Stadia - From Street to Seat

Thesis

|

Eric Williams

|

20036080

Stadia - From Street to Seat How can the border between sporting arena and the community be designed to benefit adjacent public space?

Word Count: 6851

\

Stadia - From Street to Seat How can the border between sporting arena and the community be designed to benefit adjacent public space?

A thesis submitted to Waterford Institute of Technology, Department of Architecture for partial fulfillment of a Bachelor of Architecture in the School of Engineering Academic year 2012-2013 Eric Williams, Bachelor of Science in Architecture Waterford Institute of Technology, 2011 Miriam Fitzpatrick Aleksander Kostic Loy Lee Fintan Duffy

Copyright Š Eric Williams, 2012.

Abstract The stadium is a unique building in the urban landscape. Its monumental scale and the spectacular function mean it takes centre stage in many urban settings. When it comes to the design of these large-scale sporting arenas, careful and considered design that concerns the local communities and the surrounding public spaces is often overlooked.

With the advent of live TV and the associated revenue that sporting institutions were then able to draw upon, the stadium as an entertainment arena began to face competition. The global response to this was of course to increase the stadiums financial income through means other than the spectator.

What ensued over the years to this day was a trend in stadia design and construction that turned its back on the communities they inhabited, the spectator, the procession and the experience.

This paper looks at what needs to change in order to achieve a more conscientious approach to stadium design.

Is it possible to embrace these changes in an increasingly commercial world yet still create a building that appropriately interacts with the people and the architecture of its setting?

This challenging architectural ideal is only achieved by designing through the coalescence of people, place and the spectacle.

Contents Title………………………………….…………………..……...(ii) Abstract……………………………….…………..………......(iii) Table of Contents……………………………...…….........…(v) List of Illustrations…………………………..…….............(vii)

Introduction………………….………………………...............2 Introduction to Case Studies………………….…………….3

Chapter 1 - Stadium - Community Interface..………………………………………………….…4 1.1 The Border / Edge 1.1.1 The Stadium in the Urban Realm 1.1.2 External Planning 1.2 The Community and Its Stadium

Chapter 2 - Street to Seat…………...……………...

2.1 The Individual and the Stadium 2.2 Sequence of Scale

Chapter 3 - The Crowd…………...……………….....

3.1 Theory of the Crowd 3.1.1 The Crowd as the User 3.1.2 Ownership of Public Space 3.1.3 Destructiveness and Auditory Perception of the Crowd 3.2 Defensible Space 3.2.1 Ownership of Public Space 3.2.2 Public Space. Social Issues

Chapter 4 - Management…………...……...…….....

4.1 Crowd Management 4.2 Management of Public Space Around the Sporting Arena

Chapter 5 - Nowlan Park, Kilkenny…………....

5.1 Brief 5.2 Site analysis

Conclusion………………………………………………………. .

Bibliography……………………………………………………..

Annex…………………………………………………………......

List of Illustrations Page

Figure

Source

(i) 5 5 5 6 7 7 7 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 16 16 19 23 24 24 25 25

Cover Image Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26

Produced by author www.faq.org www.ancient.eu www.forza.italiano.com Aviva Stadium Archives ibid ibid Produced by author ibid ibid ibid ibid ibid Stadia, A Design and Development Guide Aviva Stadium Archives ibid ibid www.static.guim.co.uk www.swissinfor.ch Produced by author ibid ibid ibid ibid ibid ibid

Introduction This paper seeks to explore how the design process involved in the development of stadia can be changed so as to achieve a higher design quality that contributes positively to the area in which it is located. The focal point of this design challenge is the zone between the public street and the private seat.

Stadia design is a complex subdivision of architecture and urban design, which possesses unique facets that buildings of similar scale and function do not. The thesis question will be explored under a number of themes to obtain comprehensive and informed conclusions.

The first of the three primary areas of inquiry will be the Stadium – Community Interface. This will focus on the intown stadium and how it exists in its urban environment.

Attention will be given to the external planning and its bordering public space. Greater insight will be achieved through case studies which will investigate what stadium to community links exist in current infrastructure and how or if this is reflected in the buildings architecture.

The second theme that will be examined is the procession, and specifically that portion that takes the spectator from the public space to the private. Findings will show that there are numerous subdivisions to this transition. Emphasis will be given to the individual’s experience of a building that is designed for the masses. Here, the sequence of scales experienced during this transition will be looked at, from city, to neighborhood, to turnstile to threshold, foyer to seat.

In order to understand and be able to challenge the design approach made to these buildings a true and complete understanding of the user must be had. In this case the user is the crowd. How can crowd theory, psychology and management inform the design through defensible space?

This aforementioned public space around the stadium encounters two distinctly contrasting phases; the event day and the non-event day. The final segment of the research seeks to explore how the management of these spaces contributes to the connection between those who occupy it, and the stadium.

In a globalized society the historic function of the stadium remains. However with new technology and altering social needs, how can its architecture ensure that a connection with its people continues to exist?

Introduction to Case Studies The case studies in this thesis are referred to where relevant in all chapters.

Case Study 1 Case Study 2 Case Study 3 Case Study 4 Case Study 5

| | | | |

Emirates Stadium, London.

Craven Cottage, London.

Aviva Stadium, Dublin.

Wembley Stadium, London.

Twickenham Stadium, London.

1 Emirates Stadium, London.

Emirates Stadium in London, UK, opened in July 2006. The development took three years and was the design of sports architecture firm Populous. The ground is the home venue for Arsenal Football Club and was designed to replace Highbury Stadium located less than 500 meters away.

2 Craven Cottage Craven Cottage is located in a wealthy residential area of west London, UK, with Stevenage Rd. along one length of the stadium and the river Thames along the other. The ground dates back to 1800 and one of the original stands, designed by Archibald Leitch still exists and is now a Grade II listed building.

3 Aviva Stadium Aviva Stadium is located on Lansdowne Rd. in Dublin, Ireland on the site of the old Landsowne Rd. Stadium, which dated back to 1872. The new development was designed by Populous and was completed in 2010. The ground is home to the Irish international rugby and football teams.

4 Wembley Stadium Wembley stadium is designed by Foster and Partners and Populous and opened in 2007. It is located on the same site as the original Wembley Stadium (Empire Stadium) which opened in 1923. The ground is home to the English international football team.

5 Twickenham Stadium Twickenham Stadium is home to the English international rugby team. Originally built in 1909 the stadium underwent phased redevelopment, the most recent of which was completed in 2006 by Ward McHugh Associates.

Chapter 1 Stadium – Community Interface ________________________________________

1.1 1.2

The Border / Edge The Community and Its Stadium

________________________________________

1.1 The Border / Edge 1.1.1

The Stadium in the Urban Realm

Two primary settings exist for stadia, the urban setting and the out-of town setting. For the purposes of this thesis, which is investigating the stadium as a catalyst for sustained social interaction and urban activity, only the former will be considered.

From the birth of the stadium in ancient times, it has always been its responsibility to serve the community within which it was located. Sociologically, it existed along side the church 1 and the town hall as a symbol of its people.

However through history the stadium has seen many disasters that were the result of crowd behavior and a lack of control by the authorities. In an attempt to eliminate this potential, for stadia design from the 1960’s onwards, safety 2 and crowd control were the principal design drives. As a result, the transition zone, from the public space surrounding the stadium to the site of the spectacle itself, was dealt with in a rudimentary manner. This had adverse affects on the relationship between the community and the stadium. The area around the stadium became a barren ground. On match day, the crowds are organized and there is little in the way of areas vulnerable to the sometimes-destructive nature of the crowd.

________________________________________________ 1 Stadia, A Design and Development Guide, Fourth Edition, John, G., Sheaard, R., Vickery, B., Architectural Press is an imprint of Elsevier Ltd., 2007. (p37) 2 ibid

Yet the majority of the time, on days when no match is taking place, these external circulation zones are “ […] sordid, uncomfortable places, casting a spell of 3 depression on their surroundings.”

This lack of activity around the stadium at non-event times is a major environmental consideration when such developments take place in the urban realm. Other such issues include increased vehicular traffic, noise from events, bright building and event lighting, large numbers of noisy fans, overshadowing of adjacent properties and inappropriate scale of the project in relation to its surroundings. These concerns and their possible solutions are addressed throughout this chapter.

1.1.2

External Planning

Case Study 3, The Aviva Stadium, is an example of a stadium deep in the urban context. The site was originally th selected for a sporting ground in the 19 century when the 4 site was one of many vacant areas of land in the area.

However since then the locality has developed into one of the most expensive residential and commercial areas in the country. The recent redevelopment of this building was as much about creating external public space around it that was appropriate to the area as it was about increasing capacity 5 and improving internal facilities.

The planning of these spaces around a stadium in in-town sites has a significant advantage in that they are positioned 6 within the communities that maintain their existence.

However from a technical perspective the limited space that an urban site entails often makes it difficult for the architect to ensure a level of safety and comfort that is required today.

The redevelopment of Lansdowne Rd. saw a number of sub developments that were linked to the new stadium. One of these was the installation of a new public walkway by the local River Dodder that doubled as an access route on match day (Fig. 4). The River is located to the east of the site and connected London Bridge to Herbert Road.

________________________________________________ 3 ibid (p1) 4 Lansdowne Road The Stadium; the Matches; the Greatest Days, Siggins, G., Clerkin, M., O'Brien Press Limited, 2010.

5 Sheard, R., Senior Principal Architect, [Communication by th letter] to Ryan, W., Project Director, 6 January 2006. Aviva Stadium Archives.

6 Stadia, A Design and Development Guide, Fourth Edition, John, G., Sheaard, R., Vickery, B., Architectural Press is an imprint of Elsevier Ltd., 2007. (p39)

The development has an 8-meter wide walkway and included detailed proposals regarding protection of adjoining 7 properties from “nuisance and overlooking”. Additionally the installation of cantilevered deck projecting over part of the sloping riverbank with street furnishings.

When planning the external area around a stadium it is essential that the designer is aware of the transportation requirements of the stadium. Having sufficient and wellorganized public transport and access routes to and around the stadium minimizes disruption on match day for the inhabitants of the area. It is considerably easier to accurately determine these requirements if it is a redevelopment project such as case study 3 where comprehensive crowd access and egress studies were carried out before the old stadiums’ demolition. As a result of the new and more evenly distributed access routes and the provision of a pedestrian underpass under the railway line, the pedestrian flows on Lansdowne Rd, a residential area next to the stadium, are 8 reduced. This leads to a reduction in crowd congestion and noise in the area, which is beneficial to the residents but also improves crowd safety generally.

1.2 The Community and Its Stadium When focusing on the stadium and its neighboring community, there are plenty of examples where no connection between the two exists. In many instances vast amounts of wealth are embodied in the form of the stadium while social housing are the next nearest structures. Often the stadiums location is chosen based on available space 9 and cost rather than proximity to the community it services.

This results in disparity between the two bodies.

World soccer governing body FIFA outlines guidelines regarding how a stadium development should contribute to the community in which it is located. The first element it 10 examines is the “Environmental compatibility of the site” , explaining site selection as a changing, complex and

________________________________________________ 7 Planning Report, for the Redevelopment of Lansdowne Road Stadium, TPA Town Planning Consultants, January 2006. (4.1.1). Aviva Stadium Archives. (3.1) 8 Environmental Impact Statement, for the Redevelopment of Lansdowne Road Stadium, Ref. 0025830. Environmental Resources Management Ireland Ltd, 2006. Aviva Stadium Archives. (4.4.8) 9 Stadia, A Design and Development Guide, Fourth Edition, John, G., Sheaard, R., Vickery, B., Architectural Press is an imprint of Elsevier Ltd., 2007. (p40) 10 Football Stadiums, FIFA Technical Recommendations and Requirements, Fourth Edition, FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association, Dunne, F., 2007. (p35)

politically charged subject that requires careful analysis. The technical report does state however that if analysis is carried out thoroughly and a high level of design and operation is achieved then most, common issues that arise between the stadium and its locality can be avoided. Solutions include game time traffic and crowd management plans, restricted access zones, noise and lighting control, building the stadium into the ground to lower its height and introducing uses into the project that generate activity at non-event times.

In Wembley Stadium, various initiatives exist within the stadiums infrastructure that generates this activity at nonevent times. Function spaces and presentation areas exist where factions of the community can host events. Recorded during the case study was a graduation ceremony from of a local third level educational institution as well as a local police conference. In addition, Brent Council, Wembley Stadium and the Department of Children Schools and Families through their Playing for Success initiative, which engages children in education through sport, jointly fund a scheme called Learning Zone. This program ensures that the children of the local area of Brent are provided with further learning opportunities though an after school study support course.

In a conversation with Dru Morton, Sustainability Manager of the RFU at Twickenham Stadium, he shared that, included in the recent 2006 developments was an auditorium event space (Fig. 7). This is positioned in the south stand that is available to local community bodies to use for events or performances at no expense. Additionally the stadium provides sponsorship to local schools and is involved in healthy living initiatives in the area.

From the early design brief for the Aviva Stadiums’ recent redevelopment, it is apparent that a major design intention was to improve the relationship between the stadium and the 11 surrounding area. The EIS submitted to Dublin City Council in January 2006 states that the strategic brief the stadium design team worked to, was to design a stadium to modern standards incorporating, among other design principles, a design that was sympathetic and considerate of the 12 surrounding areas and communities.

The chosen orientation of north-south for the Aviva Stadiums’ pitch was based on a number of factors. One of these was to minimize the impact on the local community.

The east stand is one of the two largest stands. Due to the orientation of the

________________________________________________ 11 Sheard, R., Senior Principal Architect, [Communication th by letter] to Ryan, W., Project Director, 6 January 2006.

Aviva Stadium Archives.

12 Environmental Impact Statement, for the Redevelopment of Lansdowne Road Stadium, Ref. 0025830. Environmental Resources Management Ireland Ltd, 2006. Aviva Stadium Archives. (3.1)

pitch however, the nearest residential buildings are 200 meters away with a secondary artificial surface (used by the community) and a River Dodder acting as a buffer zone between the two and eliminating shadowing (Fig. 6). Figure 8 shows how the structure and over all aesthetic of the design was completely molded by the surrounding residential area. Shown here is the stand at the north end of the ground. Due to its orientation and the adjoining residential area the height of the stand at its highest point is almost 80 per cent lower than the height of all other stands in the stadium. This drastic but unique change in height is a symbol of the stadiums responsibility to the surrounding community.

“Proximity to existing residential areas is the most 13 sensitive issue in the development of a new stadium” In contrast to other developments of similar size and scale, “…[the construction of stadia]…often fosters negative rumors 14 This can form and fear-mongering in the media”. unnecessary opposition in the local area. Direct communication between the two parties is essential.

Emirates Stadium completed in 2006, has created large open public spaces that surround the main structure.

Additionally, two new bridges travelling over the rail line that link areas of the locality that previously weren’t. On nonmatch days locals can be seen using the spaces. People are jogging and cycling around the stadium using it as a track, away from the noise, pollution and disruptions of traffic (Fig. 9). Others can be seen walking casually with friends or family. Combined with this, are the tourists who have come to visit Arsenal Football Club. To the north of the triangular shaped site is a club museum. This visibly acts as an attraction that draws people from the stadium retail space and primary congregation zone to the south of the site, creating a regular flow of traffic around the stadium on non match days. One local who was walking and playing with his dog described the public space as a “landmark” and went on to say that “people enjoy being in the areas around it [the 15 stadium]“.

________________________________________________ 13 Football Stadiums, FIFA Technical Recommendations and Requirements, Fourth Edition, FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association, Dunne, F., 2007. (p35) 14 ibid 15 Transcript to interview, Annex.

Chapter 2 Street to Seat ________________________________________

2.1 The Individual and the Stadium 2.2 Sequence of Scale ________________________________________

2.1 The Individual and the Stadium It is easily forgotten that although a stadium might have a seating capacity in the thousands or tens of thousands, each person experiences it individually. This applies to everyone from the professional player, to the hospitality employee to the spectator. Even within a set group, every experience differs from individual to individual. Different modes of transport, varying access routes and allocated turnstiles and seating means that although experiences may over lap, each one is unique to the individual.

In this chapter the transition from the public realm to the stadium will be investigated from the perspective of the lone spectator.

The scale of the of stadia means that it often acts as a landmark in the area. As the spectator approaches it, either by foot (shown) or public transport (shown), the experience has begun.

From this point on the experience differs considerably from case to case. In some instances (Craven Cottage, Aviva Stadium North and South access, Twickenham) the transition, from street to public concourse around the stadium to turnstile, is all on the same plane. This makes for a sudden and stark transition as the spectator travels from one to the next. It also discourages social interaction. In other cases (Wembley Stadium, Emirates Stadium, Aviva Stadium West access) there is a level change or series of level changes between street and threshold. This staggers the transition from one space to the next and prolongs the line between the two. Commonly stadia are built to great heights. This has an affect on these transition spaces, as they are sometimes cold and dark. Wembley Stadiums primary, non-event day entrance is located on the north side

of the stadium. As a result it lies in the large shadow of the north throughout the day.

The experience continues as the spectator ventures from the exterior concourse through the turnstiles. At this point there is an important change in environment. They are now a customer of the venue. Their right to be present has been earned through the purchasing of the ticket. All those around them are the same. Depending on the sport, fellow spectators at this point will be homogenized. This can be due to ticket distribution patterns or crowd safety measures.

Spatially this section of transition is usually unconsidered and lifeless. The spectacle is still hidden from view and priority in these spaces revolves around circulation and facilities such as toilets and food and drink outlets.

Figure 12 shows an axonometric transition from street to seat in Craven Cottage Stadium, from Stevenage Rd. into the Johnny Haynes Stand, which is the eastern grand stand.

This is the only stand where access can be gained to the ground. 47 turnstiles exist, each one no wider than 400mm. the spectator pushes through the traditional rotating iron turnstile and arrives into the underneath of the stand. From here the original wooden well brings the spectator up in a dogleg and arrives mid way up the single tier of seating. The experience is quick and the transition stark. However there is a unity of scale throughout. From the approach to the stadium, to the threshold of the turnstile, to the stairwell that delivers the individual to the seat.

For the equivelant experience in the Emirates Stadium, a significantly different scale exists (Fig. 11). Here, on approach to the stadium, the towering stands can be seen a few streets back (Fig. 10). As the spectator arrives in front of the stadium (from the A103 or Benwell Rd.) they are met with a large open pedestrian space with a line of trees organized between it and the road. This diffuses the visual impact of the stadium and offers sanctuary once one passes through it. In this space are attractions such as the stadium gift shop and memorial blocks in the pavement. People can be seen occupying this space before ascending the large and numerous urban stairs to the level of the turnstiles. This change in elevation further separates the street from the entrance and allows normal traffic to flow while also accommodating the thousands of fans who wish to take their time entering the venue. The turnstiles in the Emirates are organized radially around the circumference of the building.

They are set in from the faรงade so as organize the grounds entering. The axonometric in figure 11 shows the path from the external concourse to the seat. Vast, bare concourse space greats the spectator once they pass through the electronic turnstiles. Again, this space is primarily used for circulation, toilets and hospitality. There is an uncomfortable transition at this point for spectators seated in the upper ties as they are forced into a relatively low ceilinged concrete stair well. After the ascension of 6 flights of stairs they arrive in the narrower upper concourse. The transition from this point to the seat is one of almost relief at the scale of the building becomes apparent once again when seated.

The Aviva Stadium possesses differing access routes from street to seat that resemble both of the previous case studies. The west access routes resemble more closely that

of the Emirates Stadium while the south entrances are almost a contemporary replica of Craven Cottage. The axonometric shown in figure 13 shows the path taken by the spectator entering from Lansdowne Rd (south). From the wide footpath in the external public space the spectator enters in to the glass fronted foyer. From here they progress through the turnstiles to the left and proceed up the 6 flights of concrete stairs to access the upper tier seating. Transition from this point to the seat is detached and disorganized.

Turning back on themselves the spectator makes their way to the vomitory and enters the ‘bowl’.

The transition and the quality of the spaces it passes though, varies from one stadium to the next. However what appears to remain constant is an apparent lack of consideration for the space from threshold to seat. The experience has begun from the moment the stadium is in view or even before, yet at this critical phase the design disappoints.

2.2 Sequence of Scale In the above examples the scales from space to space vary dramatically. One sequence of space that, in many cases, is particularly out of sync is that between the neighborhood and the stadium. If the stadium is located in a residential area as they frequently are, the structure can reach many times the height of any other buildings in the area. This creates uncomfortable space around the stadium and heightens the juxtaposition between the people and the place.

Where possible, either due to the age of the stadium of the lower crowd capacity it requires, the architect will attempt a scale of design that is in keeping with the local area. This “urban scale” is achieved in the Mound Stand at Lord’s 1 Cricket Ground in London, UK. Here, architects Michael Hopkins & Partners, designed a stand that is perfectly scaled for its location. The “light pavilion-like tent roof at the top” 2 further reduces the interpreted scale. (Fig. 14) An obvious attempt to remedy this will see architects design the stadium such that the lower tier and playing surface are below the natural ground level of the area. While this is effective, is it enough? A developing trend in stadia design sees the addition of a raised concourse space around the outside of the stadium. This gives the stadium the appearance of being smaller building upon raised ground.

These elevated concourses serve a secondary more technical purpose. Service tunnels, delivery spaces and TV broadcasting are designed into the lower levels of the concourses, away from public view. ________________________________________________ 1 Stadia, A Design and Development Guide, Fourth Edition, John, G., Sheaard, R., Vickery, B., Architectural Press is an imprint of Elsevier Ltd., 2007. (p51) 2 ibid (p51)

This is the case in 3 of the 5 case studies covered in this thesis, Wembley Stadium, Emirates Stadium and the Aviva Stadium (west access). In the Aviva Stadium the raised space is called the “podium”. It is a tree lined, sheltered, urban space that’s ideal for large-scale open-air events.

However it remains inaccessible to the public outside of event times. In a brief encounter interview with Rebecca Ryan, an associate architect for Scott Tallon Walker, an Irish firm involved in the design of the Aviva Stadium, it was addressed that this space was initially envisaged as a space that would be used by the public for organized events such as farmers markets or craft fairs. This however never materialized.

Additional design techniques exist for the architect, which can help achieve a reduction in the perceived scale of the stadium. One such technique is the materiality of the design.

Originally it was proposed that the redevelopment of the 3 Lansdowne Rd. Stadium be clad in a perforated copper.

(Fig. 15) Instead, a combination of translucent and transparent polycarbonate panels was opted for. This material choice achieved a quality of porosity in the buildings facades and reduced its dominance on the local area.

________________________________________________ 3 Planning Report, for the Redevelopment of Lansdowne Road Stadium, TPA Town Planning Consultants, January 2006. (4.1.1). Aviva Stadium Archives.

Chapter 3 The Crowd ________________________________________

3.1 3.2

Theory of the Crowd Defensible Space

________________________________________

3.1 Theory of the Crowd 3.1.1

The Crowd as the User

A primary factor in any architectural design is the user that will occupy the space. The enormous scale of the stadia however gives the architect a very specific type of occupant, the crowd. Unlike a building designed for an individual or for a collective of individuals, the magnitude of the events held in these structures requires the architect to design with a 1 very unique set of parameters.

Theorists and sociologists have always been intrigued by this notion of the crowd and have studied it throughout the ages. Architects and urban designers play a significant role in this area since the gathering of a crowd, while not exclusively, usually takes place in the urban environment.

A building, with the function and the scale that a stadium possesses will experience the crowd on a regular basis and its architecture and urban planning largely determine how this user interacts in and around it. Unlike the architecture of other buildings such as train or airport terminals that also experience high volumes of occupants, the stadium by its nature is only used occasionally. Therefore the ideal design should be equally as appropriate on event days as nonevent days.

Significant thought into the theories and principals behind the

________________________________________________ 1 Stadia, A Design and Development Guide, Fourth Edition, John, G., Sheaard, R., Vickery, B., Architectural Press is an imprint of Elsevier Ltd., 2007. (p107)

crowd and crowd behavior has been carried out by theorist Elias Canetti. In his book, Crowds and Power, he addresses some core issues regarding crowds that are pertinent to the crowds experienced around sporting events and in particular the stadium.

3.1.2

Destructiveness and Auditory Perception of the Crowd

Elias Canetti’s ‘Crowds and Power’ studies the crowd with emphasis on its physical properties. He uses a full spectrum of examples with everything from religious festivals to irregular economic inflation in Germany in the 1920s. In Chapter 19, Destructiveness, Canetti makes reference to aspects of the crowd that are particularly relevant to those crowds that gather around the stadium. Canetti makes important reference to the sense of hearing, an aspect that is acutely linked to the sporting crowd however one that isn’t often addressed by crowd theorists. He suggests that one reason for the destructiveness of the crowd is to satisfy their auditory perception. Such acts as the breaking of glass bottles and the damaging of road signs are both done with relative ease and lack of exertion. However at the same time create “…robust sounds of fresh life, the cries of some- thing 2 new-born”. Although not referring specifically to any one type of event what Canetti is saying here couldn’t be more pertinent to the sports crowd. He goes on to say “There seems to be a special need for this kind of noise at the beginning of events, when the crowd is still small and little or 5 nothing has happened” . This evoking and reassuring of the senses needs to be a substantial consideration in the designing of these spaces to make them successful.

Public address systems are obviously essential in the control of the crowd and although this connects with the crowd it is not the form of aural connection Canetti is referring to. In the Aviva Stadium (Lansdowne Rd), a direct response by the 3 event organizers to this requirement is seen to take place.

At intervals along the access routes to the stadium are locations where entertainment, in the form of live music, has been organized. (Fig. 18) While some locations such as that on Shelbourne Place are ideal, with raised round and open space adjoining other locations are not. When designing this perimeter zone around the stadium these aspects must be considered.

________________________________________________ 2 Crowds and Power, Canetti, E. , The Continuum Publishing Company, 1978. (p19) 3 Pre Match Crowd Study, Williams, E., Ireland vs. South th Africa, 10 November 2012.

3.1.3

Boundaries and the Closed Crowd

My thesis is specifically concerned with the boundary between sports arena and public space and Canetti makes an important reference to the boundary when speaking about the destructiveness of the crowd. In the case of crowds gathered for sporting events the target of this destructiveness is almost always the boundary; be it the boundary of the arena itself or, which is more often the case, the boundary with the neighboring residencies and commercial outlets. Canetti speaks more explicitly on the boundary in his chapter ‘The Open and Closed Crowd’. This time however he is referring to the boundary of the crowd itself and more specifically, the closed crowd. When speaking of the closed crowd he describes it as renouncing growth in order to increase permanence and unlike an open crowd, it has a boundary. He uses the metaphor of a container into which something is poured to show that its limitations or volume is known and fixed. Similarly to a stadium he goes on to describe the entrances to these spaces or volumes as being “…limited in number, and only these entrances can be used; the boundary is respected whether it consists of stone, of solid wall, or of some special 5 act of acceptance, or entrance fee”. He further illustrates characteristics of the sporting crowd as the closed crowd when he speaks about egress. He explains that their willingness to disperse is as a result of their expectation of a reassembly in the near future.

“The building is waiting for them; it exists for their sake and, so long as it is there, they will be able to meet in 6 the same manner”.

________________________________________________ 5 Crowds and Power, Canetti, E. , The Continuum Publishing Company, 1978. (p17) 6 ibid (p17)

3.2 Defensible Space 3.2.1

Ownership of Public Space

Newman uses different case studies to illustrate his theories.

Each case study exhibits different constituents that are applicable to stadia design. In the case of ‘Five Oaks’, Dayton, Ohio, what is relevant is his view on the privatization or semi-privatization of public spaces. Breaking up these public spaces and restricting access to a number of select families saw a significant reduction in both crime in, and deterioration of, these areas. Conversely he states, “A family’s claim to a territory diminishes proportionally as the number of families who share that claim increases. The larger the number of people who share a territory, the less 7 each individual feels rights to it.” Where in this example the ownership is of a space adjacent to a residence, perhaps a similar logic can be applied to the stadium, where fans feel an ownership over the public space bordering it.

We see correlations between these ideas and those of French sociologist Le Bon in “Chapter II The Sentiments and Morality of Crowds” of his book The Crowd. Here Le Bon tackles such sentiments of the crowd as impulsiveness, suggestibility, credulity and morality. When speaking of morality he states that the majority of research by psychologists on crowds focuses on crime and violence and therefore suggests no morality. However Le Bon believes there is a strong argument to the contrary. While he accepts that “A crowd may be guilty of murder, incendiarism, and 8 every kind of crime” it can also be seen to partake in acts of “ devotion, sacrifice and…acts much loftier indeed than 9 those of which the isolated individual is capable”. Can this be applied to the almost religious following that many sporting events draw? Through design, can this morality of the crowd be tapped into?

________________________________________________ 7 Creating Defensible Space, Newman, O. , Rutgers University Press, 1996. (p17) 8 The Crowd, Le Bon, G. , Transaction Publishers, 1995. (p34) 9 Ibid (p34)

3.2.2

Public Space. Social Issues

In Five Oaks, rapid change in population, ethnicity and income level was experienced in the ten years from 1980 to 1990. These changes brought with them heavy through traffic, drug dealers and rising crime in the form of vandalism and robberies. These are all issues that concern the management of the public space around the stadium on a match day. Although there are obvious contrasts in time scale between the ten years of change in Five Oaks and the four to five hours of change on game day, both exemplify rapid change and the social implications associated with that change.

Further similarities between the two can be seen when looking at the tension that existed in Five Oaks between the different demographics. There existed two principal residents of Five Oaks. The first of these were the older, permanent homeowners who had endured through the mass exodus in the previous decades and remained in the neighborhood despite the drastic changes and social problems. The second group of residents was the transitory renters who were seen as a threat to the stability of the neighborhood.

Newman speaks of the tension between these two factions and gives what he believes to be the core issue; “The lack of shared values and aspirations among neighbors increased feelings of isolation and the perception of being on their own. Even the most innocent of activities, such as children playing in the street, or one neighbor asking the other for more careful garbage disposal, was perceived as 10 intolerance and incivility.�

Social issues surrounding the event of a sporting event vary depending on the sport, the geographical location and even the two particular teams who are in competition.

Nonetheless in many cases, huge tension can exist in the public spaces that are occupied by the supporters during the procession to the stadium. This tension is between the supporters of the two rival teams. And similarly to Newman’s explanation of the tension that was seen in Five Oaks, it stems from a lack of shared values and aspirations. Even if all club history and previous encounters were to be removed from the scenario, both sets of fans want to see their team emerge triumphant at the expense of the other. This is what makes sport and competition great but it can also give rise to negative actions.

________________________________________________ 10 Creating Defensible Space, Newman, O. , Rutgers University Press, 1996. (p33)

Chapter 4 Management ________________________________________

4.1 4.2

Crowd Management Management of Public Space Around the Sporting Arena

________________________________________

4.1 Crowd Management Crowd management is of the uppermost importance and should never be sacrificed in place of a more aesthetic design or more appropriately scaled public space. The safety of the crowd in modern day sporting events is imperative to the survival of the ‘live sporting occasion’ as a major social ritual. The amalgamation of safety standards and quality design is something that all architects strive for.

In stadium design the task of harmonizing these two briefs into one successful project is difficult.

Since ancient times the crowd at events has required managing. It is often the case that very little is required to 1 transform a peaceful crowd into a rioting mob. Two elements are required for the satisfaction of the spectator at the stadium which as much as possible ensures they remain peaceful and compliant. The first is customer service. The 2 second is the architecture. Spectators are more likely to respect a venue and its surroundings if it is evident they have been designed and built to a certain level of quality and consideration. Conversely, areas that display an expectation 3 of vandalism are more likely to receive it. Correct design on the architects part will also ensure spaces are designed in a way that demotes anti-social behavior. Furthermore the building layout should be ordered in such a way that any developing misbehavior by members of the crowd can be quickly intervened and halted.

________________________________________________ 1 Stadia, A Design and Development Guide, Fourth Edition, John, G., Sheaard, R., Vickery, B., Architectural Press is an imprint of Elsevier Ltd., 2007. (p107) 2 ibid (p107) 3 ibid (p107)

4.2 Management of Public Space Around the Sporting Arena The public space adjacent to the stadium has two distinctly different phases of management. The first and most obvious is the management during an event, primarily in the run up to the event and directly after its conclusion. The second phase, and for the purposes of this thesis, the more fundamental phase exists outside of event times when the space is for the most part vacant.

During this time the public space performs entirely differently to match day. It is more akin to the public space that is seen else where in the urban landscape such as around high-rise buildings. The difference however is that in this case the building is relatively unoccupied. The management of this public space is something that concerns not just architecture but also geography, culture, politics and criminology.

Increasingly in today’s world the role of urban space in our lives is significant. Where, in decades gone by these spaces have been neglected now their relevance to society is being 4 acknowledged. Even more recent is the shift in opinion regarding the public space around the stadium. Now more consideration is being given to these spaces. In the past these buildings were fenced or walled off and gates were only opened on match day. Now, contemporary stadium designs allow access right up to, if not partly into, the building itself.

The stadium in many urban settings acts as a heart to the area. At intervals it will draw masses of people to it and its surroundings. Yet equally as fast as they arrived, the stadium will dispel them back to the extremities of the city. In order to achieve greater public space the intervals between each occurrence of this must be shortened. A regular heartbeat to the stadium will supply active use of the public space around it. Matthew Carmona, a Professor of Planning and Urban Design at the Bartlett School of Planning, points out that there is a particular type of formal, high profile public space that “through a wide variety of development and policy processes, have become increasingly privatized and 5 therefore more or less exclusionary.� This is applicable to the public space in the stadiums adjacency and is a response that the architect, through design, must avoid the public experiencing.

________________________________________________ 4 Public Space The Management Dimension, Carmona, M., Routledge, 2008. (p3) 5 ibid (p3)

Chapter 5 Nowlan Park, Kilkenny ________________________________________

5.1 5.2

Brief Site Selection and Findings

________________________________________

5.1 Brief

5.1.1

The Problems

Stadia design and construction is a large scale, expensive project. Currently, emphasis is put on high crowd capacities, commerciality and security.

Many examples of unsuccessfully designed stadia exist.

Most commonly, the stadia that occupy our cities are uncomfortable and squalid buildings to walk around. When not in use they emit a sense of depression to the areas they occupy. During events they demonstrate the opposite, often resulting in negative contributions such as, noise, violence, congestion and pollution.

They are in constant abrasion with the neighboring environment. Often they are located on the outskirts of cities where real estate is more affordable and available. Instead of channeling the positive energy, excitement and finance they generate back into the bordering areas, they somehow widen the divide.

5.1.2

The Alternatives

In this design project I will be proposing an alternative approach to stadia design based on my thesis findings.

Design considerations will go further than just providing large grand stands that ignore all else in pursuit of the spectacle.

They will go further than packing in commercial outlets whose sole purpose is to generate revenue. Instead, an emphasis will be put on the public space around the stadium and its connection with the community. The focus will be on the ‘edge’ or ‘boarder’ between private sports arena and public space.

The design will arm the building with the ability to be an active and vibrant core of community activity. The stadium will instill pride in the community that can be enjoyed year round, and not solely on match day.

The primary function of most stadia we see in our cities today is to provide a stage for a select few to entertain the masses. However it is intended that through careful analysis and consideration of the needs of the community in which this design is located, a greater balance between spectator and performer can be achieved. The stadium will be a platform for local community members of varying ages and interests to use.

5.1.3

The Method

To achieve this alternative, an approach to the design will be taken that differs from the conventional approach and is informed by the thesis. It is essential to maintain fundamental elements of stadia design such as the quality of the spectacle, services, safety and security. However in order to find solutions to the design challenges mentioned above a new order of priorities must be established.

To the fore of this list will be the social agenda of the stadium. By embracing multifuntionality the stadium can cater for much more than just matches or concerts a few times a year. It can enhance the local area. Importance must be given to the diversification of these functions. All demographics of the local society must be considered with facilities ranging from crèches to function suites to retail and other cultural and social centers.

The abrupt transition from public to private space that commonly exists in stadia must be transformed. Instead there will be an intermediary buffer space that will ensure more controlled crowds on event days but also act as an inviting public space that can be occupied and populated at non-event times.

5.1.4

Project Description

The completed project should address and comprehensively answer all findings of the thesis. This will be analyzed in two categories; 1. Event day, 2. Non-event day.

On the day of an event or match the public space around the stadium must perform in a way that creates defensible space that manages the large number of supporters that it receives.

On non-event days, these public spaces must be occupied.

This will be achieved by creating inviting space, space in which the occupant feels comfortable.

The stadium will have additional functions outside of the spectacle. This will ensure an even spread of activity across time and across the community.

5.1.5

Provisional Space Schedule

Spectacle Related Playing surface Changing rooms Stands External circulation concourses Toilets Match Day Hospitality Management building

| | | | | | |

10,800m 2 96m 2 7,500m 2 300m 2 80m

| | | | | |

5000m 2 170m 2 80m 2 40m 2 40m 2 90m

Community Related Auxiliary artificial playing surface Gym Multifunctional community centre Playground Retail Museum

2

2

5.2 Site Selection and Findings

5.2.1 Site Facts and Parameters Orientation The ground at Nowlan Park runs North-East to South-West New Grand Stand Old Stand County End City End

| | | |

East West North South

Capacity 30,000 Total 19,000 Seated th

(12 Highest Capacity Stadium in Ireland)

Location Kilkenny Ireland 52° 39′ 23″ N, 7° 14′ 22″ W

Owners Kilkenny GAA Site Area ≈ 25,500m

2

5.2.2 Existing Use of Site Nowlan Park belongs to Kilkenny GAA and is the stadium at which the county hurlers play. It is considered one of the best hurling surfaces in the country and is the only GAA pitch on which solely hurling is played.

Developments to Date on Site Over the past fifteen years three of the four stands have been developed. Most recently completed was the North stand by Hannigan Maguire Architects. Included in this redevelopment was the construction of new referees rooms, player’s dressing rooms and a weights room.

On Site Facilities Pitch Parking Spectator Seating Toilets Changing Facilities Weights Room Local Area Facilities Kilkenny GAA Training Facility Mac Donagh Train Station Housing Tourist Hostel Genesis Business College

5.2.3 Access and Approach Approach Visuals Primary approach routes are: Hebron Road O’Loughlin Road Entrances and Circulation Entrances to the ground exist in 3 different parts of the site as shown Public Transport Bus routes run to next to the stadium Mac Donagh train station exists North of the site

Parking On site parking exists to the West of the site and is only available on match day

5.2.3 Reasons for Site Selection This site was selected, as it is an historic ground that is home to a team and a sport that provides enormous pride for the people of Kilkenny. The site however does not embody this pride and is inert and motionless on days when no match is taking place.

Additionally, the neighboring area is underdeveloped with a lack of amenities. A connection between the ground and the community is non-existent.

The site has ample space outside of the stands and playing surface upon which developments could be incorporated.

Conclusion From in-depth research across a number of varying themes it is evident that community and the sporting arena can be, and in some cases are, intricately linked. Equally evident however is that the survival of each does not rely on the other. Should stadia design proceed down the path of ignoring its surroundings but maintain the service of providing a premium experience of the spectacle, it’s continued existence would more than likely prevail. The consequences of this however would be catastrophic on the urban spaces they inhabit.

Alternatively a more punctilious approach to their design could enhance both stadium and surroundings. A symbiosis could develop between the two bodies. Each could be better because of the other.

The primary obstacle to this architectural ideal exists within the comparatively small volume of space between the seat and the street, the boundary between event and place. This zone, and its potential design, possesses the power to eliminate these obstacles.

The stadium, with its scale and function, embodies the overused term of urban catalyst. Yet from this exploration its underperformance in that regard is undeniable. As a building type, with credit to the Olympics and other sporting 1 events, it is one of the most viewed in history. Its responsibility to the urban realm and architecture is indubitable, this, it must reflect through its design.

________________________________________________ 1 Stadia, A Design and Development Guide, Fourth Edition, John, G., Sheaard, R., Vickery, B., Architectural Press is an imprint of Elsevier Ltd., 2007. (p21)

Bibliography Creating Defensible University, 1996.

Space,

Newman,

O.,

Rutgers

PanStadia, Journal for the Sport and Entertainment Facility Industry Worldwide, Vol. 15-17, McIntyre, K., PanStadia Publishing Company, 2009-2012.

Stadia, A Design and Development Guide, Fourth Edition, John, G., Sheaard, R., Vickery, B., Architectural Press is an imprint of Elsevier Ltd., 2007.

Crowds and Power, Canetti, E., The Continuum Publishing Corporation, 1962.

Sport, Space, and the City, J. Bale, Routledge, 1993.

City in History: It’s Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects, L. Mumford, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1968.

Temples of the Earthbound Gods; Stadiums in the Cultural Landscapes of Rio De Janeiro and Buenos Aires, Gaffney, C.T., University of Texas Press, 2008.

Modern Architecture, A Critical History (Fourth Edition), Frampton, K., London, Thames & Hudson, 2007.

Sites of Sport: Space, Place and Experience (Sport in the Global Society), P. Vertinsky, Routledge, 2004.

Crowd Psychology and Engineering, J.D. Sime, Elsevier, 1995.

Stadium Worlds: Football, Space and the Built Environment, S. Frank, S. Steets, Routledge, 2010.

What Makes a City? Planning for 'Quality of Place', J.J. Trip, IOS Press, 2002.

Sites of Sport, J. Bale, Routledge, 2007.

The Sociology of Space, G. Simmel, Routledge, 2002.

The Crowd: Study of the Popular Mind, G. Le Bon, Batoche Books, 2001.

Football Stadiums, FIFA Technical Recommendations and Requirements, Fourth Edition, FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association, Dunne, F., 2007.

Is The Grass Greener?, Learning from International Innovations in Urban Green Space Management, Carmona, M., Cabe Space, 2003.

Public Places Urban Spaces, Carmona, M., Architectural Press is an imprint of Elsevier Ltd., 2003.

Public Space Management, Roberts, M., Crown Publishing, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister: London, 2004.

Public Space The Management Dimension, Carmona, M., Routledge, 2008.

Commodification and Spectacle in Architecture, Saunders, W.S., University of Minnesota Press, 2005.

Architecture Between Spectacle and Use, Vidler, A., Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, 2008.

The Metro Polis and Mental Life, Simmel, G., University of Chicago Press, 1903.

Managing External Public Space, Carmona, M., Crown Publishing, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister: London, 2003.

Managing Public Urban Green Space; An International Comparative Study, Carmona, M., Cabe Space, 2004.

Sports Architecture, Sheard, R., Spon Press, 2001.

Steer Davies Gleave, 2005. Transport Assessment: Crowd Movement Report. [Typed report] Dublin. Aviva Stadium Archives.

Author, Initials., Year. Title of document. [type of medium] Collection, Document number. Geographical Town/Place: Name of Library/Archive/Repository.

Annex Interview Transcript Note: Interviews were conducted and recorded with the permission of the interviewee in the knowledge that a transcript of the interview would be made for the purpose of the study but would not be made a publicly available document.

Interviewee: Robert May Year: 2012 Title of Interview: Conversation with Local Resident Interviewer: Author Location: Emirates Stadium, London, UK. Date: 30th November.

While recording through photographs, the facade of the Emirates Stadium, a man can be seen approaching in the distance. He has an unleashed dog with him and he is throwing a ball for him as they walk around the stadium. I approach and enquire if I can ask him a few questions about the relationship between the stadium and the public space around it.

Author:

Do you live locally?

Subject:

Yeah my house is only 5 minutes from the stadium

Author:

Right, well I just saw you walking your dog and I’m interested to know if you often walk in this area?

Subject:

Yes I do, in particular in the winter when the parklands are waterlogged. This area is ideal and always kept clean.

Author:

Do you often see others doing similarly, I see a few cyclists and joggers using this concourse almost as a track?

Subject:

Yeah the area is always quite busy, there’s always a nice combination of tourists who are coming to see the stadium and locals who are out for a walk or using it as a shortcut to get to Hornsey Street from Dayton Park Road.

Author:

Oh really, was that always possible?

Subject:

No the two bridges you can see [points to the The Ken Friar Bridge and the Danny Fiszman bridge] were only built with the new stadium.

Author:

Do you feel the stadium is overpowering in the area?

Subject:

No I think it acts like a landmark and people enjoy being in areas around it or in the museum behind us [the stadium museum located outside the stadium to the north]

Stadium Façade Montages (A3 format) Craven Cottage Emirates Stadium Wembley Stadium Teickenham Stadium

Â