A rigourous policy framework
N
owadays the development of renewable energies has become a necessity: indeed the increase in electricity demands combined with international agreements to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to limit fossil energy use and ensure security of supply by reducing the dependence on the importation of fossil fuels are now, more than ever, strong arguments for the development of renewable energies. This trend has been enhanced by the EU Commission’s publication of the White Paper, “Energy for the future: Renewable Sources of Energy” and the Directive for “Promotion of Electricity produced from Renewable Energy Sources” (RES-E Directive), which gives clear signals about the need to increase the use of renewable energies in order to reduce environmental impacts and create a sustainable energy system. This European policy framework has been shaped following the objectives of climate change mitigation, security of supply and the improvement of European industrial competitiveness. Due to all these reasons the promotion of electricity from renewable sources of energy is a high Community priority. Among the renewables, Small hydropower has a key role to play as a mature technology, on the one hand whlist still berefitting from untapped potential.
Supported by
Security of supply
Environmental benefits
Policy Framework For Renewables Economic Regional Development
Social cohesion and employment
At a National Level the policy frameworks have evolved with special emphasis on environmental integration: the installation, refurbishing and operation of small hydropower plants have to follow various regulations in terms of energy generation, impact on water quality, flora and fauna of the river, construction requirements, connection to the grid, and landed properties. This leads to a rigorous licence process at a National level that ensures the good integration of environmental criteria of any SHP plant.
SMALL HYDROPOWER
HYDROPOWER THE POLICY FRAMEWORK
The European White Paper on Renewables Energies
I
n 1997 the European Commission’s White Paper on renewable energy sources set the goal of doubling the share of renewable energy sources in the EU energy sector from 6 to 12 % by 2010. Projections for each renewable energy technology were made.
Installed Capacity in 2010
14 GW
Installed capacity in 2005
11.6 GW
Targets represent an important step in policy making. The rapid market development, and the technological advancement of the renewable energy sector in recent years has ensured that progress on the White Paper targets is being made. With continued policy support the targets can be achieved.
9.000
6.000
Current trend
3.000
White paper
0
10
55 TWh
20
Electricity generation
11.535
11.644
05
2010 Scenario
12.855
12.000
20
Feature
14.000
04
White Paper Small hydropower scenario for 2010
15.000
20
For SHP this means the ambitious target of reaching by 2010 14 GW of installed capacity, generating 55 TWh of electricity production.
The RES-e Directive
T
he European Directive for the Promotion of RES electricity in the Internal Market Directive 2001/77/EC follows up the White Paper, which confirmed a target of 12% of gross inland energy consumption from renewables for the Community as a whole by 2010, of which electricity would represent 22.1%.
The RES-e Directive gives Member States a reason to look at SHP because it is the best proven of all renewable energy technologies. Of special interest for Europe, from both the economic and environmental point of view, is the exploitation of the high potential for upgrading and refurbishing existing plants.
Promotion of the RES electricity in the Internal Market Directive 2001/77/EC Proposed measures Quantified national targets for consumption of electricity from renewable sources of energy National support schemes plus, if necessary, a harmonised support system Simplification of national administrative procedures for authorisation Guaranteed access to transmission and distribution of electricity from renewable energy sources
The Renewable Energy Roadmap
RES support policy instruments
T
he most recent EU policy document promoting RES, The Communication for the European Commission, An Energy Policy for Europe, from January 2007, includes a Renewable Energy Roadmap, with a binding 20% target for RES contribution to the European overall energy mix by 2020*. Despite this legislative framework, there are three aspects which concern the small hydropower sector in particular:
Generation based (kWh)
Supply side
targets settled in the legislation and the difficulty to achieve them, tariff structures and support schemes currently in force and their effectiveness and barriers still standing despite the new favourable legislative framework. * The heads of State, at the EU Council (March 2007), have backed up the Commision strategy to set up a binding target.
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Feed-in tariffs Fiscal measures Bidding systems
Quota obligations Green certificates Fiscal measures
Subsidies Investment subsidies Fiscal measures
Quota obligations
Demand side
Capacity based (kW)
Some Examples of Policy Instruments Country
Support Policy Instrument
Description
Spain
Feed-in tariff
Fixed price and premium payment adjusted annually by government.
Italy
Quota + tradable green certificates
The quota should increase by 0.35% each year starting from 2004 to 2006. The grid authority fixes a cap (upper) price for green certificates every year. Certificates are issued only for the first 12 years of operation.
Germany
Feed-in tariff
Germany’s revised Renewable Energy Sources Act (RESA) ties the hydropower feed-in rates to prove that the use of hydropower either achieves good ecological surface water status or substantially improves it
Austria
Feed- in Tariff
Different feed in tariffs depending on the installed capacity and age of the plant.
France
Feed- in Tariff
Feed-in tariffs applicable only to renewable plants up to 12 MW. Price paid to SHP plants depends on their construction date. Winter tariff for SHP plants commissioned after 2001 is guaranteed for 20 years.
Poland
Quota + Green certificates
The system started in 2005. Final consumer energy supplier is obliged to prove that certain percentage of his supply is of RES origin by cancelling the ownership rights to green certificates issued by the State Energy Regulation Office. The quota is increased every year up to the value fixed as the indicative target of RES contribution to the electrical energy consumption in 2010.
Slovenia
Feed-in tariff composed of fixed market price and premium
The government states the value of the feed-in tariff and the premium. Feed-in = fixed market price + premium. The scheme is valid for SHP up to 10 MW, but SHP <1 MW have better conditions. The SHP producer is allowed to sell independently, and as such can negotiate his market price whilst still getting the premium. However, both values decline with the age of the SHP plant: -5% for SHP>5 years and -10 % for SHP>10 years. The scheme is valid for 10 years.
Lithuania
Feed-in tariff combine with purchase obligation
Fixed price and premium payment
The Water Framewok Directrive (WFD) n 23 October 2000, the «Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for the Community action in the field of water policy» was adopted. The European Water Framework Directive and the progressive implementation of the network-protected areas Natura 2000 have recently completed national legislation on nature protection, water use and fishing activities. The Directive sets a framework for the protection of all waters with the one main goal of reaching a “good status” of all Community waters by 2015.This rigorous environmental framework guarantees the adequate integration of SHP with the natural environment.
As requested by ESHA, the European Commission set up at the beginning of 2006 a working group on Hydromorphology and WFD under the activities of the Strategy Coordination group (SCG) for the Common Implementation of the Water Framework Directive (WFD).This group is composed of Member States representatives as well as stakeholders. The objective of the activity is to identify and share good practice approaches to managing the adverse impacts of water uses on the hydromorphological characteristics of surface water bodies. The group has initially focused its work on three sectors: Hydropower, Navigation, and flood management.
SMALL HYDROPOWER
O
In order to reach the targets of the RES-e directive, hydropower is needed: the targets will never be reached if WFD and the RES-e implementation are not consistent. Indeed, there is room for significant progress in policy integration by enhancing the recognition of the different interests, fostering the co-operation between the different competent authorities and stakeholders, and promoting more integrated development strategies. Integration between water and energy policies is beneficial since it will create synergies and avoid potential inconsistencies as well as mitigating possible conflicts between water users and environmentalists.
3
For implementing a SHP scheme different licences and permit are needed in various issues: Energy generation (water rights) Impact on water quality, flora, and fauna of the river, and all environmental aspects (environmental Impact assessment and reserved flow calculations) Construction requirements (building licences) Connection to the grid licences Landed properties Regulations have to take into account these various aspects, which are under the responsibility of different authorities. These authorities and responsibilities are different in each Member State depending on the political and administrative organization and on its involvement in the development of renewable energy sources. In this context, the procedures vary from one country to another, but also within a country from one region to the other and even often, in the same region, from one project to the other. In all countries the project has to be made public and people can react. The co-ordination between the different administrative levels to handle and speed up the authorization requests is essential.
Good reasons to improve the European and National legislative frameworks for SHP SHP contributes to sustainable development by being economically feasible, respecting the environment (avoiding green house gase emissions) and allowing decentralized production for the development of dispersed populations. SHP is a clean energy source (it does not produce waste in the rivers, nor air pollution) and renewable (the fuel for hydropower is water, which is not consumed in the electricity generation process) SHP plants, if well equipped with fish ladders and environmentally friendly runner blades, are not an obstacle for migratory fish. Small hydropower plants ensure a minimum flow downstream, reserve flow that guarantees fish life. Grid stability: Building SHP plants helps create a more diversified electricity system, providing production of electricity in smaller distribution systems when the main grid is disrupted. Furthermore, since SHP is located close to the consumers, transmission losses can be reduced. SHP mobilises financial resources and contributes to the economic development of small disperse populations, ensuring autonomous and reliable energy for the long term SHP plants create local jobs for the monitoring of the running phase of the plant. SHP schemes assist in the maintenance of river basins by allowing the recovery of waste that flows in the river stream, the monitoring of hydrological indicators and the refurbishment of old SHP plants. High energy payback ratio, for each power generation system, the “energy payback” is the ratio of energy produced during its normal life span, divided by the energy required to build, maintain and fuel the generation equipment. If a system has a low payback ratio, it means that much energy is required to maintain it and this energy is likely to produce major environmental impacts.
SHP in figures 22.1%: EU-25 renewable electricity target set up in by European Directive RES-e by 2010, for SHP this target means reaching by 2010 14 GW of installed capacity, generating 55 TWh of electricity 23 600 GWW year: EU-25 potential for new plants. 4.5-9 Eurocents/kWh: European average SHP electricity production costs 1 200 -3 500 /kW: European average SHP investment costs 11.6 GW installed capacity in EU-25 in 2005 20 000: SHP jobs (direct and indirect)
EUROPEAN SMALL HYDROPOWER ASSOCIATION Renewable Energy House 63-67 Rue d’Arlon - B-1040 Brussels • Belgium T: +32 2 546 1945 • F: +32 2 546 1947 E: info@esha.be • I: www.esha.be ESHA is founding member of EREC, the European Renewable Energy Council
Illustration sources: Agener, Universidad de Jaen, Kö, IED, BOKU, MHyLab, VATECH, Elmotech, Ingegneri Maggia SA, Commune de Savièse (CH), ISET, Studio Frosio, SERO, EPFL-LCH, Walcher, Sasso s.r.l. Design : ACG Brussels The sole responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors. It does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the European Communities. The European Commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.
Administrative procedures needed to develop a SHP scheme
A clean and indigenous Renewable Energy
E
nergy is a key issue for sustainable development. The European Commission estimates that the global energy demand will increase by 70% over a period of 30 years (20002030). The growth in energy demand will cause a considerable increase in greenhouse gas emissions. CO 2 emissions are projected to increase by 18% in 2030 compared to the 1990 level, in the EU. Renewables are â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;theâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; solution to climate change. Hydropower is the fi rst renewable energy in terms of global production, and therefore has a key role to play in the production of renewable electricity, which will allow it to make a significant contribution to future energy needs, offering an excellent alternative to carbon-based sources of electricity.
Renewables contribute to increasing security of supply Renewables have the lowest Environmental impact of all energy sources. Renewables offer sustainable energy development world-wide. Renewables reduce the risk to public health Renewables reduce the costs of the supply chain of centralised conventional energy production.
Supported by
SMALL HYDROPOWER
HYDROPOWER RESPECTS THE ENVIRONMENT
Development of RES is a necessity
C
limate change has been defined as the major international problem faced nowadays by the international community, indeed, its effects are already being seen around the world through rising temperatures, melting ice caps and volatile weather patterns. Climate Change is a direct result of the green house effect caused by an Trash rack devices increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide from conventional fuel power plants, industry, and transport is by far the largest contributor.
Small hydro respects the environment
W
ater from a river has different uses: potable water, water for agriculture, water for industry activities, fishing, aquatic sports. SHP is one of those activities and, like any human activity, has some impact on the natural environment. However, new technical developmentsenvironmental mitigation techniques that are technically and economically viable and most of them are socially acceptable offering a good compromise with others riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s users-, the regulatory framework and the willingness of project developers to integrate the environmental concerns of the hydropower production have considerably decreased these environmental impacts. There are good successful cases in the EU where the use of appropriate technologies, measures or methodologies has minimized potential environmental impacts.
Climate change mitigation outlined in the various intergovernmental conferences on climate change and the Kyoto protocol legitimites itself through a major development of renewable energies. However, it is not the only argument: renewables contribute to increasing security of supply by reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels. This import dependency results in economic, social, ecological and safety policy problems. Energy supply is a vital service of public interest.
Small hydropower contributes to climate change mitigation because: It is an inexhaustible energy source Small hydropower cannot be depleted unlike fossil fuels, for example, of which there are a finite supply. Among all renewable energies hydropower is the leading renewable source in the European Union. It does not produce green house gas emissions Hydropower does not involve any combustion, and therefore does not release any oxide into the atmosphere; in particular it does not release carbon dioxide which is the principal gas responsible for global warming.
SHP Certified with ISO 14001 in France.
Petroleum (tons)
Coal (tons)
Natural gas (tons) Hydropower
Carbon dioxide
3000
3750
2250
0
Nitrogen Oxide
3,7
0,6
2,2
0
Sulphur dioxide
4,5
4,5
0,02
0
Comparative emissions from a small hydropower plant of 1000 MW, working 4500 hours/year and other sources of production of electricity
It has a high-energy payback ratio: For each power generation system, the â&#x20AC;&#x153;energy paybackâ&#x20AC;? is the ratio of energy produced during its normal life span, divided by the energy required to build, maintain and fuel the generation equipment. If a system has a low payback ratio, it means that much energy is required to maintain it and this energy is likely to produce major environmental impacts.
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Refurbished plant in Spain. Also used for education.
The quality of water
S
HP schemes are mainly run-of-river with little or no reservoir impoundment. Therefore, SHP is not simply a reduced version of a large hydro plant (LHP). Specific equipment is necessary to meet fundamental requirements with regard to environmental integration, simplicity, high – energy output, maximum reliability, and easy maintenance. Besides the production of electricity, SHP does not produce any harmful discharge to the river. The water downstream the turbine is of exactly the same quality and quantity than before. A proof is that some SHP schemes dispense potable water downstream. In addition, SHP schemes assist in the maintenance of river basins by allowing recovering waste that flows in the river stream, monitoring hydrological indicators and refurbishing old SHP plants. — Trash rack material management: Almost all modern small hydropower plants have a trash rack-cleaning machine, which removes material from the water to avoid it entering the plant waterways and damaging electromechanical equipment or reducing hydraulic performance. Each year tons of material (mainly plastic bags, bottles, cans as well as leaves, branches etc.) are removed from the river. Moreover biodegradable oils are more and more used in SHP plants.
The river ecosystem
I
— Among these measures the installation of fish by pass systems has lead to a considerable increase of the environmental performance of small hydro plants. Indeed, fish ladders help to avoid harm to the fish stock population migrating upstream the river , to their breeding sites. — Fish Friendly turbines The installation of turbines in a river system may in certain circumstances endanger fish (fish migrating downstream the river). Research work, carried out at large hydropower stations has shown that fish can and do get into the turbine, especially in periods of intensive fish movement along the river. To help minimize fish injury, turbine manufacturers have been carrying out studies based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD), with good results. Small hydropower plants also can take advantage of this
research with methods developed for minimizing impact on fish from conventional turbines (Francis and Kaplan turbines). Meanwhile new concepts of turbines and re-invention of old concepts (hydrodynamic screws, water wheels) are typical of micro and mini hydro plants, allowing better integration into and preservation of the river life.
The landscape
B
y using local materials and local architecture techniques the visual impact of small hydropower plants can be minimised in order to integrate the powerhouse into the landscape. Noise can be minimized by proper noise abatement measures or underground works. At the same time the refurbishing and upgrading of old and abandoned mills contributes to cultural heritage protection. Multipurpose Hydro Schemes
Competition for use of water has always been strong, but especially in the last years it has become even stronger. A solution is the multi-use of water resources. This means combining electricity production with other water uses such as irrigation, recreation, and drinking water supply. This results in multiple use of water connected with small hydropower plant realization. Multipurpose schemes allow the best compromise among different public interests while reducing the environmental impacts. ISO 14001 – environmental management systems
The small hydropower producers are concerned about the environmental protection and impacts minimisation. For example the French association of Small Hydropower producers (GPAE) is continually promoting the voluntary environmental certification with ISO 14001 for the small hydropower plants in France. The principal objective of this international recognised environmental certification system is the continuous improvement of environmental performance of small hydropower plants.
SMALL HYDROPOWER
n order to ensure that the environmental impacts of small hydro power schemes are kept to a minimum, SHP operators are required to conduct environmental impact assessments for any small hydropower project. These assessments allow hydro-biological analyses to measure the impacts to the flora, and to the fauna in order to avoid irreversible damage and to define environmental impact mitigation measures. It is also required to establish a minimum reserved flow to maintain the quality of the river ecosystem with any significant alteration due to the small hydro plant. All definitions of reserved or minimum flow place emphasis on the protection of the existing ecology of the river.
Energy is neither created nor destroyed. It is wastedEcologistas en Acción, Spanish Environmental NGO asking to make use of existing water irrigation infrastructure in Spain to produce hydroelectricity.
Fish bypass system
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THE EIA PROCESS SHP project proposal Scoping
T
he Council Directive 85/337 of June 27, 1985, describes the legal framework of environmental impact assessments The Environmental Impact Assessment is a procedure to support decisions. The objective is the identification and analyses of the negative and positive effects that a project might cause to the environment and health, to assist the decision among various possibilities and solutions. The carrying-out of the environmental impact assessment is the responsibility of the project developers, usually through specialised consultants. The control, monitoring and verification of the results are done by the National Bodies responsible for this. Small hydro project plants are subject to environmental impact assessments that identify their potential impacts and propose feasible solutions. An Environmental Impact Assessment is a repeatable process and therefore needs to be as transparent as possible: this is a very important requirement which must reflect in the clarity of data and in methods of approach accepted both by the proponent and the relevant authorities. The agreement of the parties involved in the process on the general methodology forces each part to follow a path made of precise and defined steps avoiding as far as possible arbitrary evaluations.
An EIA has three main purposes:
Public Involvement
Analysis of Impacts Mitigation and impacts management proposal EIA report Rebsumit
Review
Redesign
Decision Making
Public Involvement
Information from this process contributes to Not approved
Approved
Implementation and follow up of environmental measures
Information and involvement of all the actors
Protection of the environment.
It is essential to involve and inform all the actors concerned throughout all the project: especially, the local populations. Public information will allow to bringing together all the actors with different interests on the river uses towards a common agreement. Local populations will understand the benefits that the installation will bring to their communities showing the willing to share the benefits of the project with all the actors involved. The public information is a transparent an ongoing process carried out through the entire WHAT IT IS NECCESARY TO KNOW project mainly through: Small hydropower respects the environment. It’s a clean energy Public meetings source, renewable, efficient and sustainable. Press releases The design, implementation and running phase of small hydroWorkshops on renewable power plants are ruled by a complete European and national energies legal framework, concerning the quality of the water, the fauna, the flora, and the landscape. Explanatory sessions about the technical administrative It is indispensable to inform the populations involved throughout and environmental issues all the process to take into account all the interests that surround concerning the developing the development of a small hydropower plant. of small hydro schemes.
Information for the public authorities and the public. Help for decision.
effective future EIA
EUROPEAN SMALL HYDROPOWER ASSOCIATION Renewable Energy House 63-67 Rue d’Arlon - B-1040 Brussels • Belgium T: +32 2 546 1945 • F: +32 2 546 1947 E: info@esha.be • I: www.esha.be ESHA is founding member of EREC, the European Renewable Energy Council
Illustration sources: Agener, Universidad de Jaen, Kö, IED, BOKU, MHyLab, VATECH, Elmotech, Ingegneri Maggia SA, Commune de Savièse (CH), ISET, Studio Frosio, SERO, EPFL-LCH, Walcher, Sasso s.r.l. Design : ACG Brussels The sole responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors. It does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the European Communities. The European Commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.
Small Hydropower and Environmental Impact assessments
A Dynamic Sector
T
he European industry has maintained a leading position in the field of hydropower manufacturing since the technology started to develop 150 years ago. Very little non-European equipment has been installed in European hydropower plants. One important reason for European dominance has been the strong home market. By developing technology and production methods in a fast-growing home market, European manufacturers have, with few significant exceptions, kept a leading edge compared to manufacturers from other parts of the world.
Supported by
The EU has a multi-disciplinary and highly skilled small hydro industry, which offers the full range of products and services required to develop small hydro projects from initial feasibility and design through to manufacturing, financing and operation. The exploitation of the small hydro power plants has allowed to establish in Europe a strong net of local SMEs that work directly or indirectly with the small hydropower sector. This sector promotes local industrial activities besides increasing the export capabilities since the non-EU market still offers good prospects for EU manufacturers.
SMALL HYDROPOWER
HYDROPOWER THE SECTOR
SHP: A mature but high-technology industry
A
pproximately 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water, a resource that has been exploited for many centuries. Hydropower is certainly the largest and most mature application of renewable technologies. 22% of the world’s electricity production comes from hydropower installations, many of which are small hydropower plants of less than 10 MW. In Europe there are about 11.6 GW installed of Small hydro. But small hydro is not only a reduced version of a large hydro plant. Specific equipment is necessary to meet fundamental requirements with due regard to simplicity, high-energy output, maximum reliability and easy maintenance by non- specialists. Besides the works of civil engineering, the industry of the small hydropower associates mechanical and electrical high technologies combined with highly developed monitoring and surveillance processes. The overall aim is to gain energy efficiency and reduce the environmental impact. In order to achieve this objective, the industry has developed innovative techniques to minimize potential environmental impacts. Indeed, engineers working in the SHP field keep on developing techniques specific to small hydropower, in order to face up to the following challenges:
Hydro-mechanical engineering T he main objective of hydro-mechanical engineers is to develop turbines that use water resource optimally, by designing turbines that are specific to the sites. Therefore the R&D on SHP has focused on very-low-head and low-head turbines. Notably, pico and micro hydro turbines are developed to meet the demand for rural electrification and small isolated networks. Optimal use of the water resources implies an improvement in the hydraulic design that aims not only at higher efficiency, but also to lower costs, high reliability and an optimal environmental integration (fish-friendly turbines).
Electrical engineering vailable solutions for SHP electrical engineering range from generators, A grid connection over electric drives to the control and management of the whole power plant. State of the art industrial automation components and excellent communication features ensure that an operator can identify the status of the plant at any time and anywhere. Using computers, PDAs, cell phones or just a simple telephone allows to respond remotely on problems, where applicable. New concepts such as scheduled production, prediction of the energy output and condition monitoring are currently under development also for SHP in order to improve the grid integration, to increase reliability and to reduce the operation & maintenance costs.
Environmental engineering
better environmental integration decrease of investment and operation cost maximizing the electricity production
Civil engineering t present, most efforts concerning civil engineering aim at standardA izing design and technology, so as to reach an optimal integration of an SHP plant with the local environment while minimizing costs. Such objectives are reached by setting guidelines based on the latest design technology, new materials and best practice examples.
2
T he significant increase in knowledge concerning the biological mechanism in rivers has consequently initiated the development of “environmental engineering”, focusing on minimizing and mitigation of negative environmental impact. Well-known examples are fish-bypass systems, environmental flow or river restructuring. The close cooperation with ecologists has led to excellent compromises between environmental targets and economic and technical restrictions. Such engineering is in continuous evolution. For example, nowadays, it has been found that contrary to a constant amount of environmental flow, the variability according to natural discharge conditions brings about ecological benefits at lower costs. Moreover, regarding fish-bypass systems, new technically optimised installations such as the vertical slot pass or the Denil-pass guarantee the highest fish acceptance while reducing the amount of bypass operation flow.
An instrument for regional and local development
S
mall and medium sized enterprises constitute the majority of goods and services suppliers in the field of the European small hydro industry. Small and Medium renewable energy enterprises create employment at much higher rates than many other energy technologies. There are economic opportunities for new industries and new industrial and craft jobs through production, installation and maintenance of renewable energy systems. The construction and maintenance of a SHP plant needs a multidisciplinary team of enterprises encompassing civil engineers, and electricity specialists, turbine manufacturers; suppliers etc. SHP plants create local jobs for the monitoring of the running phase of the plant. By means of the royalties and taxes to which they are subject, SHP contributes to the economic development of small disperse populations, ensuring autonomous and reliable energy for the long term (30 to 40 years). SHP is suitable for co-operative or communal ownership, and can be combined with irrigation systems and potable water channels. As well as being a tool for regional development, SHP development should be integrated in local plans through spatial planning approaches.
A signiďŹ cant industrial potential
S
Countries of particular interest for SHP: Region
Countries for consideration
Latin America
Brazil, Peru, Argentina, Caribbean Ecuador, Colombia, Cuba
Africa
Uganda, Cameroon, Congo, Ethipia, Madagascar, Angola
Central and Eastern Europe
Slovakia, Czech Republic, Ukraine Most Independent former USSR states
Asia (excluding India and China)
Nepal, Thailand, Sri Lanka Philippines, Indonesia India, China, Russia
Competence and competitiveness of the European Union industry
T
here are about fifty hydraulic turbine manufacturers in Europe. Four multinational companies out of this total, which are Alstom Power Hydro, VA Tech/Andritz, Voith Siemens and GE Energy, dominate the large-scale turbine market and are present on the small hydraulic market segment as well. Alongside these big companies, numerous small and medium sized firms are active on the small turbine segment that represents the bulk of the European market, with average installation size in the region of 700 kW in the old member countries and 300 kW in the new member countries. These industrialists are mainly located in the important small hydraulic power countries: Italy, France, Germany, Austria and Sweden, but are very well represented in the Czech Republic, Poland and Slovenia as well. The activity of all these companies is largely geared towards export. European companies have pioneered much of the technical development, and in recent years have dominated international contracts for small hydropower equipment and installations.
ESHA estimates turnover of between â&#x201A;Ź150 and â&#x201A;Ź180 million, with the sector employing nearly 20 000 people.
SMALL HYDROPOWER
mall hydropower has, as yet, a huge untapped potential, which will allow EU SHP industry to increase its activities by developing new and refurbishing old small hydro capacity. Indeed, the best home market for EU manufacturers is the refurbishing of existing plants while outside Europe there are new opportunities for export and technology transfer that offer good prospects for EU manufacturers; This know-how has made it possible for Europe to export its products to countries with high potential, such as in Asia and Central America. The economic growth and an increase in energy needs will stimulate hydropower progression. Asia (especially China and India) is set to become a hydro leader with 83 000 MW of further potential.
3
Illustration sources: Agener, Universidad de Jaen, Kö, IED, BOKU, MHyLab, VATECH, Elmotech, Ingegneri Maggia SA, Commune de Savièse (CH), ISET, Studio Frosio, SERO, EPFL-LCH, Walcher, Sasso s.r.l. Design : ACG Brussels The sole responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors. It does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the European Communities. The European Commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.
A well-interconnected sector The International conference Hidroenergia is organized every 2 years and brings together specialists and stakeholders in the field of Small Hydropower from all over Europe. This conference is organised by ESHA in collaboration with the respective national association. It provides excellent opportunities for main stakeholders across Europe to get to know to each other, exchange information, define common strategies, promote new actions and initiatives. This conference covers the main technological, administrative, environmental and political issues of the Small hydropower sector. At the European level ESHA represents the interests of the Small hydropower sector regrouping national associations of SHP producers, which themselves regroup operators, industry, project developers, consultants, utilities, research institutions. ESHA is a well-established organization that has set up a SHP network throughout Europe with continuous communication to politicians and decision-makers. ESHA is a founding member of EREC - the European Renewable Energy Council - which is the umbrella organisation of the leading European renewable energy industry, trade and research associations active in the sectors of photovoltaic, wind energy, small hydropower, biomass, geothermal energy and solar thermal. ESHA has it offices at the Renewable Energy House- Europe’s Headquarters for Renewable Energy in Brussels.
EUROPEAN SMALL HYDROPOWER ASSOCIATION Renewable Energy House 63-67 Rue d’Arlon - B-1040 Brussels • Belgium T: +32 2 546 1945 • F: +32 2 546 1947 E: info@esha.be • I: www.esha.be ESHA is founding member of EREC, the European Renewable Energy Council
How it works
S
HP schemes, considered as those with installed capacity of up to 10 MW *, generate electricity or mechanical power by converting the power available in fl owing water of rivers, canals and streams. The objective of a hydropower scheme is to convert the potential energy of a mass of water, flowing in a stream with a certain fall (termed the «head»), into electric energy at the lower end of the scheme, where the powerhouse is located. The power of the scheme is proportional to the flow and to the head. 1 GWh supplies electricity for about 220 European households One small hydropower plant of 1 MW produces on average 5 GWh/ year in Austria, supplying electricity to 1100 households 5 GWh/year supplies electricity to 2200 households in a developing country.
Hydropower produces high-quality electricity Hydropower has the ability to generate electricity instantly to supply both, base-load and peak - load generation. Hydropower electrify is easy to predict and to manage, it can be easily adapted to unexpected increases in electricity demand.
* the defined upper power limit varies from country to country from 1.5 to 12 MW, but 10MW is becoming the generally accepted limit for SHP and has been adopted by ESHA and the European Commission.
Supported by
SMALL HYDROPOWER
HYDROPOWER TECHNOLOGY
Beginning of the water right
Desablor Water chamber
How do SHP plants produce electricity?
T
The turbine
T
he purpose of a hydraulic turbine is to transform the water potential and kinetic energy to mechanical rotational energy. Various types of turbines exist to cope with different levels of head and flow. The two broad categories are: Impulse turbines – notably the Pelton, Turgo or the Banki-Michell (cross-flow) - in which water impinges or enters the runner, which is designed to change the water’s direction and thereby extract the momentum from it with scarce change of pressure energy.
Reaction turbines – notably Francis and Kaplan – which run full of water and in effect generate hydrodynamic “lift” forces to propel the runner blades, extracting thus the pressure energy of inflowing water.
Electrical grid
Penstock
he basic principle of hydropower is to transform the potential energy of water into mechanical energy available at a turbine shaft and afterwards into electricity through a generator. Water can be piped from a certain level to a lower level. Then the resulting water pressure and/or kinetic energy can be used to do some useable work. If the water is allowed to move a mechanical component then that movement involves conversion of the mechanical energy of the water into mechanical energy of this component. Hydro turbines convert water pressure and kinetic energy into mechanical energy, which can be used to drive an electricity generator. The main requirement is to have a ‘head’ so that water, diverted through an intake channel or a pipe (the penstock) into a turbine, discharges back into the river downstream. Sometimes the river has a suitable drop in level and the head is geologically given and available. In other cases it is necessary to create an artificial head. The head is the difference in altitude between the water intake and the lower water level. It is normal to achieve optimum energy conversion efficiencies with all types of hydraulic turbines in the range of 80 up to over 90%.
Water intake: dam with fish ladder
Power station
Command Control Residus flow
Turbine and generator (c) OFCL
The generator
G
enerators transform mechanical energy into electrical energy. An electric generator is made up of a stationary part (stator) and a moving part (rotor). The electric current is generated by the rotation of the magnetic field of the rotor through the coil of the conducting wiring of the stator. Once set in motion, the turbine drives the electric generator (either directly or through a multiplier), which then transforms the mechanical energy from the shaft into electrical energy. There are two categories of generators: the synchronous generators, and the asynchronous (induction) generators. Asynchronous motors in generating mode are commonly used as generators in micro power plants.
Speed increasers and control systems
T
he optimal rotation speed of the turbine depends at the same time on the type of turbine, on the head and on the flow. In order to synchronise the work of the different equipments it is necessary to situate the speed increaser in between the turbine and the generator. Since small hydro schemes are nowadays unattended, control systems that increase the efficiency of the plants, based on personal computers are commonly used.
Planning a small hydropower scheme The final implementation of a SHP plant is the result of a complex and interactive process, where consideration is given to both environmental impacts and different technological options as assessed from the economic point of view.
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Main types of Turbines
Features
Pelton
Impulse turbine suitable for high heads (from 100 to 1 000 meters and more) and small discharges
Banki-Michell
Impulse turbine suitable for medium head typically from 4 to 200 meters
Francis
Radial-flow reaction turbines suitable for medium head from 10 to 100 –500 meters
Kaplan
Axial or radial flow reaction turbine, generally used for low heads from 1,5 to 10-50 meters.
List of the studies that should be undertaken
Topography and geomorphology of the site. Evaluation of the water resource and its generating potential Site selection and basic layout Hydraulic turbines and generators and their control Environmental impact assessment and mitigation measures Economic evaluation of the project and financing potential Institutional framework and administrative procedures to attain the authorizations
1. Flow calculation
2. Head Calculation
The calculation of the flow is essential for the project. The flow will influence the power of the SHP and its profitability. In order to understand the availability of flow in a river section, it is very useful to plot that stream flow records through the flow duration curve (FDC). This curves shows the portion of time in which the discharge equals or exceeds certain values. In this way it is possible to estimate the medium number of days in a year in which a certain flow is available and to program the water use of the plant. In parallel necessary information on measuring the flow of the river is needed, and the catchments area should be evaluated. Information drawn from the stream flow records, statistical information on the weather forecasts and on-spot measurements are needed. In Europe, these can be obtained from national hydrological institutes.
The gross head may be rapidly estimated, either by field surveying or by orthophotographic techniques. The gross head is the vertical distance that the water falls through when generating useable power, i.e. the difference between the upper and lower water surface levels. Having established the gross head available, it is necessary to take into account the losses arising from trash racks, pipe friction, bends, valves and unutilized kinetic energy at the turbine outlet. The net head will be determined after having estimated the various head losses.
3. Approximated annual energy production Knowing the flow and the net head, the estimated annual energy production of the site can be calculated.
The output of a hydropower plant is given in terms of power [kW] and electricity production [kWh]. The result can be calculated as follows: P (kW) = Q (m3/s) x H (m) x tot x 9,81 and approximately Q x H x 7,8 tot = total efficiency (turbine x generator x speed increaser x trafo) P = electrical power output Q = rated discharge H = net head Electricity production - the thing we pay for - is electrical power supply during a certain time period. The annual electricity production of a hydropower (HP) station is approximately calculated as E (kWh) = P (kW) x 4500 (h)
How the electricity is distributed? Energy Transformer
T
he transformer allows electricity to be efficiently transmitted over long distances. This makes it possible to supply electricity to homes and businesses located far from the electric generating plant. The transformer is a device, which through electromagnetic induction transforms alternating electric energy in one circuit into energy of a similar type in another circuit, commonly Off grid with altered values of voltage and current. The transformer situated SHP systems can also be alone stand-alon installations, inside the powerhouse takes the alternating electric current from i.e not connected to the grid. Stand-alone micro-hydro the generator terminals and converts it to the current of lower does not need to have a battery bank. The frequency value while increasing the voltage in the same ratio. of the electricity is controlled using a load controller.
The Grid
P
ower travels from the power plant to the end user through the power distribution grid. Because of the European effort for the development of renewable energy sources, utilities have received a large increase in demand for the connection of decentralised plants. The European policy framework supports easy access to the grid for renewable energy producers.
But, a stand-alone scheme can be used to charge a battery bank, if this energy service is required. Off grid small hydropower schemes are a suitable solution for electricity supply in developing countries and in mountainous areas in developed ones. Increasing automation State of the art industrial automation components and excellent communication features ensure that an operator can identify the status of the plant at any time and anywhere, using computers, PDAs, cell phones or just a simple telephone and allows to respond remotely on problems, where applicable.
SMALL HYDROPOWER
In order to use the electricity produced by the SHP plant it should be transmitted to the final user.
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A
n investment in a small hydropower scheme entails a certain number of expenses, extended over the project lifetime, and produces at the same time revenues also distributed over the same period. The expenses include a fixed component - the capital cost, insurance, taxes, etc- and a variable component -operation and maintenance costs-. Feasibility studies They include hydrological and environmental assessment, preliminary designs, permits and approvals (for water, land use and construction), land rights, interconnection studies, power purchase agreements (PPA), project management and financing fees. The cost of required permits varies from country to country with an average from 10 000 to 30 000 euros for a request of authorisation. This amount is lost if the authorisation is denied. Grid interconnection studies as well as the relevant contracts for interconnection, transmission of energy through the power grid, and power sales themselves (PPA) are of course fundamental for the success of a grid-connected plant. Operation and Maintenance These are regular costs that occur on a yearly basis and include transmission line maintenance, general administration, repairs etc. The constructions The amount to invest varies from project to project. On average the range of investment costs varies in the range of 1000-3000 €/kW. In other term the financial investment is recovered in 10-20 years, without public financial assistance.
Investment and production costs of SHP plants in some Members States of the EU (2003) Country
Average SHP production costs Ecents/kWh
Range Investment costs E/kW
Spain
3.5 - 7
1500
Austria
3.6 – 14.5
2500
Sweden
4–5
1800-2200
Czech Republic 2-3
600-2000
Lithuania
2.5-3
2200-2500
Slovenia
4-7.9
1500-2200
Poland
3
700-2500
The Revenues
R
evenues come from specific purchase contracts signed with the electric utilities. Depending on the legislation, electric utilities are usually obliged to buy the electricity generated from renewable energy resources on a priority basis. In some countries there are specific incentives given to investment in electricity production using RES. According to these special schemes, renewable energy projects can apply for special loans with low or even zero interest rates, or receive other types of investment subsidies. Prices paid to SHP producers vary considerably among European countries. In the tariff structure different components can be found, according to the country: a market price, an avoided carbon price, a green certificate price. The different support schemes can affect greatly the development of SHP. Whereas a fixed feed-in tariff reduces uncertainty and guarantees cash flow for a determined duration, market-based schemes can sometimes reveal themselves too uncertain and therefore unattractive to developers. Germany
Average feed-in tariff is 6.65 €cents/kWh (66,5 EUR/ MWh). It depends on the capacity of the plant. Maximum can reach up to 8 €cents/kWh (80 EUR/MWh). Scheme valid for 20 years.
Italy
Average 75 €/MWh (for selling electricity) + 125,2 € /MWh (Green certificates) The grid authority fixes a cap (upper) price for green certificates every year. Certificates are issued only for the first 12 years of operation.
Slovenia
Feed-in (61,45 €/MWh; 2003), premium (28,12 €/ MWh; 2003) included. SHP>1 MW: Feed-in=59,29 €/MWh (premium=25,96 € /MWh - included).
EUROPEAN SMALL HYDROPOWER ASSOCIATION Renewable Energy House 63-67 Rue d’Arlon - B-1040 Brussels • Belgium T: +32 2 546 1945 • F: +32 2 546 1947 E: info@esha.be • I: www.esha.be ESHA is founding member of EREC, the European Renewable Energy Council
Illustration sources: Ageneer, Universidad de Jaen, Kö, IED, BOKU, MHyLab, VATECH, Elmotech, Ingegneri Maggia SA, Commune de Savièse (CH), ISET, Studio Frosio, SERO, EPFL-LCH, Walcher, Sasso s.r.l. Design : ACG Brussels The sole responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors. It does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the European Communities. The European Commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.
How much does a SHP project cost?