RESEARCH METHODS AR SHARMILA GANGULY
Esther Kiruba Jeba Kumar | 19171NB002
CORRELATION CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE
Correlation Research
CONTENTS Introduction Aims Types Characteristics Data Collection Methods Requirements Advantages Disadvantages Example Inferences
Introduction Correlational research is a type of descriptive research (as opposed to experimental research). There are two main situations where you might choose to do correlational research.
1) You want to find out if there is a relationship between two variables, but you don’t expect to find a causal relationship between them. 2) You think there is a causal relationship between two variables, but it is impractical or unethical to conduct experimental research that manipulates one of the variables.
Aims One purpose for doing correlational research is to determine the degree to which a relationship exists between two or more
variables. The second purpose for correlational research is to develop prediction models to be able to predict the future value of a
variable from the current value of one or more other variables. A common prediction model used in education is the use of college entrance exam scores to help predict a prospective student's success in college. REFERENCES: CP 6691 - Week 5Correlational Research Designs
Types Of Research 1.
POSITIVE CORRELATION
2. NEGATIVE CORRELATION
3. N0 CORRELATION
In this third type, two variables A positive correlation between A negative correlation are not correlated. This means a change in one variable may two variables is when an increase is quite literally the not necessarily see a change in one variable leads to an opposite of positive in the other variable. For increase in the other variable and correlation. This means, a decrease in one variable will if there is an increase in example, being a millionaire and happiness is not one variable, the see a decrease in the other correlated. This means an second variable will variable. For example, the amount of money a person has show a decrease and increase in money doesn’t lead to happiness. might positively correlate with vice versa. the number of cars he has.
Characterestics Correlational Research is non-experimental
Correlational research is non-experimental as it does not involve manipulating variables using a scientific methodology in order to agree or disagree with a
hypothesis. In correlational research, the researcher simply observes and measures the natural relationship between 2 variables; without subjecting either of
the variables to external conditioning. Correlational Research is Backward-looking Correlational research doesn't take the future into consideration as it only observes and measures the recent historical relationship that exists between 2 variables. In this sense, the statistical pattern resulting from correlational research is backward-looking and can seize to exist at any point, going forward.
REFERENCES: https://www.formpl.us/blog/correlational-research
Characterestics Correlational Research is Dynamic
Statistical patterns between 2 variables that result from correlational research are ever-changing. The correlation between 2 variables changes on a daily basis and such, it cannot be used as a fixed data for further research. For example, the 2 variables can have a negative correlational relationship for a period of time, maybe 5 years. After this time, the correlational relationship between them can become positive; as observed in the relationship between bonds and stocks. Data resulting from correlational research are not constant and cannot be used as a standard variable for further research.
REFERENCES: https://www.formpl.us/blog/correlational-research
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
TWO DIFFERENT KINDS The distinctive feature of correlational research is that neither of the variable involved is manipulated. It doesn’t matter how or where the variables are measured. A researcher could observe participants in a closed environment or in a public setting.There are two data collection methods that are used to collect information in correlational research. Naturalistic Observation Archival Data
Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic observation is a way of data collection in which people’s behavior is observed in their natural environment, in which they typically exist. This method is a type of field research. It could mean a researcher might be observing people in a grocery store, at the cinema, playground or similar places. Researchers who are usually involved in this type of data collection make observations as unobtrusively as possible so that the participants who are involved in the study are not aware that they are being observed else they might deviate from being their natural self. REFERENCES: Correlational Research: Definition with Example, Question Pro
Naturalistic Observation Ethically this method is acceptable if the participants remain anonymous and if the study is conducted in public setting, where people would not normally have an expectation of complete privacy.
As mentioned previously, taking an example of the grocery store where people can be observed while collecting an item from isle and putting in the shopping bags. This is ethically acceptable and that the reason most researchers choose public settings for recording their observation. This data collection method could be both qualitative or quantitative. REFERENCES: Correlational Research: Definition with Example, Question Pro
Archival Data Another approach to correlational data is the use of archival data. Archival data is the data that has been previously collected by doing similar kind of research. Archival data is usually made available through primary research.
In contrary to naturalistic observation, the information collected through archived data can be quite straightforward. For example, counting the number of people name Richard in the various states of America based on social security records is quite straightforward. REFERENCES: Correlational Research: Definition with Example, Question Pro
Requirements Correlations only describe the relationship, they do not prove cause and effect. Correlation is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for determining causality. There are Three Requirements to Infer a Causal Relationship 1. A statistically significant relationship between the variables. 2. The causal variable occurred prior to the other variable 3. There are no other factors that could account for the cause (Correlation studies do not meet the last requirement and may not meet the second requirement. However, not having a relationship does mean that one variable did not cause the other.) REFERENCES: https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/chapter/correlational-research/
Furthermore, because correlational research usually takes place outside of the lab, the results tend to be more applicable to everyday life.
Another benefit of correlational research is that it opens up a great deal of further research to other scholars. When researchers begin investigating a phenomenon or relationship for the first time, correlational research provides a good starting position.
Advantages
Correlational research allows researchers to collect much more data than experiments.
It allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of a relationship so that later studies can
narrow the findings down and, if possible, determine causation experimentally.
REFERENCES: https://classroom.synonym.com/a dvantages-disadvantagescorrelation-research-8359597.html
cannot provide a conclusive reason for why there's a relationship. A correlative finding doesn't reveal which variable influences the other. For example, finding that wealth correlates highly with education doesn't explain whether having wealth leads to more education or whether education leads to more wealth. Reasons for either can be assumed, but until more research is done, causation can't be determined.
Disadvantages
Correlation research only uncovers a relationship; it
Also, a third, unknown variable might be causing both. For instance, living in the state of New York can lead to both wealth and education.
REFERENCES: https://classroom.synonym.com/a dvantages-disadvantagescorrelation-research-8359597.html
Correlational research examples are numerous and highlight
1. You want to know if wealthy people are less likely to be patient. From your experience, you believe that wealthy people are impatient. However, you want to establish a statistical pattern that proves or disproves your belief. In this case, you can carry out correlational research to identify a trend that links both variables. 2. You want to know if there's a correlation between how much people earn and the number of children that they have. You do not believe that people with more spending power have more children than people with less spending power.
Examples
several instances where a correlational study may be carried out in order to determine the statistical behavioral trend with regards to the variables under consideration. Here are 2 case examples of correlational research.
Inferences Correlational research involves measuring two variables and assessing the relationship between them, with no manipulation of an independent variable.
Correlational research is not defined by where or how the data are collected. However, some approaches to data collection are strongly associated with correlational research. These include naturalistic observation (in which researchers observe people’s behaviour in the context in which it normally occurs) and the use of archival data that were already collected for some other purpose.
REFERENCES: https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/chapter/correlational-research/
Causal Comparative Research
CONTENTS Introduction Aims Nature of the Research Types Approach Conducting a Research Characteristics Comparison to other Research Advantages Disadvantages Case Study Inferences
Introduction Causal-comparative research is an attempt to identify a causative relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. The relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable is usually a suggested relationship (not proven) because you (the researcher) do not have complete control over the independent variable. The Causal Comparative method seeks to establish causal relationships between events and circumstances. In other words, it finds out the causes of certain occurrences or non-occurrences.
This is achieved by comparing the circumstances associated with observed effects and by noting the factors present in the instances where a given effect occurs and where it does not occur.
1 Causal-Comparative Research is not manipulated by the researcher.
2 Does not establish cause-effect relationships.
AIMS
3 Generally includes more than two groups and at least one dependent variable.
4 Independent variable is causal-comparative studies is often referred to as the grouping variable.
5 The independent variable has occurred or is already formed.
Nature of the Research A common design in educational research studies, Causalcomparative research, seeks to identify associations among variables. Relationships can be identified in causal-comparative study, but causation cannot be fully established. Attempts to determine cause and effect. It is not as powerful as experimental designs Causal-comparative research attempts to determine the cause or consequences of differences that already exist between or among groups of individuals. REFERENCES: Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal K.L.D.A.V (P. G) College, Roorkee, India
Nature of the Research Alleged cause and effect have already occurred and are being examined after the fact. The basic causal-comparative approach is to begin with a noted difference between two groups and then to look for possible causes for, or consequences of, this difference. Used when independent variables cannot or should not be examined using controlled experiments. When an experiment would take a considerable length of time and be quite costly to conduct, a causal-comparative study is sometimes used as an alternative. REFERENCES: Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal K.L.D.A.V (P. G) College, Roorkee, India
Types Of Research 1.
RETROSPECTIVE
requires that a researcher begins investigating a particular question when the effects have already occurred and the researcher attempts to determine whether one variable may have influenced another variable.
2. PROSPECTIVE occurs when a researcher initiates a study a study begin with the causes and is determined to investigate the effects of a condition. By far, retrospective causal-comparative research designs are much more common than prospective causalcomparative designs
APPROACH
The researcher observe that 2 groups differ on some variable (teaching style) and then attempt to find the reason for (or the results of) this difference. Causal-comparative studies attempt to identify cause-effect relationships. Causal-comparative studies typically Involve two (or more) groups and one independent variable Causal-comparative studies involve comparision. The basic causal-comparative approach involves starting with an effect and seeking possible causes Retrospective causal – comparative studies are
far more common in educational research.
CONDUCTING A RESEARCH Causal comparative research attempts to attribute a change in the effect variable(s) when the causal variable(s) cannot be manipulated.For example: if you wanted to study the effect of socioeconomic variables such as sex, race, ethnicity, or income on academic achievement, you might identify two existing groups of students: one group – high achievers; second group – low achievers. You then would study the differences of
the two groups as related to socioeconomic variables that already occurred or exist as the reason for the difference in the achievement between the two groups. To establish a cause effect relationship in this type of research you REFERENCES: Encyclopedia of Research Design Volume 1, http://www.vkmaheshwari.com/WP/?p=2491
have to build a strongly persuasive logical argument. .
Characterestics Causal comparative research attempts to determine reasons, or causes, for the existing condition Causal comparative studies are also called ex post facto because the investigator has no control over the exogenous variable. Whatever happened occurred before the researcher arrived. Causal-comparative research is sometimes treated as a type of descriptive research since it describes conditions that already exist.
Causal-comparative studies attempt to identify cause-effect relationships; correlational studies do not Causal-comparative studies involve comparison, correlational studies involve relationship.
Characterestics In causal-comparative the researcher attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for preexisting differences in groups of individual. Retrospective causal-comparative studies are far more common in educational research
The basic approach is sometimes referred to as retrospective causalcomparative research (since it starts with effects and investigates causes) The basic causal-comparative approach involves starting with an effect and seeking possible causes. The characteristic that differentiates these groups is the exogenous variable. The variation is prospective causal-comparative research (since it starts with causes and investigates effects)
Comparison
REFERENCES: Encyclopedia of Research Design Volume 1, Sage Publications
processes taking place in the system. Having this knowledge helps the researcher to take necessary actions to fix the problems or to optimize the outcomes. Causal research provides the benefits of replication if there is a need for it. Causal research helps identify the impacts of changing the processes and existing methods.
In causal research, the subjects are selected systematically.
Advantages
Causal research helps identify the causes behind
Because of this, causal research is helpful for higher levels of internal validity. REFERENCES: Marketing 91 By Hitesh Bhasin
sometimes it is not possible to control the effects of all extraneous variables. Causal research is one of the most expensive research to conduct. One disadvantage of causal research is that it provides information about your plans to your competitors. The results of your research can be contaminated Another disadvantage of using causal research is that it takes a long time to conduct this research. The accuracy of the causal research is directly proportional to the time you spend on the research
Disadvantages
The causal research is difficult to administer because
Coincidence in causal research is the biggest flaw of the
research. REFERENCES: Marketing 91 By Hitesh Bhasin
CASE STUDY Causal-Comparative Study of Third Grade Reading Achievement and the Use of Commercial Reading Programs to Promote Literacy study This quantitative, causal-comparative study examined the reading achievement of third grade students to ascertain the reading health of elementary students as measured through South Carolina's standardized assessment, the Palmetto Assessment of State Standards (PASS). The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a significant difference in reading achievement in 2012 when compared to 2009 with subgroups portrayed based on economic status, gender, ethnicity, and disability status. The study used ex-post facto, archival standardized reading assessment scores retrieved from the South Carolina Department of Education's website. The sample included third grade reading scores from students in 2009 and 2012 within a suburban school district. REFERENCES: https://eric.ed.gov/?q=Descriptive+AND+ex-post+AND+facto+AND+studies&pg=4&id=ED563308
CASE STUDY Causal-Comparative Study of Third Grade Reading Achievement and the Use of Commercial Reading Programs to Promote Literacy study The results from the study revealed descriptive differences among various subgroups yet inferential statistics displayed statistically significant differences only within the demographic subgroups of students with disabilities and within one subgroup for ethnicity. The findings from the study may assist district leaders in making appropriate reading curricular decisions for students who have experienced minimal or negative standardized test scores and the implementation of the commercial reading program, both descriptively and inferentially. Researchers and educational leaders should continue to explore reading curriculum policy and practice based on campus and student needs as opposed to the use of generic commercial programs for all students without consideration of authenticity or circumstance to assist with reading achievement for the individual.
Inferences Researchers often infer cause and effect relationships based on such studies. Conditions are necessary, but not necessarily sufficient, to infer a causal relationship A statistical relationship exists that is unlikely attributable to chance variation You have reason to believe the supposed exogenous variable preceded the endogenous You can, with some degree of certainty, rule out other possible explanations.
REFERENCES: https://eric.ed.gov/?q=Descriptive+AND+ex-post+AND+facto+AND+studies&pg=4&id=ED563308