Extended Essay

Jessica Dawson BA(Hons) Illustration 2017/18 Science or Art? To what extent has the genre of botanical illustration changed since the 16th Century and what is its purpose within contemporary society?

Jessica Dawson

1 words 5328

Contents

Chapter

Page Number

Chapter 1 – Introduction

3

Chapter 2 – Context & Themes

5

– 16th Century Early Renaissance Period

6

– 1st Case Study of Practice

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– 17th - 19th Century Scientific Revolution

10

– 2nd Case Study of Practice

12

– Contemporary Botanical Illustration

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– 3rd Case Study of Practice

18

Chapter 3 – Reflective Practice

21

Chapter 4 – Conclusion

23

Images

25

Bibliography

47

Appendices

54

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Chapter 1- Introduction The desire to understand our natural world has been the devotion of many, the study of plants in particular have a vast, complex and ancient history spanning various cultural traditions from across the world. Underpinning advancement in biological science, medicine and agriculture, the communication of scientific concepts has seen a reliance upon those who can accurately depict botanical forms. Aside from a scientific role, today botanical imagery dominates our visual and creative culture, decorating walls as pieces of art, embellishing books, design and is commonly seen as patterns within fashion and textile furnishings.

The modern practice of botanical art is as varied as it is extensive, with an abundance of technologies and mediums available to aid creativity. Our fascination with flora is certain, however where did the appreciation for botanical imagery begin?

What was its purpose? What of the specific genre of botanical illustration and how does this differ from botanical art? Considered to have ‘evolved concomitantly with science’, how has botanical illustration aided our understanding of nature, and furthermore what is the purpose of this profession in our current technologically advanced modern culture? (Wheeler, 2003, p. 5) Given the expanse and significance of botanical imagery, it is necessary to acknowledge that this essay in no way attempts to encompass the diverse subject of botanical illustration in its entirety. Instead, the following chapters demonstrate a position focused primarily on the developments of the genre throughout European History. The richness of source material concerning botanical illustration and its advancement throughout western history, has been beneficial in establishing a distinct argument and avenues for analysis. Furthermore, a framework of secondary research and critical discussion has been presented chronologically, crucial to the consideration of this complex subject. The following essay therefore, presents a relevant and contemporary topic of investigation, aimed not only at a creative audience, but for those with an interest in natural science, history and western culture.

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To address how botanical illustration has changed, Chapter 2 of this essay aims to contextualise this research with a focus on key periods throughout European history which have impacted the genre. Divided into concise sections, this chapter includes the comparative analysis of 3 selected Case Studies, embedded to coincide with the consecutive structure of this investigation. The final section of Chapter 2 brings this discussion into the modern day, to determine what purpose the genre of botanical illustration has within contemporary society.

Esteemed literary figure Johann Wolfgang von Goethe has been quoted as observing ‘you really do not see a plant until you draw it’ (Arber, 1946). Chapter 3 therefore, provides insight into the practical element of this project, which explores this concept whilst encompassing a range of findings and processes as outlined in Chapter 2. Changes in practical process, purpose and appreciation, both scientific and artistic, underpin this investigation, therefore the wider cultures of science and art and the impact of their relationship has also been considered. Through employing contextual and primary research methods, the practical resolution of this project aims to provide answers to the above questions whilst achieving synthesis of theory into practice.

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Chapter 2 - Context & Themes The first known functional illustrations of plants were created in aid of early plant sciences referred to as ‘herbalism’, and can be dated approximately to the ancient period of Late Antiquity (4th to 7th Century AD) (Blunt & Stearn, 1971, p. 8). Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides (40-90 AD) began documenting medicinal properties of plants throughout the Mediterranean region in comprehensive hand-written manuscripts known as ‘herbals’. De Materia Medica (50-70 AD), a medical treatise compiled by Dioscorides, is considered the first work of pharmacopoeia and the origin of our modern medical knowledge (Allush, 2014). Highly regarded and relied upon, this crucial works not only influenced scholars throughout this period, but formed the foundations of natural science for thousands of years (Sherwood, 2014, p. 16).

Later herbals based on De Materia Medica, began to include the earliest examples of botanical illustration, a practical use of imagery for the purpose of identifying plants, to sit alongside the scientific text they accompanied (Botanical Artists of Canada, 2017). The oldest surviving example of an illustrated herbal manuscript is the Vienna Dioscorides 512 AD. This manuscript, also known as the Codex Vindobonensis, contains beautiful water colour illustrations (Figure. 1), presumed early copies of the lost works of Greek artist Krateuas (ca. 100–60 BC), who is considered the ‘father of botanical illustration’ (Buck & Rice, 2018).

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16th Century Early Renaissance Period During the early 16th Century Renaissance period, Europe experienced significant advancements to the practice of medicine, natural sciences, and the beginnings of an appreciation for illustration as a valued communicative tool within the sciences.

Herbals remained the main sources of scientific information, however following the late Middle Ages, 16th Century Scholars were confronted with replicated, inaccurate scientific material (Sherwood, 2014, p. 26). Centuries of hardship, famine and disease which had greatly hampered cultural progression, saw science mixed with folklore and religious superstition (Wheeler, 2003, pp. 11, 12).

Science and botanical imagery which first appeared in ancient herbals (Figure. 1), had been heavily copied and retranslated having greatly deteriorated in quality by the Renaissance period (Buck & Rice, 2018). Instead of contributing an accurate visual record for a functional role in science, images of plants had become increasingly decorative in appearance (Figure. 2), with artists turning to ‘copying earlier illustrations instead of working from actual specimens’ (Ben-Ari, 1999, p. 602).

Having little value other than aesthetic effect, botanical imagery often didn’t correspond to the scientific or medical instruction they accompanied, the same figure frequently became used to describe different plants. The reliability of scientific content had become highly questionable, causing frustration and confusion for 16th Century scholars when attempting to identify a plant for accurate use in medicine (Wheeler, 2003, p. 12).

This lead to a revival of the natural sciences, becoming a necessary primary focus for scholars. Botanical research was often conducted independently by botanists due to the lack in authentic scientific constructs to work from. The impact of reproduced scientific material caused a reason to revisit the principles of nature from Late Antiquity and motivated a ‘desire for a new form of representation of the natural world’ (Tomasi, 2014, p. 9).

Pioneering scholars tasked with the reconstruction of natural sciences, recognised that in order to achieve accuracy, techniques in observation accomplished through direct experience were required for the discipline to advance (Wheeler, 2003, p. 11).

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The informed approach of 16th Century scholars see this period often referred to as ‘the age of observation, where scholars began to dissect and study the smallest things in an attempt to find scientific truth’ (Shuttleworth, 2011). Observing nature became crucial to new scientific processes, allowing for both scientists and artists to find common ground in the study of plants, thus giving new importance to the role of illustration and its value within the sciences (Tomasi, 2014, p. 9). In addition, the feats of scholars and the dissemination of accurate knowledge was influenced further, through the introduction of woodblock engraving and commercial printing methods entering Europe, which enabled scholars to share their work with others more efficiently (Shuttleworth, 2011).

1st Case Study of Practice The adoption of observational science during the 16th Century and the influence this had on the genre of botanical illustration is demonstrated in the works of German botanist Leonhart Fuchs (1501 - 1566). Considered one of the founding ‘fathers of botany’, Fuchs focussed his life’s works on revisiting and updating botanical resources from the Classical Antiquity period (Tyrell, 2015). Whilst providing contemporary plant research, notably the study of wild flowers which he cultivated in his own private garden, Fuchs’ aim was to provide an accurate record of the description of plants based upon their characteristics as observed in nature, to aid future scientists (Shuttleworth, 2011).

His publication De Historia Stirpium (1542), a modern take on the ‘herbal’, is considered a landmark for advancements made in Renaissance science and the developing field of botany. Fuchs, unlike previous scholars and their avid reuse of botanical information and imagery ‘realised that although recycling made commercial sense, it hindered the development of botany in desperate need of new visual material’ (Wheeler, 2003, p. 12).

Interested in realism, Fuchs believed that the inclusion of illustration would provide much sought-after accuracy and serve an important practical purpose in the correct identification of plant species to aid medicine (Hansen, 2004). This appreciation lead Fuchs to employ three artists to contribute to his De Historia Stirpium works.

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They were: Albrecht Meyer, an illustrator who observed and drew plant forms from life; Heinrich Füllmaurer, who transferred the illustrations to woodblocks; and engraver Vitus Speckle, who carved and printed the woodcut illustrations (Hansen, 2004). In total, the trio of artists contributed 500 botanical illustrations for Fuchs’ publication, originally printed in black and white (Figure. 3) and later hand painted in watercolour (Figure. 4).

In comparison to previous botanical imagery, the woodcut illustrations created by the artists provide an example of the importance of working from observation when creating accurate visual representations of plants. All parts of the botanical subject have been considered, each illustration including ‘seeds, roots, flowers and fruits in a simultaneous depiction’ (Edward Worth Library, 2018). Not only did this provide the scientific community with a visual tool for identifying individual plant species, Fuchs’ scientific text now linked directly with the accurate visual representation it sat with.

Fuchs ‘did much to advance the cause for botanical illustration’, his recognition of the genres value within science can be seen written in the preface to his De Historia Stirpium publication (Wheeler, 2003, p. 12): ‘…to the description of each plant we have added an illustration. These are lifelike and modelled after nature and rendered more skilfully, if I may say so, than ever before. This we have done for no other reason than that a picture expresses things more surely and fixes them more deeply in the mind than the bare words of the text.’

Fuchs, 1542 Translation: (Meyer, et al., 1999) Here, Fuchs recognises the value of illustration for communicating scientific concepts to his audience. A break from tradition and the reliance on outdated material, his work instead creates accurate groundwork for the advancement of the scientific discipline. The decision to choose his own artists for the creation of imagery, of which he almost certainly oversaw every part of the process, Fuchs not only defends the ‘picture’ but further promotes the genre praising its usefulness.

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‘There can be no question that the exemplary plant illustrations contribute significantly to the scientific interest of Historia’, the natural aesthetic of the imagery increasing the works distinction throughout Europe, now set apart from its commonly reproduced herbal predecessors (Dobat, 2001, p. 20). Throughout this preface, Fuchs gives an indication of the valuable role he considered the artists to have played in this work, using language such as ‘We’ instead of ‘I’. In further contrast to previous scholars, Fuchs’ considered his masterpiece to be a collaboration between scientist and artist, the work is therefore seen as an early example of a relationship between the cultures of science and art (Dobat, 2001, p. 20). The significance of this collaboration proven further by Fuchs’ decision to include a portrait of all three artists in situ, in acknowledgment of their essential contribution (Figure. 5) (Shuttleworth, 2011). This collaboration resulted in an early change to the genre of botanical illustration. A step away from its decorative use, instead applying accurate illustration with a descriptive purpose.

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17th - 19th Century Scientific Revolution Plant sciences following Renaissance reform continued to be important for academics, the efforts of 16th Century botanists proving crucial in advanced medical practice throughout Europe. Until now, it can be ascertained that the study of plants had primarily been in service of medicine through the widespread publishing of updated herbal publications. In the following centuries however, cultural developments would contribute further significant changes to the profession and in turn greatly impact the genre of botanical illustration in addition to the wider cultures of science and art.

17th and 18th century scientists, having built upon the observational techniques and knowledge of their predecessors, continued to be passionate towards advancing modern scientific concepts. Europe was entering the period of Scientific Revolution, a time of enlightenment and age of reason, where costly oversees expeditions to lands outside of the Western Empire, were at the forefront of global modernisation.

Voyages provided an influx of exciting new discoveries and exotic plant species, the study of which became key to the developing fields of botany and agriculture (Hart, 2014, p. 11).

New discovery provided a purposeful platform for botanical artists to excel in the pursuit of science. Without todays advancements in modern technology such as photography, ‘the desire to share and communicate discoveries made…illustrating observations, theories and research a necessity’ (Hart, 2014, p. 12). Scientists saw potential for botanical illustration, to help accurately depict the new species of plants being discovered. Artists often accompanied explorers on expeditions, their artwork would then feature alongside published documentaries of the voyage (Hart, 2014, p.

10). Illustrations acted as ‘the photographs of the day,’ seen as vital evidence that such rarities existed (Freeborn, 2015).

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The Scientific Revolution saw scientists and artists sharing an interest in the natural world, and not only were botanical artists appreciated away on voyages, botanical artwork found a new purpose in the scientists laboratory, who was ‘now ready to take advantage of scientific illustration in a more deliberate and systematic manner’ (Tomasi, 2014, p. 9). The increased rate of advancements to the field of natural science meant that much of what was previously adopted as truth had to be updated, rewritten or ‘rendered obsolete’ (Wheeler, 2003, p. 18). Particularly, new plant species which were found to differ on a minute scale, meant previous descriptive methods for identifying plants, such as Fuchs’ De Historia Stirpium (1542), could not accommodate for the abundance exotic discoveries.

Although exciting, new findings caused a sense of chaos for scientists in this period, an excess of new material in need of a universal form of explanation to further scientific progression. ‘This era saw the development of scientific botany’, the study of plant evolution with a particular focus on anatomy, recognised as having a purpose for the wider field of biological sciences, outside of medical practice (BenAri, 1999, pp. 602-603). Attempts to understand natures potential saw scientists striving to generate a system for the formal classification and categorisation of botanical species. A potential solution was Biological Taxonomy, whereby the description, identification and naming of natural organisms permits them to be categorised and ranked in their subsequent biological kingdoms (Cain, 2017).

In 1753, Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707 – 1778), recognised as ‘the father of taxonomy’, compiled his understanding of taxonomic theory into his publication Species Plantarum (Natural History Museum, 2017). This work was the first to consistently use binomial nomenclature, a biological ranking system whereby the naming of an organism, in this instance the plant variety, directly relates to its identifiable characteristics such as individual sexual reproductive organs. ‘Linnaeus' theory was based upon counting the numbers of male and female reproductive organs inside the flowers’, the assigned name is then formed of two parts; the first being the genus and the second being the species within the genus (Hart, 2011).

Commonly recognised as the given Latin or Scientific name, this method of categorisation is fundamental to biology and species identification.

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Once a name is given, the plant can then be recognised in accordance with a hierarchal taxonomic rank whereby its evolutionary origins such as biological family, order and kingdom can be determined (Steere, et al., 2016).

The acceptance of Linnaeus’ literature was widespread, his theory contributing greatly to 18th Century science in simplifying confusion over natural species classification. Known as Linnaean Taxonomy, his work is considered essential to our understanding of biological sciences, which at the time ‘completely revolutionised the scientific process and is still in use today’ (Figure. 6) (Natural History Museum, 2017). Linnaeus’ theory is notable to this study, as it demanded an analytical style of illustration to convey and further popularise this new systematic process (Hart, 2014, p. 12).

2nd Case Study of Practice The influence of Linnaean taxonomy on both the genre of botanical illustration and the relationship between artist and scientist, is demonstrated in the works of German artist Georg Dionysius Ehret (1708 - 1770). Ehret was the first to work alongside Linnaeus in applying the theory of binomial nomenclature into his illustration (Tyrell, 2018). ‘Methodus Plantarum Sexualis’ (Figure. 7), a watercolour illustration created

by Ehret in 1736, depicts the varying male and female reproductive organs of plant, divided into their 24 classes in accordance with Linnaeus’ theory (Hart, 2011).

Collaborating with the botanist had a profound effect on Ehret’s practice, his applied artistic perspective and increased scientific knowledge combining to form an analytical method of visual representation, which he continued to employ throughout his career (Figures 8 & 9) (Tyrell, 2018). Ehret’s approach to conveying Linnaean principles, which saw him adopting scientific process to better understand a plant subject, can be seen as the synthesis between scientific insight and artistic expertise, a further advancement to the genre of botanical illustration, seen when compared to earlier works of 16th Century artists as analysed in the 1st Case Study.

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The descriptive works produced for Fuchs’ De Historia Stirpium (Figures 3 & 4), observe a plant in a single stage of its lifecycle. The science of which these illustrations informed, was concerned with the medicinal properties of a plant rather than their evolutionary traits, having not yet advanced to the stages of biological classification. Although accurate in their depiction, a visual record of a plant in a singular state would no longer suffice for the advancements in 18th Century science.

Compared with Ehrets botanical illustration (Figures 8 & 9), the concept of accuracy and required visual content can be determined as having progressed with advancements in science, needing to not only describe a plant from observation, but visually communicate complex scientific theory to serve its purpose (Wheeler, 2003, p. 18).

The scientific influence over artistic process to present a plant alongside its key identifiable parts, conveys how the artist almost becomes a scientist themselves.

The use of a scalpel and magnifying glass to dissect a plant, a process adopted by Ehret in his works (Figures 6 - 9), is explained by William Wheeler in his book Botanical Illustration (2003): ‘The artist proceeded by dissecting a flower, then lined up a display of its different parts: corolla – the set of petals; calyx – exterior covering of the flower surrounding the base of the corolla; stamen – make organ producing pollen; pistil – female organ; etc. The flower was shown at all the stages of its development from closed bud, then partially opened, to a fully blown flower which then wilts. Often horizontal and cross sections were also presented. Petals were pushed back to expose what usually remained hidden.’ (Wheeler, 2003, p. 38) Besides dissection, artists exploited a variety of creative techniques to communicate a hierarchy of scientific information within one illustration. “The simplest was the use of varying scale,” whereby a depiction of a plant can be considered in its truest size alongside distinct anatomical elements, arranged together to provide an understandable composition of essential information (Wheeler, 2003, p. 38). Varying scale provided scientists with a means of comparison between key information, often the differing stages of a plants life cycle as shown in Ehrets work (Figure 8).

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Here, the use of scale assists in the communication of information, additionally allowing the artist to contribute an enlarged view of detailed components, such as seeds and internal anatomy to further coincide with the scientific theory it informs (Wheeler, 2003, p. 54).

The use of colour can be considered important when communicating scientific concepts. Frequently, botanical works can appear complex when incorporating various technical information, therefore to minimise confusion essential elements could be highlighted in colour, whilst intricate details could remain in black or muted (Wheeler, 2003, p. 38). Despite the communicative benefits of colour, it is commonly considered by botanists as being subjective, not only to the artists eye or their choice in media, but to the varying state in which the plant is observed. Linnaeus writes how ‘colour is remarkably changeable, and so is of no value in definitions,’ plant colour often varying due to its location, age, light and water source - all of which do not necessarily set a species apart from other species (Nickelsen, 2006, p. 3).

Furthermore, if a plant has been pressed, dried or preserved in liquid to last a long journey, such as was common in 18th Century Europe, this process causes the specimen to lose colour as it dries or become stained by the solution containing it.

When no living specimen is present, artists favour working in black and white to reduce error (Blunt & Stearn, 1971, pp. 65-66).

The comparison between 16th and 18th Century botanical illustration provides insight into further changes to the genre, from its descriptive success during the 16th Century, to having established analytical methods of visual communication in the 18th Century. The recognisable aesthetic of Ehret’s illustration ‘is referred to as the Linnaean style’ and remains of preference within botanical illustration for botany today (Tyrell, 2018).

The success of Ehret’s illustration popularised Linnaeus’ theory and works.

Conveyed in their partnership, this era is ‘when the relationship between the artist and the scientist was at its closest’, the practice of scientific botanical illustration further achieving its formal modern diction (Tomasi, 2014, p. 10).

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The responsibility placed upon the artist shows an increased appreciation for the genre, a commitment entrusted to accurately deliver scientific concepts, which often stood in place of text as a key scientific component due to its communicative immediacy (Tomasi, 2014, p. 9). Furthermore, the aesthetic appeal of botanical imagery increased interest in scientific achievements able to be appreciated by the non-expert, for ‘lots of people don’t speak the language of botany, but everyone speaks the language of illustration’ (Speier, 2013).

Throughout the Scientific Revolution and into the early 19th Century, discoveries remained prominent in the public eye, causing heightened curiosity throughout society. Fascination saw ‘wealthy elites craving for the rare and unusual’, many of whom would fund scientific research whilst curating their own private collections of New World curiosities (Hart, 2014, p. 11). Gardens became a passionate pursuit among the elite, focused on the rare novelty of new plant species (Wheeler, 2003, p.

14). Among collectors were admirers and patrons of the arts. Where botanical illustration found purpose within science, botanical art began to excel and receive widespread admiration (Tomasi, 2014, pp. 9,10). Portraits of plants were commissioned by patrons wanting to immortalise their celebrated collections.

‘Botanical art became a key component of fashionable life’, a symbolic representation of prosperity and social stature, thus furthering the popularity of this genre (Hart, 2014, p. 7).

An example of botanical art popularity during this era, is the work of praised Dutch artist to the royal courts Pierre-Joseph Redouté (1759 - 1840), whose reputation surpasses all other botanical artists (Wheeler, 2003, p. 117). Redouté was commissioned by Empress Joséphine Bonaparte (1763 - 1814) to paint her extensive exotic flower collection at Malmaison, France (Botanical Artists of Canada, 2017). 500 watercolour portraits were compiled into his famed publication, Les Liliacées (1802-1816) (Figure. 10) which was exhibited at the Louvre, Paris and later sold at a Sotheby’s auction in 1985 for $5.5 million (Reif, 1985).

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This period saw an emerging separation between the genre of botanical illustration and botanical art. Where botanical art gained praise within the public eye, collected by wealthy patrons for their beauty, botanical illustration became dismissed as ‘minor arts’ of ‘marginal status’, serving a purpose solely within the sciences, thus stripping artists of their well-deserved acclaim (Wheeler, 2003, p. 6). The distinction of the genre in science would see it remain separate from popular arts culture, continuing to ‘lie unseen and unsung, while the public pours extravagant praise upon (and pays fantastic prices for) the...sentimental trifles of the early nineteenth century’ (Blunt & Stearn, 1971, p. 148). Furthermore, following this separation in appreciation for each genre, botanical illustration would in later years become an ambiguous term, referring to technical art in the service of science by some and meaning botanical art for the wider arts culture by others. As illustrator Lizzie Harper explains: ‘botanical illustration is rather a nebulous term…there are almost as many definitions of it as there are practitioners’ (Chessell, 2017).

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Contemporary Botanical Illustration Formerly, this study has been situated in a historical context to explore changes to the genre of botanical illustration as it has evolved over time. To bring justification to this research, it is necessary to bring these findings into our modern era, to consider what purpose the practice of botanical illustration has within contemporary society.

Since the Scientific Revolution, the passions and innovation of scientists have amounted to many new technological inventions and processes to further understand our natural world. With microscopy and photography playing a vital role in modern science, contemporary botanical illustrators are often confronted with scrutiny over the purpose and validity of their professional practice in light of advancing technologies, despite previous historical achievements. Frequent questions such as: “Why bother drawing a plant when you can just take a photograph of it?� suggest a presumption that photographic techniques provide a more efficient and precise way of depicting nature, implying that the practice of botanical illustration within science is obsolete (Hickman, et al., 2017, p. 300). To address this presumption, it is necessary to consider the field modern botany, of which this genre is to inform.

Botanical science has advanced considerably since it’s 18th Century distinction from plant-based medicine, adopting various modern techniques. In addition to this progression, the efforts of early botanists such as Carl Linnaeus continue to be of vital importance. Linnaean Taxonomy in still use today, the success of this classification method proving paramount in the identification and categorisation of plant species for the purpose of botany (Natural History Museum, 2017). To coincide with the continued application of the Linnaean process, much of what a botanist requires in terms of visual representation, remains the same.

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3rd Case Study of Practice To examine what method of visual representation is used in botany today, the work of scientific botanical illustrator Alice Tangerini, employed by the Department of Botany at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (Figure. 11), provides insight into the validity of the genre and how it has adapted to suit modern technological advancements (Corson, 2017).

Tangerini’s process often begins with a herbarium specimen of a newly discovered botanical species sent from the author of an article, who requires her illustration to appear alongside the release of this new finding in a scientific journal. Upon receipt of the specimen, such as ‘Fulcaldea stuessyi (Asteraceae)’ discovered in 2010 (Figure. 12), she then works closely with a botanist to agree on essential characteristics for depiction. ‘The shape, structure, morphology, and internal parts of the flower are characters of what we’re looking for’, these requirements obtained through observation and dissection, coincide with the processes of botanists and artists from the 18th Century, fundamental to Linnaean taxonomy (Corson, 2017).

The next stage involves making a photocopy of the specimen, which is then traced in pencil onto drafting film to achieve accurate scale and compositional layout.

Combining her knowledge of botany and microscopy in addition to her technical drawing expertise, Tangerini renders a detailed sketch which is then completed in pen and ink where a coloured representation is not required (Figures 13 & 14) (Williams, 2010). As mentioned previously, the use of colour in scientific botanical illustration is often seen inaccurate in botany, particularly when the illustration has not been drawn from living reference material. With a newly discovered species however, a coloured illustration is necessary when appearing in a scientific publication for the first time, such as in this case. Here, Tangerini employs a variety of digital methods to complete a coloured illustration of the plant. Her rendered sketch (Figures 13 & 14) is scanned into Adobe Photoshop, where she then uses a Wacom graphics tablet to add further detail and colour sampled from digital photographs taken of the living plant, provided by the authors (Figure. 17) (Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, 2013).

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Upon completion, Tangerini’s digital illustration (Figures 15 & 16) is then critiqued by a botanist, before being accepted to appear alongside its corresponding botanical data for publication (Appendix A).

Firstly, when comparing Tangerini’s work (Figure. 16) with 18th Century botanical illustration (Figure. 7), the similarities between visual language and the application of Linnaean theory are unmistakable. Both Tangerini and Ehret convey the reproductive parts of the plant for its correct identification and agreed taxonomic classification by others, ‘these consistent graphic conventions enable specialists all over the world more easily to compare specimens from distant collections’ (Corson, 2017). This expresses the success and necessity of the Linnaean process and its continued use in modern botany.

Secondly, to address the earlier preconception, Tangerini’s illustration of ‘Fulcaldea stuessyi (Asteraceae)’ (Figures 15 & 16) can be considered against a photograph of this species for comparison (Figure. 17). Despite providing an efficient and immediate reference for colour and habitat, the success of the illustration’s ability to convey what cannot be captured in a photograph, is clear. Features such as the plants internal anatomy, sexual organs, distinguishable outlines and accurate measurements appear in Tangerini’s work, in addition to a manipulated composition to encompass multiple pieces of information, rarely visible in nature or able to be shown simultaneously in a photograph (Botanic Gardens Conservation International, 2017).

Further shortcomings encountered through using photography, is the struggle to highlight or omit elements, drawing attention to the essential parts of a plant for study (Jennifer, 2015). Moreover, inaccuracies such as light quality and depth of focus are present, all of which can be corrected in an illustration by way of its ability to adjust to the botanists requirements through the eye of the artist (Ben-Ari, 1999, p. 603). The notion therefore, that photography has taken the place of botanical illustration in science is incorrect. Instead, modern technology such as photography forms an additional strand to an artist’s toolkit, both mediums often appearing together in complementary roles (Appendix A) (Hickman, et al., 2017, p. 319).

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Tangerini’s work provides a crucial example of how this profession continues to be valuable within modern science. Furthermore, the adaptability and use of varying techniques, both scientific and artistic, see this traditional genre maintain its necessity as a tool for science, in the face of technological advancements (Jennifer, 2015).

Today, botanical illustration is recognised and appreciated as a contemporary art form in contrast to its ‘minor arts’ status towards the end of scientific revolution (Wheeler, 2003, p. 6). Galleries, museums and arts institutions collect works from artists such as Ehret and Redouté, whilst various qualifications and prestigious awards encourage contemporary botanical artists to contribute to this rising community (Sherwood, 2014, p. 15).

Contemporary Illustrator Katie Scott, works closely with institutes such as the London Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, to create educational publications such as Botanicum (2017) (Figure. 18), which celebrates a history of plant life through informative illustration, appealing to a wide and non-technical audience (Phillips, 2017). For Botanicum, Scott enjoyed unlimited access to the gardens, her process involved observing living plants housed at Kew, studying specimens from their herbarium which house over 7 million preserved items, then completing her illustration digitally in Adobe Photoshop closely advised by Kew’s Director of Science, Kathy Willis (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 2017). In discussing her work, Scott explains how it is ‘not a book for scientists, it’s a book to inspire people, particularly children, to appreciate the natural world’ (Phillips, 2017). Her illustration, whilst sitting comfortably within the culture of science, has a variety of decorative applications including album covers, stationary and fine arts prints. Scott manages to communicate the principles of science in an aesthetically engaging visual language, inspiring interest in the natural world often with an environmental purpose. Her work therefore is a modern example of the versatility and limitless appeal of botanical illustration today.

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Chapter 3 - Reflective Practice For the practical element of this project, exploration of media, process and theory informed by an extensive body of contextual research, has been paramount in the investigation into how botanical illustration has changed throughout European history, whilst determining its contemporary purpose. Goethe’s observation ‘you really do not see a plant until you draw it’ has been explored, employing scientific and artistic techniques to better understand the field of botany and plant depiction (Arber, 1946).

Practical techniques include accurately observing an array of living plants, considered an early advancement to the genre of botanical illustration as discussed in the 1st Case Study. Observational study, which can be seen throughout the accompanying visual journal, has allowed for the illustrator to gain insight into the details and external structures of a plant for accurate depiction.

In addition to live observation, the collection and preservation of specimens has been critical when attempting the process of dissection as outlined in Chapter 2.

Through creating a herbarium (Figure. 20) this method for revealing anatomical details of a plant, is in accordance with Linnaean Taxonomic theory and the process of 18th Century artists as discussed in the 2nd Case Study. Furthermore, collecting specimens has enabled the illustrator to experience becoming a scientist first hand, developing an understanding of identifiable characteristics of plant species.

Secondary research has provided insight into the extensive array of traditional and contemporary media processes used within the genre of botanical illustration and wider arts. The processes explored include: papercut and collage, gouache, pen and ink, digital editing software, flatbed scanning techniques and photography to name a few. What began as an investigation to determine which media best conveys scientific concepts, this quickly grew into a large body of practical work, each method on its own a valid and substantiated way for depicting plants.

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In response to this practical and contextual research, the proposed outcomes aim to encompass research and theories outlined in this essay. Herbarium specimens have provided subject matter for the Leeds Winter Garden poster (Figure. 21), created from this reference in gouache. The aim of this poster attempts to not only appeal to a creative audience, bringing the specimens to life, it also intends to inspire the audience to document their own local plant life. Although artistic in nature, this poster hopes to achieve scientific validity through its documentation of plants species growing native to a specific geographical area, within a particular season.

To address the purpose of botanical illustration today, as discussed in the final section of Chapter 2, the Rare & Fascinating Flora botanical poster (Figure. 22) aims to practice the important role of illustration in educating a non-expert audience on environmental topics such as the ‘fragility’ of plant species (Ben-Ari, 1999, p. 607).

This poster has, where possible, applied the process of observation, such as the ‘Jade Vine’, which was originally sketched from a visit to Cambridge Botanical Gardens. However, due to the rarity of subject matter, some of the illustrations have been drawn from open source reference material found in the ICUN 2017 ‘Red List’ of critically endangered plant species. The purpose of this poster is educational, whilst aiming to achieve interest through the quality of aesthetics and composition.

The depiction of the selected plants, choice of rendering and absence of colour, comply with the traditional and contemporary botanical illustrator’s process, discussed in the 2nd and 3rd Case Studies.

The practical resolutions created for this project, combined with the visual journal and herbarium specimens, can be considered successful, achieving synthesis of theory into practice whilst providing a comprehensive analysis of botanical illustration from a variety of critical and contextual perspectives. Further contributions would have been desirable, such as a complete series of Leeds Garden posters throughout all seasons and extra Fascinating Flora posters, focused on collections of ‘Medical’ and ‘Deadly’ species.

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Chapter 4 - Conclusion How the genre of botanical illustration has changed over the course of European history, can be considered as relating to its intended purpose, of which has been largely dictated by its recognised ability to communicate various, often complex levels of information throughout cultural modernisation (Ben-Ari, 1999, p. 603). The concept that the genre has ‘evolved concomitantly with science’ can be seen as accurate, for advancements in science have provided a necessary function and distinct platform for botanical illustration to excel, whilst also conveying the notable importance of the developing relationship between the cultures of art and science and their influence upon one another (Wheeler, 2003, p. 5).

The genres progression, from being decorative in appearance in light of a decline in scientific accuracy throughout the Middle Ages, advanced to achieve appreciated success in collaboration with 16th Century scholars, providing accurate descriptive imagery created from observation, to aid the identification of plant species for advancing medicine. This progression, in light of the emerging relationship between the cultures of art and science, continued to develop reaching its peak in the Scientific Revolution. Advancing from being descriptive to adapting an analytical style of visual communication, enabled the genre to not only convey but popularise complex scientific theory such as Linnaean Taxonomy, accomplishing appreciation and accolade within its distinguished scientific role.

The artistic process of the genre also evolved, adapting to the advancing science of which it informed. The artist is often seen a scientist in their own right, through the adoption of technical processes such as botanical dissection for accurate depiction of natural forms. Goethe’s observation ‘you really do not see a plant until you draw it’, conveys the skill in the artists perception and approach to revealing details of within nature, in turn seeing the genre provide science with a diverse visual platform in which the communication of complex ideas can be accurately interpreted, understood by both scientists and non-experts, through the universal language of drawing (Arber, 1946). Additionally, science has provided the insight, purpose and informed analytical processes in which an artist can better observe and depict their subject.

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The practice of botanical illustration has experienced changes to how it has been perceived and appreciated. Early 19th Century Europe saw the popularity of botanical art excel over scientific botanical illustration and although both follow similar processes and methods of achieving accuracy, botanical illustration and its distinction in science can be seen to segregate it from popular arts culture. The likeness of both practices, separated only by their context caused ambiguity in their distinction from one another, a confusion which continues today.

Strength in arts-science culture has seen botanical illustration adapt to a variety of purposes throughout history. In spite of advancements such as digital and photographic technologies, contemporary culture sees botanical illustration continue to have a valuable purpose within the modern sciences. Its adjustability enabling it to embody specific compositional and aesthetic requirements that other technologies can’t, thanks to the varied skillset of the artist. Furthermore, it continues to encompass modern technologies and processes into its practice, cementing its contemporary functionality.

Whether referred to as ‘botanical illustration’ or ‘botanical art’ seems of little importance today, the diverse and interchangeable essence of both genres and their unlimited scientific, educational and decorative potential, can only be seen to raise popularity of botanical imagery, in addition to furthering our understanding and appreciation for nature. The genre of botanical illustration therefore, can be seen to bridge the gap between the cultures of art and science, united through a shared determination to express the importance of protecting our environment and conserving our worlds flora.

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Images

Figure. 1 Dioscorides, P., ca. 512 D. European Bramble Illustration. [image] Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ViennaDioscoridesPlant.jpg [Accessed 14 January 2018].

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Figure. 2 Ps.-Apuleius, 12 Century, End. Herbarium. [Image] Available at: http://bodley30.bodley.ox.ac.uk:8180/luna/servlet/detail/ODLodl~1~1~30966~112457 :Herbarium?fullTextSearch=fullTextSearch&qvq=q:herbal;lc:ODLodl~29~29,ODLodl ~7~7,ODLodl~6~6,ODLodl~14~14,ODLodl~8~8,ODLodl~23~23,ODLodl~1~1,ODLo dl~24~24&mi=353&trs=408 [Accessed 01 February 2018].

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Figure. 3 Meyer, A., 1543. Isatis Sativa Illustration. [image] Available at: https://www.botanicalartandartists.com/about-leonhart-fuchs.html [Accessed 20 January 2018].

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Figure. 4 Meyer, A., FĂźllmaurer, H. & Speckle, V. . R., 1542. Isatis Sativa (Coloured). [Image] Available at: https://exhibitions.ed.ac.uk/record/51375 [Accessed 17 January 2018].

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Figure. 5 Fuchs, L., 1542. Portraits of Illustrators & Engraver - De Historia Stirpium commentarii insignes. [Online] Available at: http://botany.edwardworthlibrary.ie/herbals/sixteenth-century/leonard-fuchs/ [Accessed 3 January 2018].

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Figure. 6 W.W. Norton & Company, inc., 2006. Linnaeus' Hierarchical Classification System (Botanical Example). [image] Available at: http://www.csus.edu/indiv/l/loom/lecture_3_notes.htm [Accessed 23 January 2018].

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Figure. 7 Ehret, G., 1736. Methodus Plantarum Sexualis in sistemate naturae descripta. [image] Available at: https://www.botanicalartandartists.com/about-georg-ehret.html [Accessed 19 January 2018].

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Figure. 8 Ehret, G., ca. 1750. Fig Plant Drawing. [images] Available at: http://www.reusableart.com/fig-plant-drawing.html [Accessed 3 January 2018].

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Figure. 9 Ehret, G., 1737. Magnolia Plant Drawing. [Online] Available at: https://www.botanicalartandartists.com/about-georg-ehret.html [Accessed 17 12 2017].

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Figure. 10 RedoutĂŠ, P. J., ca. 1802-1815. Crinum erubescens (plate 27) from Les liliacees. [image] Available at: https://www.botanicalartandartists.com/about-pierre-josephredoute.html [Accessed 19 December 2017].

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Figure. 11 Clark, C., 2016. The Botany Department Herbarium at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History. [Photograph] Available at: http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2016/03/28/12/328E460800000578-0-image-a17_1459163727781.jpg [Accessed 17 December 2017].

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Figure. 12 Funk, V., 2010. Fulcaldea stuessyi Roque & V.A. Funk. [Photograph] Available at: http://nmnh.typepad.com/the_plant_press/2013/04/botanical-treasure10-new-compositae-species-fulcaldea-stuessyi-us-3580444.html#more [Accessed 19 December 2018].

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Figure. 13 Tangerini, A., 2011. Fulcaldea stuessyi (Asteraceae) Black & White illustration.

[Image] Available at: https://collections.nmnh.si.edu/search/botany/?ti=7 [Accessed 19 December 2017].

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Figure. 14 Tangerini, A., 2011. Fulcaldea stuessyi (Asteraceae) Black & White Illustration 2.

[Online] Available at: https://collections.nmnh.si.edu/search/botany/?ti=7 [Accessed 19 December 2017].

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Figure. 15 Tangerini, A., 2011. Fulcaldea stuessyi (Asteraceae) Colour Illustration. [image] Available at: https://collections.nmnh.si.edu/search/botany/?ti=7 [Accessed 29 December 2017].

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Figure. 16 Tangerini, A., 2011. Fulcaldea stuessyi (Asteraceae) Colour Illustration 2. [image] Available at: https://collections.nmnh.si.edu/search/botany/?ti=7 [Accessed 19 December 2017].

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Figure. 17 Lewis, G., Dillon, M. & Aberu, I., 2011. Images of Fulcaldea. [Photography] Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Images-of-Fulcaldea-A-B-F-laurifolia-BonplPoir-A-inflorescence-B-fully-d_fig3_246845796 [Accessed 20 December 2017].

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Figure. 18 Scott, K. & Willis, K., 2016. Bitanicum (Standard Edition) Front Cover. [image] Available at: http://shop.kew.org/botanicum-standard-edition [Accessed 10 November 2017].

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Figure. 19 Scott, K., 2016. Botanicum Prints: Cultivated Flowers Print. [image] Available at: https://katie-scott.com/shop/product/cultivated-flowers/ [Accessed 9 November 2017].

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Figure. 20 Dawson, J. (November 2017 - January 2018). 'Leeds winter herbarium specimens'.

[Scan of Specimens].

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Figure. 21 Dawson, J. (21 January 2018). 'Leeds Winter Garden'. [Gouache, A3].

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Figure. 22 Dawson, J. (13 Febuary 2018). ‘Rare & Fascinating Flora '. [Pen & Ink, Gicleé A2 print].

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Appendices Appendix A Funk, V. A. & Roque, N., 2011. The monotypic Andean genus Fulcaldea (Compositae, Barnadesioideae) gains a new species from northeastern Brazil. Taxon, 60(4), pp. 1095 1103.

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