually of their own species (conspecifics), to the point of having a recognizable and distinct society. Many animals are social to the extent that mothers and offspring bond, and males and females interact to mate, but the term “social animal” is usually applied when there is a level of social organization that exceeds beyond this, with permanent groups of adults living together, and individual relationships that endure from one encounter to another. In the case of social animals, not having social interactions can be detrimental to the animal’s development; they

Costume design is the envisioning of clothing and the appearance of a character or performer. Costume refers to the style of dress particular to a nation, a class, or a period. In many cases, it may contribute to the fullness of the artistic, visual world which is unique to particular theatrical or cinematic productions. The most basic designs are produced to denote status, provide protection or modesty, or provide visual interest to a character. Costumes may be for a theater, cinema, or musical performance but may not be limited to such. Costume design should not be confused with costume coordination which involves altering existing clothing, although both create stage clothes. Four types of costumes are used in theatrical design: historical, fantastical, dance, and modern. Village festivals and processions in honor of Dionysus amongst the ancient Greeks, are the origin of theatre, and therefore theatre costume. Sculpture and vase paintings provide the clearest evidence of this costume. Because of their ritu-

alized style of theatre many masks were used giving each character a very specific look and they varied depending if they were used for comedic and/or dramatic purposes. Some masks were constructed with a cheerful as well as a serious side on the same face in an attempt to indicate a change in emotion without a change of mask.The same is true for the Romans, who continued the mask tradition, which made the doubling of roles easier. During the Middle Ages in Europe, dramatic enactments of Bible stories were prevalent, therefore actual Christian vestments, stylized from traditional Byzantine court dress, were worn as costumes to keep the performances as realistic as possible.Stereotypical characterization was key when clothing performers for this style of theatre. In most instances actors had to supply their own costumes when playing a character found in daily life.

modern circuses were performed in structures with limited covered seating. From the late 18th to late 19th century bespoke circus buildings were built with various types of seating, a centre ring and sometimes a stage. The ‘traditional’ large tents, commonly known as ‘Big Tops’ were introduced in the mid 19th century as touring circuses superseded static venues. These tents eventually became the most common venue and remain so to the present day. Contemporary circuses perform in a variety of venues including tents, theatres and casinos. Many circus performances are still held in a ring usually 13 m (42 ft) in diameter. This was adopted by Philip Astley in the late 18th century as the minimum diameter that enabled an acrobatic horse rider to stand upright on a cantering horse to perform their tricks.

Costume Design

Circuses A circus is a company of performers that may include clowns, acrobats, trained animals, trapeze acts, musicians, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, unicyclists and other object manipulation and stuntoriented artists. The term ‘circus’ also describes the performance that has followed various formats through its 150-year modern history. Philip Astley is credited with being the ‘father’ of the modern circus when he opened the first circus in 1768 in England. Early circuses were exclusively demonstrations of equestrian skills with a few other types of acts to link the horsemanship performances. Performances developed significantly through the next fifty years, with large scale theatrical battle reenactments becoming significant features. The ‘traditional’ format, whereby a ringmaster introduces a varied selection of acts that perform in the latter part of 19th century and continued almost universally to be the main style of circus up until the 1970s. As styles of performance have changed since the time of Astley, so too have the types of venues where these circuses have performed. The earliest

appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare’s private life survive, which has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance, sexuality, religious beliefs, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others. Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, and these are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest works in the English language.

Following the revocation of religious toleration, Louis XIV combined legal persecution with a policy of terrorizing recalcitrant Huguenots who refused to convert to Catholicism by billeting both dragoons and ordinary infantrymen in their homes. The soldiers were instructed to harass and intimidate the occupants, in order to persuade them to either convert to the state religion, or to emigrate. As mobile mounted infantry, the 14 regiments of dragoons in the French Army of the period, were sometimes used for what would now be called internal security duties, and were an effective instrument for persecuting Huguenots.

Dragonnades

Shakespeare William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely referenced as the greatest writer in the English language and the world’s preeminent dramatist. He is often called England’s national poet, and the “Bard of Avon”. His extant works, including collaborations, consist of approx. 38 plays,[nb 3] 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins. Hamnet and Judith. He

The “Dragonnades” were a French government policy instituted by Louis XIV in the year 1681 to intimidate Huguenot families into leaving France or re-converting to Catholicism. This involved the billetingof ill-disciplined dragoons in Protestant households with implied permission to abuse the inhabitants and destroy or steal their possessions. The soldiers employed in this role were satirized as “missionary dragoons”. With the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, Louis XIV withdrew the privileges and toleration that Protestant Huguenots in France had been guaranteed under the edict for nearly 87 years, and ordered the destruction of Huguenot churches and the closure of Huguenot schools.

Huguenot A Huguenot is a member of a French Protestant denomination with origins in the 16th or 17th centuries. Historically, Huguenots were French Protestants inspired by the writings of John Calvin ( Jean Calvin in French) in the 1530s, who became known by that originally derisive designation by the end of the 16th century. Huguenot numbers peaked near an estimated two million by 1562, concentrated mainly in the southern and central parts of France, about oneeighth the number of French Catholics. As the Huguenots gained influence and more openly displayed their faith, Catholic hostility grew, in spite of increasingly liberal political concessions and edicts of toleration from the French crown. A series of religious conflicts followed, known as the Wars of Religion, fought intermittently from 1562 to 1598. The wars finally ended with the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots religious, political and military autonomy.