he publication of this volume was made possible thanks to the kind financial support of the: La publication de ce volume a été rendue possible grâce à l’aimable support financier de:
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The XLIV meeting of the Scientific Council held in Rhodes (9th-15th October 2009) was made possible thanks to the coordination of Dr Arch Ioanna Steriotou in collaboration with the Greeek Ministry of Cultute, the Local Ephorate, the Prefecture and the Municipality of Rhodes, the Tecnical Chamber of Greece. La XLIII réunion du Conseil Scientifique qui a eu lieu à Rode (9-15 Septembre 2007)a été possible grâce a l’ coordination de la Dr Arch. Ioanna Steriotou , avec la collaboration de le Ministere Grec de la Culture, l’Éphorate local., la Préfecture et la Munipalité de Rode, la Chambre Tecnique de Grèce
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MANAGEMENT OF THE MONUMENTAL ENVIRONMENT AND ITS LANDMARKS THE FORTIFIED MEDIEVAL CITY OF RHODES
LA GESTION DE L’ENVIRONNEMENT MONUMENTAL ET SES POINTS SAILLANTS
EDITOR DIRECTION DE LA RÉDACTION GIANNI PERBELLINI
EUROPA NOSTRA BULLETIN 64 (2010) LANGE VOORHOUT 35, 2514 EC - THE HAGUE, THE
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CONTENTS / SOMMAIRE Forewod by Gianni Perbellini p. 5 Avant propos par Gianni Perbellini p. 6 Gianni Perbellini Cultural managment, three examples of Northern Italian experiences in planning the conservation of historic landscape and cities p. 7 Ioanna Steriotou Management of fortifications in Greece: projects of restoration and renovation-rehabilitation p. 19 Yannis Kisis Living cities’ monuments restored; what about the next day? p. 32 Maria-Christina Georgalli, Panayota Psarri Protection and management of the monumental complex of the medieval town of Rhodes p. 39 Anna Maria Kasdagli The management of state-owned monuments in the walled town of Rhodes: problems and responsibilities p. 51 Katerina Manoussou-Ntella Le paysage culturel et les monuments symboles disparus de la ville de Rhodes p. 59 Melina Filimonos-Tsopotou, Anna Apostolou Restoration, arrangement and display of the ancient fortification wall of Nisyros p. 75 Agni Petridou Managing the architectural heritage included in the buffer zone area of Nicosia (Cyprus) p. 89 Nayia Savvidou Managing traditional buildings in Nicosia (Cyprus) projects of their restoration-revitalization p. 96 Nacyie Doratli Managing revitalization of the walled city of Famagusta (Cyprus) - a cradle of cultures p. 105 Isik Aydemir La prise de Rhodes d’après les sources ottomanes p. 119 Berrin Alper and Mehmet Alper Amasra castle: a small fortified city on the Black Sea p. 129 Patrizia Valle Master plan of Cittadella’s walls (Italy): conservation and management p. 139 Etienne Poncelet Le renouveau de la cité royale de Senlis p. 147 Gabor Mester de Parajd Aménagement des abords et espaces non bâtis de la grande enceinte du château de Vincennes p. 161 Jonathan Coad Managing 18th-19th maritime monuments: conservation of historic British naval basis p.
169 Geoffrey Stell Monumental connections: Rhodes, the English tongue, and Scotland, 1309-1522 p. 177 Antonio Sanchez-Gijon Historical overview of the Toledo’s defences p. 191 Pedro Ponce de Leon The restoration and some notices about the fortified gate of Bisagra Nueva in Toledo (XII-XX century) p. 199 Conleth Manning Clonmancnoise monastic site: its study and protection p .209 Joakim Zeune The historic town of Zeil am Main (Germany, Lower Franconia) and its environmental problems: a case study p. 221 Michael Losse The town-fortress Überlingen at Northern Lake Constance (Bodensee) p. 227 Tomas Durdik Becov castle project - way to middle ages p. 241 Ieva Ose The medieval castle as museum in Latvia: successes and problems of utilisation p. 251 Hermann Fabini The medieval town of Sighisoara, historical development and the urban management p. 260
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FOREWORD by Gianni Perbellini, President of Europa Nostra Scientific Council The EN Scientific Council in Rhodes, in concert with most local authorities and experts involved in the conservation of the island's cultural heritage, proposed some studies for analysing the management of that cultural heritage. Conservation is a philosophy, a reason for existence or for survival. In this sense, conservation of the past heritage represents a route through which we may hand on our culture to future generations. But how can we guarantee with a dynamic vision the admission of the past into our future? Four centuries ago the humanists answered this question when Vegezio and Valturio disseminated the precepts and drawings of Vitruvius, on which scholars like Serlio and Palladio then re-invented an architectural style that lasted for centuries. In modern times, notions of conservation of our heritage have evolved in the freezing of monuments, landscapes and sometimes even entire cities until it was finally realised that, without re-integration into contemporary social life, the cultural heritage could not be preserved. At the same time it was also realised that preservation of the heritage might assist in curbing the enormous drainage of the planet's resources. Moreover, thanks to its power for attracting tourism, the cultural heritage became the driving force behind the economy of the societies to which it belonged. However, the intensive practice of mass tourism, and especially the throngs who visited cities of art, created a hitherto unknown situation in which control of the heritage was going to be lost and in which conservation of the cultural heritage conflicted with its own economic exploitation. Also, at the same time as its social values were becoming transformed into symbols of cultural myths, the cultural heritage was in danger of becoming isolated from the community to which it belonged, and of becoming vulnerable not only to the wearing effect of time but also to the intensive use by people for purposes vastly different from the original. Such issues have forced conservationists to face serious problems on an urban and territorial scale. They necessitate clear choices that: - settle the strategic actions that the cultural heritage is asked to carry out within the limits of a global and specific sustainability; and - trigger a process in which the local community has an involvement in the management and conservation of the cultural heritage. These interventions should be aimed: - at a conservation, re-use and enhancement that will keep a balance between material preservation, development of proposed functions (innovative and original), and the maintenance and enrichment with meaning of the spiritual or symbolic values of the cultural heritage itself; and - at economic development that is strongly connected with environmental sustainability. The enhancement of tourism should also be carried out within sustainable parameters. Being integral parts of the cultural heritage, environmental conditions, the landscape and natural resources should all be responsibly considered in every case, and their wear and deterioration avoided. -Monitoring and verifying these conditions should be a continuous process, giving rise to improved solutions and a systematic exchange of information at local, national and international levels through different communication networks, increasing the attention given to, and the participation in, the cultural heritage and its conservation.
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AVANT PROPOS par Gianni Perbellini, Président du Conseil Scientifique d?Europa Nostra
Le Conseil Scientifique de Rhodes, avec la participation de la plupart des spécialistes et des responsables locaux engagés dans la conservation du patrimoine culturel de l'île, a pris en examen certaines études pour une correcte analyse de l'état de l'art de la gestion des biens culturels. La conservation est une philosophie, une raison de vie ou de survie. Dans ce sens la conservation du patrimoine du passé représente le moyen de transmission de notre culture aux générations futures. Comment garantir donc l'entrée du passé dans notre avenir à travers une vision dynamique? Les humanistes avec cette perspective ont répondu à cette question il y a déjà quatre siècles, quand Végèce et Valturio divulguaient les maximes et les dessins de Vitruve sur les bases desquels des auteurs de traités tels que Serlio et Palladio réinventaient une architecture destinée à durer des siècles. De nos temps, l'idée de la conservation de notre patrimoine a évolué, transformant et embaumant les monuments et les paysages, et en certains cas les villes mêmes, jusqu'au moment où on s'est rendus compte que sans leur réadaptation dans la vie active ces biens culturels ne se seraient pas conservés. En même temps on devait prendre acte que la conservation du patrimoine existant pouvait constituer une réponse à l'énorme demande de ressources de la planète. En outre, grâce au pouvoir attractif du tourisme, le patrimoine culturel devenait le moteur économique de la société qui, elle-même, le détenait. Toutefois, l'usage intensif du tourisme de masse, en particulier des visiteurs des villes d'art, déclenchait des situations jusqu'alors inconnues dans lesquelles la sauvegarde du patrimoine commençait à perdre le contrôle et la conservation des biens culturels entrait ainsi en conflit avec sa rente économique. En même temps, la transformation même du patrimoine culturel de bien social à symbole d'un mythe culturel, finissait par l'isoler de la communauté même qui le possédait, devenant vulnérable à l'usure non seulement courante mais aussi anthropique du temps due à un usage intensif et différent par rapport aux buts originaux. Ceci comportait pour la conservation les mêmes problèmes de gestion à l'échelle urbaine ainsi que territoriale. D'où la nécessité de choix clairs et de buts bien définis qui: - Règlent stratégiquement toutes les actions que le patrimoine culturel dans le cas spécifique est appelé à exercer, toutefois, dans les limites d'une durabilité globale et différenciée; - Déclenchent un processus d'implication et d'intermédiation du bien culturel avec la communauté qui l'a crée et qui doit continuer à être concernée dans sa gestion et sa conservation. Ces buts devraient viser: - À une conservation, réutilisation et mise en valeur qui gardent un équilibre entre la conservation matérielle et le déroulement des fonctions proposées (innovatrices ou originales) en conservant et augmentant les valeurs spirituelles ou symboliques du bien même; - À un développement économique indissolublement associé à la soutenabilité environnementale La mise en valeur touristique doit être reconduite elle même dans des paramètres soutenables; - Les conditions environnementales, le paysage et les ressources naturelles, faisant partie intégrante du patrimoine culturel, dans tous les cas spécifiques, doivent être utilisés de façon responsable en évitant l'usure et la détérioration; - Le monitorage et la vérification de cette condition devraient être continus, favorisant dans le temps des solutions d'amélioration et un échange systématique des informations au niveau local, national et international dans le but d'augmenter l'intérêt et la conservation du patrimoine culturel même.
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GIANNI PERBELLINI
CULTURAL MANAGEMENT THREE EXAMPLES OF NORTHERN ITALIAN EXPERIENCES IN PLANNING THE CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC LANDSCAPE AND CITIES
The objective of the enhancement of heritage in general, such as in the shape of walled towns and their historic centres, involves multiple and diverse actions, in that it is connected to the prospect of recovering identities characterizing the numerous entities that generally constitute the historic city in its present form; the combination of several interventions which are sometimes set in motion by more than one administrative unit. Actions must be aimed at enhancing the story line and framework of an urban system, almost always polycentric, as essential tools in fostering a sense of belonging while avoiding trivializing the overall urban effect through fragmentation into simplified elementary nuclei. Historical Heritage enhancement, scheme of procedure
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Standard rules for projects of architectural restoration
Factors common to the various interventions must involve complying with the existing structures and local circumstances, embracing the intangible cultural heritage and focusing on the kind of urban redevelopment that can enhance local circumstances. The latter two in fact constitute the combination of elements capable of interacting in such a way as to encompass not only the new realities but also the indigenous ones. The significance of the historic city, full of cultural values, which are still capable of animating the widespread system of settlements and their links, is an integral part of this action. The city-dweller, having become a sort of automaton commuting between urban and suburban congestion, experiences a daily alienation from his ancestral and cultural universe, hence the need to find different or parallel identities and to enrich the experience of those new values, which the cultural landscape with its tangible and intangible features, offers. The city, seen as a spatial system of superimposed layers, of which the walls, where they existed, or natural barriers formed the extreme limit up to a century and a half ago and still witness how the structure and fabric of the city have been generated by continuous transformation and gradual transition rather than the indiscriminate segmentation of the territory in a more or less functional zoning. In this context, architecture proved to be the most direct and concrete way of developing and stabilising society, in contrast to the self-celebratory pharaonic projects. Projects not related with the urban historic fabric, unfortunately built almost everywhere in the past century. Paradoxically, to save the city we must
return to a configuration within which we can enhance the central and homogenous elements albeit in a seemingly non-homogenous context such as our squalid suburbs. In this context the urgent need for environmental clean-up work requires the setting up of intervention strategies, which can no longer be satisfied by the prospect of mere fines and compensation, but must make a contribution, albeit indirectly, to the global solution to the problem through appropriate methodologies, plans and procedures for intervention and socio-economic development of compromised areas, the purposes of which must be consistent with the preservation and development of local cultural potential. In 1975 the Council of Europe promulgated the European Charter of cultural heritage, which introduced the concept of integrated conservation, which specified the significance of Heritage and the signatory states undertook campaigns to make inventories with the specific purpose of identifying both the intrinsic and symbolic value of monuments, groups of buildings and sites in need of conservation and protection. The aim of the approach was to promote improvements in the quality of life through cultural heritage and access to culture for citizens. The task undertaken by Europe was enormous and was perhaps misunderstood in Italy where the Ministry of Culture, having created an Institute of Catalogues, devoted itself to improving the method of survey until it virtually became a sort of monograph of the single monument, rather than engaging in a broad inventory. Whereas in other countries such as Denmark, the Ministry of Environment and Energy, through SAVE (the Survey of Architectural Values in the Environment), and thus through a correct methodological approach to the subject, developed the possibility of a concise overall assessment of the historic fabric and places in need of urgent intervention. At a later stage the same Council of Europe focused on the theme of conservation: that of architectural heritage with the Convention of Granada (1985) and that of archaeological heritage with the Convention of Valletta (1992). But while the UNESCO conventions of 1972 (tangible assets) and 2003 (intangible assets) tended to single out the exceptional value of cultural heritage, the Council of Europe remained orientated towards a global approach to cultural heritage. Approach extended in the territory from the built-up environment to the agrarian one, aiming to re-evaluate their diversity. The more recent Convention of Faro (2005) for the first time finally gave a holistic definition of cultural heritage, the conservation of which should not be an end in itself, but should help provide answers to the need, expressed by most individuals, to identify themselves with one or more sites of cultural heritage according to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and to participate actively in the cultural life of society. There have been many experiences of restoration work carried out within the context of this complex issue, and thus far comparisons and debates have too often been limited merely to the history, typology, materials, etc. involved in the particular nature of the project, yet now it is the self-same issue, and its relative experiences that are to be amalgamated into the conservation theme. The latter is achieved and promoted primarily through sustainability, in that it is directly linked to the conservation of tangible and intangible values of the system and of the geographical location. To achieve this, however, in areas densely populated such as ours, management, rather than development, and incentives or disincentives become indispensable for open areas, for urban sites, for historic towns,
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and areas of interconnection between the urban sites. In addition in today's world we cannot shy away from confronting the widespread physical vulnerability of our territories not only due to natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, etc.) but also due to an increasingly widespread and intensive intervention on the part of mankind, a problem so far tackled by a series of inconsistent legislative measures and managed by a number of entities at different levels with disparate territorial jurisdictions and with too many and, all too often, discordant and independent voices. They tend to concentrate on providing limited security, rather than predictions, for isolated events (landslides, earthquakes, fires, mines and quarries, rivers and lakes, etc.) and not on their concatenation. What is missing above all for the territory and historical areas, which are the most delicate, is a strict global conservation program, tools for monitoring its implementation and for monitoring results. With regard to the conservation of our cultural heritage it has become clear that discontinuity and in many cases a lack of management capable of unifying the various levels and promoting the conservation projects with the necessary continuity of operations, are the order of the day. At a global and European level we are paying the price of the massive and profound transformation of our territory Architectural Heritage conservation directory
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that has occurred in the last half century, with urban concentrations never before experienced; all this without refining the tools of our knowledge and assessment of environmental risks that this entails for the population. Just think how the landscape until recently was considered and evaluated according to the aesthetics of nineteenth century romantic writers and geographers and not as a basic element of that environment. Faced with an escalation in factors related to natural or man-made hazards, to which the urban and suburban landscape and society itself are subjected, urban planning must now be complemented by maintenance plans and land conservation, combined with an extensive network of monitoring the phenomena involved. The problem in the management of these plans with scores of institutes involved, however, is likely to become insoluble if we do not start using innovative administrative tools such as management autorities. On a cultural level, therefore, for the territories and historic areas, which are the most delicate, a strict global conservation program and concrete actions for the monitoring of its implementation and monitoring of results becomes essential. In fact, with regard to the conservation of (not only, I am afraid) our Heritage a certain discontinuity or in many cases the lack of a schedule, which consolidates the objectives, promotes the conservation and verifies the results with the required continuity, is evident at various levels. . It therefore seems appropriate to emphasise that conservation should be substantiated with not only constant maintenance, but also with an updating of the research (history, archaeology, earth science, architecture, technology, etc.) in order to give the necessary theoretical support to the decisions of "experts" whether public or private. The tragic nature of events, which happen on an almost daily basis (earthquakes, fires, tsunamis, landslides, ill-disposed actions, pollution, etc..) are a significant sign of the urgent need for a comprehensive policy including both Land and Cultural Heritage. The randomness of sectoral choices made so far, too often influenced by an interpretation of local affairs so particular as to forget the big picture and its many variables, seems to show how conservation has often been an end in itself, or worse still intended for the personal gratification of the people involved and not as a means to convey the tangible and intangible cultural heritage to future generations. To this end, the active participation of affected communities is one of the keys that can help underline the importance of the technical efforts aimed at the sustainability of conservation projects. One can involve the population directly by disseminating goals through education and entertainment, and indirectly through representative bodies (colleges, businesses, NGOs, etc...). To achieve these goals multi-sectoral organisations are needed to co-ordinate the efforts and actions involved by stimulating their continued implementation and by monitoring the conservation and efficiency of the achievements, through rigorous programmes, in the implementation of which the entire community must take part. . In conclusion, the management of the area can be achieved through a strategic multidisciplinary process which encompasses all the actions for conservation and development, in preparation of a proper and sustainable use of urban complexes and of the entire territory by today's society, as well as its preservation for future generations. This document of urban and regional planning and programming must be the instrument for social mediation and define the policies that enable immediate
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implementation and achievement of objectives. Regardless of who is responsible for the project design, the management should be entrusted to a permanent multi-disciplinary body that co-ordinates actions, ensures continuity and monitors effectiveness, as well as offering assistance and advice to public and private operators. This objective is achievable only through a body, which is on one hand impartial, and on the other made up of the same components as are responsible for the territory Regarding the plans and programmes for Italy, the subject has been assigned to the regional administrations, whose duty is to draw up landscape plans, while the Ministry for Cultural Heritage reserves the right of veto interventions in protected areas. The first situation is actually a planning proposal without opportune national method statements, while the second is simply a duplication of the assessments with the end result that the protagonists are deprived of any real responsibility. The territory is still regulated by a series of laws regarding safety (geology, earthquakes, fires, quarries and mines, rivers and lakes, etc.) which are not hitherto homogeneous and are managed by bodies with disparate territorial competencies. Fortunately some regional administrations such as the Regione Veneto are pursuing co-ordination and homogenisation through regional master-plans (PTRC) of the territorial frame, though far too many discordant voices remain involved. In truth until now, conservation has been mostly taken into consideration as if in separate chapters lacking any collective collaboration among the authors of the various subjects involved, thus for example safety and prevention have been seen as a limitation on the autonomy of planners and politicians in drawing up urban plans on any level. With reference to the subject of architectural management of historic territory I summarized my now dated Italian experience in the following three examples, which give some idea of the development of the conservation concept. Historic architectural heritage conservation management
Rivoli Morainic Amphitheatre, historical map (1866)
Rivoli, Austrian (1859) and Italian forts (1893)
1. Rivoli Morainic Amphitheatre, Environmental Enhancement Plans (Verona Province Administration - PVA - Progetto di Valorizzazione ambientale E. De Lucchi, G. Perbellini, D. Ferrari, P. Modena, E. Nucci) The Morainic amphitheatre in Rivoli resulted from the glaciation of the Adige valley, which, because of its complete perceptibility and usability and because of its exceptional preservation, represents an international geological rarity. Moreover its position on the ridge of a bottleneck of the river Adige, turned it into a strategic site controlling the
Rivoli Morainic Amphitheatre, aerial survey (2005)
Rivoli Morainic Amphitheatre, PVA zoning access from Germany through a series of fortifications from prehistory to the first World War. Finally, knowing the morphology of the territory, Napoleon in 1801 during the famous battle of Rivoli, was victorious against the Austrian army, which was twice the size of his army. Among the development plans of the provincial master plan of the territory, the environmental enhancement plans (PVA) had to effect a process of sustainable enhancement, capable of laying the basis of the relation between the urban land and the historical heritage both for the landscape and for built areas. Among the 40 areas identified to be enhanced through the PVA, Rivoli is the only one for which the studies were completed before the Regional Administration decided to stop its implementation claiming the priority of the
Regional landscape plan (that unfortunately is still not completed some 5 years later). The PVA studies on Rivoli were divided in 5 sections: 1. Outline of updated current legislation, environmental method statements and the first programme in force; 2. Analysis of the physical and cultural environment; 3. Specialised analysis, list and inventory of the heritage values and situations of the negative and damaging elements (environmental penalties); 4. Quality identification of the areas to be improved in different fields: instructions and guidelines; 5. Preliminary projects, the related morphological, geological, agricultural studies, the infrastructural networks and the historical values of the environmental and architectural heritage.
2. The master plan of St Peter's Hill in Verona (Verona Municipality, Studio Perbellini e Associati) In a sentence: the revitalisation of St. Peter's Hill through the implementation and/or re-implementation of a series of cultural functions. St. Peter's Hill is an extension of the Lessini mountains on the Adige River. It is situated on the left bank of the river at the north side of the city. In pre-Roman times, the eastern side of the Hill saw the first GalloVenetian settlement. The place was considered sacred by the Romans who founded the city on the right bank of the Adige River in the 1st century BC, and was dedicated to the Theatre. The Hill was also the centre of city life in medieval times, under Gothic, Lombardic and Caro-lingian domination and subsequently in the Scaliger and Visconti periods. Today, the Theatre remains one of the city's major Roman relics and is still used for summertime prose, music and dance events. The musical-theatrical specialisation was established at the beginning of 20th century, when the theatre was unearthed and the Austrian barracks behind were demilitarised. The museum complex, including the archaeological museum, is now obsolete and neglected by city life
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The Master Plan of St. Peter’s Hills covers 5 areas: 1 the Roman theatre and the archeological museum: the aim is to create permanent support theatrical structures which will be automatically reduced during seasons of inactivity, while rationalizing space use for summer activities. With regard to the archaeological museum, the objective is to rationalize the use of spaces and to allow access to those areas that are currently inaccessible (such as the roman intercapedine and the other underground structures); 2 the old Austrian barracks, future cultural centre and museum; the directory proposes, to divide the building into two separate units per floor, thus this can promote various educational and exhibition activities; 3 the Visconti castle: the objective is to transform the
area into an educational medieval park; 4 open-air section on the north-western side of the Visconti-municipal fortified enceinte: the directory suggests its recovery as a multi-functional urban park. 5 the old cable railway: the project envisages the creation, on the disused railway line,of a light cable railway, for 400-500 passengers/hr, with an intermediate station. The new intermediate station serves the archaeological museum and the urban park. Parking and road conditions: the current ways of access for cars are confirmed. However, pedestrian access points will be increased, the now abandoned medieval road, passing above the Roman theatre, will be restored, and the St Peter Castle square permanently closed to vehicles.
3. The walled town in the Venetian country (Gianni Perbellini e Flavio Rodeghiero) In the Venetian Country between the 11th and the 15th centuries, the political situation established and consolidated the landmarks destined to became the framework of the region as a homogeneous whole. The end towards which the Ezzelini directed their actions, which only the Scaligers were however able to realise, was to extend their possessions through a series of conquests starting from the area of Brescia up to the borders of the Venetian lagoon. This was achievable thanks to a series of walled cities constituting a structure for the management of the territory that is nowadays still distinctive of the Venetian region as the result of the evolution of the free municipalities which developed in reaction to the pressure of both the Pope and the Emperor, on the Po Plain. The ensuing conflicts highlighted that the ambitions, which were out of the control of the local protagonists and against the Serene Republic's policy, resulted in the inland Venetian State in the 15th century, which replaced that buffer of satellite states tolerated until that time on the north-western border. A few years ago the municipalities of the walled towns decided to get together in an Association with the aim of enhancing their architectural heritage. Now, after this heritage has been restored, thanks to the first management plan co-ordinated among 35 municipalities, a series of joint actions for its conservation is
beginning. The aim is to form a body capable of coordinating both the enhancement and the conservation of this precious series of walled cities, monitoring the actions and adjusting the scope when necessary, but also offering assistance to public and private operators.
Brief bibliography A. Emiliani, Una politica dei Beni Culturali; Einaudi, Turin, 1974; L. Barsotti, La produzione giuridica dei Beni Culturali, Edizioni Kappa, Rome, 1980; P. Marconi, Arte e Cultura della manutenzione dei monumenti, Laterza, Bari, 1984; J. Le Goff (Editor), Actes del Entretiens du Patrimoine- Patrimoine et passions identitaires, Fayard, Paris, 1998; G. Carbonara, Trattato di restauro architettonico, Utet, Turin, 2003; R. A. Genovese (Editor), Archeologia e paesaggio, Comitato Italiano Icomos, Naples, 2007; M.d.M. Villafranca Jmenez - P. Solmeron Escobar (Editors), Plan director de la Alhambra y Generalife,
Potronato de la Akhambra, Granada, 2008; D. Therand, A. Trigona (Editors), Le patrimoine et audelà, Editions du Conseil de l'Europe, Strasbourg, 2009; I Progetti di Valorizzazione Ambientale, nuovi strumenti di pianificazione del territorio veronese, Cortella, Verona, 1998; G. Perbellini, Castelli ed edifici in forma di Castello nella Verona dell'Ottocento, "Castellum", 48, 2006; G. Perbellini, St. Peter Tepesi Yeniden Canlandrima Projesi (transl. Fatima Öcol), "Mimar ist", 2007/2; G. Perbellini - F.Rodighiero, Un network medioevale: le città Murate Venete, "Castellum", 51, 2009; G. Perbellini- F. Rodighiero (Editors), Il network medioevale delle città murate venete, Cierre (in printing).
En 1975 le Conseil de l'Europe promulgua la Charte européenne du patrimoine culturel, qui introduisit le concept de conservation intégrée, précisa l'importance du Patrimoine et dont les états signataires lancèrent des campagnes d'inventaires avec pour objectif spécifique d'identifier à la fois la valeur intrinsèque et symbolique des monuments, groupes de bâtiments et sites nécessitant conservation et protection. Cette approche avait pour but de promouvoir l'amélioration de la qualité de vie par le patrimoine culturel et l'accès à la culture en faveur des citoyens. Dans une étape ultérieure, le même Conseil de l'Europe se concentra sur le thème de la conservation : celle du patrimoine architectural avec la Convention de Grenade (1985) et celle du patrimoine archéologique avec la Convention de La Valette (1992). Mais alors que les conventions de l'UNESCO de 1972 (biens tangibles) et de 2003 (biens intangibles) avaient tendance à isoler la valeur exceptionnelle du patrimoine culturel, le Conseil de l'Europe restait orienté vers une approche globale du patrimoine culturel allant du domaine de l'agglomération, urbaine ou non, à la dimension agraire, ré-estimant la diversité. La convention plus récente de Faro (2005), pour la première fois, donna enfin une définition holistique du patrimoine culturel dont la conservation ne devait pas être une fin en soi mais devait aider à fournir des réponses au besoin, exprimé par la plupart des individus, de s'identifier à un ou plusieurs sites du patrimoine culturel selon la déclaration Universelle des Droits de l'Homme et de participer activement à la vie culturelle de la société. En ce qui concerne la conservation de notre patrimoine culturel il est devenu évident que la discontinuité et, dans de nombreux cas, le manque de management capable d'unifier les différents niveaux et de promouvoir les projets de conservation avec une nécessaire continuité des opérations, était à l'ordre du jour. Au niveau global et européen nous payons le prix de la transformation massive et profonde de notre territoire qui a eu lieu ces cinquante dernières années, avec des concentrations urbaines jamais expérimentées auparavant. Tout ceci sans perfectionnement des outils de notre connaissance et de l'estimation des risques environnementaux que ceci entraîne pour la population. En référence au sujet de la gestion architecturale du territoire historique je résumerai mon expérience italienne passée par les trois exemples suivants qui peuvent donner une idée du développement de la conception de la conservation.
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IOANNA STERIOTOU
MANAGEMENT OF FORTIFICATIONS IN GREECE: PROJECTS OF RESTORATION AND RENOVATION-REHABILITATION
The fortifications, because of their special character, are an outstanding category of historical monuments, due to their management: restoration, rehabilitation, valorisation through new uses. Their great scale and their difficult accessibility are the reasons why fortifications are the least restored and least maintained monuments in Greece, at least until some years ago. Despite this fact, the fortifications because of their position in places of natural beauty with marvellous views are one of the most popular, historical sites for large numbers of visitors and tourists. The fortifications particularly kindle children's curiosity and fantasy. The management of a fortification is highly demanding as it should lead to visitors having a better understanding of its function and also of its significance for the broader area. The fortifications in Greece belong to the State. The only Service responsible for carrying out all the interventions concerning them, is the Ministry of Culture, with its central and regional Services. The number of monuments and antiquities of other categories all over Greece and often a lack of staff caused a delay in a implementing systematic approach to dealing with the fortifications. In addition it was not given priority by the Ministry. But in the course of time the situation has improved significantly, in spite of the problems that still remain in many cases. More systematic and significant activity has taken place recently. Many studies and research projects are in progress for the complete restoration, revitalisation and reanimation of some large important fortifications. In many cases the use of the inner spaces of fortifications have been transferred to some other Organizations, mainly Local Authorities (Municipalities), or Cultural Associations and Universities, making them jointly responsible for the management of these historic monuments. Further more the awareness of the local communities has played and still plays an important role in the preservation of the fortifications themselves. I would like to remind of the main rules that are being followed for all the historical monumental complexes, isolated monuments and also the fortifications. The necessary elements to understand a fortification of any kind, are: a) an understanding of its size and the structure of its fortified enclosure with all of its parts, b) an understanding of the defensive system, and c) an understanding of the organization and function of a fortified city, town-castle, fortified settlement or fortress. Fortifications, more than other historic monuments, function as open-air museums, where the exhibit is the historic complex itself.
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As fortifications are usually very extended sites, they demand an extended archaeological survey and excavations. We believe that a full intervention for excavation works over the whole area of the fortified site, is not possible. The extent of the work to be carried out must be decided on looking at every case separately. No special mention of the general rules for the conservation restoration of the ruins, will be made. It is obvious that these rules must also be followed for the fortifications, as in any other monument. But in the case of a fortification we believe that one more rule must be adhere to: the restored parts of the fortified complex must be recognisable. In the field of architectural - historical investigation special difficulties occur because of the complex character that a fortification has as a structure after centuries of successive repairs and modifications1. I intent, through examples, studies and interventions already done in fortifications, to present various approaches, and to the existing difficulties, before coming to some conclusions. Over the last two decades (1990 - 2000) various programmes and scientific meetings have been organized, which have led to better understanding of the fortifications all over Greece. We start our presentation with some castles and fortresses of the medieval - Byzantine period, continuing with some fortifications of the Latin period in Greece, especially Venetian fortifications. I would like to point out that these references are based on my personal experience of these cases as I am participating in the relevant projects, in cooperation with the responsible colleagues of every Ephorate. SERVIA- Kozani region (Western Macedonia) The remains of the Byzantine castle of Servia, a fortified town probably founded in the 6th cent. A.D., during Justinian's period, lie on the southern and western slopes of a steep hill that overlooks the homonymous small town and the plain with the artificial Polyfytou lake. The hill is surrounded by three gorges that consist of some very impressive rock structures and slopes full of forests. From the study of the Restoration and Valorisation of the Castle of Servia and the proposed special principles, a study awarded with a diploma in category 2 by EUROPA NOSTRA in 2004, I am presenting the following information. The main idea of the interventions was that the study of the Natural and Historic Site should be done as an entirety to protect the special character of the monument. The proposed restoration works, in some parts, are not extensive reconstructions, but they are only consolidation works for the maintenance of the ruined structures. It is proposed to provide historic information giving a general
1. The Byzantine walled town of Servia.
2. The medieval castle of Platamonas.
3. Thessaloniki, the tower of “Trygonion� (chain tower).
view of a Byzantine city-castle, including its defence, its town-planning and social structure, its everyday life and the production. In addition for lovers of nature, the region of the castle offers opportunities for walks in the forest and observation of wild life2.. PLATAMON castle - Pieria (Central Macedonia) Platamon castle was one of the fortified Middle Byzantine cities that were built on sites, fortified by nature, in order to control major roads, between Macedonia and Thessaly. It is on the south-eastern side of the mythical mount Olympus, at the northern exit of the narrow Tempi valley. It was the most important fortress controlling the entrance to the Thermaikos gulf, and the city of Thessaloniki. Ancient sources and recent excavations locate the ancient city of Herakleion here, a city which existed until the Early Christian period. Archaeological evidence reveals that the fortified city was inhabited since the 10th century. From period 1204-1224 it was under the Franks and after 1386 under Ottoman rule. The Archaeological Service carried out rescue restorations between 1968 and 1975. Excavations inside the castle began in 1989 and more systematic restoration of the walls, gates and towers and also development of the interior of the castle began in 1990. Excavations to date have uncovered the remains of two of the seven churches which existed according to the legend. These were near the north- east and eastern parts of the city walls. Ruins of several dwellings were also uncovered. The excavations have revealed the ancient streets which were paved with rubble and have been systematically conserved and restored. Paved courtyards flank the entrances to the dwellings. Recently, as a result of the construction of a new railroad which had to pass under the castle trough a subterranean tunnel, an extra big budget was given for the provided stabilization and restoration of the fortifications. So, a substantial public work was the reason for generous financial support for archaeological investigation, restoration works and the rehabilitation of a very important fortified medieval town. But many other fortifications had not had the same "luck" and management. The castle of Servia, isolated in the region of Western Macedonia, it is still waiting for financial support for a project of restoration and rehabilitation works3. THESSALONIKI I have already presented, in a complete paper, the Byzantine walls of Thessaloniki during our Meeting in Istanbul, in 20034. With this paper I would like to present some new information.
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5. Thessaloniki, the White tower.
6. Thessaloniki, the remains of external enclosure 7. Thessaloniki, details of the remains of external enclosure
8. Thessaloniki, the White tower in 1885. 9. Thessaloniki, the final intervention around the White tower
Eptapyrghio. The fortress of the Acropoli, Byzantine in its basic structure [from the 5th century A.D., until the 14th cent.], with significant interventions done in its enclosure during the Ottoman occupation [1430 - 1912], was always a prison fortress until the great earthquake of Thessaloniki, in 1978. The Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities of Central Macedonia is located in some of the recently restored prison buildings [end of the 19th cent. - beginning of the 20th cent.]. The Ephorate in addition to its other official responsibilities, continues the restoration works that are always in progress in the fortress itself. One of its duties is to keep the monument open to the public and safeguard the environment without any intervention. The management of Eptapyrghio has improved the character of the neighbourhood, which had formerly been neglected when the fortress was used as prison. Walls - the defensive enclosure The main "concept" of management and rehabilitation of the full length of Byzantine walls was the demolition of the recent, non defensive constructions, and the restoration - renovation of the walls in a "green zone", usually not accessible to the public, but simply with some places to relax. There is a different approach in the section of the northern walls beside the Acropolis, on the edge of the Upper Town. In this zone, small houses were constructed by refugees who had arrived in Thessaloniki after World War I, but also by people whose houses had been destroyed by fire and earthquakes. These small houses and their courtyards will be conserved in special zones. The open areas beside the walls will be cleared, so these zones become accessible. The program of the expropriation of the small houses and their properties has already started and a special study for the valorisation of this part of the walls must become part of the archaeological tours through the historical centre of Thessaloniki. Another subject worth mentioning is the different management of other parts of the walls of Thessaloniki by the same Ministry of Culture. The cases of the two towers- "torrioni"- are very characteristic examples of different management. The Tower of "Trygonion" or "of Chain", is located in the position where the eastern walls were connected with those of the Upper Town and the Acropolis, replacing another Byzantine tower, which had formerly existed in the same position. For many centuries, until the end of the 19th century, it was abandoned. Until the middle of the 20th century it was used by the Army, only for gun salutes. It remained without any maintenance, facing the wear and tear of time and humidity. Finally, the responsible Ephorate studied its complete restoration and now the works of renovation and rehabilitation have finished. Its new use is as a museum. In the inner spaces for the artillery, information
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about the history and the function of the tower will be presented. The former area inside the entrance where the guards were on duty, has remained as the area where arriving visitors are checked. A small hall for educational programmes exists in the place of the gun-powder magazine. It is also possible to visit the terrace, from which we have marvellous views of the city, the Thermaikos Gulf and the Eptapyrghio. The same terrace can be used for open air cultural performances on a small scale, for a limited audience. This restored tower is a very sustainable use of a fortified construction5. The White Tower, the landmark and symbol of Thessaloniki, although a similar intervention was developed differently. The White Tower is located in the position where the sea walls connected with those of the eastern enclosure, replacing another Byzantine tower. The White Tower was constructed either immediately after 1430, or during the 1st half of the 16th century. It was completely restored for the first time after the earthquake in 1978 and for the excellent work that had been done for its restoration it was awarded with a Diploma by EUROPA NOSTRA, in 1988. For some time exhibits belonging to the Museum for Byzantine Culture of Thessaloniki were displayed there. Recently, in the space around the monument, various works of interventions were undertaken by the Municipality of Thessaloniki for its aesthetic and functional "improvement". The study, that was carried out in 1997, completely ignored the historical dimension of the area all around the Tower, and the existing archaeological finds. Everybody, experts or not, was awared, that the White Tower was surrounded by a polygonal, fortified enclosure with echaugettes [sentry-box] and embrasures for the cannons at sea level. That
enclosure was demolished during the first years after the liberation of the city, in 1912, and the space around the White Tower was covered by a small clump of pine trees. The new study (that of 1997) did not consider the remains of the enclosure and proposed lowering the level of the pavement, around the Tower. This would have resulted in a great part of the fortified construction, which existed at ground level, being destroyed. This study was accepted by the majority of the Central Archaeological Council and it was approved by the political leadership of the Ministry of Culture of that period (2005). The reactions of the scientific community of the city without exception, of non governmental Organizations such as the local branch of "Elliniki Eteria", of the media all over Greece and of simple citizens, against those interventions, were very strong. These reactions forced the leadership of the Ministry to revoke the initial decision and ask for a re-examination of the study. The new study, carried out by the Ephorate itself, because of the situation already existing could not propose the restoration of the remains of the external enclosure and its full incorporation in the area of the pavement of the pedestrian zone. But after a very careful study they listed all the remains [from an archaeological, architectural and historical point of view] and covered all the remains with earth. For reasons of protection and also from an education point of view, they constructed a new masonry, about 50 centimetres in height, with the same dimensions as the original structure. They covered the embrasures for the cannons with pebbles and the space between the enclosure and the Tower (the inner courtyard of the tower) was sown with grass. Looking at the photos of that period when the interventions were in progress, the danger for the monument is obvious. Finally it survived due to the fact that it was covered with earth. Today, in the inner spaces of the White Tower, which functions as a branch of the Museum for Byzantine Culture, the history of Thessaloniki is presented through modern technology.
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Two TOWERS in Chalkidiki - region of Sidirokfsia Sidirokafsia, in the north-eastern region of Chalkidiki, is a mining area, about which there is evidence from the Byzantine ages. Its maximum development must have been completed during the first centuries of the Ottoman occupation of Chalkidiki [15th-16th cent.]. The Sidirofkasia region was developed into a second important centre of local importance, after Thessaloniki. The position of this centre coincides with the archaeological site of ancient Stagira, Aristotle's birthplace, on the west of the village of Stagira. The site is 90 stremma = 22,5 acres and includes the Aristotle park and a part of the village. Two of the most impressive constructions of the archaeological site are firstly the southern tower in Aristotle park in the position "Kastro", where they processed the mineral and secondly the Spilaiotissa tower, isolated in the north-eastern edge on the site, out of the village. Both the towers date back to the beginning of 16th century, during the great development. They exist at different levels of conservation and both are in danger of collapse. The first tower remains at its original height but is missing its top floor. In 1976, the responsible Ephorate consolidated the tower with maintenance works. The study proposed the construction of a separate, inner "shell", the reconstruction of the wooden floors and staircases. The basic concept is the existence of a "closed" building inside the original ruined tower. The missing parts of the original masonry of the tower will be replaced with metal structures and transparent glass, which can be removed if necessary, in the future. Exhibitions with finds from the archaeological site will be organized in the inner spaces of the restored
tower. In addition, it will be possible to see the tower itself, as a monumental, historical construction. The Spilaiotissa tower is in ruins and only the external wall at the lower level survives. At the upper levels some isolated parts of masonry have been conserved, but they are in danger of collapse. The study for its restoration proposes not only the consolidation of the original parts, but also the re-construction of the wooden floors and staircases and a kind of roof to protect the historical structure. In this way the original form of the tower will be visible. The new constructions will function as scaffoldings that will support the original structure of the tower. In this way it will be possible to visit the inner space of the monument and admire the marvellous views all around 6. GALATISTA TOWER in Chalkidiki7 The tower exists in the centre of the village Galatista, in the west-northern region of Chalkidiki. In manuscripts of Mount Athos there are references to the village, at least from the first years of the 14th century. According to the study of the two constructive phases of the tower and the archaeological evidence from the excavations, carried out in the interior of the tower, the dates of the two periods have been determined ci. 11th - 12th centuries (1st phase), and 14th century (2nd phase). The tower was probably used as protection for the neighbouring water sources, which were vital for the function of the water-mills at the foot of the tower. Those water-mills functioned from the medieval times until the middle of the 20th century. Almost the entire external masonry of the tower survived, but it lost the upper part, 1/3 of its height, and all the inner structures (floors- staircases). The responsible Ephorate has been working over the last years on a project for the maintenance, the restoration and the rehabilitation not only of the tower itself, but also of its environment. This environment includes the post-Byzantine church of St. Paraskevi and a small complex of buildings for traditional production, such as the remains of water-mills, an oilpress and a laboratory for the production of "raki". The concept of the project is the creation of an open-air museum for the promotion of the local history. The restoration works in the tower have finished and an exhibition with finds of the archaeological excavation of the site has been organized in the tower. The Project for the Venetian Walls in CHANIA - Crete The high quality of the construction of the Venetian town walls of Chania has ensured that they still exist today almost entirely in their historic dimensions. The Ephorate responsible documented that a complete project for the maintenance, restoration and the promotion of these walls could save a very great part of the entire fortified complex. In accordance with this concept, in 2003, the Ministry of Culture decided to include this project in the activities of the Ministry via the Organisation "Credit Administration Fund for Archaeological Works". The programme is now being in progress. A special office has been set up, whose function is parallel with that of the local Ephorate. Its staff of specialist scientists and technicians is concerned 10. The tower of Galatista (Chalkidiki region).
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11-12. Chania (Crete), archeological excavation in St. Salvatore bastion of the venetian walls of Canea.
13-14. Chania (Crete), the western ditch of the venetian walls of Canea, before and after restoration.
solely with the works concerning this project, which are the archaeological, historical and architectural research, the maintenance and the consolidation and restoration works. The staff also informs the public and the local Authorities about the importance of the complex of the Venetian walls, which are a significant landmark for Chania, a town with a great history, monuments and archaeological sites (especially from the Minoan era), extraordinary sites of natural beauty and a great volume of tourists. This information resulted in agreement not only by the local community but also by the responsible authorities, for the demolition of two buildings which both existed beside and on the walls. The first was the building of the cinema "Regina" in the eastern enclosure, beside the St. Lucia Bastion and the second the "Xenia" Hotel on the St. Salvatore Bastion. The advantage of rehabilitating the monument is obvious, as after the first works of cleaning the recent landfills and some excavation works, new elements of the structure of the enclosure have come to light. The intention of this project is to establish a Master Plan that deals with not only the restoration, but also the incorporation of the walls with new sustainable uses in the every day life of the city. A very significant aspect is that a very great part of the ditch was and still is filled with recent landfills as great masses of earth were transferred into the ditch from the parapets of the walls. So, the concept is to restore the historic morphology of the profile of the enclosure in the sections that the existing situation will permit; the main wall, the ditch (depth - width) and the counter-scarp. The works of the Project and the interventions are progressing despite the existing difficulties. The out look is very positive but only if the arising problems are resolved, with the proper financial and administrative support8. The Project for the Venetians Walls in HERAKLION - Chandax, Crete For this project a very detailed, extensive presentation was made during our annual Conference, in Heraklion, in 20029. The main areas of intervention and the works under way, according to the project, were: the maintenance, the restoration and the rehabilitation of the cultural and historical heritage that comes from the Venetian walls of Chandax -Heraklion. This project was activated by the Programmatic Convention signed by the Ministry of Culture, the Fund for Archaeological Finds and the Municipality of Heraklion, in 1989. The
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activities started in 1992. The latest information is that this Convention for the works in the walls was incorporated in 2004, into another one for the whole area, "intra muros" and the restoration of isolated monuments and historical buildings. The studies and the works for the walls have proceeded, including interventions in some parts of the enclosure, such as curtains, low squares, gates, inner galleries etc. The difficulties are many, especially after the joining of the two Conventions. But, in my opinion, the greatest problem is that the Venetian Walls in Heraklion have not yet become a part of the every day life of the town, and the local inhabitants have not yet accepted the project to such an extent that they encourage the authorities to do away with the unsustainable uses of the walls, as it is the case with the bastions of Martinengo and Sabbionara. These unsustainable uses prevent the restoration and rehabilitation of main parts of the enclosure10. The "Fortezza" in RETHYMNO - Crete The Fortezza of Rethymno dominates the town. It is its landmark and one of the most important monuments of the region. The fortress, constructed by the Venetians on the top of the rocky hill of Paleokastro, was founded in 1573. Inside the fortress many buildings for public services were constructed as the initial intention of the Venetians was to transfer the entire town of Rethymno inside the fortress. Finally, because of the small inner area, they abandoned this idea11. From the beginning of the '60s in accordance with the prevailing ideas of that period about the restoration and rehabilitation of monuments, the authorities demolished almost all the buildings inside the fortress. They destroyed not only buildings of more recent times but also older constructions. Only some monumental buildings survived, dating from the Venetian period. Pine trees were planted in the area of the demolished settlement. In 1976 use of the fortress was transferred to the Municipality of Rethymno. Until the decade of '80s, only when there was financial support, were works of maintenance, consolidation, cleaning, restoration and reconstructions infrequently carried out by the Municipality and the local Archaeological Service. More systematic works began during the decades of 1990 and 2000, always under the supervision of the local Ephorate. From all of the interventions, carried out in the Fortezza, I shall refer to only some, to present the concept of the management of this fortified monument and its buildings12. From the very beginning, restoration works on a great scale were carried out in the Ibrahim Han Mosque, constructed by the Ottomans (middle of the 17th cent.), in the position of the Venetian cathedral of St Nicolò, on the eastern side
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of the central square ("piazza") of the fortress. Unfortunately, during the first phase of the works of intervention (1980 decade), the floor was covered with a slab of reinforced concrete, without any survey -archaeological, excavating, historical- to examine the existence of the foundations of the Venetian cathedral being carried out. It would have been possible, had they consulted the existing Venetian Archives, to understand the existence of these foundations and take that into consideration before taking action. I believe that this management was not the correct one during the intervention works of an historical building. Of all the buildings inside the Fortezza, the restored building of the magazine of the Artillery, just inside the main gate, is one of the better conserved buildings. It is one of the most suitable venues for exhibitions in the town of Rethymno, especially during the summer when many visitors and tourists visit the fortress. One of the most extensive interventions is that in the cavalier of St. Lucas, which was constructed in the homonymous bastion, for the defence of the south-western side of the fortress. It is a building in the shape of L, with two vaulted spaces that were constructed to support the landfills, thus creating the terrace for the cannons. The Germans during their retreat at the end of World War II exploded the cannons which existed there. That explosion caused the almost complete collapse of the northern vaulted space of the cavalier. The study of restoration and new uses of the cavalier proposes that one vault be cafĂŠ and the other vault be an exhibition hall for a permanent collection of the Municipality. The restoration works started in '90s, first in the vault which was
15. Heraklion (Crete), the Martinengo Bastion in the venetian walls of Candia. 16. Heraklion (Crete), the tennis club in the ditch facing the Sabbionara bastion in the venetian walls os Candia. 17. Heraklion (Crete), Sport installation on the top of Martinengo bastion in the venetian walls of Candia. 18-19. Heraklion (Crete), inner galleries of the venetian walls of Candia, used for exibitions. 20. Heraklion (Crete), open-air thetre in one of the lower batteries in the venetian walls of Candia.
in a better situation and then they continued with the interventions in the second one, which had been almost completely destroyed, reconstructing its northern external wall. From the end of the decade 1990, works of maintenance and restoration were carried out in the complex of depots beside the northern secondary gate, a space that covers more than 1.000 m2., and consists of two long vaulted spaces, partially underground. During the Venetian period this area was used by the guards of the gate but will soon be used for exhibitions. We should refer to the great scale of outdoor works in the inner space of the fortress that began in 1992: the removal of useless constructive materials and landfills from the interventions of '60s, the construction of subterranean networks of all the kinds and the archaeological survey to uncover the original levels in the inner side of the parapets. Finally, the construction of a great, long cobbled pavement has started, following the pattern of the original one. That pavement starts from the main eastern gate and it continues to the central square of the fortress. In the areas, between the St. Elia bastion and the cavalier of St. Luca some very important archaeological finds have been discovered, evidence of the Hellenistic Rythimna about which to date there had only been archaeological finds from excavations in the area of the city and from the written history. The excavations have not yet finished. The interventions in this part of the pavement and the whole management of the open-air area in front of the St. Lucas cavalier, depend on the results of the archaeological survey in the same area and on the continuing discoveries of antiquities. Concluding about the "Fortezza" of Rethymno, we can observe that the concept in relation to the interventions has changed greatly. These changes relate to arranging the spaces of a monumental site, to proposing new uses of historical buildings, to managing the rehabilitation of a fortified complex, without hiding the realization of the final aim. The final aim for the fortress, the landmark of Rethymno, is not only the rehabilitation, renovation and conservation of the historical character of the fortification but also its inclusion in the life of the city. The Project "KASTRON PERIPLOUS" - Castrorum Circumnavigatio In many of my presentations, I have referred to this Ministry of Culture Project and the Culture's Archaeological Resources Fund, a major program, begun in the decade of 1990. The Ministry undertook the improvement of about 38 fortified maritime sites, to enhance and upgrade the infrastructure of these coastal fortifications on mainland of Greece and on the islands. The program is mainly
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21. Rethymo (Crete), the venetian fortezza.
22. Rethymo (Crete), the cavalier of the St. Luca bastion in the venetian fortezza. 23. Rethymo (Crete), the Residence of the Councillor an part of the complex of the magazines beside the Northern Gate in the venetian fortezza.
concerns with projects for providing visitors with facilities, such as paths, rest areas, lighting, parking areas etc. Some of these have already been implemented. The importance of this project is obvious. But unfortunately little has been done in relation to the conservation or restoration of the fortifications themselves. The reason for this decision was on the one hand, that these almost inaccessible monuments should initially become in user friendly, on the other, that their restoration and structural problems are enormous and particularly difficult and thus require a colossal budget13.
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Conclusion Concluding this presentation, I would like emphasize to some basic rules that should be followed for the successful management of the interventions in fortifications. - What is required is through knowledge of the monuments of this special category, well informed scientists, of the various disciplines that will be involved in the procedure. The scientists involved in these projects must know how to organize the program of the interventions, establishing priorities. All these are the excepted concepts in the management of the monuments, which have additional significance in the case of fortifications. - Another area worthy of discussion is the provision of necessary information to those responsible for the use and management of fortified constructions, the administrative Authorities that approve the expenditure relating to the intervention works in the fortifications. The role of the specialized scientists who must convince the Authorities about the methods of the intervention, priorities, the value and the importance of these monuments cannot be under estimated. The authorities must co-operate and accept the proposals of the scientists and above all, should not take action independently and without the informating the scientists responsible. From the very few examples previously referred to, we saw different approaches and activities, with different results after interventions in fortified constructions of similar importance and character. - Informating the local inhabitants, again by the responsible scientists, is the most important factor, in my opinion. The locals must understand the significance of these monuments in order to use them more constructively. Again, from the few mentioned examples we were able to see that the inhabitants actually helped in safeguarding the fortifications avoiding significant destructions and in some cases by agreeing stop harmful uses of the fortifications. - Finally, the contribution of the non governmental Organizations, such as the
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"Elliniki Eteria for the Environment and Culture", and "Europa Nostra" can contribute through their activities to a better relationship between monuments and society. I believe that annual Conferences of the Scientific Council of Europa Nostra contribute, at least, to informating the scientific community, locally, regionally and nationally, about the proper and successful management of the fortified complexes. They contribute to the progress of scientific knowledge and the exchange of experiences and ideas. All the above are recognised opinions which have been repeated in many occasions. But in relation to fortifications in particular whose need for maintenance, restoration and rehabilitation was not recognised in time, this needs to be constantly reiterated. But why? Fortifications are spaces with a mystery, spaces where the limits of human endurance were tasted, spaces that decided the destiny of people, which present a grim appearance, an area lost in time. These fortifications were witnesses of bloody events that determined the existence and the continuity of the history of man kind. They impress all visitors, both adults and children. Fortifications are monuments that "speak' by themselves, coloured by the wear and tear of time, silent witnesses of difficult ages and immense suffering. They retain their silence, but provide historical testimony for all eternity. They are inimitable monuments deserving of our care and attention. NOTES 1 IOANNA STERIOTOU, Fortifications in Greece: problems and prospects for their protection; Programmes of Restoration and Revitalisation (at urban and regional level), EN-BULLETIN, 55-2001, pp. 181-186, IOANNA STERIOTOU, Architectural Fortified Heritage. Management of medieval fortifications; the European experience, pp. 39-41, in the volume of the 1st EUROPEAN WORKSHOP, "FORTMED", Restoration and use of the early medieval fortifications in the east Mediterranean countries, Sponsored by European Commission, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 11th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Municipality of Servia. 27 -29 September 2003, Veria- Byzantine Museum, Thessaloniki 2005. 2 KLEOPATRA THEOLOGIDOU, The Castle of Servia. Historical documentation, architectural
description, pathology, proposed repair works, pp.93109, KALLIOPI THEOCHARIDOU, Integral conservation and valorization of the Byzantine castle of Servia, pp. 148-154, in the volume of the 1st EUROPEAN WORKSHOP, "FORTMED", Restoration and use of the early medieval fortifications in the east Mediterranean countries, op. cit.pp. 148-154. 3 KATIA LOVERDOU-TSIGARIDA, To kastro tou Platamona, Odigos(guide-booklet), edition of Ministry of Culture, Athina 2006, with all the basic bibliography. 4 IOANNA STERIOTOU, The Byzantine walls of Thessaloniki: a history of theĂr construction, protection and enhancement, Europa Nostra BULLETIN, 582004, pp.47-56 5 The information was given by the architect Vassilis Koniordos, employed in the 9th Ephorate for Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Antiquities of Central Mecedonia - Ministry of Culture, responsible for the
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restoration works in the "Tower of Chain". 6 PLOUT. THEOCHARIDIS - ST. GALANIS - AN. KAPANDRITI, Prosseggiseis epemvasis se dyo pyrghous ton Sidirokafsion, 2nd National Congress of Restorations, Athina 21-24 May 2009, Summaries of papers, pp. 43-45. 7 PLOUT. THEOCHARIDIS, O pyrghos tis Galatistas: to ergo tis apokatastassis kleistou kelyfous kai neas chrissis tou ereipomenou mnymeiou, 2nd National Congress of Restorations, op.cit., pp. 78-80. 8 IOANNA STERIOTOU, Le città murate di Heraklion e Chania in Creta. Loro attuale valorizzazione, programmi, progetti e difficoltà, Atti del Convegno "Programmi di recupero e riutilizzo dei sistemi difensivi: mura e forti", Verona 2004, pp. 142-150. 9 IOANNA STERIOTOU, The Venetian walls of Chandax in the XVI-XVII century, EN-BULLETIN,
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56-57 (2003), pp.42-56. 10 IOANNA STERIOTOU, Le città murate di Heraklion e Chania in Creta, op. cit. 11 IOANNA STERIOTOU, Oi venetikes ochyrosseis tou Rehymnou (1540-1646), edition by the Ministry of Culture- TAPA, Athina 1992, vol. A-B. 12 The information was given by the architect Fotini Kougleri, employed in the 28th Ephorate for Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Antiquities of Western Crete Ministry of Culture, responsible for the restoration works in the Fortezza. See also, the paper of FOTINI KOUGLERI, The restoration works in the "Fortezza", fortress of Rerthymno, in the 1st Scientific Meeting for the archaeological works in Crete ( 28-30 November 2008). 13 IOANNA STERIOTOU, Fortifications in Greece: problems and prospects for their protection, op. cit.
Les fortifications, en raison de leur caractère particulier, forment une catégorie éminente des monuments historiques, attribuable à leur gestion : restauration, réhabilitation, valorisation par de nouvelles utilisations. Leur grande taille et leur accessibilité difficile sont les raisons pour lesquelles les fortifications sont les monuments les moins restaurés et maintenus en Grèce, en tout cas jusqu'à il y a quelques années. En Grèce, les fortifications appartiennent à l'Etat. Dans de nombreux cas, l'utilisation des espaces intérieurs des fortifications ont été transférés à d'autres organisations, principalement des autorités locales (municipalités) ou à des associations culturelles et des universités, les rendant conjointement responsables de la gestion de ces monuments historiques. De plus, la prise de conscience des communautés locales a joué et joue toujours un rôle important dans la préservation des fortifications elles-mêmes. Les éléments nécessaires à la compréhension de tout type de fortification sont : a) la compréhension de sa taille et de la structure de ses enceintes fortifiées dans tous ses éléments, b) la compréhension de son système défensif, c) la compréhension de l'organisation et de la fonction d'une ville fortifiée, d'une ville-château, d'un village fortifié ou d'une forteresse. Les fortifications, plus que d'autres monuments historiques, fonctionnent comme des musées de plein air où l'exposition est le complexe historique en lui-même. Au cours des deux dernières décennies (19902000) de nombreux programmes et conférences scientifiques ont été organisés et ont conduits à une meilleure compréhension des fortifications dans toute la Grèce. Quelques règles de base doivent être suivies pour gérer avec succès les interventions sur les fortifications : a) ce qui est requis est, par l'intermédiaire de la connaissance des monuments de cette catégorie spéciale, d'avoir des scientifiques bien informés des disciplines variées qui seront impliqués dans la procédure. Les scientifiques impliqués dans ces projets doivent savoir comment organiser le programme d'interventions et établir les priorités; b) un autre domaine riche de discussion est l'alimentation en information nécessaire des responsables de l'utilisation et de la gestion de ces constructions fortifiées, les autorités administratives qui approuvent les dépenses liées aux travaux d'intervention sur les fortifications. Le rôle des scientifiques spécialistes qui doivent convaincre les autorités du bien fondé des méthodes d'intervention, des priorités, de la valeur et de l'importance de ces monuments ne peut être sous-estimé. Les autorités doivent coopérer et accepter les propositions des scientifiques et par dessus tout, ne doivent pas agir indépendamment et sans informer les scientifiques responsables; c) informer les habitants locaux, à nouveau par les scientifiques responsables, est, à mon sens, le facteur le plus important..
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YANNIS KIZIS
LIVING CITIES' MONUMENTS RESTORED; WHAT ABOUT THE NEXT DAY?
1. Introduction A great number of interwar buildings in our country - whether houses, working spaces or premises for production, trade or leisure - are recognized as landmarks of a certain era's urban development that merits our attention. Many of these will soon be a hundred years old, and will thus fall within the protection framework of the Archaeological Law. Around them, however, everything has changed, imposing new conditions regarding their rehabilitation and integration into today's current life. Isolated "listed buildings", imprisoned by the new, aggressive and all-powerful urban landscape and considered as non-exploitable, are dying a lingering and undignified death‌ How do we deal with the death of buildings, especially when some of them stand out as emblematic carriers of art and history? Here things deviate into schizophrenic relations of adoration and hate, of acceptance and antagonism between the old and the new. In Greece, especially, where the feelings of guilt towards the recent architectural past are great and the shallow temporal depth of coordinated urban life has proved insufficient for the urban creation of the past two centuries to be assimilated by our rapidly evolving society, the changes of heart noted in the collective stand towards the death of buildings are unique, the most recent case being that of the attack of the New Acropolis Museum against the interwar urban front of Dionysiou Areopagitou Street. 2. Preservation and architecture At the extreme opposite of the living urban front of Dionysiou Areopagitou Street are the multiple cases of isolated two- or three-storey listed houses. Their rehabilitation and integration into the urban tissue, there where the city has embraced high-rise buildings with a new style and with other values for a different lifestyle, there where the meaning of "historical ensemble" is irretrievably lost and a new complex has emerged and throbs with life: the new centre of the megalopolis. Within it, there survive (?), interspersed and isolated, the gaping, grime-ridden, undesired carcasses - remains of another city, their interiors destroyed. How might they stop being an obstacle and a wound for contemporary life? I believe that this is possible only through the partial incorporation of their still-operational individual values into a new building complex, which would include and highlight them.
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1.Cartagena, rehabilitation of the Roman amphitheatre and new museum (architect: Rafael Moneo).
(next page) 2.Proposal for the integration of new uses
in the Eastern Arsenal and the Zane Reservoir in Heraklion -Crete (Kizis & Associates).
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3. Integration of a new use in Chania's Grand Arsenal [Centre of Mediterranean Architecture] (architects: Yannis Kizis et al.)
Every building participates in a broader public dialogue. Interaction with its context needs to be helped. A monument's integration into contemporary urban life is, in fact, a challenge for the architect's creativity. Not every old building is a monument, its replacement helps the evolution of architectural civilization. Yet, there are some buildings that "we" decide that are worth stepping into the 21st century. In order to achieve their successful passage, the point is not about restoration techniques. The point is to decide - guilt feelings apart - which are the elements of originality worth passing on to the new era of the building and what can be sacrificed in order to achieve conditions of openess, familiarity and usability. In order to be reborn, so as to gain a new phase of life, the old building has a need of new elements; here, the dry, conservationist's viewpoint does not help. Specialized restorers cannot play this role fully and successfully. For that matter, if one makes a survey of those who stand out for their skilful architectural design concerning living monuments, of works with an attractive, hence viable reuse/rehabilitation, it is not "specialists" who emerge from behind the balanced combinations of restoration know-how and advanced "design". On the contrary, there are a great number of works by "restorers" where the total lack of any contemporary architectural gesture whatsoever results in an indiscriminate blending of the old and the new. 3. Counterpoint writing in the building palimpsest In urban centres surviving for many centuries, inhabited complexes are a mixture of cultural products, a distillation of history, of a story that has not yet ended. Large portions of the population live and work in buildings of previous centuries, which have come down to us through a process of continuous interventions and redevelopments. This is something we are not used to in Greece, where a stationary attitude still prevails about the fate of monuments. Indeed, interventions are generally considered only as salvaging acts and not as operations that integrate the buildings into the normal flow of change and transformation. And we find it difficult to accept that the protection of monuments has to be, in fact, a never-ending creative exercise. A creative procedure based first and foremost on architectural composition, i.e. on the art that adds new pebbles to the mosaic of our culture, and secondly on restoration or preservation, that is to say on the conservationist's know-how. An exhaustive study of the old shell is the precondition of every successful intervention. The introduction of new, reversible and even irreversible constructions can contribute to the public's familiarization with the historic past of monumental architecture. The additions and alterations dictated by the needs of a building's rehabilitation sometimes lead to gestures that are balanced between historical documentation and a fine sense of humour, which strongly indicates that times change. A new world comes to life within an old shell; this world is expressed only by contemporary architectural syntax, contrasting the original historical material, not in order to "insult" it, but to emphasize its authenticity, without any beautification. 4. Viability of Interventions I believe that a work needs to be loved by the public, so that its friendly usability might incorporate it into the city functioning. The new and the old need to live side-by-side and distinctly. In order to ensure that the work can be socially appropriated, the architect draws strengths and rights from the balanced combination of design skill and historical knowledge. Modern society, however, has far greater and more complex needs. It would be na誰ve to believe that the sole quality of architectural design could satisfy the public. Life in an old city, i.e. in
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a system of multiple functions whose interactive sum composes and characterizes its culture, requires that the historical context should be studied and organized as a single, cohesive work with interrelated parameters. The intervention on a work of the past is a political act that needs realistic vision in order to succeed. The dipole: (a) contemporary architectural design and, (b) vibrant and socially active new uses of the monuments and spaces, requires imagination and the ability to free oneself from the prevailing preconceived ideas and stereotypes. The viability of the restoration works in historical sites and their monuments presupposes: a. Overall planning of works and returns on a master plan level, resulting not from the work of individual departments but an ad hoc urban planning study by a hierarchical group of specialists. b. Ensuring operating expenses, self-financing profits. This will need a change in mentality: new, imaginative ideas about integrating other uses, but also the concession of a right of use to third parties, according to qualitative and financial criteria. The State needs to break free from outdated practices. 5. Conclusion Let me conclude by stressing the role of new architectural gestures, which should accompany every other approach of a specialized nature. We ask for we should demand -architectural compositions that are built on a reading of the monuments' and the location's facts; and this would seem particularly difficult, as it should spring forth from ideas and not from forms or shapes. I believe that a contemporary, modernizing yet simultaneously well-thought-out, architectural composition is not only compatible with the protection of monuments, but also constitutes the initiating tool for retransmitting their message. Because it guarantees, through a healthy process, the reconciled cohabitation of our society with its past - that is to say with the culture that gave birth to it. En Grèce une attitude constante domine encore en ce qui concerne le destin des monuments. Habituellement, les interventions sont considérées comme des actions de récupération et pas comme des opérations qui intègrent les bâtiments dans le normal flux des changements. En outre, nous trouvons difficile d'accepter que la protection des monuments est, en fait, un exercice de création ininterrompue. Une création basée tout d'abord et surtout sur la composition architecturale, c'est-à-dire sur l'art qui ajoute de nouvelles tesserae (tesselles) à la mosaïque de notre culture, et deuxièmement sur la restauration ou la conservation, c'est-à-dire sur le savoir-faire des interventions. Je crois qu'une œuvre doit être aimée par le public, afin que son utilisation favorable puisse l'incorporer dans le fonctionnement de la ville. Le nouveau et l'ancien besoin de vivre côte à côte et distinctement. Afin d'assurer que l'oeuvre puisse être importante du point de vue social, l'architecte tire ses forces et l'efficacité de son travail de l'équilibre de la synthèse conceptuelle et de la connaissance historique. Cependant, la société moderne a des besoins vraiment plus grands et plus complexes. Ce serait naïf de croire que la seule qualité du projet architectural pourrait les satisfaire. La vie dans une vieille ville, à savoir dans un système de fonctions multiples dont la somme interactive constitue et caractérise sa culture, exige que l'ensemble historique devrait être étudié et organisé comme un travail singulier, cohésif avec les paramètres en corrélation. La signification d'une intervention sur un travail du passé est un acte de conception politique et réaliste irréalisable.
MARIA-CHRISTINA GEORGALLI, PANAYOTA PSARRI
PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE MONUMENTAL COMPLEX OF THE MEDIEVAL TOWN OF RHODES
Declared as a "historical monumental complex worthy of preservation" by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture, the medieval town of Rhodes (fig.1) prides itself on its ancient past, just like the settlement of Lindos on Rhodes, as well as on its Byzantine origins, like the Chora of Patmos in the Dodecanese and the Chora of Amorgos in the Cyclades. However, its architectural character is unlike that of the aforementioned towns or "choras" of the Aegean, which are also declared "historical," but whose volumetric qualities of "vernacular" or "organic" growth allow them to be considered as being also traditional. Unlike the rest of the choras, the historical town of Rhodes, defined by its strong and morphologically complex fortification walls, comprises a unique example of the eclectic development of a strictly medieval architectural style, which, despite the playful faรงades of some of the structures of the late Ottoman period, bears a distinct monumental character (fig.2). This is due to the great number of Byzantine and Latin official monuments of the town, but primarily to the fact that the basic underlying principles of its urban development were provided by the strict geometric grid of the Hellenistic city of Rhodes, which was designed according to the Hippodamian model. This is especially true in the northern part of the town, in an area known as the "Kollakio" (L. collachium), which comprises the section within the Byzantine fortification walls that during the Hospitaller period was reserved for the Knights. By contrast, that part of the city which developed in Hospitaller and Ottoman times followed the pre-set pattern of the spontaneous growth outside the Byzantine Kollakio walls. This larger area is characterized by narrow winding streets and cul-de-sacs, just like the rest of the medieval settlements in the Aegean (fig.3). It is important to note that within the Kollakio the Hippodamian grid of the Hellenistic city is still preserved in situ under the foundations of the medieval buildings or is incorporated within them. As best exhibited by the archaeological findings brought to light by recent excavations1 by the 4th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, in the vaulted rooms of the Hospitaller "House of Djem" on Ippoton street (fig. 4) there are remnants of the Helllenistic street R31 that were still intact under the foundations of the medieval building, discovered under a layer of earth and stones to a depth of 1,80 m that was accumulated through the years. In one of the eastern vaults, closer to Ippoton street, the original marble pavement of the street itself was found in situ, along with a fallen
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column that belonged to the eastern arcade of the Hellenistic street. The marble steps leading from the street to the arcade were also preserved in situ in the same room. This however was not the case with the two consecutive vaulted rooms that were also excavated which contained only parts of the street pavement and pieces of fallen columns. The excavation also revealed three layers, different in height, of the foundation of the perimetric walls of the vaulted rooms. These layers corresponded to three different chronological phases of the reconstruction or the reinforcement of the building by the Knights of St. John, after the damage caused by a series of severe earthquakes which had hit the region. Parts of columns and capitols that were used as building material were found embedded in the medieval foundation, at the lowest level, whereas the different type of stone and technique used in the masonry of the interior walls of the building revealed consecutive phases of reconstruction by the Knights as well as heavy intervention activity during the Ottoman period, when apparently the vaults were utilized as shops (fig.5). All morphological features corresponding to the different phases of the building, from its original Hospitaller foundation to Ottoman intervention, were preserved and exhibited in the recent restoration of the "House of Djem" as signifying an important part of the history of the building and of the town of Rhodes itself. The diachronic value of the medieval town of Rhodes lies precisely on this symbiotic co-existence of heterogeneous morphological elements deriving from the ancient past, the dominant phases of the period of the Knights, the alter-
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1. Aerial photo of the medieval town of Rhodes 2. A view of Ottoman bay windows on Hospitaller buildings on Ippoton street before the Italian occupation of Rhodes in 1912 3. A typical medieval street outside the Collachium
4. Floor plan of the vaulted rooms of the "House of Djem" showing the excavations by the 4th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities (drawn by M.C. Georgalli, architect) 5. Ancient artifacts incorporated into the medieval walls of the "House of Djem"
ations or additions of the Turkish occupation, and, more recently, the interventions during the period of the Italian occupation of Rhodes. Whether found in juxtaposition, side-by-side along the same street, or embedded in one and the same shell, as is the case with the "House of Djem," these heterogeneous elements comprise today an integral part of the urban structure of the town, rendering it a unique monumental environment and a meeting site for all four civilizations that have passed through its gates: Hellenistic, Byzantine, Medieval Latin, and, more recently, Ottoman. The Byzantine era, apart from the established ecclesiastical monuments of the period, has bequeathed the town its initial urban structure2. This was formulated towards the end of the 7th century AD., when the early Byzantine fort was erected in order to repulse the Arab raids. The Byzantine fortification was tripartite in its spatial conception, comprising the Acropolis, the castle and the Chora, that is, the town. These fortifications were reinforced and maintained in their original layout throughout the period of the Knights, whereas in the beginning of the 15th century, they expanded initially towards the east and the south, then later towards the northwest. This was in order to incorporate within the city walls neighborhoods which had slowly been established outside the Byzantine framework, such as the case with the Jewish quarter, the Hebraica. Gradually, the town acquired the circular form it has today with a main orientation towards the port. The latter was literally the heart of the Hospitaller state which, concentrated towards the northern part of the town in the aforemen-
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6. A general view of the Ottoman Clock Tower and the Suleymaniye Medrese with a background view of the Palace of the Grand Masters (Kastello) 7. Exterior view of the Seray extending over Pythagora street 8 View of an elaborate interior of the Seray
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tioned "Kollakio," was spatially separated by an internal wall from the actual town, the "Bourgo" or Ville. The Burgo occupied the larger part of the urban surface and contained the Hospitaller Magna et Communis Platea, that is the marketplace. This "Great and Common Street" comprised numerous shops and workshops, governmental and administrative buildings, such as the Kastellania, and finally hostels, such as the hospice of St. Catherine, which is celebrated among the most formidable monuments of the town today3. The most significant contribution of the Knights of St. John, however, which bore the greatest weight in the positive evaluation report of 9 December 1988 which included the medieval town of Rhodes in the list of World Heritage Sites was the creation of fortification walls around the city. As stated in the report, the fortifications of Rhodes "comprising a unique pure example of the period of adaptation to modern artillary," despite six troublesome centuries of foreign occupation and two world wars, have managed to "maintain visible their consecutive architectural phases, from the 7th century on, with clear indications of the experimentation that led from the medieval defensive mechanisms to those of modern times, characterised by the use of arsenal." The modifications performed by the Ottomans on the Hospitaller fortifications of Rhodes were minimal and the same applies to the urban structure of the town. However, a number of significant monumental complexes of the city are attributed to the Ottoman period. Among them are important mosques, such as the Suleymaniye and the Shardivan Djami, and prestigious buildings of charitable nature such as the Clock Tower, the Suleymaniye Medrese Primary and Secondary Schoool, and the Muslim Library of Rhodes, better known as the Hafiz Ahmed Aga Library, named after its founder. The Fethi Pasha Clock Tower and the Hafiz Ahmed Aga Library, comprising the private vakf of a single family, were created in areas occupied by former Byzantine monuments and residences that had probably been ruined, as well as on vacant sites of the Hospitaller Magna Platea (fig.6). This area later became known as the Turkish Quarter. A number of elaborate residential complexes are also attributed to the Ottoman period, whether erected in the periphery of the town, in the open areas and wide-spread gardens along the wall sides, as is the case with certain Ottoman-style mansions along Alexandridou street, or incorporated in the dense grid of the town, with scenic views of the port. The most articulate among them is the "Seray" (fig.7) on Pythagoras street, which is indicative of the decorative tendencies of nineteenth-century high Ottoman vernacular and neoclassical
styles. Extending over the street and above the roofs of the surrounding residences that were average in height, the "Seray" exhibits not only highly ornamented interiors (fig.8), but also glamorous façades towards the street (fig.9) and Ottoman-style "bahtse" (bahchÊ) gardens, which occupy a large surface of its lot. By contrast, the rest of the Turkish "mahalle" or neighborhood of the town, just like the "Hebraica" sector, was characterized by dwellings that were significantly smaller in size and of modest construction. These were, nonetheless, not lacking the necessary timber "hayat" balconies, and "sahnishi" cantilevered bay windows that were typical of the decorative spirit of the architecture of the Ottoman era (fig.10). In today's city, the morphological elements of the Ottoman architectural style have been preserved mainly along the main commercial arteries of the town, such as Socratous street (fig.11). Unfortunately, the Ottoman bay windows and other structures that had been added to the Hospitaller structures within the "Kollakio," such as along Ippoton street and to the north towards today's archaeological garden, were dismantled during the period of the Italian occupation of the Dodecanese in order to reveal the "western" character of the town and the underground antiquities (fig.12). Important as the Italian restoration and excavation projects might have been, they deprived the city of an essential part of its monumental history and its architectural and urban continuity to the present. The beginning of Italian occupation of Rhodes in the year 1912 constitutes a milestone for the "historicity" of the medieval town of Rhodes since, apart from the extensive restoration projects, such as the reconstruction of the Palace of the Grand Masters (Kastello) and the reinforcement of the aforesaid Hospitaller "House of Djem," Italian administration brought about through the introduction of concrete as a building material a break in the traditional constuction techniques, and through the administrative and legal "protection" measures that they initiated, a conscious freezing of the organic evolution of the urban structure of the town in order to record, define and protect its historicity. By a decree of 18 April 1920, following the suggestion of achaeologist Amedeo Maiuri, the Italian Administration declared the medieval town of Rhodes as an integral part of the so-called "Zona Monumentale' or monumental zone of Rhodes. As shown in the enclosed map (FIG. 13), the monumental zone of 1920 contained the medieval town within its walls, but also a substantial peripheral zone outside and around the walls, which was judged necessary for its protection. The "crystallized" form of the town was subsequently recorded between
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1923 and 1938 by order of Mario Lago, military governor of the Dodecanese, first in the form of cadastral diagrams ("ktematologiko diagramma") of every individual property, containing accurate floor plans in a scale of 1:200, and then in the form of the cadastral map of the totality of the settlement. For each individual property, the function at the time and the use of the place by floor were recorded and information regarding the property's ownership was provided. The official Cadastral Registry of the medieval town of Rhodes was thus drafted, which, along with its posterior updates, is in still in effect today. Simultaneously, again by order of military governor Mario Lago, the "Piano Regolatore" or Regulatory Plan of the wider city of Rhodes both old and new was drawn up by the Italian architect Florestano di Fausto. The plan was completed in 1936 and, as shown in the enclosed map, it contained the medieval town within the walls as the "historical center" of the wider city of Rhodes. The legal framework for the protection of the medieval town of Rhodes is probably the most significant contribution of the Italian Military Administration for the preservation of the image of the historical settlement of Rhodes as presently experienced and, it must be admitted, with minor modifications, it remains the basic corpus for the management of the city even to our day. To begin with, the declaration of the monumental zone of 1920 remains spatially unaltered, with the exception of the peripheral "protection zone" beyond Demokratias Street (Viale della Regina), where building complexes of governmental or public nature were permitted to be erected by Mario Lago himself shortly after the declaration of the protection zone. To the declaration of 1920, two important series of declarations were added in the post-war era; one referred to individual monuments, while the other addressed the city in its totality. First came the declaration in 1948 by a decree of the General Administration of the Dodecanese (Genike Dioikise Dodekanesou) regarding 239 significant building complexes within the walls of the medieval town which were considered as "historical monuments of the town of Rhodes, worthy of preservation." Then followed a declaration of 22 January 1960, which stated the entire medieval town of Rhodes "as defined by its walls and the immediate external monumental zone" to be a "historical monumental complex." Subsesquent declarations from 1989 to 1995 referred to seven additional structures within the walls of the medieval town, such as the Ottoman coffee shop of Kapudanaki on Socratous Street, but also to important architectural structures of the Italian era which were erected primarily within the protection zone of the town outside the walls. Finally, to the beneficial legal body of the post-war era, the "Proclamation of '71" by the Greek Military Administration of 22 August 1947 should be mentioned, since it addresses the protection of archaeological sites and artifacts in general. According to this declaration, "the erection of buildings or the construction of any other type of structure on the sites of the bombarded buildings of Rhodes is strictly prohibited without previous permit given only subsequent to excavation which would prove that there are no important ancient artifacts in the underground...." To conclude this short overview of the legal framework for the protection and management of the medieval town of Rhodes, the more recent declaration of the year 2001 that the medieval fortification walls and the moat were to be regarded as "archaeological sites" should be mentioned. The aforementioned legal framework should have been more than adequate for the protection and preservation of the monumental character of the historical settlement of Rhodes, if it comprised a mere archaeological site as defined by the provisions of Law of 1932, and not a vivid and continuously evolving resi-
9. A bay window faรงade of Seray towards the garden 10. View of Ottoman elements on Ippodamou street 11. View of the commercial Socratous street
12. A general view of the Italian excavations to the north of the "House of Djem" 13. Map of the Italian "Zona Monumentale"
dential nucleus with considerable and multifaceted social problems and conflicting financial interests of the various social groups that occupy it. The representatives of the 4th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, the local Office of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture, to whom the sensitive role for the protection of the monumental character of the town of Rhodes has been assigned, are faced on a daily basis with the aftermath of these conflicts, which interfere with their job of, among others, guarding the antiquities, evaluating the architectural studies for the restoration of privately owned buildings, preventing unauthorized contsruction, managing the appearance of public spaces and providing information on the guidelines for the restoration, intervention and use of monumental structures and communal areas. Neither the morphological complexity of the environment nor the heterogeneity of the social groups facilitate the application of correct judgement on the part of those 4th Ephorate officials responsible for the protection of the medieval town, namely a specialized architect, an archaeologist, and two guards of antiquities. In order to comprehend the main problems which the responsible 4th Ephorate
45
staff is facing while managing the monumental complex of the medieval town of Rhodes, a first distinction ought to be made between property that belongs to the Greek State and private ownership. Whereas this paper is about private ownership, there is a noticeable recent contradiction in managing state property between the exceptional results of the long-term efforts of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture in restoring a number of state-owned monuments of the town of great morphological importance and the poor condition in which other, less or as important, state buildings are in today. The first group contains small and large-scale restoration projects that were executed from the year 1996 on by the 4th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, with Ministry of Culture financing or with European Community Project funding. They include, by way of example, the restoration of the Suleymaniye Mosque, the Hafiz Ahmed Aga Library, the "Panayia of Bourgo," the Hospice of St. Catherine, and the "House of Djem," to mention a few. A good number of these projects were performed by the Office of the "Works Supervisory Committee for the Monuments of the Medieval Town of Rhodes" (T.D.P.E.A.E). Residential complexes of smaller scale were also restored by the Office for the Conservation of the Old Town of Rhodes, which was founded in 1984 on a twenty-year contractual basis among the Ministry of Culture, the Archaeological Receipts Fund and the Municipality of Rhodes (Programmatiki Symvasi YPPO-TAPA-Demos Rhodion)4. After this Office ceased to exist in 2004, there was a delay from the Office of Archaeological Receipts Fund, which is the responsible administrative unit, to reasses the situation and come up with creative new solutions to address issues concerning the vast number of state properties throughout the Greek territory. In this transitional period, the image of decayed state structures among restored monuments comprises a restraining factor in the feeling of cooperation required between "protected" and "protectors" in successfully managing buildings of the private sector, which is the area of our concern. To begin with, the "morphological evaluation" of private property cases, and by this we mean the evaluation of the architectural studies submitted to the 4th Ephorate by individuals in order to acquire a building or a restoration permit, is relatively simple as a process and, we dare say, it is proven by excellent results, due to the long term experience of the scientific personnel of the Ephorate in handling cases of restoration. The composition and, following that, the approval of studies for the repair, maintenance or even reconstruction of decayed structures in the medieval town of Rhodes are based primarily on the architectural or archaeological findings or remains of a building, that suggest its pre-existing form, in conjunction with the building's plan as drawn from the official cadastral diagram of the building, dating to the period of the Italian occupation of Rhodes. These diagrams, despite their occasional discrepancies, are extremely valuable, especially in the case of buildings that had collapsed during the bombardment of Rhodes in the Second World War. A special study entitled "Principles for Intervention in Buildings of the Medieval Town of Rhodes," done in 1987 by a fellow group of architects belonging to the mentioned Office of "Signed Contract of Ministry of Culture-Archaeological Receipts FundMunicipality of Rhodes," has proven invaluable as a guide for both the scientific personnel of the Ephorate and the private architects involved. A negative aspect in the evaluation of studies of restoration cases of the private sector is the confusion produced by the extension in 1961 of the Regulatory Plan ("Rythmistiko") of the wider city of Rhodes into the part of the city "within the walls," that is, in the medieval town. Considering that the regulatory plan of the modern city of Rhodes was designed after the principles of the Piano Regolatore
14. Map of the "commercial zone" of the medieval town of Rhodes 15. Map of the area declared as an "archaeological
site" under Law 3029/2002 16. View of decayed structures in Pythagora street
of the Italian period, which had as its main goal the accommodation of automobiles, the negative effects of a potential application of such plan on the historical part of the city are self-evident. The creation of new, wide streets and regularshape building blocks of relatively equal size and, among others, open spaces that could be used as plazas in the empty lots of pre-existing bombarded structures, would jeopardize the historical structure of the town, permanently effacing parts of its medieval grid. Fortunately, due to the intense efforts of the local Archaeological Service, the plan has not thus far been applied in the Old Town of Rhodes, with few exceptions. The mere fact, however, that it is officially still in effect creates serious problems, especially in areas where individuals, based on the official Cadastral Map, have the right to reconstruct their bombarded structures, but they are prevented in doing so because the regulations of the Regulatory Plan provides for a street or part of a plaza passing through their lot. To end this conflict between two official legal systems, that is, the Cadastral Registry ("Ktematologio") and the Regularory Plan ("Rythmistiko") that are simultaneously in effect, a request for a revision of the Regulatory Plan of the medieval town of Rhodes had been submitted in 1985 by the Office of "Signed Contract of Ministry of Culture-Archaeological Receipts Fund- Municipality of Rhodes" to the then Ministry of Regional Planning and the Environment. Regrettably, its examination has been pending ever since5. Another important proposal has also been pending since 1993. It was composed primarily by the same office in consultation with the 4th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities. The proposal called for a Plan of Presidential Decree ("Schedio Proedrikou Diatagmatos"), or Master Plan, which would define planning regulations. These planning regulations would cover such matters as the ratio of lot coverage, the percentage of building per lot, the number of floors, height, and so on for raising new structures or adding additional ones in the Old Town. Most importantly, it would specify the use of space and functions allowed in the various sectors of the town. In view of the lack of other official legislation, the provisions of the 1993 Master Plan have been utilized, following the approval in 1994 by the Municipal Council of Rhodes. But while approved by the Municipal Council, the Master Plan has yet to receive the required approval by either the Ministry of Culture or the Ministry of Regional Planning and the Environment in order to be incorporated into State
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Law by an official decree ("FEK"). Although still awaiting official governmental authorization, these regulations, especially those regarding the distribution of allowed functions within sectors of the medieval town, have constituted the main "rule of thumb" in the issuing of "permits for operation" for cafeterias, bars, restaurants, mini-markets, fast-food businesses and the like which fall under the so-called "hygienic" category of operation, as they are required to secure an additional permit from the Health Department. The same regulations define the distribution of the second category of functions comprising touristic stores, where a hygienic permit is not required. Both categories combined constitute the "commercial" functions of the town and therefore, according to the 1993 Plan, are allowed only in the designated "commercial zone." As shown in the enclosed map (fig.14), this is an elongated zone that extends from west to east, following pretty much the old Magna Platea of the Knights, with few side streets and new plazas incorporated into the zone along the way. This map is accompanied by a useful guide entitled "Instructions for the Protection and Enhancement of Public and Private Space" that was compiled by the Office of the Directorship for the Protection of the Medieval Town and the Archaeological Sites, Municipality of Rhodes ("Diefthynsi Prostasias Mesaionikis Polis kai Archeologikon Choron tou Dimou Rodion") in cooperation with the 4th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, in order to facilitate the smooth functioning of the area and the proper appearance of the commercial zone. This is designated as "Zone E" from the term "Emporiki," that is, Commercial. The rest of the town comprises the "residential zone," where only stores for the immediate service of neighorhoods are allowed, such as butcheries, bakeries, pharmacies, and the like. This is designated as "Zone K," from the term "katoikia," that is, residence. The absence of an established legal framework regulating land use in the medieval town of Rhodes, based on the historicity of functions of buildings but also on their suitability for the type of structure and its location in the street, is the primary issue of today's concern in the protection and management of the monumental complex of the medieval town of Rhodes. It is also the main origin of conflict between the opposing social and business groups. Considering that Rhodes' economy is primarily based on tourism, it is easily understood why in today's difficult financial times, tension and conflict among shop and restaurant owners and between professionals and residents of the Old Town has recently intensified. The effects of this conflict are shown in the misuse of public space and the illegal expansion of businesses outside their legally designated "operation" area, into the pedestrian sidewalks, into the street itself and, in some cases, on the roofs of buildings, creating the so-called roof tops. It is a common phenomenon to have merchandise covering the entire faรงade of buildings in the case of commercial stores, and to have tables, awnings and umbrellas extend three meters on both sides of a street, which is the case with restaurants, bars and coffeshops. All this is happening in the "commercial zone" of the medieval town during the six-month tourist season from mid- April to mid-October. Naturally, these liberties occur at the expense of residential and communal space, not to mention at the cost of the well-functioning of the town as a whole and of the proper image of its archaeological sites and monuments. Despite the persistent efforts of the 4th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities of the Greek Ministry of Culture, along with the Office of the Directorship for the Protection of the Medieval Town and the Archaeological Sites of the Municipality of Rhodes, and notwithstanding their joint on-site inspection to advise shop and restaurant owners on the regulations concerning the proper use
of public space and the appropriate appearance of the building faรงades, there are few businessmen that are willing to conform, given the mild penalties within the current regulatory code. A major step in reinforcing the legal framework regarding the protection and management of the old town of Rhodes was recently achieved when on 28 May 2009 the medieval town of Rhodes by decree of the Minister of Culture was declared as an "archaeological site" under article 14.1 of the new Archaeological Law 3028 of 2002 "for the protection of antiquities and of cultural heritage in general." The provisions of article 14 of the 3028/2002 Law apply to "archaeological sites within town limits or within the limits of legally existing active settlements." The concept of "archaeological site" under article 14 differs from the traditional concept of archaeological sites, that refers to organized "museum-like" areas containing important monuments and relics of the past that are open to the public but are free of residences and related activities. The protection of the latter is provided under article 13 of the new Law 3029/2002. A lack of understanding of the difference between these two concepts brought initially great confusion among shop owners in the Old Town of Rhodes who believed that the new declaration is turning the town into a business-free "dead" archaeological environment, thus affecting their existing contracts and rentals. They also failed to understand that the new declaration is not introducing new archaeological limits to the town as the borderline of the declared "arcaheological site" (fig.15) under the new Law coincides with the borderline of the Monumental Zone of the 1920 Italian declaration, which is anyway still in effect. In essence, it is a redefinition of the existing monumetal zone under a new concept of "monumental space," with broader applications that respond to modern situations. The declaration of May 2009 opens new paths to the protection and management of the Old Town of Rhodes. Not only does it contribute to a better protection of its monumental built environment, but it helps regulate its functioning as a social and economic entity in respect to its monuments. According to the new regulations, the permits for operation of businesses of "hygienic interest" fall under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture and, therefore, the legality of the structure, from the archaeological point of view, becomes a necessary prerequisite for issuing such permits. Most important, however, is the fact the the declaration of the Old Town as an archaeological site is a required first step, according to the provisions of article 14 of the new Law, in order to proceed with the design of the Master Plan of the medieval town, a much desired project by both its inhabitants and the authorities. This Master Plan would assign permitted functions to buildings and sectors of the town according to their historicity and would provide an objective framework for the reconsideration of areas that under the current system have been undermined. As an example, Pythagora street is here mentioned (fig.16). One of the liveliest commercial streets of the past, filled with shops and workshops, Pythagora street is now in decay, with its stores closed and abandoned since traditional functions could no longer be maintained. By contrast, areas that were customarily limited to residential functions have been allowed to develop bars and night clubs under the present temporary design, and flourish financially at the expense of the surrounding residences, most of which have been abandoned. In conclusion, it is a happy coincidence that as the new regulations go into effect, the phenomenon of an increase in individual investment in quality hotels and motels in the Old Town of Rhodes is being noticed, comprising mostly
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ambitious projects of the restoration of old mansions belonging to the period of the Knights and the Ottoman period . These elaborate restoration projects add to the number of monuments already restored by the Greek Ministry of Culture and together they enhance the image of quality and respect to the historical environment that the medieval town of Rhodes deserves. NOTES 1 The excavation began by a group of scientists of the 4th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities in 2000 during the architectural restoration of this significant building of the Knights of St. John. The project was funded by the European Community. The architectural study for the restoration of the mansion and the design of an archaeological site open to the public was done by Dr. Maria-Christina Georgalli, architect, along with Thanassis Anapolitanos, structural engineer and project supervisor, Harikleia Yiakoumaki, archaeologist, and Christos Spanos, structural engineer, advisor to the team. Overseer of the project was Maria Michaelidou, Director of the 4th Ephorate. 2 For an analysis of the development of the urban structure of the medieval city of Rhodes, see YPPO, Rodos 2.400 Chronia, Athens, 2000. 3 The Hospice of St. Catherine was built in 1391-2, under Grand Master de Heredia, by the Italian Domenico d' Allemagna, admiral of the Order of the Knights of St. John and was exclusively intended for eminent guests of the Order. The building was rebuilt by Costanzo Operti in 1516, under Grand Master Fabrizio del Carretto, after its destruction by the siege
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of 1480 and the earthquake of 1481, which had also destroyed the aforementioned "House of Djem." As the Hospice was seriously damaged by Allied bombing in 1944, it entered the restoration programme of the Office of the Medieval Town (Joined Contract of Ministry of Culture- Archaeological Receipts FundMunicipality of Rhodes) and during a ten-year period, from 1985 to 1995, it was completely restored to its former notable condition, sheltering today the Heritage Educational Center of the Ministry of Culture in the Dodecanese Islands. 4 For a complete list and description of the restoration projects during the twenty year period by the Office for the Conservation of the Old Town of Rhodes, see Dimos Rodion, 1984-2003 19 years in the Old Town of Rhodes-Catalogue of Works, Rhodes 1994. Also see, YPPO-Epitropi Parakolouthisis Ergon sta Mnimeia tis Mesaionikis Polis tis Rodou, Mesaioniki Poli Rodou, Erga Apokatastasis (1985-2000), Rhodes 2001. 5 The study was done by fellow architects Anna Paraskevopoulou, Paris Chatzitheodorou and Caterina Manoussou-Della and was approved by the Central Archaeological Council of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture in 1989.
Officiellement caractérisée comme monument historique à conserver, la cité médiévale de Rhodes se différencie d'autres exemples helléniques reliés à l'antiquité; en outre elle s'éloigne de l'architecture traditionnelle, car elle fait preuve d'un style architectural unique qui harmonise ses origines médiévales à celles byzantines, ottomanes et antiques. La prise de l'île par les Italiens en 1912, marque le caractère historique de la cité, car leurs reconstructions étendues symbolisent l'interruption de l'évolution organique de la ville et l'abandonnement des arts traditionnels. C'est à cette période que la cité médiévale obtient sa forme urbaine. En même temps elle fait partie du cadastre de l'île et du plan réglementaire de la ville moderne de Rhodes. La protection de son centre historique représente jusqu' aujourd'hui la contribution la plus importante de la période de l'occupation italienne; sauf des rares modifications, les mesures institutionnelles prises par les Italiens sont fondamentales pour la protection de son patrimoine architectural et sa gestion contemporaine. Dans ce cadre on doit ajouter la déclaration en 1948, d'un total des 239 bâtiments importants de la cité médiévale qui ont été caractérisés comme "monuments historiques à conserver". En outre, c'est en 1960 que tout le centre historique de la ville avec ses remparts et ses édifices trouvés dans la zone monumentale externe, a été qualifié "ensemble historique monumental à préserver". Face à la variété des styles architecturaux et à l'hétérogénéité sociale et économique des habitants et des professionnels du centre historique, la 4ème Ephorie des Antiquités Byzantines, porteur officiel du Ministère de la Culture Grecque, s'efforce à trouver des solutions concordantes à la loi archéologique moderne de 2002.
ANNA-MARIA KASDAGLI
THE MANAGEMENT OF STATE-OWNED MONUMENTS IN THE WALLED TOWN OF RHODES: PROBLEMS AND RESPONSIBILITIES.
Attitudes towards the heritage are mutable, reflecting the perceived needs of society at a given point in time. Nowadays, globalization seems the dominant trend, driven by the power of corporate interest, which appears to dictate specific policies to government circles internationally. The technocrats who preach the new gospel are preoccupied by considerations of demand, supply, profit and survival in a world where the individual is viewed either as a consumer or as a provider of services. The provider of services is expected to be as reliable and cheap as possible in order to ensure maximum profit, and therefore survival in a highly competitive environment. The consumer is assumed to be sovereign1, but this premise sounds hollow: as every competent advertiser knows, the need for a specific commodity can be exploited -or even manufactured- and sustained by a variety of strategies. Consumers can be manipulated by policy makers, individually and collectively. The private sector is more efficient in pursuing its ends, but its goals are short-term and its methods often questionable, leaving a legacy of long-term damage for the future to take care of. The public sector, which should provide a check for the profiteering of private enterprise through the management of resources is eroded by external pressures and internal forces. The internal forces are represented by a new breed of managers, who seek to organize the public sector along the lines of its private counterpart, in order to cut costs. To them, the heritage is a burden or, at best, a consumer product. But is this really so? The complexity of modern society masks the fact that our fundamental emotional needs have not changed significantly since the invention of agriculture ten thousand years ago. Humans need to belong somewhere, to relate to the past and to their environment in order to cope with everyday life. Thus, internationalism and consumerism often stumble upon 'irrational' phenomena such as hostility to foreigners, religious fanaticism, mass hysteria and various types of irresponsibility, insubordination and antisocial behaviour, accentuated by the dehumanizing quality of modern society. In addition to providing a mental anchor, telling us who we are, the remains of our past provide an escape from the stressful present; this is why people not concerned with personal display often become passionate about old buildings and artifacts with the power to evoke the past. Even those who do not consciously recognize the need, find comfort in the apparent stability of a well-managed or relatively untouched heritage setting. In a world replete with secondhand information and artificial consumer products, direct contact with authentic pieces of the past is at a premium. Therefore the heritage cannot
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be regarded solely as a consumer product; it is an important resource which meets essential human needs like security, living standards, or health. Exploitation of such needs is acceptable in many cultures, but the writer hopes ours is not one of them. The various countries of Europe have been trying to join forces and formulate common policies in order to prosper in a climate of heightened international competition. Every one of these countries carries different baggage from its past. The impact of older priorities, no longer recognized as such, cannot disappear at a moment's notice and, indeed, it is questionable whether it should. We cannot know where the seemingly reckless trajectory of international development will take us, but so far it seems to make life more difficult for most, while resources dissolve away. This is no guarantee for long-term confidence. Modern Greece is a state literally born of its past, the glorious vision of ancient Greece which validated the struggle for independence in the first half of the 19th century. Its constitution and legal code both reflect this debt, which most citizens instinctively recognize, even though they may chafe when heritage protection takes precedence over their economic interests. Some, employed by the Ministry of Culture for the purpose, have dedicated their lives to the protection of the heritage in a manner foreign to most other nationals, because the relics of the past are perceived as an extension of identity and not as an exploitable resource or as symbols of status; performance in the field of heritage protection and preservation is regarded by everyone of these people as more important than their scholarly pursuits. Most heritage collections in the country, being regarded as part of a greater whole and constantly increasing their content through archaeological exploration, lack an exclusive administrator; while the management of monuments, moveable or not, is carried out by custodians exercising their authority within geographical districts. The venerable tradition of heritage management comprising the discovery, conservation, preservation and protection of the relics of the past has resulted in agencies that wield considerable power, dispose of wide repositories of antiquities and specialist knowledge, but are often inflexible, lacking in modern resources and lagging behind developments which seriously affect their task. The scholars in charge of them display more understanding and respect for antiquities beyond their own field of study that do many of their brethren abroad, but are usually trained in the management of their charges through their own- and their colleagues'- mistakes. Each geographical district presents its two curators, generally the Directors of the local Ephorates of Classical and Byzantine Antiquities, with unique challenges. This bureaucratic framework is now urged to adapt to new attitudes in order to cut costs and make the past pay for itself as much as it possibly can, with the implied threat that what does not pay may fall by the wayside and should, perhaps, be disregarded anyway as not sufficiently 'interesting' to the voting and tax-paying public. The threat is real because, like patients, the inanimate relics of the past will not wait for proper treatment indefinitely; it may be that they will no longer be viable by the time their turn to receive merited attention arrives. Thus, their custodians, like ER doctors, have to juggle with priorities but cannot really afford to ignore issues such as the expectations and education of both the general public and their superiors along the chain of government administration. The magnitude of the task confronting them is graphically illustrated in the case of Rhodes. The walled town of Rhodes is the historic centre of one of the most popular tourist destinations in Greece. It has about three thousand inhabitants and the
highest concentration of standing medieval monuments anywhere in the country2. Our concern here lies with the extensive state property, generally buildings dating from medieval times with Ottoman modifications. These buildings fall into two categories: the most imposing public and religious buildings and the fortifications are either open to visitors or used by various state agencies, usually as offices. The rest, comprising the second category, are leased to private individuals as housing or business premises for retail and tourist services. The resulting income is collected by the Archaeological Receipts Fund, an agency belonging to the Ministry of Culture, which manages its capital for the benefit of antiquities throughout the country. The protection of the walled town, a UNESCO World Heritage City since 1988, is the responsibility of the 4th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, regional office of the Ministry of Culture. The Ephorate facilitates the operation of the Rhodes office of the Archaeological Receipts Fund, with its staff of two. However, the Ephorate is in charge of all post-Roman antiquities in the prefecture of the Dodecanese, a string of about fifteen inhabited islands and quite a few abandoned ones, with thousands of protected monuments, many of them still standing. Within this territory, the Ephorate has to carry out rescue excavations, store archaeological artifacts, control privately owned monuments, maintain stateowned archaeological sites, monuments and museums, mount temporary or permanent exhibitions, restore monuments and supervise other state agencies involved in such projects. This wide-ranging task is carried out by eight archaeologists, four architects and a civil engineer, periodically supported by up to three colleagues hired on contract. In spite of limited resources, the Ephorate has to inspect anything thought to be at risk and enjoying the protection of Heritage Law3. Then appropriate steps have to be taken to control problems and Athens has to be notified in serious cases. The advice of the local Legal Counsellor may also be sought, as well as the support of the police and regional town-planning bureau when antiquities are in immediate danger. The Ephorate does not decide on the ways the Archaeological Receipts Fund will draw income from state monuments, something that is determined in Athens; but it is expected to proffer recommendations, and carry out maintenance in monuments open to the public. What follows reflects the writer's personal views on the management problems of state-owned monuments in the walled town, based on 23 years of experience. The two categories of monuments bringing income to the Archaeological Receipts Fund have to be examined in turn. A number of the monuments in the first category are well-known landmarks: the Grand Master's Palace, the Great Hospital, the medieval fortifications with their dry moat and open-air theatre, and the Hospice of St. Catherine are some of them. They are generally in fair condition compared to other state-owned property in the town, although in recent years serious structural problems have become apparent in the Palace and the Virgin of the Castle, while the fortified circuit, 3.5 kilometers long, needs constant attention. The venues visited with a ticket are the Palace, the Museum, the wallwalk on part of the fortifications, the Decorative Arts Collection and the Virgin of the Castle which, last year, brought in â‚Ź 1,285,000 4. In addition, the Palace hosts a variety of events and functions approved by the Central Antiquities Council in Athens. They range from temporary art exhibitions, concerts and lectures to cocktail receptions and state dinners. If these are not directly sponsored by state agencies, a fee determined by the Central Antiquities Council has to be paid by the organizers of the event to the Archaeological Receipts Fund. Events held at the
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Palace carry considerable prestige, and many applications have to be turned down as unsuitable for a variety of reasons. The popularity of the Palace is rivalled by the open-air theatre of the medieval moat, which is used for performances and events, often held by educational institutions and private enterprises. Some of the latter, occasionally with several hundred guests, spread out to occupy the floor of the south part of the moat. Attempts by the Ephorate to limit the frequency and extent of such events in order to protect the fragile environment of the moat have not always been successful. The organizers of events with a smaller number of guests are usually encouraged to use, as appropriate, a number of other venues such as the Virgin of the Castle, the Bastion of St. George, the D' Amboise Gatehouse and the recently restored Inn of Spain. However, most of these lack basic facilities such as lavatories, an adequate power supply, and access for the disabled. Some of these problems can easily be solved, if funds become available. The most frequent user of the moat theatre and the Palace is the Town Hall. The Palace is required by the mayor to host receptions for the participants of conferences taking place in private convention centres, as Rhodes attracts conference tourism which the mayor is expected to encourage. The Palace is also used by the Town for events such as opera performances. In such cases the mayor is generally expected to cover only the fee of the watchmen on duty at the Palace. However, the bulk of the summer events organized by the Town Hall, about two dozen of them, take place in the moat theatre which, until very recently, was also granted to the Town free of charge. Attempts to obtain the required fees from the Town for the use of the moat theatre, and occasionally the Palace, are yet to bear fruit. Some of the difficulties arise from the delays in the submission of a list of programmed events by the Town. These take a long time for the Central Archaeological Council in Athens to process, and the fee set by them often overtaxes the municipal budget. Late decisions by the Central Archaeological Council, which is overburdened with more important matters, also affect the budget of private organizers. These are often primary or secondary schools, dance schools, and non-profit organizations. If their events have a ticket, it is usually to defray costs; while any surplus goes to charity. Such users of the theatre and Palace, who are part of the local scene and involve large numbers of the citizenry, cannot be treated in the same way as major players such as international corporations or professional symposia organizers. The organizers are expected to cover overtime by the security staff of a monument, but they sometimes fail to do so, particularly if they are state agencies. Cleanup of the moat theatre after an event has also caused difficulties. All these problems, which now have to be faced piecemeal, are symptoms. The Ephorate, the Central Archaeological Council, the Ministry of Culture and the Archaeological Receipts Fund are institutions not geared to cope with demand, which regards the heritage, and specific standing monuments in particular, as a commodity. The hosting of events and functions at the Palace, the moat theatre and a few other venues brought in â‚Ź 218,000 in 2004, 64,000 in 2006 and â‚Ź 21,500 in 2008. The sharp downhill trend in revenue reflects not a reduction in the number of events, but increased use free of charge or through payment of minimal fees, mostly due to patronage of events by various state agencies. This means more intensive use of the more popular monuments without a cash return, which could be used to benefit the heritage in general and the monument concerned in particular5. When granting permission to use a monument for a specific event, a number of considerations have to be taken into account by the state agencies responsible.
The venue has to be sufficiently robust to withstand the pressure of the expected number of guests: the mood of the guests is often a key factor, as old buildings are not designed to cope with emergencies. The event must not disfigure or endanger the monument, offend its cultural atmosphere or interfere with general access too much. The exuberance of event organizers often has to be curbed: the power supply and other installations are often inadequate for the requirements of modern technology which, in any case, does not always serve the monument well. It is also necessary to gauge correctly the ability of event organizers to meet their commitments. Moreover, the cumulative effect of a number of events on the monument and its setting has to be calculated, as well as the long-term effect of particular kinds of event on its image. If a monument is a historic landmark, do we really want to associate it with noisy music or dinners for smoking guests? Or with bikini-clad beauties? Even in purely economic terms, overusing a monument in particular ways must erode its image and thus lower its value; frequent use requires better maintenance, possibly alterations to ensure public safety, and will inevitably speed up the wear of the original fabric of the structure. The Ephorate does its best to assess all these factors and advise the Central Archaeological Council accordingly. From then on, however, the matter is in the hands of others, who have to consider the merits of cases piecemeal, and possibly assign a fee without a scale of reference to assist them; besides, on a number of occasions, other considerations take priority over the interests of the monument. The Ephorate then has to implement the decision taken, and face the consequences on the monument, its setting, and the public. As all fees go directly to Athens, in order to be redistributed according to government policy, money is not directly returned to the monument that generated it. The cleaning, maintenance and running repairs thus burden the thin budget of the Ephorate and are generally improvised. This serious difficulty might be partly overcome either by withholding a portion of the fee in order to carry out repairs, or by asking the organizers to deposit a sum in advance against the possible need for maintenance or repairs, to be refunded in whole or in part after the conclusion of the event. Some of the difficulties would not arise if the restoration of monuments were undertaken with specific ideas as to the uses they might be put to afterwards. This is not as absurd as it seems, because very important monuments merit conservation in any case. However, regular controlled use ensures the maintenance of restored monuments much more effectively than the regular budget of the Ephorate. After restoration, expenses for the normal wear and tear of an aged structure will always be needed, as well as the replacement of worn equipment. The need for small improvements after the monument has opened to the public will also emerge. Besides, provision of maintenance would permit more intensive use. However, contracting out all these tasks does not ensure quality work, economy or consistency. Trying to force contractors to fulfill their commitments is time-consuming, often unlikely to succeed, and delays affect monuments adversely. Thus, a different approach is necessary. For Rhodes, with its hundreds of monuments, the only sensible approach is to maintain a team of specialists and workmen on a permanent basis, in charge of a coordinator who will ensure that various structures get the attention they require promptly. In emergencies such as floods or earthquakes contractors might be called upon as auxiliaries. Such a team of restorers would not be idle for any period of time since there are too many monuments both in the town and in the countryside slowly crumbling into ruin through lack of resources. The provision of materials for such a team could come through a yearly allowance by the Archaeological Receipts Fund, supplemented by other state funds and by private donations.
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The framework for the operation of such a team already exists, in the shape of the Department of Recent Monuments and Works, and a model for the team itself is also present, in the skilled personnel of the Works Supervision Committee for the Monuments of the Medieval Town of Rhodes. However, the efficient use of such a tool would require coordination by an agent fully informed on the condition of all monuments, able to prioritize their needs and acting upon a general management plan for their long, medium and short term uses, in order to preserve them for posterity. Such planning could spread the pressure of demand, reducing its impact on specific sites and monuments. It would also help integrate more monuments into the everyday life of the citizens, and therefore make the preservation of the town's heritage more appealing to a wider public. Perhaps this is a role the 4th Ephorate would be best suited for, due to its considerable experience in this field, but the multitude of other tasks they are charged with would, I fear, not permit the amount of commitment necessary for success. The Ephorate might, instead, act as adviser or supervisor to a more task-oriented unit. This could be an upgraded local office of the Archaeological Receipts Fund, supplied with a manager arrogated a measure of independent action and a suitable budget, along with more staff. This office could keep a permanent record of all state property within the town, or even beyond it, its condition and possibilities. This brings us to the second category of state properties within the walled town, because they would be part of the responsibility of such a manager. Leased properties are of two types, housing and commercial. The Archaeological Receipts Fund currently manages 179 residential properties, exceeding 7,300 m2, at a mean price of 19.2 € per m2, grossing an income of about 140,000 € per year. Another 94 properties, comprising over 9,800 m2, are currently put to various commercial or industrial uses, at prices ranging from 192 € per m2 for jewellery retail, to a mere 1.3 € per m2 paid for a church community centre. Still, the yearly income amounts to about 380,000 €. Thus, the yearly income from rents comes to about € 520,000 6. Housing is the mildest form of long-term exploitation, if regular supervision takes place to ensure that lessees do not improvise on repairs and improvements. The infrastructure for this is already in place, courtesy of the 4th Ephorate, and merely needs the commitment of more resources, mostly specialized manpower, to be satisfactory7. Commercial use is more intensive -and dangerous- since capital provides the means for the more systematic flouting of conservation regulations and also because of the frequent turnover of lessees. Making its premises more attractive to customers, and more competitive, is the first consideration for any business. Renovation takes place virtually every winter in one out of three properties, and this has a cumulative impact on aged structures. Although properties deteriorate, lessee turnover takes place without prior restoration. At present, it is up to the new lessee to carry out repairs, but he cannot be pressured beyond a certain point into carrying out those he does not agree with- even though the structural or visual integrity of the property may require them. If the fair condition of a building were assured before it became available to a new lessee, its market value would rise and its resilience increased. There are other problems. The prices of housing are four times lower than their equivalent in the modern town. This is generally due to the poor condition of the buildings and their relative discomfort. In the best cases they suffer from rising damp, their woodwork needs constant maintenance, and the condition of adjacent buildings affects them. In too many cases, long-term occupation by low-income tenants has led to serious deterioration, and some of them are too small or too
dark to provide reasonable living conditions. In the past, a contract signed by the Ministry of Culture, the Town and the Archaeological Receipts Fund led to a pilot programme of restoration, which upgraded a respectable number of houses. It also provided the means for carrying out running repairs in many others. Regretfully, this contract is no longer in force, and deterioration of the Fund's properties in the intervening nine years has been serious. It has become obvious that the joint resources of 4th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, the Municipality and the Archaeological Receipts Fund in providing manpower, technical support, knowhow, public relations and funds for the benefit of specific targets within the matrix of the historic centre are necessary on a more permanent basis. Squatters are another problem the local staff of the Archaeological Receipts Fund is ill-equipped to deal with. The number of houses occupied by squatters has risen to 16, and some of them are buildings of architectural importance. The squatters are marginal elements inclined to violence, and gang together to protect their interests. The employees of the Fund have no legal resource beyond a single Counsellor responsible for protecting the interests of the state throughout the Prefecture. Moreover, the headquarters of the Archaeological Receipts Fund have no clear idea of the state of rented properties. In 1999, they followed a statewide reassessment of land values with a readjustment of rents that led to increases of over 300% for many properties, mostly leased to commercial uses. This abrupt and steep rise led many lessees to challenge the readjustments in court, with the lonely Legal Councellor already mentioned again being the only representative of the Fund's interests. All this has resulted in a general climate of hostility directed against the local representatives of the Fund, who are no longer able to even approach some of the properties they are supposed to supervise. It is clear that a major task for an upgraded local office of the Fund would be to tackle this situation. Lawyers have to be hired to ensure that the staff gain access to the properties for inspection purposes and to represent state interests in court. A full record of the condition of every property must be created and maintained through regular inspections, to enable a realistic assessment of its financial value. The upkeep of such records would also provide a general picture of the assets of the Fund (and the state) within the town, thus greatly assisting the development of a general management plan. Meanwhile the Ministry should prepare proposals for the signing of a new contract with the Town, to ensure the gradual improvement of small properties; also, properties capable of sustaining commercial development should be singled out for restoration through independent projects. In the last 23 years many important monuments were successfully restored in the historic centre of Rhodes, including parts of the fortifications and several religious and secular buildings. However, drawing profit with minimum investment in money and effort has been the norm for most of the extensive state property within the walled town. In cases where money has been spent, lack of planning and coordination have reduced its impact. This, inevitably, has led to serious deterioration, which makes no sense either in conservation or in financial terms. Every businessman knows that investment and planning are both required for his affairs to prosper. The state, as manager of the heritage, has to commit resources to a worthy cause that may still prove profitable in the long run. And the sooner this happens, the more will be saved- both in monuments and in cash. In closing, it has to be stressed that the utilitarian analysis of the problems besetting the management of state property in the historic centre of Rhodes, and the suggestions for ways to solve them, are not intended to undermine what is obvious to most of those concerned with the heritage: ultimately, we have an obliga-
57
tion to preserve, whether it is profitable in cash terms or not. Maybe it is not fashionable, or very popular right now, but monuments which cannot produce an income sufficient for their upkeep are like old people: we cannot abandon them to their fate without severe consequences for both the present and the future of our society. Notes 1 Cfr. the introduction in A. Peacock & I. Rizzo, The Heritage Game. Economics, Policy, and Practice, Oxford 2008, p. xvi, xx. 2 For an introduction to the walled settlement, its history and conservation problems see K. ManoussouDella, Medieval Town of Rhodes. Restoration works (1985-2000), Rhodes 2001. 3 Law No 3032/2002. 4 Through paying visitors alone. Data supplied by the Archaeological Receipts Fund and the 22nd Ephorate
of Classical Antiquities. 5Data supplied by the Archaeological Receipts Fund. One major private event hosted in the medieval moat in 2004 brought in 100,000 €, but none of this sum was actually used to repair resulting damage to the site. 6 Data supplied by the Archaeological Receipts Fund. The precise figure is 527,956.90 €, plus 9,516.10 € through interest. 7 It would also help if law-enforcement were stricter, but this is the responsibility of other state agencies such as the courts and police departments.
La ville fortifiée de Rhodes possède une forte concentration de monuments médiévaux, y compris de vastes biens étatiques. Les plus imposants sont ouverts aux visiteurs. Les autres sont loués et les revenus vont au Fond de Recettes Archéologique au bénéfice des antiquités en général. En 2008, les tickets d'entrée rapportèrent 1.285.000 €; les manifestations rapportèrent en plus 21.500 €. Cependant, les effets cumulatifs de leur utilisation impactent leur structure et leur image. Depuis que l'argent ne revient pas directement au monument qui l'a généré, la maintenance et les réparations courantes sont généralement de fortune. Alors que les dépenses d'usure et de dégradation normales seront toujours nécessaires suite à l'ouverture d'un monument au public. A Rhodes, avec ses centaines de monuments, il est possible de maintenir une équipe de spécialistes et d'ouvriers sur une base permanente, sous la responsabilité d'un coordinateur qui garantirait que les différentes structures bénéficient d'entretien immédiat. L'utilisation efficace d'un tel outil requerrait un plan d'action à long, moyen et court terme. Cela pourrait être amenagée par un bureau local amélioré du Fond ayant un responsable disposant d'une autonomie d'action et d'un budget adéquat. Le Fond gère aussi actuellement 273 immeubles dont les loyers annuels s'élèvent à environ 520.000 €, 179 immeubles résidentiels (environ 7.300 m2) sont loués à un prix moyen de 19,2 €/m2. 94 autres biens (environ 9.800 m2) sont actuellement destinés à différents usages à des prix allant de 192 €/m2 à simplement 1,3 €/m2. Les prix de location sont bas en raison du mauvais état des bâtiments. De 1984 à 2004 un contrat entre le ministère de la Culture, la ville et le Fond conduisit à l'amélioration de nombreuses maisons, mais il n'est plus en vigueur. Le personnel local du Fond n'a pas de ressource légale pour faire face à de nombreux squatters alors que la direction n'a pas la vision exacte de l'état des biens loués. L'utilisation commerciale est intensive et les rénovations fréquentes entraînent des détériorations - cependant des changements de locataires ont lieu sans restauration préalable. Un récent ajustement des loyers a conduit à des augmentations considérables et des contestations en justice. Une base de données avec des informations sur tous les biens permettrait une estimation réaliste de leur valeur financière et procurerait une vision d'ensemble des avoirs du Fond à l'intérieur de la ville. Un nouveau contrat avec la ville pourrait aider à améliorer les petits biens, pendant que ceux capables de supporter un développement commercial peurraient être restaurés dans le cadre de projets indépendants.
EN BULLETIN 64
KATERINA MANOUSSOU-NTELLA
LE PAYSAGE CULTUREL ET LES MONUMENTS SYMBOLES DISPARUS DE LA VILLE DE RHODES
La ville de Rhodes a été conçue comme une "ville nouvelle" de l'antiquité classique tardive, créé a la fin du 5ème siècle avant J.C1 . Elle a été construite à l'extrémité nord de l'île, portée à la côte en face de l'Asie Mineure. Rhodes était destinée aux populations déplacées des trois plus anciennes colonies de peuplement sur l'île, dans le cadre d'une innovation très audacieuse. La création de la ville est née de la colonisation de 408 avant JC, comme l'expression d'une union politique et économique de trois puissantes "cités-états" de l'époque archaïque et classique2 . La région dans laquelle elle a été intégrée, portait sous l'influence de la ville d'Ialyssos. Les villes de Kamiros et Lindos étaient fortement caractérisées par la prédominance rurale. Ialissos, en raison de sa position, se distinguait par la croissance importante du commerce et de navigation et a progressivement acquiert une influence sur toute l'île de Rhodes . Des grandes configurations techniques ont été tenues dans le paysage afin de permettre la mise en œuvre du plan urbanistique d'Hippodamus, à une si grande échelle3. La forme, bien sûr, diffère radicalement de la "croissance naturelle des villes", l'espace de vie tout en répondant aux exigences essentielles de regroupe1. La morphologie du paysage a l'environnement de la ville de Rhodes
2. La disposition des fonctions principales du tissu urbain de la ville antique
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3. La tour de Naillac (Berg 1862) et la figure imaginaire du Colosse de Rhodes (E. Barclay 1896). 4. Le bastion Saint Georges (vue aérienne 2000archive photographique du Ministère de la Culture TDPEAE). 5. Aspect générale de la fosse -section de la Langue d'Angleterre. 6. Le " bastion du Palais de Grand Maitre " .Coupe transversal des construction.. 7. La découverte des rochers artificiels de décoration autour de la tour NO de l'Acropole byzantine (2008). 8. Proposition de restitution graphique du plan de la ville antique entre les deux ports principaux.
ment et de l'accessibilité, résultant la réduction des distances . Il est connu que, durant la période sobre, dans le monde grec existait déjà un réseau de colonies agricoles, de forme patriarcale, dans le cadre d'une organisation spatiale, "des villages". Elles sont progressivement fusionnées en une seule administration, sans être abandonnées et sans perdre leur autonomie, pendant des phases successives d'urbanisation jusqu'aux 9éme et 8éme siècles B.C, qui ont finalement aboutit à la création de la "cite-état" de la période classique. Les structures sociales de cette époque étaient très avancées et ont dépassé le statut des genres. Le système original de la monarchie héréditaire et du gouvernement autoritaire a été renversé par la force économique de la noblesse des terres, appartenant à des genres ainsi que des groupes de non-nobles, tels que commerçants, marins et artisans qui habitaient les villes. Progressivement le système a été transformé en oligarchie. Une série d'évolutions politiques et sociétales qui se sont produits dans le monde antique, transforma progressivement les villes. Elles ont complètement perdu leurs caractère de l'antiquité classique, n'étaient plus autonomes et auto-suffisantes, mais sont devenues des centres importantes dans un grand état 4. Bruyantes et populeuses, multinationales, multiraciales et multilingues, des villes et centres commerciaux de la finance, ce sont les villes hellénistiques, construites à des endroits stratégiques de commerce, aux "carrefours des civilisations". La création de la cite hellénistique de Rhodes a été le résultat d'un acte historique spécifique et le développement de son tissu urbain, selon le "ippodameio" système de l'urbanisme5, comprend un réseau routier, à angle droit vers l'emplace-
60
ment de la colline6 , afin que le dispositif était "theatroeidis", c'est à dire formée par des terrasses successives, connues sous le nom "andira", d'environ 3,5 mètres de décalage de niveau. La forme et le développement urbain de la nouvelle cite-état, portant le nom officiel "damos Rodion" selon le dialecte dorien, sont directement liés à son paysage grandiose.(fig.1) Une péninsule vallonnée pénètre dans la mer jusqu'à la cape - qu'on appelle "akron Panos" ou Koumpournou- en disposant cinq ports au carrefour important de routes maritimes, de la mer Noire et les îles de l'Egée du Nord vers la Crète et l'Egypte, et du Péloponnèse et la Grèce centrale vers les côtes de l'Asie Mineure, le Chypre, la Phénicie et la Syrie. Le paysage naturel, unique pour son relief, son incomparable beauté, son microclimat, et sa configuration géophysique privilégie, se propage en douceur sur la colline de l'Acropole ou de Saint-Etienne, d'une hauteur de 100 mètres. L'Acropole dominait les falaises qui surplombent la côte ouest et s'étendait vers l'est, alors qu'au sud il y avait des ravins naturels. C'est évident que le paysage si caractéristique et privilégie de la ville de Rhodes n'était pas laisse inoccupé pendant les siècles précédents l'action historique de "sunoikismos". On a déjà des preuves archéologiques des installations résidentielles, de même que d'une activité artisanale à cette espace . En même temps on dispose des documents historiques ou sont mentionnes les noms qui caractérisent probablement les résidents des établissements organisés, ou "komes", à la périphérie de la "cité-état" classique d'Ialyssos. Comme il ressort de récentes études géologiques et géotechniques, la zone de la
ville de Rhodes est caractérisée par le substratum rocheux, qui se produit avec des fortes discontinuités et la superposition des deux qualités de grès calcaire: la formation perméable -dite "de Rhodes"- et la formation imperméable -dite "d'Asgourou". La disposition de ces formations est basée sur le mouvement d'eau souterraine, en créant de nombreux temples rupestres ou "Nymphéa" principalement sur le promontoire de l'ancienne acropole. En même temps était devenue raisonnable l'exploitation d'un réseau d'approvisionnement d'eau, extensive, en labyrinthe du type "Qanat " de l'antiquité, avec des réservoirs et des puits pour les habitations7. Le rocher descend, avec une légère pente, de la colline de l'Acropole, vers l'est et sud, formant des plages sablonneuses et lisses vers ce côté de l'île. Contrairement, à la partie occidentale de la péninsule on rencontre des collines formées par des falaises abruptes qui atteignent à la mer, collines boisées menant au plateau de "Megkavli" , ou probablement était place le bien connu par les sources historiques comme "champs Elysées" d'Ialyssia8. Au moins trois cours d'eau prennent leurs sources de ces collines et, en traversant des paysages d'une beauté extraordinaire et des bosquets sacrés9, découlent dans la mer. Le torrent de Rodini provient du sud-est du plateau de "Megkavli" et, après avoir traversé la vallée de la nécropole antique, coule jusqu'à la mer en passant sous le pont de l'ancienne route de Rhodes- Lindos, en dehors de la porte sud des fortifications hellénistiques10. Un second courant tourne autour de l'amphithéâtrale, fertile vallée, dite "de Santrouli", et coule vers la côte ouest. Enfin, le troisième courant qui jaillit de ces mêmes collines rocheuses, après avoir suivi l'ancienne
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9. Détails d'évolution des constructions antiques et byzantines au coin NO du Palais. 10. Restitution graphique du site du Colosse 11. La disposition générale du château primitive byzantine du 7emé siecle. 12. Gravure du 19emé siecle représentante l'ensemble fortifie des Rhodes vue du nord (Flandin 1853). 13. Les vestiges actuels de la tour de Naillac (2000, Archives photograph. du Min.de la Culture TDPEAE). 14. Comparaison de l'échelle des monuments symboles de Rhodes: le Colosse et la tour de Naillac esquisse basée à une ancienne photographie (d'après A. Gabriel 1921). 15. La cité médiévale de Rhodes avant la catastrophe de 1856 (Hedenborg manuscript)
route, qui descend vers l'emplacement de l'ancien cite-état d'Ialyssos, traverse la région qui a révélé la ville préhistorique Kyrvi11. Le site, qui est probablement illustre à une fresque minoenne, est caractérisé par l'existence de trois rivières. Les deux autres rivières, également identifiées a l'état actuel du paysage, découlent de la colline de l'acropole antique d'Ialyssos, dite mont Filerimos. C'est évident que des configurations techniques importantes a la zone urbaine, avant la mise en œuvre du système d' Hippodamus, ont modifié de façon décisive le terrain naturel en disparaissant, sous de gros volumes des remblaies et de forts murailles de soutènement, les vestiges des structures plus anciennes. La forme définitive de la ville antique, était "theatroeidis", c'est à-dire en forme d'échelle, et orientée vers l'est (fig.2). A l' exception de la colline de l'Acropole, où il était situé le centre religieux de la ville classique tardive et hellénistique, avec l'ensemble sacre monumental de Pythien Apollo et le Temple de Zeus et Athéna Polias, importants sites repères de la ville étaient les suivants: a. la colline douce dans le sud-ouest du grand port, ou était située le centre administratif antique12, totalement ordonné. Là, était probablement disposé l'imposant ancien marché, au cours de la zone du commerce, et b. le gonflement rocailleux entre les deux centrales, des cinq ports de l'Antiquité .Sur cette colline, qui est mentionnée par d'éminents chercheurs du 20éme siècle comme "acropole basse", s'élève du haut Moyen Age la forteresse byzantine, puis Palais du Grand Maître des Chevaliers Hospitaliers13. En plus, il faut tenir en compte que la plupart des chercheurs au domaine de l'archéologie et de géographie historique, considèrent
16. La situation des fortifications du port entre la porte de Tarsana et la porte byzantine du Collaquium ou de la Marine (Flandin 1853); (a coté) l'effondre-
ment du 3emé étage de la tour du port avec les armoiries de Naillac pendant le tremblement de terre en 1852 .
cet endroit comme le plus probable pour l'emplacement du Temple de DieuSoleil14 et le fameux Colosse. En raison de sa position en tant que base militaire et centre commercial important, au carrefour des routes maritimes de la Méditerranée, la ville de Rhodes a été toujours développée comme lieu d'évolution des idées et des modèles culturels à un véritable "carrefour de civilisations". L'image de la ville a été caractérisée, à la fois pendant l'Antiquité et le Moyenâge, par des imposants éléments architecturaux, comme symboles du dynamisme de la présence et de l'intervention humaine. (fig.3) A partir du Colosse et le mythe relatif a sa forme et son emplacement15 , jusqu'à l'imposante tour médiévale, dite de Naillac16, la tour "maitresse des remparts des ports" - qui est totalement disparue, après sa terrible effondrement en 1863. Le processus de construction des fortifications du moyen-âge était une action dynamique d'application de puissance, qui exprimait les choix de l'Ordre des Chevaliers de Saint-Jean. Elle était destinée à soumettre le paysage, et sa forme antérieure par l'intégration massive des structures remblayées, comme éléments dominants autour de la ville, (fig.4) en distinguant clairement l'espace défini par 17. Vue de la tour de Naillac de l'intérieur du port commercial de Rhodes; (a coté) détail des armoiries
de la tour de Naillac (Musée archéologique de Rhodes)
l'homme de l'espace physique incontrôlable17 . Cette action importante a eu comme résultat la disparition complète des vestiges des complexes monumentaux d'ancienneté. Des hauts murs ont été construits entre les ports anciens, en modifiant le lien original de la ville avec la mer18 . L'excavation de la fosse, en particulier, dans le sens d'un " chandakion " ou " terre déserte " autour des fortifications, (fig.5) a conduit à l'altération totale du terrain, comme un sondage archéologique large et profond dans le domaine central de la ville antique . Pendant les dernières enquêtes géotechniques et les fouilles à l'intérieur du bastion, au nord du palais, on a découvert une colline artificielle d'argile, qui relie le niveau de la ville ancienne avec les chantiers navals et le port des Galères .(fig.6) La surabondance de puits dans le remblai ,au flanc de la colline et l'existence des vestiges d'un large socle, construit avec des rochers artificiels de décoration,(fig.7) sur la partie supérieure de la colline ,sont la preuve qu' il s'agit d'un aménagement paysager pour souligner l'intégration des principaux édifices monumentaux19 . Le point de vue archéologique en vigueur, qu'a cette position caractéristique se trouvait le Temple du dieu Soleil et le fameux Colosse, permet la réalisation d'une représentation graphique, (fig.8) établie après une étude exhaustive des constructions médiévales et la situation a la quelle elles ont été découvertes lors des fouilles pendant la domination italienne20. Selon cette hypothèse, la tour nord-ouest du château a utilisé comme son noyau solide une construction de la période hellénistique, probablement la base fondamentale du Colosse, qui alors a été conservée jusqu'à nos jours revêtue des parois byzantines inclinées d'une largeur de 1,00 à 1,70 m21 (fig.9). Les dimensions originales de cette construction, compacte ancienne, qui était dirigée selon l'orientation du système d'Hippodamus et se tourna du côté étroit vers l'est, était précisément 12.50x15.50 m. et la hauteur actuelle préservée atteint environ 10,00 m. de sa fondation sur la roche naturelle. Il faut noter que : - Ils n'existaient pas des fortifications et tours anciennes dans cette partie de la ville , au dessus des chantiers navals antiques et - Du colosse de Néron a Rome, qui avait légèrement dépasse en taille la statue de Rhodes, on a trouve la base avec des dimensions similaires 14.75 x17.60 m22. Cette position, à mon avis, présente des avantages particuliers en tant que: 1. Elle est située à la jonction de deux premiers axes du système urbain d'Hippodamus, vers le port militaire antique "Mandraki" (fig.12). Les constructions antiques sont soutenues par des murailles monumentaux, "de soutènement" et sont disposées en gradées superposées, ou "andira", du niveau de la mer et des anciens chantiers navals à l'élévation naturelle de cette colline. 2. Si, selon cette hypothèse, sur la base était fondée une statue colossale elle devait être dirigée vers l'est, comme toute la ville du soleil, tandis que les mâts des navires dans les chantiers navals se tiendraient sous ses pieds23 (fig.10). Il s'agit donc d'un point d'où le colosse serait de regarder vers la mer à l'orient, ayant les mâts de bateaux sous ses pieds, "pas que traîner au dessus de la Mer, mais institué solide sur la Terre", comme "Lumière brillant d'une liberté fière", selon l'épigramme24 caractéristique qui avait été écrit sur la base du Colosse. 3. Il faut noter l'intégration du tetrapylon romain monumental25 à l'axe de la route principale en direction N-S, apparemment "cardo" de la ville romaine encadrée par des colonnades et des boutiques, juste au point d'intersection avec la route carrée ou première "decumanus" du nord. Peut-être qu'il voulait mettre l'accent sur l'accès principale vers les fameux et très fréquentés par des pèlerins,
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18. Restitution graphique des plans de la tour de Naillac:
1er niveau de la chaine,
2emé niveau d'entrée,
3emé niveau- salle,
4emé niveau-lanterne.
19. Restitution graphique des plans de la tour de Naillac: Coupe N-S
20. Restitution graphique de la tour de Naillac. Elévation vue de l'Ouest
pendant la période romaine, restes du Colosse . 4. Il est évident que la tradition de fabrication et du culte de statues colossales apparait en Grèce pendant la période hellénistique et tire ses racines à l'Orient, en particulier en ce qui concerne le dieu Soleil, connu d'être identifié avec le dieu Râ26, qui était puissant dans l'ancienne Egypte au moins en 1780 BC. Dieu Râ est le créateur des dieux, des humains et du monde en général. Son emblème est le soleil, le symbole de vie, de la lumière, de la fécondité….. Etymologiquement le nom Ra provient du verbe grec "oro" que signifie voir et est en rapport avec la montagne. Le siège de son culte a été Héliopolis antique, c'est à dire l'actuelle banlieue nord du Caire, Mataria. La forme, la plus ancienne du mythe égyptien de la création, présente le dieu- soleil Ra à être assis sur une ancienne colline, regardant tout d'en haut comme "rien peut être cache sous le soleil", ou émergeant de l'océan primordial.
Il est à noter que le Colosse n'était pas maintenu entier pour plus de 80 ans, mais ses débris sont restes à sa place pendant quelques 800 ans après le terrible tremblement de terre de 227 B.C qui l'a détruit. Il fut un des pèlerinages les plus sacrés dans la zone géographique de la mer Egée. La disparition de toute sa trace, pendant le moment le plus décisif pour l'existence de la ville, en même temps que le monde paléochrétien effondrait27, a été une action symbolique. La construction d'origine du coin nord-ouest de la fortification byzantine primtive du 7éme siécle28 (fig.11), qui contrôlait avec un massif donjon le petit port "Mandraki"- et sa longue jetée orientale, coïncide avec la dissolution du Colosse et le transfert de son précieux cuivre a Bursa. Le socle de la statue, sans son revêtement en marbre, était probablement utilisé comme un noyau compact, du donjon puissant du 7éme siècle. C'est peut-être la raison plus évident pour que, déjà au début du 14éme siècle (1295-1359) Nicéphore
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21. Vue générale de la tour du Bassoues d'Armagnac a Gers.
22. Vue générale du port de Mytilène au 18emé siecle (Paraskevaidis 2002). 23. La tour de Naillac
Grégoras , qui a visité la ville de Rhodes, dit que "du Colosse n'existe aucun trace, pas même la position de sa base". La restitution graphique qu'on présente ici est une hypothèse de travail. Une recherche plus systématique peut confirmer ou rejeter la théorie, formulée par rapport à la disposition urbaine et architecturale des monuments, basée surtout sur des données scientifiques publiées. La possibilité d'enquête à un réel potentiel archéologique est limitée de façon spectaculaire, étant donné l'ampleur des reconstructions de la période d'occupation italienne . La Tour de Naillac, connue aussi comme "tour du Port"29 ou "tour des Arabes" ou "tour du Trabucco", a été un des points de repère- ou "toposima" -les plus impressionnants de la ville des chevaliers (fig.12). Son' échelle a été comparable à celle du Colosse puisque la hauteur totale, de la surface de la mer, atteignait les 46 mètres (fig.14). Située à l'extrémité est du môle qui porte le même nom, où les restes de solides fondations précédentes et une grande quantité de "spolia" de l'antiquité réutilisés aux constructions médiévales sont les preuves de la préexistence des constructions anciennes, qui probablement contrôlaient l'entrée du grand port commercial (fig.2). Elle était érigée sur un socle solide carre de marbre, avec des charnières en métal, sur laquelle a été ajoutée a une époque postérieure, le bien-compact ouvrage avancé avec sa base " en talus " et la fausse braie, qui protégeait le périmètre de la tour (fig.13). Il semble que la tour était déjà en ruines après le tremblement de terre de 1851 et 1856 et l'explosion de la poudre aux souterrains du clocher de Saint-Jean30. En ce moment plusieurs bâtiments ont été détruits dans le centre-ville monumental et surtout l'imposant complexe de l'église monastique de Saint-Jean de Chevaliers avec sa haute tour du clocher, de caractère purement défensif. Dans un moment de chance, la ville de Rhodes à été privée pour toujours d'une grande partie de son éclat et de son style médiéval (fig.15). Aux alentours du port médiéval s'est effondrée une partie de la tour primitive du Collacium, qui porte aussi le blason du Grand Maître de Naillac31 et se tenait au sud de la "porte de la mer" byzantine, en la protégeant (fig.16). En 1909 sont entièrement démolies, probablement pour des raisons d'instabilité, les deux tours carrées symétriques de la porte de Tarsana , en mutilant définitivement le front des remparts de la mer. Bien qu'il soit certain que la disparition de ces trois principaux éléments des fortifications du port devrait avoir été un coup terrible à l'opinion publique de l'époque, les conditions sociales et économiques ont empêché la plupart de
mesures immédiates pour les restaurer et surtout pour éviter leur effondrement. De toute évidence, si les accidents avaient été retardés de 50 années, le processus aurait été totalement différent pendant l'occupation italienne. La construction de la tour remonte à l'époque du Grand Maître Philibert de Naillac32 (1396-1421) les armoiries de qui, en combinaison avec la croix de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers, étaient encastrées au sein d'un cadre rectangulaire dans l'axe des quatre côtés de la tour (fig.17). Une des photographies primitives avant 1863, en regardant du haut de la tour vers la ville fortifiée, est actuellement conservée au Musée Benaki à Athènes. Deux bandes de pierre, en moulures caractéristiques "Cordonne", correspondantes aux niveaux des planchers, divisaient la hauteur des façades de la tour en trois parties égales. (fig.3, 17) Un grand semi-arc cylindrique, d'une ouverture de 7,5 m, reliait la paroi de la muraille protégeant la jetée vers le nord et portant les armoiries du, successeur de Naillac, grand maître A. Fluvian (1421-1437) a l'entrée principale au deuxième étage de la tour. Une tourelle d'escalier indépendante donne accès directe au même niveau de l'entrée principale. Enfin, un système de pont-levis, contrôlé de l'intérieur de la tour, complétait la disposition défensive de l'entrée. L'ouverture aménagée vers l' est ,dans la salle qui est ouverte aux visiteurs d'aujourd'hui à la base de la tour ,avec un appareillage minutieuse en marbre, a été destinée au passage de la chaîne qui fermait l'entrée du port commercial , reliée au mole des moulins. On a récemment découvert la disposition similaire de sa résiliation fixée . La tour de Naillac était conçue comme la "tour maitresse" de l'enceinte urbaine de Rodos, avec un concept plus symbolique que fonctionnel, qui s'exprime à son extérieur comme un clocher fortifie du Couvent, au bord de la mer. La tour -qu'on peut caractériser comme "tour-beffroi"33- parait essentiellement comme un témoin d'un état social en mutation, marqué par la double nécessité d'offrir à l'occupant une sécurité renforcée, et à l'étranger un témoignage de puissance affirme. Sa fonction était dépouillé de toute résidence34, centrée sur l'aspect symbolique, féodale, augmentée de la fonction de guerre ou plutôt de surveillance de la mer entourant le point NE de l'ile vers les cotes de l'Asie Mineure. Elle était une tour carrée, extrêmement haute en regard de son cote. Comme il est évident la fonction d'habitat était quasi nulle ce qui est marquée par l'exigüité des surfaces offertes a chacun des niveaux et par la difficulté de communication directe de niveau a niveau (fig.18, 19, 20). On ne sait pas s'il comprenait des latrines, comme d'habitude "au niveau de l'entrée très probablement dans l'épaisseur du mur"35.
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Le plan général semble combiner des influences de Provence (palais de l'archevêque de Narbonne en 1318)36 mais aussi des nombreuses tours des autres régions de France, de Flandre, d'Allemagne, de Suisse et d'Espagne. Un des exemples les plus proches aux analogies et le type de la tour de Naillac est la splendide tour, la mieux conservée du midi de la France, a Bassoues d'Armagnac37 construite par l'archevêque d'Auch, Arnaud Aubert38 . Ce donjon de plan carre- qui est antérieur de la tour de Rhodes- date aussi au 14e s. (13701380). Son hauteur est presque 40 m. et sa largeur 12 m, presque identiques à celles de Naillac .Il faut souligner que cette tour comprend un étage supérieur octogonal et en retraite, exactement comme la tour de Rhodes. Le couronnement de la tour de Naillac ressemble aussi a la tour maitresse du château Saint Maire a Lausanne, qui est termine en 142539. On distingue une affinité morphologique et typologique avec la haute tour du château de Mota près de la Medina Del Campo40. La tour, qui est conservée intacte jusqu'à nos jours, est postérieure de la tour de Rhodes, comme on peut dater sa construction entre 1440 et 1475. En ce qui concerne la région géographique élargie de la côte de la mer Égée et de l'Asie Mineure, il est intéressant de comparer la disposition du port de Rhodes avec des ports d'époque similaire avec des influences analogues, comme le port nord de la ville de Mytilène42 (fig.22). Parmi les monuments d'architecture des Chevaliers Hospitaliers, il y a des similarités très claires avec deux autres tours, 24. La tour de France au château Saint-Pierre de Bodrum; (a coté) la tour de France au château SaintPierre de Bodrum, le voutement d'ogives au niveau de l'entrée. 25. Restitution graphique de la tour de Naillac. Elévation vue de l'ouest 26. Etude d'analyse architectural de la tour, basée à l'esquisse publiée à Londres en 1856 27. Vue de la tour de Naillac basée à une ancienne photographie (Newton 1865) 28. Esquisse de la tour de Naillac basée a une ancienne photographie publiée a M.E.E (Kollias 1998) 29. La tour de France au château de Bodrum. Détail d'escalier a l'intérieur du mur.
datant également de la période du grand maître Naillac, l'étude comparative des qui fournisse des données pour effectuer la restitution graphique de la tour perdue. C'est la tour du Collacium , qui a dominé le centre du port de Rhodes42 et la "Tour de France"43, au plus haut point de la forteresse de Saint-Pierre des Chevaliers à la ville d'Alikarnassus ou Bodrum (fig.24). Il semble que la partie supérieure de cette dernière tour a été détruite et reconstruite déjà pendant la période médiévale et seulement un des tourelles d'angle prouve sa morphologie d'origine. Malheureusement aujourd'hui, après la ré-destruction pendant la Première Guerre mondiale, a été reconstruite d'une manière tout à fait moderne, avec du plancher en béton armé pour le couvrement de sa deuxième, principale, étage. Ce qui est caractéristique et même presque unique, parmi les œuvres d'architecture militaire du moyen -âge préservés jusqu'a nos jours, c'est le 4e étage à plan octogonale, en retrait des parois verticales de la tour de Rhodes. (fig.19, 25) Ce n'est pas totalement clair s'il existait déjà à sa situation originale44, ou s'il s'agit d'une phase ajoutée postérieurement, mais de toute façon avant 148045 . A mon avis c'est une forme d'origine, convenant à la fonction primordiale de surveillance. Il est évident que l'étage supérieur aboutissait à une terrace située à l'hauteur de 46 m. de la surface de la mer. Une première tentative de restitution graphique de la tour de Naillac est due a l'architecte français Albert Gabriel et est comprise à son étude monumentale "La cité de Rhodes" publie en 1921. Gabriel site également une intéressante esquisse, basée sur une " ancienne photographie " prise du sud (fig.14). Des documents précieux pour la conception architecturale de la tour sont les gravures détaillées, basées sur des photographies anciennes et publiées par Newton en 1865, immédiatement après l'effondrement de la tour (fig.26)45. Elias Kollias a réédité en 199847, la seule photo trouvée de la tour de Naillac, avant sa disparition (fig.27). Apres une étude exhaustive des tous les documents graphiques et photographiques ci-dessus, on peut procéder a une restitution panoramique raisonnablement précise48, au moins de l'extérieur du monument (fig.20). A cet effet, exception faite pour les photographies, peuvent être utilisées de nombreuses représentations graphiques des 17éme-19éme siècles (Rottiers, Flandin, Berg etc.). Avec assez de certitude est possible la restitution du voutement typique du 14éme siecle des deux étages inférieurs qui, comme le "cordonne" qui marquait les trois zones horizontales des façades, ont montré une affinité mor-
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phologique et typologique avec les deux premières tours des Chevaliers de Rhodes déjà mentionnées. Le troisième étage de la tour de Rhodes était très élevé, avec voute d'ogives destinée à faciliter la portée du dernier étage retire et a plan octogonal. (fig.25) Dans ce cas on croix être très précis l'esquisse de la tour perdue publié en 2002 par le, récemment décédé, dodecanesien médecin et collecteur des archives A. Maillis (fig.28)49. Après les événements catastrophiques de 1856, a été paru dans la revue "British Star", Londres, "Illustration News", le (16 dec.1856), et figure très clairement l'intérieur du troisième étage de la tour. Intérêt morphologique spéciale présente aussi l'intégration de son couronnement, en tourelle octogonale, qui possédait apparemment aussi un couvrement en voute ogivale et avait été déjà effondrée en 1856. La communication, au moins des ses niveaux plus élevés, devait être desservie par des escaliers en pierre disposés linéairement et intégrés dans l'épaisseur du mur à droite de l'entrée, de façon que elle soit dans la partie protégée vers l'intérieur du port. Cette disposition se trouve d'ailleurs à la "Tour de France" au Château de Bodrum, (fig.29) aussi qu'a des tours de style analogue en Europe occidentale. Enfin, les paliers d'escalier de pierre en encorbellement, vers la plus haute terrasse, sont caractéristiques comme élément architectural particulièrement visible de toutes les cotes de la tour. La restitution graphique proposée, a comme ambition d'examiner la possibilité d'une documentation précise de ce "symbole" perdu de l'époque des Chevaliers. De l'élaboration des dessins d'architecture exactes devient claire le pourcentage de suppositions, qui sont essentielles pour documenter la forme extérieure et la structure interne du monument50. Aspire à être une valeur inestimable pour les architectes et archéologues, qui seront invités à l'avenir de gérer le difficile, mais très fascinant, projet de la restauration et de la mise en valeur de l'ensemble fortifie du principal port médiévale, actuellement mutile. NOTES 1 Gr. Konstantinopoulou, Archea Rodos, Athina 1986, p. 46 Chr. Karouzos, Rodos, Athina 1973. 2 Chr. Papachristodoulou, Istoria tis Rodou apo tous proistorikous chronous eos tin ensomatossi tis Dodekanissou (1948), Athina 1994 (2é edition com.te). 3 W .Hoepfner, I poleodomia tis classikis periodou, Archeologia 63 (1997), p. 25-39. 4 R.Martin, L'Urbanisme dans la Grèce antique, Paris 1974, p.153-185. 5 I. Konti, Symvoli is tin meletin tis Rymotomias tis Rodou, Rodos 1954, R.E.Wycherley, How the Greeks built Cities, London 1962, p.15-35. 6 La direction du système d'Ippodamus a Rodos était d'un décalage de 3 dégrées vers l'est, par rapport a l'orientation nord-sud. 7 K. Manoussou-Ntella, Schedio prostassias diamorphossis- anadixis tou mnimiakou synolou ton messeonikon ochyroseon tis polis tis Rodou, Rodos 2008, p. 104; A. Trevor Hodge, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, London 1991, p.48-66. 8 E. Biliotou-Avva Kotre, I nissos Rodos, Rodos 1881, p.118-119. 9 Oswyn Murray -Simon Price, The Greek City:From Homer to Alexander,Oxford 1990.
10 M. Philimonos-Tsopotou, I ellinistiki ochyrossi tis Rodou, Athina 2004. 1 M. Philimonos-T. Marketou, Archeologiko ke oikologiko topio tis Rodou. Paron ke parelthon, Actes du Colloque: "Conservation and , presentation of the cultural and natural heritage of the large islands of the Mediterranean", Athens 2006, p.135-148. 2 Gr. Konstantinopoulou, Erga plastikis ke epigraphikis apo to Dionyssio Temenos tis archeas Rodou, AD, v. 48-49 (1994-1995)- Meletes, Athina 1998, p. 76-82; M. Michalaki-Kollia, I ellinistiki Rodos sta oria tis messeonikis polis ke i ermineftiki paroussiasi ton ypollimaton tis, Actes du Colloque "15 chronia ergon apokartastassis sti messeoniki poli tis Rodou", p. 76. 3 H. Kollias, Topographika provlimata tis messeonikis agoras tis Rodou ke tou notiou tichous tou Kollakiou "versus civitatem" , Actes du Colloque "Istoria ke provlimata syntirissis tis messeonikis polis tis Rodou", Athina 1992, p. 81-108. 4 Ch. Karouzos, Rodos, Athina 1973, p.59 et 99. Selon lui, la tête sculptée du dieu Soleil, statuette caractéristique du 2é s. avant notre ère, était découverte, murée, derrière l'Auberge de Provence. 5 A.Gabriel, La construction, L'attitude et L'emplacement du Colosse de Rhodes, "Bulletin de
Correspondance Hellénique" (BCH) 5-6 (1932). 6 A. Gabriel, La Cité de Rhodes, t.1, Architecture Militaire, Paris 1921, p.72-73; K. Manoussou-Ntella, I thalassies ochyrosseis ke ta limania tis polis tis Rodou, DXAE, DA ' (2009) 7 K. Manoussou-Ntella, Morphologika stoichia ton messeonikon pylon tis polis tis Rodou, Actes du Colloque "Glyptiki ke lithoxoiki sti latinokratoumeni Anatoli", Iraklio 2007, p. 255-276. 8 D.J.Blackman, Oi limenes tis archeas Rodou, "Rodos 2400 chronia", Athina 2000, v. A, p. 41-50, K. Manoussou-Ntella, Stoichia poleodomikis analyssis mias messeonikis ochyromenis polis, DXAE KA' (2000), p. 27-42. 9 Jean-Pierre Muret, La ville comme paysage:1 de l'antiquité au moyen -âge, Paris 1980, p. 97-98. 20 P.Lojacono, Il palazzo del Gran Maestro in Rodi, "Clara Rhodos"8(1936). 21 P.Lojacono, ibid, p.314. 22 W. Hoepfner , Rodos ke o theos Elios, "archeologikes erevnes ke evrimata sta Dodekanissa, Rodos, Ialyssos, Nissyros ke Gyali", Germania 2007, p. 104119. Il est mentionne que la base du Colosse de Néron a Rome, dont la hauteur dépassait un peu celle du Colosse de Rhodes, a été trouvée et mesure 14.75 x 17.60 m. 23 P.Moreno, La nuova ricostruzione del Colosso et la personificazione del Demo di Rodi, "Rodos 2400 chronia", v. A, p. 193-200. 24 M. Papaioannou, Rodos ke archea keimena, Athina - Giannena 1995, p. 181, ou on trouve l'epigramme en traduction du grec ancienne. 25 K. Manoussou-Ntella - El. Papavassileiou, Messeoniki Poli tis Rodou: I archeologiki Erevna os vassi gia to synchrono architektoniko schediasmo diefthetissi tis polis, Actes du Colloque: "Nees Poleis pano se palies", (Rodos 27 -30 Septemvriou 1993), Athina 1999, p. 583-602; M.Cante, L'arco quadrifronte sul decumano Massimo, ASA 64-65,(1986-1987),s.175-205; Il Tetrapylon , La presenza italiana nel Dodecaneso tra il 1912 e il 1948, Athina 1997, p.26-31. 26 Gr. Konstantinopoulou, ibid 22, p. 66-69; H. Zervoudaki, Ilios ke alieia, AD v. 30 (1975), Meletes, Athina 1978, p. 1-20; M. Sfakianou, Ra o theos tou Iliou, "Pnevma.gr", 21.1.2005. 27 T. Louggis, I exelixi tis byzantinis polis apo ton 4o sto 12o eona, "Byzantiaka" XVI, 1996; Ch.Bouras, City and Village Urban design and Architecture, "Jahrbuch der Osterreichischen Byzantinistik", Vienna 1981, p. 611-634; G. Lavas, Oi poleis ton Christianikon Vassilikon. Mia symvoli stin poleodomia tou anatolikou Illyrikou, "Praktika tou 10ou Synedriou Christianikis Archeologias", Thessaloniki 1984, v. A'. Eissigisseis p. 581-630; S. Curcic, A rchitektoniki stin epochi tis anasfalias. Eissagogi stin Kosmiki Architektoniki sta Valkania, 1300-1500, Kosmiki messeoniki architektoniki sta Valkania ke i diatirissi tis (epimelia S. Curcic ke E. Chatzitryphonos), Thessaloniki 1997, p. 28-32. 28 H. Kollias, Epimetro, Ch. Papachristodoulou,
Istoria tis Rodou apo tous proistorikous chronous eos tin ensomatossi tis Dodekanissou (1948), Athina 1994 (2e edition complete); A. Luttrell, The town of Rhodes (1306-1356), Rodos 2003, p. 90-93; S.Curcic, Late medieval fortified palaces in the Balkans: security and survival, "Mnimio ke Perivallon", v.6, 2000, p.11-48. 29 J. Bosio, Dell' istoria della sacra religione et illustrissima militia di San Giovanni Gerosolimitano, Roma 1692, p.351, 293. 30 M. Geehlholff- Volanaki, O sismos ke i ekrixi tis pyritidas sti Rodo to 1856 kata ton Hedenborg, "Dromos" 13-14 (1982). 31 A.Gabriel, Architecture militaire, p.67-68. C'est fort possible que les deux étages inferieurs de la tour de Naillac étaient de disposition et analogies identiques avec les voutes en berceau de la partie préservée de la tour en question. 32 A. Gabriel, cit., pl. XXXL3. Actuellement exposè au musée archéologique de Rhodes. 33 J. Mesqui , "Châteaux et enceintes de la France médiévale". De la défense a la résidence. 1. Les organes de la défense, p.89-92. 34 Il s'agit de ce que l'archéologie germanique appelle le " bergfried " ou le " beffroi " en français, terme malheureusement réservé aux tours urbaines. 35 J.Mesqui-N.Faucherre, L'Hygiène dans les châteaux forts au moyen-âge, " La vie de château ", Le Bugue, 1992 (Les cahiers de comarque). 36 A.Gabriel, cit., p.137; E.Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire de l'architecture médiévale, Paris 1997, t.7, p.25, fig.13. 37 F. Enaud, Les châteaux forts en France, Diffusion française 1958; M.J.Pandelle, L'Astarac et le Pardiac : Bassoues-Mirande-Simorre (Histoire, Géographie, Tourisme), Condom-Gers 1966. Je dois, a ce point, exprimer mes remerciements a un grand ami de Rhodes - M. Jean -Bernard de Vaivre -pour son précieux aide au domaine des influences françaises de la tour de Naillac. 38 Il faut noter que Philibert de Naillac, avant son arrivée a Rhodes, était Grand Prieur d'Aquitaine, pas loin de Bassoues. E.Billiotti-A.Cottret, L'ile de Rhodes, Rhodes 1881; J.M.Roger, Fr. Jean de Vivonne Prieur d'Aquitaine (1421-1433), Revue historique du centre-ouest, tome VIII (2008), p.308-313. 39 R.Berger, Les châteaux de la Suisse, Yens 1994, p.62-63. 40 Q. Hughes, Military architecture, England 1991. 41 P. Paraskevaidis, To archeo limani tis Mytilinis, Mytilini 2002 42 A.Gabriel, cit. p. 47. C'est probable que les moulures du "cordonne" des ces deux tours étaient tout a fait identiques. 43 A. Maiuri, I castelli dei cavalieri di Rodi a Cos et a Bodrum, ASAtene IV-V(1921-1922),p.290-343; S. Spiteri, Fortresses of the knights, Malta 2001, p.204218. A.Luttrell, The later history of the Maussoleion and its Utilisation in the Hospitaller Castle at Bodrum, The Maussoleion at Halicarnassus (Reports of the Danish Archeological Expedition to Bodrum), t.2, Aarhus, Denmark 1986, p.114-214. Je dois, à ce
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point remercier M.Anthony Luttrell pour ses gentilles suggestions, relatives a la tour de France au château de Bodrum. 44 C. Barsanti, Rodi descritta e illustrata nel " Liber insularum archipelagi " di Cristoforo Buondelmonti, "15 chronia ergon apokatastassis sti messeoniki poli tis Rodou", Athina 2007, p. 266-278. 45 La tour figure a sa forme finale au manuscrit de Guillaume Caoursin ,date en 1480 qui est conserve a la Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris(cod.Lat.6067), ainsi qu' au gravure de Berhard von Breydenbach de 1483, A.Gabriel, Architecture militaire, p.2. 46 C.Newton, Travels and Discoveries in the Levant, London 1865 (Gravé par W. Severn, après une pho-
tographie de D.E.Colnaghi). 47 H. Kollias, Mastores, protomastores ke michanikoi ton messeonikon ochyrosseon tis Rodou, DXAE DK' (1998), p. 151, fig. 2. 48 Ces dessins sont bases aux relevés exacts de la partie N-E des remparts du port (archive du Ministère de la Culture -TDPEAE " Comité de surveillance des travaux de conservation des monuments de la ville médiévale de Rhodes "). 49 A. Mailis - K. Skandalidis - K. Tsalachouris, I Rodos ton 19o eona, Rodos 2002, p. 211. 50 Conforme à l'article relatif aux principes de la restauration des monuments perdus du " Charte de Venise ".
The town of Rhodes was considered as a "new town" from antiquity until the 5th Century. Rhodes was built at the northern edge of the island facing Asia Minor, for a population that moved from the three most ancient colonies of Greece in a daring programme of new settlement. The colonisation of the town started in 408 BC as the expression of the joint economic and political might of the three powerful city states of archaic and classical times. The territory chosen was in the region dominated by the town of Lalyssos. While the towns of Kamiros and Lindos were mostly dedicated to agriculture, Lalyssos, because of its location, was known for trade and maritime activities, which were gradually growing in importance on the island. From the technical point of view the attention paid to the landscape, allowed the Hippodamus urban plan to be realised on a grand scale, allowing compactness in scale and short distances between the various elements of the town. As we know in the Greek world at a time of great poverty, a network of patriarchal farm settlements were organized into villages. During the following urbanisation until the 8th and 9th Centuries, those settlements merged into one administration without loosing their autonomy until the creation of the city state in classical times, when the social structures were so advanced as to overcome the generic system of statutes. Hereditary monarchy and absolute power were overturned by the economic strength of the landed nobility and by ordinary people such as craftsmen, merchants and seamen. This political system gradually turned into an oligarchy. The political evolution of society in ancient times completely transformed the towns which lost their autonomy but became the centres of large states. Densely populated and congested towns built on strategic sites for trade on the crossroads of civilisations, represent the image of the Hellenistic period. The creation of the town of Rhodes is the result of a precise action and the development of its urban pattern, following the Hippodamus urban plan, includes a network of roads starting from the right-hand corner of the town towards the hill and laid out on terraces known as "andira", each about 3.5m high. The shape and the development of the new town, officially called "Damos Rhodes" in the Doric dialect, are therefore strictly related to its landscape.
MELINA FILIMONOS-TSOPOTOU, ANNA APOSTOLOU
RESTORATION, ARRANGEMENT AND DISPLAY OF THE ANCIENT FORTIFICATION WALL OF NISYROS
Nisyros, with an area of approximately 41 sq. km., is one of the smaller islands of the Dodecanese. According to Strabo, X 489, Nisyros was created during the Gigantomachy, when Poseidon, while pursuing the giant Polybotes, broke off a fragment of Kos and hurled it upon him; the missile became an island, Nisyros, with the giant lying beneath it. Ever since then the giant lives under the island, shaking it while trying to escape. The myth aptly reflects the volcanic activity which has existed on Nisyros since Antiquity1 . Nisyros reached a significant economic and artistic acme during archaic times, as is evident from the rich archaeological finds from the cemetery of the 8th 5th centuries B.C.2. This flourishing continued during the 4th century BC. when Nisyros formed an independent city-state with its own coinage3, as witnessed by the numerous inscriptions found on the island4 . The ancient city was built on a low hill above the present town of Mandraki. It occupied the flat top and the seaward slopes of the hill, ending in an abrupt precipice at the west. On the flat hilltop of the acropolis public buildings and sanctuaries were located. The continuation of worship on the acropolis is evidenced by a large Early Christian basilica of the 6th century AD5 . 1. Plan of the fortification wall on the acropolis of Nisyros
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EN BULLETIN 64
2. The ancient fortification wall of Nisyros 3. The inscription on the south wall of the tower PA2 4. The gateway of the fortification wall
5. Inside south section of the wall. Before restoration work 6. Inside south section of the wall. After restoration work 7. Tower PN5. Before restoration 8. Tower PN5. After restoration
The city, naturally fortified on the seaward side, paid special attention to the fortification of the east and south sides, which were the most accessible in any attack from the plains. The fortification wall, called Palaiokastro by the natives, was built in the 4th c. BC. along the edge of the hill6 (fig. 2). One of the best surviving fortifications from the Classical period in the Aegean, it was described for the first time by the archaeologist Ludwig Ross, who visited the island in 18417 . It enclosed the slopes of the hill down to the seaside cliff at the northwest and extended as far as the rocky eminence where the medieval castle and the monastery of the Virgin 'Spiliani' now stand8 . The construction of this powerful fortification might be attributed to the defence policy of the dynast Mausolus of Karia and his successors, who, for a short period of time (355-332 BC), had acquired control over Rhodes, Kos and the neighbouring islands9 . The wall on the acropolis plateau, where the project of restoration and presentation of the fortification was focused, is 2 to 3,65 m thick, with faces built in courses of trapezoidal blocks of local volcanic black or red stone (basaltic andesite) with a rubble filling (fig. 1). In order to reinforce its defensive capability, the wall was flanked by square towers, solid up to the level of the parodos (wall-walk). Six towers survive along the south part of the wall and two along the east. The moderate measurements of the towers as well as the fact that no interior areas were designated for the installation of ballistic machinery, supports an early date for the fortification. The fifth tower along the south section of the wall (PN5) has two construction phases: the south part was built in the Early Hellenistic period, circa 300 BC, in
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order to reinforce the earlier tower of the fourth century BC. The Hellenistic tower, measuring 8.50 x 8.50 m., is wider than the classical one. It was constructed in the pseudo-isodomic system, with the insertion of headers at intervals between the stretchers . This is characteristic wall masonry that was introduced from Magna Graeca and is encountered frequently in fortifications of the Aegean and the Asia Minor coast10 . The impressive Hellenistic tower stands for almost its entire height, approximately 10 metres. The second tower along the east section of the wall (PA2), 7.50 m. high, is almost square in plan, each side being approximately 7 m. Built with an outer face of quarry-faced trapezoidal blocks of coursed masonry, binding into the fill, it probably belongs to a different construction phase. On the south wall it carries the significant inscription (i.e. of the deme, of public use) (the area five feet from the fortification wall)11 (fig. 3). The inscription defines the minimum width, approx. 1.50 m., of the public zone around the wall, which had to remain free of any use for defensive reasons. This rare epigraphic testimony is dated to 350-325 BC. and is an important piece of evidence for dating the wall. The only surviving gateway in the wall is located in a recess, unseen by the enemy (fig. 4). For further protection, the gateway faced the corner tower of the wall, from which the defenders could fire unobstructed on would-be attackers. The gateway, which survives intact, is 2.10 m. wide and 3.20 m. high. It was shut with a double wooden door secured from the inside by a cross-bar.
Preserved in excellent condition on the inner side of the wall are the staircases giving access to the wallwalk. On its east side there are two staircases, reaching the impressive height of 16 and 18 steps. More stairs on the south side facilitated access to the corresponding towers. In most cases only their base survives. The fortification of an ancient city is the most significant material evidence and the most productive means of bringing to life its history. The fortification wall of Nisyros bears witness to a flourishing ancient city of the Aegean. It is, moreover, one of the best preserved and impressive examples of ancient fortification architecture in the Helladic world. The high quality of construction of the fortification wall, the hard and durable building material and the size of the blocks are the factors that have determined the monument's longevity despite not only natural catastrophe, but also the usual cause of damage, the activities of mankind. Its building material, basaltic andesite, is an especially hard volcanic rock, difficult to chisel and thus does not lend itself readily for reuse. The location of the ancient city of Nisyros, moreover, which was protected by the wall, was moved in late Roman times to a place lower down near the harbour. Thus the site was abandoned and was never changed by later constructions. The ancient wall, after the neglect of centuries, had been hidden by overgrowth and by the fill that reached, at many points, its upper levels. As a result, only
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part of the east section was visible. The landscape had been altered by later fill, natural and man-made, that had covered the scattered blocks of the collapsed sections of the wall. The gateway of the wall was blocked with earth and stones, at least until 1969, the year when it was illustrated in a local calendar . The ruins of the Early Christian basilica of the 6th century A.D. that had been detected within the walls, likewise were smothered in weeds. Only two scattered column capitals were visible. Outside the fortification wall, the hillside, arranged in long, narrow terraces with traditional supporting walls, was systematically cultivated by the island farmers, using surface cultivation as it was impossible to bring in machinery for deep ploughing the area. Thus the ancient cemetery that spreads out over the slopes of the hill escaped destruction and the natural relief of the ground with successive terraces survived. There used to be cultivated fields inside the wall as well, but these were abandoned when the islanders began to be involved in tourism. To facilitate cultivation of their fields, the farmers piled the field stones against the fortification wall; as a result the stairways leading to the towers on the inner side, and a number of intermediate towers preserved to a lower level, were hidden almost entirely by stone piles. The only stairways visible were KA1 and KA2, on the east side of the wall. All the stairways of the south side were buried beneath the stone piles or hidden by the extensive overgrowth. Thus, when the first survey of the fortification wall was carried out in 1999, the positions of the stairways of this side were indicated only provisionally. The first stairway KN1 was totally buried beneath a pile of earth and stones that must have accumulated during the 20th century (fig. 5). Indeed at the beginning of the 20th century, the position of the stairway was visible12 . The resulting basic problems were the difficulty in recognising sections of the wall, the danger of further destruction of the monument by roots and branches, and by the constant passage of goats and cattle that destroyed dry masonry and tumbled the blocks of the fortification wall. The fortification wall on the open area of the acropolis had collapsed, in only a few places. However, the sections of the wall on the steep slopes were pre-
9. Tower PA2. East elevation, before restoration 10. Tower PA2. East elevation, after restoration
11. Tower PA2. Before restoration 12. Tower PA2. After restoration
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served in mediocre to bad condition, because of the steep gradient and the different construction style with large irregular unworked stones, many of which had rolled down the precipice and disappeared entirely. It was urgent, feasible and desirable to make an intervention only on the approachable area of the acropolis. This part of the fortification wall was surveyed for the first time in 199913 . Until then, the interventions of the 22nd Ephorate of Antiquities were limited to clearing, mainly on the entrance section and the east section of the wall. In 2001 the initial study for the restoration of the southwest corner of the tower PN5 was executed14 . Financing of the project by the European Union Structural Funds however ensured its implementation by the 22nd Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, within the South Aegean Regional Operational Program 2000-2006. All the works were carried out with supervision by an appropriate scientific and technical staff15 . All works in the field were carried out by a local work force, except for the works of “anastelosis�, which were performed mainly by specialised personnel of the Ephorate. The works began with extensive clearing and removal of disorderly overgrowth that had hidden and caused damage to the monument. The removal of earth, the aim of which was to identify blocks and sections of the fortification wall, was carried out along with systematic excavation. Select trenches were excavated for resolving scholarly matters and all the movable archaeological finds, valuable for dating the building phases and the archaeological and historical evidence of the monument, were documented. The most important new features that came to light were:
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1. The stairway KN1, and in front of it a second stairway of the Hellenistic period. The stairway was totally buried beneath a pile of earth and stones that must have accumulated during the 20th century (fig. 6). 2. The original threshold of the gateway that had been covered over by later constructions, the cut sockets (for door hinges etc) and the penetrating socket for the bar that secured the wooden gate. 3. Section of an independent reinforcing fortification wall - cross wall - length 15.20 m., outside tower PN4, dated to the Hellenistic period. 4. The floor of tower PN2 with the threshold of a double entrance door with a metal hinge-pin, a feature that shows the tower had an upper floor. 5. Three columns in situ of the central aisle of the Early Christian basilica of the 6th century A.D. 6. Finally two inscribed boundary stones (horoi). One of them was possibly set up after the carving of the inscription on the fortification wall and defined a wider zone of fifteen feet around the wall for public use. The object and purpose of the work was: - conservation and restoration of the accessible section of the fortification wall in the area of the acropolis, - the display of the monument as a whole with the site presented. Preference in the interventions was given to areas with problems needing immediate attention (such as sections that were ready to fall) or that were possible to restore. Basic goals were conservation and protection of the building material, structural restoration, improvement of the monument's comprehensibility, to save it from further collapse and its future protection. The basic aim of the work of arranging the site was to display the monument, to organise the surrounding area into a visitable archaeological site and to show the unity of the historical, archaeological and natural features of the place. The interventions of consolidation and restoration were concentrated on the following sections: Tower PN5. Restoration of the southwest corner16 The initial study for restoration called for the dismantling and resetting of the southwest corner of the tower, which showed significant deviation from the vertical (fig. 7). The excavations that were carried out at the same time, however,
13. Site plan of arrangement and display of the wall on the acropolis
14. Aerial view of the fortified acropolis of Nisyros. After restoration work
revealed 150 more ancient blocks buried in the fill, as well as sections of the destroyed inner face of the walls. Also discovered was a later (late Roman) section continuous with the south wall and constructed of ancient blocks in a second use. On the basis of this information, a new study was made for extending the restoration to include the architectural documentation of the scattered blocks so as to determine their original position and to research the new possibilities of “anastelosis”. Respect for the later phase and the decision to preserve it meant that only 43 ancient blocks were included in the restoration of the exterior and interior faces of the south and east walls, in addition to the 22 that were reset in the southwest corner correcting the deviations. With the “anastelosis” of the southwest corner, the addition of the filling material between the wall faces and the consolidation of the interior fill of the tower, both the stability of the tower and comprehension of its original form were greatly improved (fig. 8). Tower PA2. Restoration up to the final level of the parodos17 The tower had collapsed and the main mass of scattered material remained around the tower (fig. 9, 11). A considerable number of blocks, however, were found buried in fill that was further away or had rolled down the steep slope. It was determined that “anastelosis” of the ruined tower was possible and desirable.This was possible because of the amount of ancient material that was well preserved and because there was full knowledge of its original form. It was desirable both in order to save the ruinous tower and its scattered parts and because it presented a unique opportunity for complete restoration to the original form using authentic material. The difficulties and problems that were encountered were various. The search for scattered blocks meant extensive removal of earth, while the determination of their original position and full knowledge of the original form was successful only with persistence, time-consuming drawings and especially research on the spot. A total of 110 ancient blocks were recovered, 83 of which were set in their original positions. On completion of the study and following approval by the Central Archaeological Council, the work of reconstruction began with the use of a construction crane. The sections that were ready to fall or had shifted were dismantled and reset, correcting the deformations. The deeply destroyed bedding for the foundation was replaced with a belt of reinforced concrete with non-corrosive rods, invisible beneath the fill. The walls of the tower were restored to their original form
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15. South section of the fortification wall. Before restoration work 16. South section of the fortification wall. After restoration work
17. The area of the gate after restoration work
and structure using authentic material to a proportion of 95%; the inner fill of the tower was supplemented, as also the final layering at the level of the parodos of the fortification wall (fig. 10, 12). Curtain wall TA2. Consolidation and restoration18 After documenting and calculating the geometrical deformations, a study was made for dismantling and resetting the upper courses with the declinations corrected. A great danger in this operation was the temporary consolidation of the material used for priming the fortification wall after the dismantling. This was resolved by buttressing from the scaffolding. Curtain wall TA1 - Tower PN5- Stairway KN1. Works of “anastelosis”19 A total of 80 ancient blocks were recovered during the removal of earth in this area. This was followed by survey, research and the a study to identify their original positions. In the “anastelosis”, 57 ancient blocks were added. Transporting and setting of the blocks was accomplished by crane with hoisting winch or by bridge crane, but the precise setting was carried out with absolute monitoring of movement in the ancient way, using crowbars in the ancient lifting holes. The stones were set as dry masonry and stabilised by their own weight, without clamps, as dictated by the authentic building and structural system. No intervention was carried out on Tower PN3 because of its totally ruinous condition down to the foundations. For the destroyed section of the curtain wall TA2, at the north limit of the area of intervention toward the ravine, a analytical study has been approved but it was not possible to proceed with intervention in the framework of available funding. The ethical framework for the interventions of “anastelosis” on the fortification wall were based on international conventions and mainly on the Charter of Venice, taking into consideration each time the new perceptions, on both the theoretical and technical level, and considering the materials and the available means. Among these: - many years of research on the location and the systematic excavation as a basis for the interventions and the application of aims and actions according to the evidence that emerged during the course of the works; - the performing of extensive “anastelosis” only when the original position of the ancient members was known and when infilling in new materials could be
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kept to a minimum; filling in on the basis of hypothesis was ruled out from the beginning, tower PN.5 and the sections PNA, TA1, KN1 were restored using only ancient material; tower PA.2 with 95% authentic material; - respect for the authenticity of the elements of the monument and the ancient structural system meant that disturbing the original structure was avoided and thus dismantling and resetting was restricted to parts about to fall or already fallen and only if absolutely necessary for “anastelosis�; - Together with conservation of the whole, the authenticity of the material was respected, because it preserves important historical and archaeological evidence (traces of working, cutting etc.) and is of special significance in ancient monuments, particularly those of the classical period; - Assurance of reversibility was a basic principle for the restoration; - The principles requiring a harmonious relationship, but also a clear separation of the few additions from the authentic sections, were respected. The choice of local stone (from the same rock as the fortification wall) for the new insertions (5 blocks in tower PA.2) and their working in the ancient way with hammer and point contributed to a harmonious inclusion of the new material. A discretely inscribed date of the intervention distinguishes it from the original material. The restored sections are distinguished from the authentic with the insertion of a distinctive material (lead sheet). Interdisciplinary collaboration was a necessary prerequisite for carrying out the work. In addition to architectural - restoration studies and the study for organisation of the surrounding area, the I.G.M.E. conducted a geological study to determine the causes of collapse and damage to the fortification wall20.
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18. The new installations for the public
19. View of the entrance area from the south
20. Panoramic view of the entrance area
Research studies with proposals for conservation of the stone were also made by the Stone Conservation Centre of the Ministry of Culture21. The studies were based on detailed description, survey and observation (traces of working, cutting, traces of damage etc) of the ancient monument itself and of 350 scattered members that were retrieved. The technology of the interventions combines the ancient techniques with today's scientific knowledge and modern technical means. The use of new material in the interventions was limited to the minimum possible and only after interdisciplinary research so as to assure that it is compatible, reversible and harmless to the monument. - In the “anastelosis� of tower PA2, the spaces left by 5 blocks that were not found were filled in with new blocks made from the same rock as the monument. The shaping of the new members was done with a mould and they were worked in the ancient manner with hammer and point. - Block fragments were restored to their monolithic form by joining them with white Portland cement and joining elements of titanium in invisible blind sockets. Those blocks with little loss of their original mass were filled in with new cast material after being set in place, so as to assure their secure seating. Titanium clamps and dowels were used also for structural strengthening of the upper restored courses of tower PN.5. - Since there are a few small spaces in the body of the walls, because of damage to the stones, lead sheets were used on the bedding surfaces in order to assure contact of the stones and consistent distribution of weight. - The final coating of the top of the tower was made analogous to the original, with lime and local inert aggregate, without cement so as to seal it with a natural aesthetic effect. - The underpinning of tower PA.2 was replaced with modern materials, that is with concrete reinforced with non-corrosive steel, as the old bedding was deeply destroyed and unsuitable for either conservation or restoration. The work of display began with the initial clearing and removal of earth on a broad scale accompanying systematic excavation in order to discover buried sections of the fortification wall. The final organisation of the surrounding area (2007-2008) was based on an architectural planning of an archaeological park22 (fig. 13, 14). Pathways were constructed - walks inside and outside the fortification wall (fig. 17, 18), stone built terraces for demarcation - fencing of the area and installations for the convenience of visitors (guard house - ticket office, toilets and wc for people with special needs). Information plaques placed at special points along the fortification wall assist in the understanding of the monu-
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ment (fig. 8, 17). Basic principles for the study and work of organising the site comprised:respect for and preservation of the immediate environment of the monument in relation to its scale. In designing the new constructions solutions chosen were determined by function, simplicity of form and size, differentiation from the ancient monument and, as far as the extent possible incorporation into the natural environment. The principle of minimum possible intervention was respected and local traditional methods and materials were adopted. The site was provided with a number of stone-built constructions of the same height as the local dry-masonry buildings of the surrounding area, using a variety of natural rocks of various sizes. As a result, the arrangement acquired the aesthetic of a natural place surrounding the monument and harmoniously forming an aesthetic unit with it. The public installations (guard house, wc) were designed and set into the ground in order to be less evident and to protect the views of the monument (fig. 18). Visitor safety and disabled access were determining factors in planning the paths and facilities. . Lengthy research was undertaken to choose the surfacing of the pathways, durable through time and weather conditions, of natural materials without the addition of cement, compatible with the monument and its environment. Lime and local neutral materials finally yielded a durable material resembling beaten earth (fig. 19, 20). Features that were retained were: - the traditional local system (collection of rain-water in underground cisterns-) for supplying the new installations with water. - the traditional farm building that is contiguous with part of the fortification wall and to which the cistern belongs. - the old abandoned path as an alternative and shorter footpath to the archaeological site. The electric lighting system that was installed with careful and critical placing of the lights on stone-built holders, provides a view of the monument at night.The work was completed with a judicious planting of endemic plants which were chosen to fit in aesthetically with the monument and place, but also to withstand local climatic conditions and grazing animals that wander freely on the island. The work of consolidation, “anastelosis” and display of the ancient fortification wall of Nisyros is a contribution to the conservation and enrichment of universal cultural heritage for the following reasons: 1. The monument was saved from the possibility of further collapse. 2. The extensive work of “anastelosis” was carried out almost entirely with ancient blocks reset in their original position with minimal additions. In particular, it was possible to restore tower PA2 to its original form, using the authentic material as far as the final layering at the level of the parodos, a rare accomplishment in the history of anastelosis. It was based on documented interdisciplinary studies, exhaustive archaeological research and detailed architectural documentation. 3. The ”anastelosis” was likewise advantageous because it allowed 185 ancient blocks to avoid being disregarded and to find again the place that belonged to them and was proper for them. The other 335 stones that were pulled out from the fill but were not used in the “anastelosis” received, however, relative protec-
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tion by being catalogued, classified, fully documented and arranged within the archaeological site. 4. The new sections that were discovered in the excavation and restored have significantly improved the monument's comprehensibility and, together with the archaeological finds that came to light, have increased its historical and educational value, contributing to the enrichment of scholarship, archaeology and history. 5. Conditions were created for the monument to be part of contemporary public life. At the end of 2008 an entire functioning archaeological site was presented to the public, providing relaxation, information on the ancient history of the island as well as a walk within an area of extraordinary natural beauty. Also in a specially planned area, a musical event was held in August 2009 that was enthusiastically received by the public.
NOTES 1 Dr Melina Filimonos-Tsopotou, archaeologist, planned, directed and coordinated the work. Anna Apostolou, MSc in “anastelosis”, elaborated and applied the studies for restoration, landscaping and displaying the site; she was also responsible for the architectural documentation of the monument. The civil engineer Kostas Zambas, specializing in “anastelosis”, was technical advisor for structural matters. On-site supervision of the archaeological works and archaeological documentation of the monument was undertaken by the archaeologists Christina Kiamou and Maria Chalkiti. The text was translated by Dr. Myriam Caskey. For the history of Nisyros, see R. Herbst, Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissen-schaft XVII, 1: 761-767. R. Oikonomakis, Nisyros. History and Architecture (Athens 2001). 2 G. Jacopi, Scavi e ricerche di Nisiro, Clara Rhodos VI-VII : 469-552. M. Filimonos-Tsopotou, Nisyriaka 1, Archaiologikon Deltion 35 (1980), Meletes: 60-86. M. Filimonos, Anaskafikes erevnes sti Nisyro, Nisyriaka 12 (Athens 1993) : 143-144. 3 R. Ashton, The coinage of Nisyros , Travaux de numismatique grecques offerts à Georges Le Rider, London 1999 : 15-24. 4 Hiller v. Gaertringen, Inscriptiones Graecae XII 3 (Berlin 1898): nos. 87-166. M. Chaviaras, Nisyrou Epigraphai, Archaeologiki Ephemeris 1913: 16. W. Peek, Epigramme und andere Inschriften von Nisyros, Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift. Martin-LutherUniversität Halle-Wittenberg. Gesellschafts- und sprachwissenschaftliche Reihe, 16 (1967): 369-387. 5 I. Volonakis, Ta palaiochristianika mnemeia tis Nisyrou, Nisyriaka 13 (1994): 158-159. 6 R. Dawkins - A. Wace, Notes from the Sporades,
Astypalaea, Telos, Nisyros, Leros, Annual of the British School at Athens 12 (1905-6): 165 - 169. G.E. Bean - J.M. Cook, The Carian Coast III, Annual of the British School at Athens 52 (1957): 118-119. F.G. Majer, Griechische Mauerbauinschriften I (Germany 1959): 178-180. W. Hoepfner (ed.), Geschichte des Wohnens (Stuttgart 1999) : 135. I. PimouguetPédarros, Archéologie de la Défense. Histoire des fortifications antiques de Carie (époques classique et hellénistique), (Paris 2000) : 298-299. 7 L. Ross, Reisen auf den griechischen Inseln II (Stuttgart-Tübingen 1843): 70-72. 8 G. Gerola, I monumenti medioevali delle tredici Sporadi, Annuario della Scuola Archeologica di Atene 2 (1916): 25, fig. 20. 9 G.E. Bean - J.M. Cook, op.cit: 138-143. S. M. Sherwin-White, Ancient Kos, Hypomnemata 51 (Göttingen 1978): 70 and note 212. S. Hornblower, Mausolus (Oxford 1982): 331-332. See also Pimouguet-Pédarros, op.cit: 314-321. 10 For the masonry, see L. Karlsson, Fortification Towers and Masonry Techniques in the Hegemony of Syracuse, 405-211 B.C., Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Rom XLIX (1992): 67-95. 11 Hiller v. Gaertringen, op.cit.: 18, no 86. F.G. Majer, ibid. M.-Chr. Hellmann, Choix d' inscriptions architecturales grecques (Paris 1999): 13, no. 1. 12 R. M. Dawkins-A. J. B. Wace, op.cit.:167. 13 By the architect Neilos Pitsinos and the topographer Georgia Vasileiadou, see M. Filimonos, Nisyros Archaio teixos, Archaiologikon Deltion 54 (1999), Chronika: 958. 14 K. Zambas - K. Chatziantoniou, Restoration Study of the tower PN5, 2001. 15 M. Filimonos - A. Apostolou, Mandraki, Archaio teixos. Meletes kai anastelotikes ergasies, Archaiologikon Deltion 56 (2001-2004), Chronika, forthcom-
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ing. 16 Above, note 13. 17 A. Apostolou, technical advisor K. Zambas , Restoration Study of the tower PA.2 of the east section of the fortification wall, 2005. A. Apostolou, The restoration of the tower PA.2 of the ancient fortification wall of Nisyros, 1st National Congress, History of building constructions, 2007. A. Apostolou, The restoration of the tower PA.2 of the ancient fortification wall of Nisyros, PA2, 2nd National Restoration Congress, Athens 2009, Etairia erevnas kai proothisis tis epistimonikis anastelosis ton mneimion (ETE?AM).
18 A. Apostolou, technical advisor K. Zambas, Consolidation study of the curtain wall TA2 of the east section of the fortification wall, 2004. 19 A. Apostolou, Restoration Study of the curtain wall TA1 and of the corner tower PNA of the ancient fortification wall of Nisyros, 2006. 20 G. Vouyioukalakis, Pithana aitia ton paratiroumenon katastrofon sto Palaiokastro Nisyrou, Initial geological study (Athens 2003). 21 By Dr. K. Kouzeli, Head of the Department. 22 A. Apostolou, Study of arrangement and display of the archaeological site of the ancient fortification wall
Nissiros, avec une surface d'environ 41 km2, est une des plus petites îles du Dodécanèse. Elle a atteint un niveau économique et artistique considérable dans les temps anciens, comme on le déduit des riches découvertes archéologiques du cimetière dans les VIII-V siècles av. J.C. La période de prospérité a continué pendant le IV siècle av. J.Ch. quand Nissiros devint une cité indépendante, comme témoignent les nombreuses inscriptions trouvées sur l'île. L'ancienne ville a été construite sur une colline basse au-dessus de la ville déjà existante de Mandraki. Elle se situe sur le sommet plat et sur les pentes d'une colline qui descendent vers la mer et terminent dans un précipice abrupt à l'ouest. Sur le sommet de la colline plate de l'acropolis on a trouvé des bâtiments publics et des sanctuaires. L'adoration sur l'acropolis a continué, preuve en est la grande basilique chrétienne du VI siècle ap. J.C. La ville, naturellement fortifiée du côté de la mer, a prêté une attention particulière à la fortification sur les côtés est et sud qui étaient les plus accessibles à tous les attaques des plaines. Le mur de la fortification, appelé Palaikastro par les autochtones, a été construit au IV siècle av. J.-Ch. tout au long du bord de la colline. La construction de cette puissante fortification peut être attribuée à la politique de défense du dynaste Mausole de Carie et ses successeurs. La fortification d'une ancienne ville est le témoignage matériel le plus important et le moyen le plus productif pour faire revivre son histoire. Le mur fortifié de Nissiros est la preuve de la florissante ancienne ville de l'Égée. Il est, de plus, un des exemples les mieux conservés et impressionnants de l'architecture des anciennes fortifications dans le monde helladique.
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AGNI PETRIDOU
MANAGING THE ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE INCLUDED IN THE BUFFER ZONE AREA OF NICOSIA
Post-conflict rehabilitation This paper presents the cultural heritage at risk within the buffer zone area of Nicosia and the efforts of the bi-communal Nicosia master plan team for its safeguard. The management of the cultural heritage under post conflict situations presents a vast complexity of issues such as: negotiation between competing parts in order to achieve technical cooperation, revitalisation of run-down areas, effort to direct local and external resources towards the real needs of all the citizens, effort to build commonly accepted institutions etc. Therefore, this effort is not only a technical issue but becomes a part of the wider peace building process. The Buffer Zone Area in the Walled City is a strip of land running through the center of the city, from east to west. This area has been for almost ten centuries the main commercial and economic center of Nicosia. During the Byzantine and French crusaders period, the city was developed as an important medieval metropolis .Along Pediaios River was developed a famous bazaar which became the hub of commercial transactions between merchants from the near east countries and the maritime republics of Italy .Luxury textiles, silver, copper and many other items were crafted and exported from there. During this period this strip became the arena of many political events like parades and internal conflicts. During the Venetian Times the bazaar was still flourishing but the river's bed was diverted out and on its place was developed an important road-axis connecting the two gates. During the ottoman period the area apart to be the main commercial axis became the main social meeting point between the various communities. The bazaar still hosted particular trades which later gave their names to streets. The Buffer Zone Area today Since the seventies this central strip of land, which constitutes the 10% of the total area of the Walled City, is completely inaccessible and is suffering from an accelerated deterioration process. At the same time has a devastating impact on the development of the historic centre which has been for years subject to physical decay and socioeconomic decline. The effort to safeguard the buffer zone was undertaken by the Nicosia Master
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1. The history of the study area: a. Nicosia during the Lusignan period with the Pediaios running throug the walled city; b. Nicosia in Venetian period,when the new walls was built and the Pediaios river diverted outside the city; c. Nicosia during the Ottoman and British colonial period, the bazar remained along the east-west axis flourishing as the centre of social and commercial life; d. Map of Cyprus nowadays; e. Nicosia, the buffer zone area within the walled city today.
2. Nicosia. social and commercial life along the east-west axis in the first half of 20th century. The bazar still hosted particular trades who later gave their names to streets. 3-4-5-6. Nicosia, the buffer zone area nowadays.
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Plan which is a bi-communal office that has been established since 1979 in order to apply a common planning strategy for the city. Since then a lot of twin bi-communal projects have been implemented in selected areas of the historic centre. The Buffer Zone Area has been identified by the bi-communal Nicosia Master Plan (NMP) as the most important "gluing" area in the functional integration of the City; i.e an area that in the future can become the hub of activities for the benefit of the Walled City and Nicosia as a whole. Therefore this area has to be protected not only because of its valuable architectural heritage but also in order to keep its potential to play a significant role in the
future. The project To enter and make a project in the buffer zone was extremely difficult. The opportunity was given in 2001 when UNFICYP claimed that a number of buildings were ready to collapse and therefore were dangerous for the safety of their patrols So the Nicosia Master Plan took the opportunity to enter and carry out an extensive study with the aim: 路 to prepare a full detailed record of the buildings, 路 to prepare the architectural survey of all the facades and 路 to study supporting measures to prevent the dereliction of the buildings. The project was planned and implemented under the bi-communal Nicosia Master Plan (NMP). The team that carried out the survey was formed by eight young architects' engineers and topographers from both sites under the supervision of the NMP team. Their job on site was dangerous and very difficult. They had to be always escorted by the UN soldiers. The area was inaccessible, full of dust and ruts without any space to rest or be protected in the case of raining. The danger of building collapsing, overgrown
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vegetation along building facades that made measurements very difficult. It was impossible to carry out a survey of the internal spaces because all the roofs collapsed and because the buildings were not checked for de-mining. Despite of that the team was enthusiastic because they had the opportunity to work together and share a unique experience at they were studying the most important part of the historic center of Nicosia that was inaccessible for many decades. Organization of the work The project area was divided into eight sectors ( sector I-VIII ), in order to organise better the large amount of information to be documented .All members of the project team worked together in each sector, for the field work and separately only for the office work. Record The detailed survey of the heritage within the buffer zone includes evaluation forms, architectural drawings, sketches, maps and photographic archive. The two senior architects (G/Cypriot& T/Cypriot) with the assistance of an engineer prepared a detailed comprehensive record of the architectural heritage in the buffer zone. The form for each individual building includes the relation of the building within the urban tissue, date of construction, ownership, typology, stratification of its development, the original function, the architectural value, a general structural appraisal etc,
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Architectural Evaluation The architectural evaluation proved that The Buffer Zone concentrates a large number of very important architectural elements, 80% of these buildings were proposed to be listed as monuments, buildings of exceptional architectural value and buildings of architectural and environmental value This area includes some very important monuments such as medieval churches,
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7. Map of NMP project 1986-today. 8. Architectural quality of buildings within the walled town. 9. Architectural quality of buildings inside the buffer zone area. 10. Diagramns of priority projcts for the area buffer zone area wihin the walled city.. 11. Architectural and structural evaluation of buildins within the buffer zone area. 12-13. Exemple of NMP Architectural evaluation form and architectural analisysis - Technical evaluation form, in the buffer zone within the walled city .
a considerable number of buildings of exceptional architectural value that are also symbolic such as Olympus Hotel, Ayios Kassianos Schools. Many buildings with architectural value that are fine examples of the architectural expression of their time, and buildings of environmental value, which complete the City's historic tissue. Architectural Survey During the two and a half years of the survey, 265 buildings were documented. Architectural drawings in electronic format were prepared including building elevations and architectural details for 238 buildings within the walled city and for 27 detached buildings to the west side of the city, outside the walls. Buildings were measured using a 'Total Station' instrument, as well as traditional methods of measuring. So the difficulty to take measures because of the overgrown vegetation was overcome. Technical Evaluation Forms were prepared which included a description of the structural condition, the construction system and materials and a list of proposed
emergency intervention measures in order to support the endangered structures Structural condition The evaluation of the structural condition of all the buildings, proved that time and neglect had a devastating result to their structural condition Structural support of buildings Within the frame of this project, a number of emergency support measures were undertaken, by the bi-communal Nicosia master plan team in order to safe few valuable buildings that presented serious problems. The basic measures undertaken were: 1. Support of facades with wooden scaffolding. 2. Support of cantilevers
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3. Plastering of adobe facades 4. Replacement of stones, on the base of buildings. Infrastructures The team also documented the general layout of the streets and infrastructure systems in the project area and prepared a series of general maps, pinpointing the elements of each system, detailed plans and longitudinal sections of each street. Ledra-Locmaci opening This was the most excited and difficult project that the NMP implemented in the last 30 years. The time given for the support of the adjacent buildings was just a week. So the team from both sites worked day and night in collaboration with the undp and unficyp in order to prepare the road to be opened. 14. Site map exemple of architectural evaluation of buildings in the buffer zone within the walled city. 15. Study of architectural heritage of the buffer zone within the walls , exemple of building analysis.
16.NMP survey of the buffer zone in the walled city, exemple of index for projects form. 17.Emergency supports for endangered buildings in the buffer zone, after implementation.
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!8. NMP buffer zone within the walled city, poster for the opening of Ledra and Locmaci streets ceremony (3th April 2008).
Conclusion The study revealed the profile of the area as the hab of socioeconomic activity, before the division of the city, At the same time the very poor preservation and structural condition of the buildings clearly pointed out the need for urgent interventions in order to restrain the accelerated physical deterioration. Need for the implementation of a Common Vision for the revitalisation of the buffer zone area and the Walled City as a whole. This particularly important and very sensitive area in the Walled City of Nicosia is proposed to become a major pedestrian route, with a variety of contemporary cultural recreational and educational activities, as well as spaces and squares that can bring people together.
Cet article présente le patrimoine culturel en danger dans la zone tampon de Nicosie et les efforts de l'équipe bi-communautés du plan d'ensemble de Nicosie pour sa sauvegarde. La gestion du patrimoine culturel dans le cas de situations d'après conflits présente une grande complexité de questions telles : négociation entre des parties concurrentes afin d'atteindre une coopération technique, revitalisation d'aires délabrées, effort pour diriger les ressources locales et externes en fonction des vrais besoins de tous les citoyens, effort pour construire des institutions acceptées communément… Cet effort n'est donc pas qu'une question technique mais fait partie du processus plus large de construction de la paix.
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NAYIA SAVVIDOU
MANAGING TRADITIONAL BUILDINGS IN NICOSIA. PROJECTS OF THEIR RESTORATION-REVITALIZATION
My presentation introduces three traditional buildings of the British colonial era that have been restored by Nicosia Municipality. Old Pallouriotissa Market The Project was constructed within the Programming Period 2004-2006. It was co-funded by the Republic of Cyprus and the EU Regional Development Fund. The building was constructed in the 1950s, during British colonial era, and was originally used as a Municipal Market before it closed and fell into disrepair. In the 1980s it was refurbished with a view to housing the Olympic Museum of Cyprus, but unfortunately, after it was refurbished, it remained closed and unused. The aim of the Project was to maintain and restore this historic building of our city and to give it new life and use, and to contribute in this way to the social and economic revitalisation of the area. In co-operation with Pallouriotissa Communal Welfare Board it was decided to remodel the building in such a way as to enable it to host cultural and social activities aimed at the community inhabitants as well as residents of Nicosia as a
1. The plan of Nicosia centre and the location of the three intervention
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whole. The main entrance to the building is on Ayios Andreas street, this leads to the reception hall, the exhibition gallery, the conference & events hall, new auxiliary spaces including lavatories, kitchen and canteen, addition of a new corridor to link the conference hall with the auxiliary spaces. On the first floor there are two offices and a meeting/computer room The building consists of a mixed structure, namely of 40 cm thick load-bearing walls made of Cypriot sandstone and slabs and supplementary columns of reinforced concrete. After a detailed survey of the building the following were performed: All subsequent coatings were removed from the columns in the exhibition gallery and revealed the original, (much smaller), columns. After structural tests had been performed, it was decided to reinforce the columns with carbon fibres. In the adjacent room (the conference & events hall) it was decided to demolish the columns which were in the middle of the room as they restrict the use of the room for functions and events. The existing roof of the room was demolished but the external perimetric walls were preserved. A new roof was constructed on an isolate metal frame structure which was installed inside the perimetric masonry, thus leaving the room plan open with maximum flexibility. The new intervention was made with modern materials so as to clearly state its period and be immediately recognisable in relation to the original structure. On the south-eastern side of the building a glass corridor was added to link the conference hall with the auxiliary spaces and enable the two spaces to function
2. The faรงade of the Old Market before the restoration 3. The faรงade of the Old Market after the restoration
4. Exhibition gallery during the restoration 5. Exhibition gallery after the restoration
6. Conference & events hall before the restoration 7. Conference & events hall during the restoration 8. Conference & events hall after the restoration
independently. The lavatories were renovated and facilities for the handicapped were added. An air conditioning and ventilation system was installed throughout the building with air vents, new electrical fittings and a security and fire detection system was also installed. On the outside of the building access was created for the disabled, both to the main entrance and to the emergency exit. As for the exterior masonry incompatible materials and layers of cladding placed at later stages were removed and replacement of worn parts and re-joining of stone masonry was carried out as well as the cleaning of the faรงade with water jet. What has been achieved: - Rehabilitation of an important building of 1950s - Restoration and maintenance of the municipal market that was the heart of the community - Revitalization and opportunities for economic, social and cultural development, through the use of our cultural heritage to serve contemporary needs - Exhibition gallery, conference and events hall -A space for local community associations and civil society organizations. - Apart from serving as a cultural centre, today the Old Pallouriotissa Market also host social and educational programmes carried out by the Nicosia Municipal Multifunctional Foundation1, to the benefit of Pallouriotissa commu-
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nity and other Nicosia residents. Municipal Centre for Contemporary Social and Cultural Services - Old Poorhouse Like the Pallouriotissa Project this one was also developed within the Programming Period 2004-2006. It was co-funded by the Republic of Cyprus and the EU Regional Development Fund and operates by the Municipality of Nicosia in cooperation also with the Nicosia Multifunctional Foundation The building dates back to the late 19th century and the early years of British colonial era on the island. It was originally used as military barracks, but in the early 20th century extensions were added. For many years it was used as the municipal poor-house and old people's home. The Centre is composed of two long wings, which, as the historical research that preceded the architectural study showed, were built in different phases. The older of the two wings - the north wing - was constructed between about 1880 and 1914 and the south wing, built between 1914 and 1927. The philosophy behind the restoration was based on the principle that it was equally important to restore the historical monument to its original form and to adapt the building to new uses with the aim of serving the needs of modern society. Wherever possible, traditional materials and building methods were used, and where there were weaknesses, modern materials completed the construction work.
9. Photo of the Poor House in 1939 10. The new walk way over the curtain of the Venetian Walls. 11. View of the walk way over the curtain of the Venetian Walls before the restoration. 12. The new structure introduced to join together the two wings of the building. 13. View of the Poor House after the restoration 14. View of the Turkish bath before and after the restoration . 15. The conference hall before the restoration 16. The conference hall after the restoration..
The older of the two wings - the north wing was restored to its original form and houses the cultural activities. The south wing was restored with a view to housing mainly day programmes, chiefly for the elderly but also for other social groups. A doctor's surgery was established, as well as a kitchen - which meets all modern requirements - a dining room, lounge and library, and all necessary sanitary facilities. Access by the disabled was considered of paramount importance and all legal requirements were met in order to ensure unimpeded access to the building. The old Turkish bath which was discovered in the course of the restoration works, and confirmed the historical research findings, was restored in such a way as to enable visitors to perceive its original architectural form. New metal structure was introduced between the two buildings. For the additions modern materials were used (glass, metal etc) and the architectural forms and building methods that were employed make clear distinction from the older parts, and express the spirit of their times. A walkway over the curtain of the Venetian Walls was also introduced New entrance has been created to unify the historical building with surrounding areas Two new Uses of the building have been introduced: Service Centre for the Elderly2 and Multicultural Children Day Care Centre3. What has been achieved: - Daily care for the elderly and persons in need of support
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17. The back side of the Old Isolation Hospital before the restoration 18. The back side of the Old Isolation Hospital after the restoration 19. View of the Old Isolation Hospital after the restoration
20. The front faรงade of the Old Isolation Hospital after the restoration 21. The interior during the restoration 22. The dance class hall 23. The Information and technology class hall 24. The cafeteria
- Programmes that contribute to the integration of migrants and improving their standard of living - Opportunities to more women to enter the labour market - Support to non-governmental organizations through giving them access to the Centre's facilities - Facilities for social, cultural and educational activities and events. Multipurpose Youth Centre - Old Isolation Hospital This project concerns the restoration of the Old Isolation Hospital located at the outskirts of the walled city of Nicosia. The building dates back to the beginning of the 20th century, during British colonial era. Neither documents nor old photographs were found, but the building follows the typology of the Old Poorhouse, a similar complex of the colonial architecture in Cyprus, built on the periphery of the Venetian Walls, between 1914 and 1927. The typology of the plan also recalls the standard plan of health institutions of
this period, with a row of rooms along a verandah, as found in the State Archives (1914-1925). On the Certificate of Registration of Immovable Property, of the Land Registry Office of Cyprus, dated 26 July 1938, the building is described as an Isolation Hospital, consisting of six rooms, two verandahs, two toilets, a water deposit, a kitchen, yard and trees. The project carried out included: - The restoration of the existing building complex, with the minimum additions and alterations, based on international good practice principles and charters regarding interventions on architectural heritage. In order to host a number of special activities, to satisfy the scope of the Youth centre, it was necessary to redesign the interior of the building. - The addition of auxiliary buildings and the redesigning of the surrounding area, for the purposes of the centre, i.e. open air activities, parking places etc. The main building was designed to host the different workshop areas/classrooms where different activities can take place such as music, dance and computer lessons, art activities, lectures and exhibitions etc. The restoration and re-use of the old Isolation Hospital Project is a collaboration between the Nicosia Municipality and the Youth Board of Cyprus. The Nicosia Master Plan Technical team, for the Nicosia Municipality, undertook the study and site supervision of the restoration project, while the Youth Board of Cyprus financed the construction works and took on the management and operation of the new Multipurpose Youth Centre.
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The aim of this project was to revitalize a building long in disuse since its original use no longer related to contemporary life and give to the community a restored building with a new use according to current social needs. The new Multipurpose Youth Centre is a pleasant venue where young people of the local community, but also of the wider city, can spend their free time creatively, cultivate their hobbies or just socialize with their friends. At the Multipurpose Youth Centre young people can participate in a variety of workshops including: - Greek and Turkish language classes - Dance classes - Music classes - Information technology classes In the specially decorated cafeteria young people can enjoy a snack and a drink while reading a book or a magazine of ecological and educational issues, play games or surf the web at the internet café. Like all multipurpose youth centers this gives a place of creative expression and learning opportunities to young people motivating them to participate in civil society.
Cet exposé présente trois bâtiments traditionnels de l'époque coloniale britannique qui ont été restaurés et réutilisés par la Municipalité de Nicosie. Le Vieux Marché Pallouriotissa fut restauré pour être réutilisé comme centre culturel et social pour la communauté locale. La Vieille Maison des Indigents fut restaurée pour accueillir principalement des programmes de jour, surtout pour les personnes âgées, mais également pour d'autres groupes sociaux. Le Vieil Hôpital d'Isolement fut restauré pour être utilisé comme Centre pour les jeunes. Les deux premiers projets furent construits dans la période de programmation 2004-2006. Ils furent cofondés par la république de Chypre et le Fonds de Développement Régional de l'Union européenne. En ce qui concerne le troisième projet, les travaux de construction furent financés par le Conseil de la Jeunesse de Chypre qui prit également en charge la gestion et le fonctionnement du nouveau Centre Polyvalent des Jeunes. La philosophie sous-jacente à la restauration, pour les trois bâtiments, se basa sur le principe qu'il était aussi important de restaurer les monuments anciens sous leur ancien aspect que de les adapter à de nouvelles utilisations dans le but de répondre aux besoins de la société moderne. Partout où ce fut possible, les matériaux traditionnels et les anciennes techniques de construction furent utilisés, et là où il y avait des points faibles, des matériaux modernes complétèrent les travaux de construction. Les nouvelles interventions furent faites à l'aide de matériaux modernes afin de dater clairement leur époque et d'être immédiatement reconnaissables par rapport aux structures d'origine.
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NACIYE DORATLI
MANAGING REVITALIZATION OF THE WALLED CITY OF FAMAGUSTA - A CRADLE OF CULTURES
Introduction When effectively managed, conservation areas can anchor thriving communities, sustain cultural heritage, generate wealth and prosperity and add to quality of life. To realize this potential many of them need to continue to adapt and develop in response to the modern-day needs and aspirations of living and working communities. This means accommodating physical, social and economic change for the better. Past approaches to conservation area management have too often been based on a limited understanding of the heritage resource involved. Through time, it is noticed that throughout the world, under the pretext of expansion or modernization of cities, demolition ignorant of what it is demolishing and irrational and inappropriate reconstruction work is causing serious damage to the historic areas in general and heritage resources in particular. Thus, starting from 1975 with Amsterdam Declaration 1980s has witnessed a considerable shift in heritage protection and Integrated Conservation has become a major concern in area based protection or conservation and revitalization of historic urban areas. As being one of the four historic urban quarters on the island of Cyprus, which is strategically located in north-east of the Mediterranean Sea, the Walled City of Famagusta on the eastern coast of the island (Figure 1), houses many remarkable remains of historical, architectural and cultural heritage of the island. The built artifacts of architectural styles such as Byzantine, Gothic, Renaissance, Ottoman, British Colonial and Modern are the clear evidences of this rich history. As many other historic urban quarters, the Walled City of Famagusta, which is a unique place of the remains and layers of the previous cultures, is faced with deteriora1. The Walled City of Famagusta on the eastern coast of Cyprus
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tion and decay, although during the last couple of decades there have been planning studies and piecemeal implementations for its safeguarding. Thus the main aim of this paper is to question the protection and revitalization measures for the Walled City. Firstly, the concept of integrated conservation will be introduced. Secondly, protection and revitalization measures for the Walled City will be presented. Finally, the Revitalization Plan for the Walled City will be summarized and assessed in the light of revitalization principles and proposals for managing revitalization will be provided. Integrated Conservation The concept of 'integrated conservation' became a popular metaphor for a couple of decades after Amsterdam Declaration, which came out in 1975. It consists of integrating conservation into spatial and urban planning, establishing links between heritage protection and cultural activities and preserving technical and traditional skills. Additionally, it puts emphasis on the importance of conservation through revitalization and indicates indirectly the necessity of strategic approaches towards conservation through revitalization (Council of Europe, 1977). Accordingly, physical conservation meant solutions which simultaneously satisfy economic and social objectives. Thus, revitalization of a historic urban quarter involves three distinct processes in an historic urban quarter (Doratli, 2000) (Figure 2): 路 Protection of Historic Urban Quarters, which focus on protection of cultural heritage; 路 Economic Development, which inherently involves maximization of profit, and sustainability of economic viability and competitiveness; 路 Community Development, focusing on social aspects and well-being of citizens. Ideally, Process of Physical and Economic Revitalization takes place at the intersection of the set of three processes. Being at the intersection, physical and economic revitalization acts as a process of bringing these three processes into balance with each other.
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2. Set of three distinct processes
3. Famagusta, aerial photography
Physical Revitalization Physical revitalization is the adaptation of the physical fabric to contemporary requirements through various modes of renewal; such as: 路 Refurbishment (Conservation and consolidation): The physical intervention in the actual fabric of the building to ensure the ensure the continued performance of its structure and fabric; 路 Conversion (Adaptive use): The adaptation of a building to a new function or use. It involves a greater change than refurbishment and restoration. The allowance for change is limited to a number of factors: - the physical and spatial parameters of the existing building; - the architectural character of the building and the constraints imposed by special historic building controls on permissible change; - the planning policy context;
路 Demolition and redevelopment: Although being undesirable in an historic urban quarter, under certain conditions it might be an inevitable type of intervention within the span of physical revitalization. The efforts made, and practices carried out in an historic urban quarter in respect of its physical revitalization, result in an attractive, well-maintained physical public realm. It should also be noted that, a merely physical revitalization might be un-sustained and short-lived, if the area fails to compete with the rest of the city (Doratli, 2005, p.762). Economic Revitalization In the long run, physical revitalization may not be sustainable and it would only be a 'cosmetic' intervention, unless the buildings are occupied and utilized for economic uses, which renders the structures and consequently, the area competitive with the rest of the city. It is the increasing demand, which would ultimately increase the economic value of the properties and the competitiveness of the area. Based on this argument, it is important to be aware that the historic urban quarters should not only be revitalized in physical terms, but also in economical terms. Thus, physical and economic revitalization should complement each other. Physical revitalization will help to increase confidence in the area, the maintenance of this confidence, however, requires economic revitalization. Thus, economic revitalization involves: 路 Development of competitive advantage for the area relative to other areas to
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restore the economic fortune of the area; · Productive utilization of the private realm that pays for the maintenance of the public realm. (Long-term strategy) Considering that every historic urban quarter is unique in terms of the values, which make it worthy of preservation, the type and level of obsolescence and the inherent development dynamics that it may face make it unique and different from other parts of its city. There can, therefore, be no uniformly strategic approach in terms of revitalization. As was mentioned earlier, there are three basic strategic approaches for the long-term revitalization of historic urban quarters (Tiesdell et al., 1996): - Functional regeneration; - Functional diversification; - Functional restructuring (Doratli, 2005, p.762) Consideration of revitalization as a matter of good management deserves importance, since the solution of the three fundamental problems - the global availability of community resources to support any and all public programmes; the priority accorded heritage conservation among these; and the feasibility of adapting historic structures to modern needs, calls for good management. Framework for Implementation Unless a rational basis for implementing strategies and policies for revitalization is provided, there is a danger that all efforts may remain only as a 'sense' without any fruitful results. For a wide range of decisions and consequently impact on physical, social, cultural and economic issues, the framework for implementation should provide a rational basis to answer the following questions: · What should be preserved, and to what extend? · How to do it? · Rights and duties, responsibility of the actors involved (Who is doing what)? · How to involve the community into the conservation action?
All these issues are crucial for successful implementation related to conservation and revitalization. This would definitely calls for (Doratli, 2000): · An applicable legal basis; · Financial means and tools; · A sound organizational framework; · Public participation.
The Walled City of Famagusta The Walled City of Famagusta is located at the heart of the second largest city of North Cyprus, which has around 35.000 inhabitants. The flagship sectors in the city's economy are the harbor and the university with about 12.000 students. The most important 4 structural elements of the city: - The Walled City (surrounded by the Venetian fortifications and the moat) - The Harbor; - Eastern Mediterranean University; - Kapali Maras (Varosa);
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Over centuries, the city, like the island as a whole, has been ruled by different conquerors and consequently housed many different cultures - the Byzantines, Lusignans, Venetians, Ottomans, British, Turks and the Greeks. Intermingling cultures resulted in a distinctive historical and cultural heritage which makes up the unique identity of the historic city.
General Description of the Walled City Today Total area of the Walled City is 56 hectare inside the Walls, 12 hectare in the Moat. The Walls occupy 3.2 hectare area. Although it is not the most attractive area to live in anymore, 2.250 inhabitants live in the Walled City. There are 811 buildings of which 941 are residential; 703 commercial/shops. The area is faced with high vacancy rates: 16% of houses, 47% of shops are vacant. The most densely used area of the Walled City is the traditional core (Gazimagusa Belediyesi, 2005). As many other historic urban quarters, the Walled City of Famagusta (Figure 1), which is a unique place of the remains and layers of the previous cultures, is faced with deterioration and decay, although during the last couple of decades there have been planning studies and piecemeal implementations for its safeguarding. It should be noted that although being different in scope and content, there has been always some efforts/ measures for protection of the valuable assets of the Walled City. In chronological order these measures can be summarized as follows: - 1931: Listing under Cap.31- First and Second Schedule (monumental buildings), and T.A.H. Mogabgab, who was an architect and director of the Department of Antiquities, has guided the works regarding the upgrading the 4. Character Areas of the Walled City Inside the walled city: Zone 1 Core commercial area 131,60m2 ; Zone 2 Residential area with commercial uses 45,370m2 Zone 3 Residential area 45,370m2; Zone 4 Residential area 71,556m2; Zone 5 Densely open area with historic buildings 60,116m2; Zone 5 Densely open area with historic buildings 43,738 m2;
Zone 7 Densely open area with historic buildings 45,694m2. Walls and moat: Zone 8 walls and moat with outside ramparts 337,366m2. Old harbour: Zone 9 harbour 55,348m2. Total surfaces: With outside border of walled city 594,849m2, With inside border of walled city 562,351m2
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monumental buildings. - 1989: Declaration as 'Conservation Area' - 1997: Pedestrianization of Namik Kemal Square - 1998: Pedestrianization of the main street Istiklal Road - 1999: Listing of 249 buildings. - 2000-:Several piecemeal implementations. - 2005: Revitalization Plan for the Walled City. - 2007: Walled City has been included in the World Monument Watch List 2008 of WHF. Before questioning the latest conservation and revitalization efforts, better to say 'The Revitalization Plan for the Walled City', which is the main aim of this paper, in the following lines this Plan will be summarized. Although this Plan came out about five years ago, only a couple of small projects have been implemented and they couldn't generate any significant impact for the overall revitalization of the Walled City. Therefore there is still strong ground for criticizing the Plan. Revitalization Plan for the Walled City of Famagusta (A Synopsis) The Plan has been prepared by Gazimagusa Municipality and has been funded by EU under Partnership for Future (PFF) Programme and United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS). It has been finalize within nine months (AprilDecember 2005) by a team of planners, architects and landscape architects. Throughout the planning process at critical stages, public participation through meetings with different stakeholders in the city and experts has been realized. Character Area and Tourism and culture-led revitalization strategies have been utilized for this plan. Considering the physical, functional, architectural characteristics and potential of the Walled City, it can safely be claimed that it is an appropriate strategy. Character Areas Based on the distinctive physical, functional and architectural characteristics, nine character areas have been defined (Gazimagusa Belediyesi, 2005) (Figure 4): Zone 1- Core Commercial Area; Zone 2- Residential Area with Commercial Uses; Zone 3- Residential Area (west); Zone 4- Residential Area (north); Zone 5- Densely open land with historical buildings (south-east); Zone 6- Densely open land with historical buildings (north-east); Zone 7- Densely open land with historical buildings (north-west); Zone 8- Walls and Moat and Outside Ramparts; Zone 9- The Old Harbor.
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A Brief Criticism of the Revitalization Plan for the Walled City Even though the Revitalization Plan seems to be comprehensive and well prepared plan, too much emphasis on tourism; ignorance of the symbiotic relationship between the Walled City and the rest of the town; and the ignorance of the potential of the Eastern Mediterranean University seems to be somewhat a weakness. Literature survey reveals that too much emphasis on tourism would result in over consumption of the precious historic environment (Orbasli, 2000, p.42; Graham, 2002, p. 1007). Since the Walled City is part of the whole city of Famagusta and there is a symbiotic relationship between them, the Walled City
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5. Project Proposals I Cultural and Touristic Projects 1.1 Monumental Buildings Walking Trail 1.2 Dwelling Hotel Project 1.3 Marina Hotel Project 1.4 Martinengo multifunctional Fair, Art and Cultural Centre 1.5 Tourist bus stop 1.6 Bugday Cami (Church of St. Peter and St. Paul) visual Art Centre 1.7 Old Police Station (Prison) Gazi Primary School and Sรถmineli Ev Museum complex 1.8 Seagate Exhibition and Concert Hall 1.9 Reconnaissance Survey and Archaeological Potential in the Walled City 1.10 Restoration Project of Othello Castle and expanding the Cultural Activities Project 1.11 Preparing the inventory and Determination of reuse of the Bastions and Creuels 1.12 Expanding the functions of tourist information office by adding the functions of Visitors Centre 1.13 Traditional House Exhibition Centre Project 1.14 Boutique Hotel Project II Social, Communal and Commercial Projects 2.1 Quarantine Building, traditional Handcrafts and Food Market 2.2 Old Warehouse project Building Project 2.3 Council Housing Project 2.4 Carnival and Street Activities 2.5 Famagusta Library 2.6 Kertikli Hamam (Bath) 2.7 Harbour Cafe Restaurant
2.8 Public Toilets III Transportation and Traffic Projects 3.1 Accessibility Projects 3.2 EMU - Walled City Bus Services 3.3 Short Term Car park 3.4 Long term Car park 3.5 Walled City Public Mini Route transportation 3.6 Car park project for Disabled 3.7 Pedestrianisation of Commercial Areas (Core Area) 3.8 The Camel Tours IV Harbour and Marina Project 4.1 Relocating Conventional Harbour 4.2 Rehabilitation of the Shipyard 4.3 Rehabilitation of the Approching Areas of Cruise Ship and Ferry 4.4 Construction of Marina 4.5 Promenade Project V Landscape Projects 5.1 Restoration Area Project in the Moat Historical site 5.2 Martinengo Park and Sport Area 5.3 Modern Sculpture Trail Park 5.4 Landscape Project of Carparks 5.5 Akkule Bastion observation point 5.6 Canbulat Bastion observation point 5.7 Rehabilitation and Upgrade Projects of the Gate Ways VI Walled City Centre 6.1 Habitat Street project 6.2 Istiklal Street Facade Upgrading project
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should have been considered within the context of the city as a whole and competitiveness of both the historic urban quarter- the conservation and revitalization area- and the newly developing quarters should jointly be taken into account. This seems to be missing in the Plan. Literature survey reveals that universities would play a crucial role in revitalization of districts and cities (Mullins and Gilderbloom, 2002, p.163; Forrant, 2001, 613-628). Considering the potential of the Eastern Mediterranean University with about 12.000 students (about 1/3 of the population) as well as the robustness of many buildings in the Walled City, in the proposals and projects this potential would have been utilized. Projects and Proposals in the Plan Revitalization Plan for the Walled City includes fifty eight projects in seven groups of projects as follows (Figure 5): 1. Cultural and Tourism Projects (14): - Excursion path for monuments; - Transformation of houses into hotels; - Marina Hotel Project; - Martinengo Bastion: Multi-purpose center for art and cultural activities; - Bus stop and waiting area; - Bugday (Sinan Pasha) Mosque: Performing art center; - Museum complex: Old prison, Gazi Elementary School, Chimney House; - Othello Tower Restoration; - Sea Gate: Exhibition and concert hall; - Identification of archeological potential of the Walled City; - Inventory of the 10 bastions and 12 cavaliers and determination appropriate functions for them - Transformation of Tourism Information Office into a Visitors Center - Ethnographic Housing museums (Suphi Ezel House and Venetian House); - Boutique Hotel Project. 2. Social, communal and commercial projects (8): - Quarantine Building: Local Handicrafts and Food Bazaar; - Old Storage Buildings: - Shopping center; art studios, exhibition hall, cafĂŠ and restaurant; - Handicraft shops center; Leisure mall; - Shopping, leisure and art complex; - Renewal of Municipality houses; - Festival and Street Events; - Famagusta Library; - Kertikli Hamam; (restoration and use as hamam) - Public Toilets. 3. Accessibility and traffic projects (8): - Accessibility project; - Shuttle service between the Walled City and EMU; - Sort term Parking areas; - Long-term parking areas; - Light public transportation roots; - Parking for disabled people; - Pedestrianization of the traditional core; - Camel tours. 4. Old harbor and marina project (5): - Relocation of the conventional harbor; - Arranging and improvement of the shipyard;
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- Improvement of the docks; - Marina project; - Promenade project. 5. Landscape projects (7): - Moat project; - Martinengo Park and Sport area; - Modern Sculpture route and park; (under construction); - Carpark landscape project; - Akkule (Ravelin) bastion: Observation deck; - Canbulat (Arsenal) bastion: Observation deck; - Enhancement of gates. 6. Traditional Core Area Improvement project (9): - Habitat streets; - Face-lifting of the buildings on Istiklal street; - Face-lifting around Namik Kemal Square; - Rehabilitation of the contrasting buildings; - Paving the cul-de-sacs; - Improvement of the area between Desdemona Park and the Walls; - Rehabilitation of the buildings higher than the silhouette; - Demolition of the buildings in the moat, on the defensive walls; - Improvement of the garden of LMM. 7. Legal and administrative projects (8): - Management Unit for the Walled City Development - Promotion image and communication - Legal Projects - Financial resources - Gazimagusa Master Plan - Promotion of the Revitalization plan - Efforts for listing the Walled City in the World heritage list of UNESCO - Guidelines for the physical development and enhancement of the walled city. Having utilized a strategic planning approach at the end, an action plan has been proposed for all project under seven categories, indicating their basic features; relevant authorities; priority ranking (short/ long term); cost (if already studied); potential financial resources; potential constraints. When categorizing these projects from physical revitalization & economic revitalization point of view, without considering their priority ranking, 36 projects can be considered under physical revitalization and the rest (22) under economic revitalization. The first group is composed of those, which would mainly be carried out by public authorities and would convey to the improvement and enhancement of the area. The projects, which can be considered under economic revitalization, no matter whether they will be realized by either public authorities or private sector or as a joint venture between the two, are much more troublesome and complicated. Managing Revitalization As our main concern is how to manage the overall revitalization as it more related with implementation matters, at this point attention will be paid to the last group: Legal and administrative projects, which seems to be proposed for management purposes: 1. Management Unit for the Walled City Development 2. Promotion image and communication
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3. Legal Projects 4. Financial resources 5. Gazimagusa Master Plan 6. Promotion of the Revitalization plan 7. Efforts for listing the Walled City in the World heritage list of UNESCO 8. Guidelines for the physical development and enhancement of the walled city. However, these projects are not as precise as those with spatial character and it would not be an appropriate decision to classify some of them as ordinary projects such as: legal issues, Gazimagusa Master Plan. There is a need for a more comprehensive and holistic approach. Proposal for Managing Revitalization of the Walled City The framework for successful implementation related to conservation and revitalization would embrace an applicable legal basis; financial means and tools; a sound organizational framework; public participation (Doratli, 2007). Without this essential basis, the best plan would not be realized at least within the time frame in which it is desired to achieve results. Unless certain important measures are provided for implementation, Revitalization Plan for the Walled City of Famagusta is faced with threats, which would hinder its realization.
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Legal Basis Given that in the Revitalization Plan Report the Municipality of Gazimagusa is considered as the flagship authority, it would be difficult to take necessary measures regarding the legal issues. Because, authority in terms of conservation of historic urban quarters is restricted to a larger extent to the domain of 'Antiquities Law' and 'Town Planning Law', to the central authorities (Antiquities Department and the Department of Town Planning). Examination of both Laws reveals that there is an urgent need to revise a range of Laws, in order to provide basis for effective action to realize conservation and revitalization. This is far beyond the authority of the municipality. Additionally, when considering the recommendations of Amsterdam Declaration, which is 'far-reaching legislative reform, in conjunction with an increase in administrative resources' (Council of Europe, 1977, p.44) is necessary for transforming decisions into effective action; protection of historical and cultural heritage should be taken from the domain of legislation directly related or affecting conservation, to a much larger domain of many other legislation. These revolutionary amendments are far beyond the authority of the local authority. It should be noted that in addition to the laws which directly related to conservation of historic urban quarters, there are many other legislation, which influence any action in these areas such as: § Law of Environment; § Law of Tourism; § Law of Municipalities; § Law of Immovable Property; § Civilians Defense Law; § Social Housing Law; § Law of Foundations; § Income Tax Law; § Law of Tax on Immovable Property; When considering these Laws, it is rare that provisions of them support conservation actions. On the contrary, there are provisions that are incompatible with the objectives of conservation. Therefore, all should be amplified, in order to comply
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with the objectives of conservation and revitalization of historic urban quarters, ensuring the survival and enhancement of these qualities. They should be amplified to: . Increasing attractiveness & competitiveness; . Sustaining economic viability; . Facilitating and stimulating private & public property development; . Satisfying basic human needs; . Increasing attachment to the area; . Guarantee participation; Of course it is not an easy task, since the domain of practice of many different public authorities would definitely be affected. Although being difficult, through an efficient arrangement, it can be realized. Town Planning Department as the central authority would be the appropriate address to coordinate this action. Organizational and Administrative Basis Before discussing the organizational and administrative basis, it is worth to highlight the basic actors not only in the revitalization process but also the interest parties in the protection of the Walled City at international and local levels: - Central Authorities: executing the legislation directly related or affecting conservation and those that influence any action in the historic urban areas. - Local Authority: No direct responsibility in terms of protection/conservation of historic areas. Depending on sensitiveness of the Major, it can be expected that piecemeal enhancements would be realized. - Private sector and the community (inhabitants of the city and the Walled city, shop keepers, NGOs etc.) - International Community: European Union, European Commission, United Nations, Europa Nostra. Thus, there is a need to provide a basis to synchronize the efforts and action of all these actors. In that sense the proposal of the Revitalization Plan to establish a Management Unit for the Walled City Development is of high significance. However, what has been proposed for the responsibilities of this Unit is restricted to only the implementation of the project proposals of the plan. In order to guarantee Revitalization in a full sense, it should be a sort of autonomous agency to act as a special non-commercial/ non-profit agency to provide direct links between potential users of buildings and their owners, in strong collaboration with Department of Antiquities and Town Planning Department as well as international community. This Unit should also be responsible for the preparation and application of the Guidelines for the physical development and enhancement of the walled city. In addition to the actions to be undertaken by this unit, Municipality of Gazimagusa has to take measures to encourage the Plan such as: - To devote an appropriate part of their budget to historic areas; to seek from governments the creation of funds specially earmarked for this purpose; - To provide tax relief to shop keepers in historic areas; - To regulate real estate tax for the benefit of the Walled City; - To provide meeting places, preferable in historic areas, in order to enable members of the public to consult together the problems and issues in these areas; - To take measures against the disfigurement in historic areas, which is caused by the erection of poles, pylons and electricity or telephone cables and placing of large-scale advertising signs; - To exert rigid control over billposting, neon signs and other kinds of advertise-
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ment, commercial signs, which are incompatible with the traditional tissue, in accordance with the guidelines, which would be developed by Management Unit for the Walled City Development. Municipality together with central authorities should promote the establishment of effective organizations at community level. There are different alternatives with respect to conservation-oriented organizations: - Foundation of Conservation- For the Walled City of Famagusta (each historic urban quarter), a special foundation should be established. A tentative study on this for the Walled City of Lefkosa has already been done in 80's at the Town Planning Department, under the Law of Foundations. This should be an example and be a prototype for similar foundations. The Mayor, residents, owners, shopkeepers, trade unions, Chamber of Architects, financial institutions, banks, and community organizations, all might be participants of this foundation. It should be noted that in the USA, protection of historic heritage has been successful to a larger extent through practices of 'National Trust for Preservation'. - Cooperatives for Conservation- It has been seen that there are successful examples of this kind of organizations for rehabilitation of historic houses in many cities. Owners might establish a cooperative under the auspices of the Municipality, in collaboration with Department of Tourism, and for technical support with the universities. It should be admitted however that, it is a difficult and complicated task to make it realized. Besides, there is a strong need for political will and support, to start with a completely reformist framework. Finance and Funding Even the best legal and organizational framework for conservation and revitalization of historic urban quarters would not permit adequate preservation and enhancement, if practical and material means fail to exist. It is the financial means and tool, which would convey to the realization of any kind of conservation and revitalization efforts. -Funding Although the investment program has not yet been prepared, considering the high number of projects and high number of monumental buildings, which are subject of these projects, it can be estimated that there will be need for international fund raising (especially for infusing new life to the monumental buildings). -Financial resources It is a well known fact that financial means and tools should be made available to 'promote' and 'reward' a great variety of private owners in historic urban quarters, and to offset additional costs resulting from the legal protection of the building or area. In the plan, a variety of financial means and tools have been proposed such as:
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These financial means and tools have to be generated by the Muncipality, and central authorities. Public participation In order to make heritage and conservation issues an important part of the public agenda, public support must be encouraged. This can only be achieved through application of different modes of public participation. To some extend this has been practiced in the preparation of the Revitalization project as many representatives have been invited to meetings at certain points of the decision stage. However, this should be extended to include as much people as possible. Setting up the Management unit would be a good opportunity to provide direct links between potential users of buildings and their owners. Concluding remarks It is a clear fact that the newly prepared 'Revitalization Plan for the Walled City' should be considered as a very important step for the safeguarding of the centuries old historic buildings, be monumental or mundane, which are the architectural heritage in the city. It is equally important that the international community shows high interest in the protection of this valuable place, through providing funds for the preparation of the revitalization like European Union and United Nations, or through including the Walled City in World Monument Watch List 2008 of WHF as a World Heritage; setting up a taskforce for Famagusta like ENSC. However, even the best plan would remain only as a well-done study unless it is implemented. Therefore, it is inevitably necessary to provide the necessary legal, organizational and financial basis that would support the implementation of the Revitalization Plan for the Walled City of Famagusta.
References: - Council of Europe (1977) A Future for Our Past, European Architectural Heritage, Strasbourg. - Doratli, N. (2000) A Model for Conservation and Revitalization of Historic Urban Quarters in Northern Cyprus, unpublished PhD thesis, Eastern Mediterranean University, Famagusta. - Doratli, N. et al. (2001) Revitalizing the Walled City of Gazimagusa (Famagusta), Open House International, .26/1: 42- 58. - Doratli, N. (2005) European Planning Studies, Vol. 13, No. 5. - Doratli, N. et al. (2007) Revitalizing a Declining Historic Urban Quarter- The Walled City of Famagusta- North Cyprus, Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 24/1: 65-88. - Doratli, N. (2007) KKTC'de Tarihi Kentsel Alanlarin Korunmasina Iliskin Yasal Çerçeveye Elestirel Bakis, in Aysegül Mengi (ed.), Kent ve Planlama, Geçmisi Korumak Gelecegi Tasarlamak, Rusen Kelese Armagan, II. Kitap, Imge Kitapevi. - Forrant R. (2001) Pulling together in Lowell : The university anf the regional development process, European Planning Studies, 9/5: 613-628. - Gazimagusa Belediyesi (2005) Gazimagusa Surlariçi Canlandirma Plani Rapor I Mevcut Durum, unpublished report.
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- Graham, B. (2002) Heritage as Knowledge: Capital or Culture, Urban Studies, 39/5-6: 1003-1007. - Mullins R. L, Jr, Gilderbloom JI (2002) Urban revitalization partnerships: perceptions of the university's role in Louisville, Kentucky, Local Environment, 7/2: 163-176. - Orbasli, A. (2000) Tourists in Historic Towns, E & FN Spon. London. - Tiesdell, S. et al. (1996) Revitalizing Historic Urban Quarters, Architectural Press, Oxford.
Si correctement administrées, les zones de la conservation peuvent ancrer des communautés prospères, soutenir l'héritage culturel, produire de la richesse et de la prospérité et améliorer la qualité de la vie. Dans ce but, plusieurs d'entre elles ont besoin de s'adapter et de se développer en réponse aux besoins de nos jours et aux aspirations des communautés existantes qui travaillent. Cela veut dire favoriser le changement physique, social et économique au mieux. En tant que l'un des quatre quartiers urbains historiques sur l'île de Chypre, stratégiquement localisée dans le nord-est de la Méditerranée, la ville fortifiée de Famagouste sur la côte orientale de l'île, conserve beaucoup des remarquables restes de l'héritage historique, architectural et culturel de l'île. Comme beaucoup d'autres quartiers urbains historiques la ville fortifièe de Famaguste est une place unique, resumèe des differentes couches des cultiures antèrieurs. Aujourd'hui elle se trouve face à la détérioration et à la décadence, bien que pendant les deux dernières décennies peu à peu on a entrepris de réaliser des projets pour sa sauvegarde. Donc le but principal de ce document est de mettre en question les mesures de protection et de revitalisation pour la Ville Fortifiée. Premièrement, on introduira le concept de conservation intégrée. Deuxièmement, on présentera les mesures de protection et revitalisation pour la Ville Fortifiée. Enfin, on résumera le Plan de la Revitalisation pour la Ville Fortifiée et on l'évaluera à la lumière des principes de la revitalisation et on fournira des propositions pour la gérer.
ISIK AYDEMIR
LA PRISE DE RHODES D'APRÈS LES SOURCES OTTOMANES
Pendant les deux siècles qui succédèrent à la fondation de l'Empire Ottoman, on dispose de peu de documents écrits sur l'histoire de l'Empire. De plus, les sources Byzantines et Arabes concernant cette période, dans certains cas, sont contradictoires. C'est à partir de la conquête de Constantinople, avec le Sultan Mehmet II et surtout avec Soliman le Magnifique qu'on voit apparaître des chroniqueurs. Toutes les campagnes du Sultan sont écrites par des chroniqueurs et illustrées par des artistes du palais. Les sources dont j'ai disposées pour préparer mon intervention sont donc basées sur ces chroniques enrichies de très belles illustrations. Dès le début du règne de Soliman le Magnifique on voit un changement, une amélioration des relations entre les Ottomans et les Vénitiens qui les conduisit à la signature d'un traité comprenant plusieurs articles afin de résoudre les questions politiques, militaires, commerciales et juridiques entre les deux puissances. Ce traité permettait aussi la libération des prisonniers des deux côtés et la reconnaissance des frontières. Il servira d'exemple et de base pour les autres traités ou conventions qui seront signés avec les autres pays européens. Le plus important traité passé avec la France avait pour but d'arrêter Charles Quint qui voulait contrôler toute la région Méditerranéenne.
1. Rhodes, la Mediterranee et les Routes Maritimes, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C., December 1983
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2. Les Forteresses des Hospitaliers au Dodecanese , STEPHEN C. SPITERI, Fortresses of the Knights, p. 25 , Book Distributors Ltd, Malta 2001
3- Rhodes et le Port de Marmaris, PIRI REIS and his charts, from, Kitabi Bahriye Nuruosmaniye Library, 2997, N. Refioglu Publication, p.34, Istanbul, 2006
Cette nouvelle politique ou ouverture des Ottomans envers les pays européens fut bien perçue par l'Occident. Ainsi, en profitant de ce rapprochement avec l'Europe, en s'alliant avec la France et en assurant la neutralité des Vénitiens, Soliman le Magnifique, comme son grand-père, pris la décision de conquérir Rhodes et de mettre fin au pouvoir des Chevaliers dans la mer Egée. On accusait les Chevaliers de frapper les rives d'Anatolie et de faire le commerce de l'esclavage ainsi que de fournir des armes et des munitions au gouverneur de Damas qui s'était révolté contre le Sultan. S'y ajoutait la réponse impertinente et même arrogante du Grand Maitre à la lettre de Soliman le Magnifique qui rappelait à l'Ordre de respecter les intérêts de l'Empire Ottoman en Méditerranée, écrite lors de son avènement au trône. En outre, la prise de Rhodes était importante pour Soliman le Magnifique afin de prouver qu'il était supérieur à son grand père le conquérant qui avait déjà échoué à Rhodes en 1480. De toutes façons, pour l'Empire Ottoman qui suivait la politique d'élargissement vers l'Occident, le contrôle de la Méditerranée, des routes maritimes, était une condition 'sine qua non'. Il ne pouvait donc pas supporter la présence et le contrôle militaire de la Méditerranée de l'est par n'importe quelle autre puissance militaire. Ainsi, le moment semblait très propice à la conquête pour Soliman. Le Pape Léon X combattait la réforme qui divisait les Chrétiens. La rivalité entre Charles V et François Ier pour contrôler l'Europe battait son plein. Le roi Henri VIII d'Angleterre voulait d'abord frapper les français catholiques avant d'intervenir sur les ottomans musulmans. Ainsi, le Sultan, s'assurant de la neutralité des Vénitiens, venait de signer un traité d'alliance avec François Ier contre Charles V le jour même de son départ d'Istanbul pour Rhodes le 16 Juin 1522. On ne connaît pas la date exacte du départ de la flotte ottomane de Gallipoli. Mais selon les sources ottomanes on sait qu'elle se composait d'environ 300 bateaux de guerre et d'environ 400 chalands prévus pour le transport des soldats, des munitions et des canons de l'armée de terre, du port de Marmaris à
4. Rhodes, PIRI REIS and his charts, from, Kitabi Bahriye Nuruosmaniye Library, 2997, N. Refioglu Publication, p.35 Istanbul, 2006
5.Rhodes, KATERINA MANOUSSOU Medieval Town of Rhodes,p .11, Ministry of Culture,Rhodes, 2001
l'ile de Rhodes. La flotte ottomane accosta au nord-ouest du port de Rhodes sur un site qui s'appelle 'Villanova' (ou 'Phanaes' ?) le 24 Juin 1522. Le conseil de guerre de la flotte ottomane réuni juste après l'accostage prit la décision : - d'attendre Soliman le Magnifique avec l'armée de terre avant de s'engager dans la guerre, - de prendre des mesures pour arrêter les bateaux qui pouvaient venir à l'aide des Chevaliers, - de renvoyer une partie de la flotte, en particulier les bâtiments utilisés pour le transport des soldats à Cavo-Bovo ?, endroit situé de l'autre côté, au sud-est de la ville, pour préparer le siège (creuser des tranchées, construire des installations pour les bataillons). Une grande partie des grands canons de 11-12 palmes c'est-à-dire 120 cm de calibre furent débarqués sur ce site. Le passage de ce convoi devant le port fut réalisé avec succès malgré les tirs des canons des Chevaliers. La défense de la forteresse de Rhodes était plus efficace et intelligente que celle de la forteresse de Belgrade. La forteresse de Rhodes, renforcée de nouveaux murs et de puissants canons depuis le siège sans succès du Sultan Mehmet II, devenue imprenable, était défendue par des Chevaliers de plusieurs nationalités européennes qui combattaient pour l'honneur de leurs patries. Le Grand Maître, commandant assez âgé mais militaire très expérimenté, d'origine française, était Philippe Villiers de l'Isle Adam. L'entrée du port était obstruée par des navires chargés de Chevaliers qui empêchaient les ottomans de se rapprocher du port. Selon les sources ottomanes, l'armée ottomane était composée de 110 000 soldats en incluant ceux de la marine, tandis que celle des Chevaliers était d'environ 12 000. De plus 40 000 soldats de l'armée ottomane furent envoyés pour contrôler et conquérir les forteresses des îles avoisinantes. Dès l'arrivé de Soliman le Magnifique, le 19 ou le 28 Juillet 1522, avec l'armée de terre et suite au refus de l'acte de reddition par les Chevaliers, la bataille de Rhodes fut lancée.
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6- Rhodes tard 16éme siècle, gravure, Athènes, Librarie de Gennadeion. 7- Port de Rhodes, fin 18éme siècle, gravure, Choiseul Gouffier, Medieval Town of Rhodes, p .30, Ministry of Culture, Rhodes, 2001
L'armée ottomane était répartie en 5 divisions, commandées par les grands pachas ottomans. Au nord, en face de la Porte de la Victoire , contre les bastions allemands et français, commandés par Joachim de St. Simon et Von Waldner, Rumeli Beylerbeyi (gouverneur général des souverains des terres de l'Europe) Ayas Pacha, · En face de la Porte d'Amboise, contre les Espagnols et les Auvergnats, commandés par Francisco de Carreras et Fernandez Solleret pour les espagnols et par le Chevalier de Mesnil et le Vicomte Raymond Roger pour l'Auvergne, le vizir Ahmet Pacha, · Au centre contre le bastion anglais, commandé par Nicolay Juzy et Sir William Whaston, le vizir Mustafa Pacha, · Au sud contre le bastion de Provence, commandé par Bérenger de Lioncel et Raymond de Picard, Anadolu Beylerbeyi (gouverneur général des terres
8- Tour Naillac, fin 18éme siecle, gravure, Choiseul Gouffier, Medieval Town of Rhodes, p .34, Ministry of Culture, Rhodes, 2001 9- Choiseul Gouffier, autoportrait, peintre -artiste, Ambassadeur de France au près de l'Empire Ottomane a Constantinople, fin du 18éme siècle.
d'Anatolie) Kasim Pacha · Au Sud-est à la porte de Saint Jean, ou porte de Couskinou, contre les Italiens, Andelot Gentili et Giorgio Emara, le grand vizir Pir i Mehmet Pacha , · Sur le port, Don Juan de Barberan. La tente du Sultan était installée en face du centre, sur la colline de Saint Damien et Saint Cosmo, en arrière des forces commandées par le Vizir Mustafa Pacha. Pour les Chevaliers, le Grand Maitre l'Isle de l'Adam, le commandant général des forces de l'Ordre, commandait le secteur le plus fragile des murailles, à la Porte des Victoires. Le chef de l'état major était Gabriele de Pomerols. En renfort, on avait prévu quatre troupes à l'arrière pour venir en aide aux différents secteurs de défense. 150 soldats comme police militaire assuraient l'ordre dans la ville Chaque division de l'armée ottomane était munie de canons en nombre suffisant de grand calibre. La première attaque ottomane fut lancée par Ayas Pacha 'le commandant des armées de Roumélie' contre le secteur allemand commandé par Von Waldner. Le 24 août, 24 navires de guerre envoyés par le gouverneur d'Egypte avec des renforts vinrent rejoindre la flotte ottomane. L'offensive générale la plus redoutable eu lieu le 24 septembre, le bastion espagnol tomba mais voyant la résistance des autres bastions, les ottomans se retirèrent. Le bilan de cette offensive fut très lourd pour les Chevaliers : en plus de la destruction des murailles, une grande perte morale. Outre 10 offensives générales, on compte une centaine d'attaques locales. La flotte ottomane avec l'arrivée de l'hiver, tenant compte des conditions météorologiques, se retira au port de Marmaris. La bataille de Rhodes fut longue et très dure. Il y eut des deux cotés des pertes importantes. Environ 20 000 ottomans trouvèrent la mort. Peut-être la plus meurtrière de toutes les campagnes de Soliman. Hayirbay le gouverneur d'Egypte était parmi ces pertes. Les champs de bataille était remplis de milliers de balles de canon. L'artillerie, les tirs de l'Ordre étaient très actifs et influents. D'autre part les remparts endommagés par les tirs de canons des ottomans étaient vite réparés
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10. Le plan de la forteresse de Rhodes montrant les secteurs défendues par les different nationalites des forces de l'Ordre, S. C. SPITERI, Fortresses of the Knights, p. 124, Book Distributors Ltd, Malta 2001 .
11. Le schéma montrant les attaques Ottomans et la défense de l'Ordre avec les noms des commandants depuis les chroniques ottomans, fait sur le plan de S. C.SPITERI.
par les Chevaliers. Ainsi le Sultan devant ces grandes pertes changea de tactique. Au lieu d'attaquer directement les remparts, il fit placer ses puissants canons sur des collines élevées par l'armée ottomane, pour mieux battre l'intra-muros et en même temps creuser plusieurs galeries souterraines pour installer des explosifs sous les remparts. Selon les sources occidentales, on estime à 60.000 les soldats- mineurs dans l'armée ottomane. A cette époque déjà, les ottomans avaient bien compris et appréciés l'importance de l'utilisation des explosifs et de la poudre et ainsi ils avaient développés de nouvelles tactiques de siège. Les fortifications de Rhodes, surtout avec l'ajout de nouveaux boulevards après le siège de 1480, étaient en parfait état et en plus bien armées par une artillerie très puissante pour cette époque. Les armures utilisées par les Chevaliers les rendaient moins vulnérables que les janissaires. Mais leur nombre était insuffisant, ils leurs manquaient de la main d'œuvre, de la poudre, des explosifs et du matériel pour réparer les murailles. L'hiver approchait, avec les tempêtes et peut-être aussi suite à certaines politiques menées envers eux, aucune aide ne semblait venir de l'occident. Au bout de 5 mois de siège les Chevaliers voyant la destruction des remparts et des installations de défense, les pertes humaines, n'eurent d'autre choix que d'accepter l'acte de reddition imposé par le Sultan. Ainsi, ils devaient quitter l'Ile avec leurs bateaux, ainsi que leurs armes et leurs biens sous 12 jours. La population qui voulait quitter l'Ile pouvait les accompagner.
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Quelques Notes Importantes : Du coté des Chevaliers le personnage le plus illustre, après le commandant, le Grand Maître L'Isle de l'Adam, était 'Gabriele Tadini da Martinengo', le célèbre ingénieur vénitien qui malgré l'opposition de Venise avait quitté son
poste important en Crète pour venir renforcer et préparer la défense de Rhodes. Ainsi il fut reçu à l'ordre de Saint Jean et décoré par la médaille de' Grande Croix'. Il fit d'abord construire un autre mur à l'intérieur des remparts et des galeries souterraines entre les fronts avancés. Mais le succès de Martinengo était plutôt : * d'utiliser une technique très avancée pour réparer les murs endommagés par les tirs des canons ottomans, * d'orienter les tirs des canons de l'Ordre, * de détecter les galeries souterraines qui traversaient les murailles vers la ville, ouvertes par les ottomans pour y mettre des explosifs, en utilisant une technique très innovatrice : suivre les vibrations des particules de sable posées sur les peaux tendues des tambours posés par terre, * et ensuite de construire des galeries pour les confronter. Sur les miniatures ottomanes dessinant le siège, on voit bien qu'une grande partie des batailles se sont déroulées dans les galeries, sous la terre. La conquête de Rhodes fut l'une des guerres les plus difficiles pour l'Empire Ottoman, même le Sultan de temps en temps pensa lever le siège et s'en retourner à Constantinople. D'ailleurs la campagne fut très critiquée par certains pachas ottomans du point de vue de son intérêt militaire, stratégique et financier. Ils pensaient qu'elle était inutile. A la suite de la conquête, l'Ordre céda les 10 forteresses situées sur les îles égéennes à l'Empire Ottoman. Les chroniques ottomanes nous informent de l'utilisation de bombes explosives pour la première fois dans l'histoire militaire et de bombes incendiaires utilisées par l'armée ottomane depuis la prise de Shkodra en Albanie. Ces bombes, fabriquées avec du cuivre, étaient lancées sur les murailles par des appareils spéciaux. Il faut aussi noter l'utilisation des obusiers, développés depuis la conquête de Constantinople. On parle aussi de la présence d'un espion du Sultan dans l'Ordre de St. Jean , Don Andrea d'Amaral qui, ne pouvant supporter l'élection de l'Isle de l'Adam comme Grand Maitre, avait établi des relations avec l'Empire Ottoman. Dévoilé, il fut exécuté pendant le siège. Un des événements tragiques suite à la conquête fut l'exécution du fils du Sultan Cem, l'oncle de Soliman, qui fut battu par les forces de son frère et se réfugia à Rhodes, selon la loi à la succession au trône. Le Sultan qui avait beaucoup de respect et d'estime pour le Grand Maitre l'Isle de l'Adam, impressionné par son courage et son intelligence militaire, lui proposa de rester et de servir dans l'armée ottomane. Celui-ci refusa sous le prétexte qu'il était trop âgé pour cette mission. Selon certaines sources ottomanes, le Sultan très impressionné par la tristesse et la sagesse du Grand Maitre, avait même exprimé son regret quant à la conquête de l'Ile et au départ des Chevaliers à ses proches. La bataille de Rhodes fut l'une des campagnes les plus spectaculaires de Soliman le Magnifique après celle de la conquête de Belgrade. Elle a été illustrée comme toutes les campagnes de Soliman telles Belgrade, Vienne, Bagdat.., par trois miniatures faites sur des esquisses réalisées sur place par des artistes du Palais de Topkapi. L'auteur de ces miniatures est connu sous le nom de Matrakçi Nasuh. Janissaire,
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d'origine bosniaque, il participa à toutes les campagnes de Soliman le Magnifique. La première miniature illustre l'arrivée de Soliman sur le champ de bataille et les dernières préparations pour le siège. Au fond, sur les remparts, on voit les soldats des Chevaliers, qui inspectent les janissaires avec des regards indifférents. A leurs côtés, à droite, on remarque la conversation intime de deux officiers. Au milieu, à l'extra-muros, sur les collines, les janissaires se rassemblent. Certains sont déjà dans les tranchées et sont prêts à ouvrir le feu. Derrière les collines on voit les archers et au centre de la composition, le Sultan sur son cheval accompagné par ses gardes (solaks, hasoda agasi, peyks...) qui arrive. Il donne des ordres aux mineurs qui creusent des galeries souterraines pour rejoindre les remparts. A droite, derrière la colline, les cavaliers ottomans (les spahis) en ligne se dressent sous leurs drapeaux. Tout en bas de la page on voit les serviteurs du Sultan qui traînent ses chevaux.
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Sur la deuxième miniature, une scène plus avancée du siège est dessinée. En bas, on voit le Sultan, derrière la colline toujours accompagné par ses gardes habillés selon leurs fonctions. Il donne des ordres aux mineurs qui sont déjà dans les galeries souterraines. Leur mission est très dangereuse : installer des explosifs sous les remparts, sans être détectés par l'ennemi. Cette scène nous montre l'importance donnée aux mineurs, aux galeries souterraines et aux explosifs par les ottomans pour démolir les remparts. Ils avaient bien maîtrisé et ainsi utilisé cette nouvelle tactique dans plusieurs campagnes. Un groupe de janissaires avance vers les remparts en ouvrant le feu. Un autre groupe, derrière la colline, attend pour remplacer ceux qui tombent et même peut-être, d'après les armes qu'ils portent, pour chercher un moyen de rejoindre les remparts et attaquer de plus près l'ennemi. Un janissaire fait signe à ses compagnons comme s'il voulait dire que tout n'est pas encore dit... Les archers sont toujours sur place veillant sur le Sultan et les cavaliers attendent comme des statues… La forteresse est largement agrandie, elle est plus impressionnante, la façade
12.Le siege de Rhodes 1522, de Hans Sebald Beham (coutesy of Michael Losse), STEPHEN C. SPITERI, Fortresses of the Knights, p. 25, Book Distributors Limited, alta, 2001. 13.Miniature illustrant l'arrivée de Soliman le Magnifique sur le champ de bataille et les dernières préparations pour le siège. Matrakçi Nasuh,artiste du palais, Musee du Palais de Topkapi, FEHER G. Miniatures Turques, Librairie Gründ, Paris, 1978
14.Miniature illustrant l'evolution du siege et la bataille bat son plein, Matrakçi Nasuh, artiste du palais, Musee du Palais de Topkapi, FEHER G. Miniatures Turques, Librairie Gründ, Paris, 1978 15.Miniature illustrant la chute de la forteresse, la victoire des ottomans et la cruaute de la bataille, Matrakçi Nasuh, artiste du palais, Musee du Palais de Topkapi, FEHER G. Miniatures Turques, Librairie Gründ, Paris, 1978
colorée est ornée de divers motifs géométriques. En haut, aux remparts, sur les regards menaçants des soldats se lit d'abord de la fermeté puis quand même un peu d'inquiétude. L'artiste avec un style très décoratif veut nous montrer l'atmosphère psychologique du siège. Le Sultan insiste, encourage incessamment les mineurs, mais avec un regard désespéré…le temps passe, l'hiver arrive, la forteresse estelle vraiment imprenable ? Faut-t-il tout arrêter et s'en retourner ? La dernière miniature montre la victoire des Ottomans. Cette composition est la plus complexe des trois miniatures et même la plus animée de toutes les compositions qu'on connaît de l'artiste. On voit le déroulement des diverses scènes de la bataille. Au milieu on voit les janissaires qui pénètrent dans la forteresse par une partie démolie des murailles, ils attaquent en ouvrant le feu. Un autre court derrière un soldat ennemi pour le capturer. Un janissaire entraîne deux prisonniers vers les lignes ottomanes. Les cavaliers se montrent plus intéressés par les événements qui se passent autour d'eux. En bas, le Sultan toujours avec ses serviteurs, est en train d'examiner les trois prisonniers qu'on lui présente, le regard attristé par l'ampleur des pertes. A l'arrière deux hasoda agasi, deux officiers de la garde du Sultan discutent peut-être de la bataille. En haut on voit un soldat ottoman, probablement d'origine Caucase ou de Russie d'après ses habits, en train de donner des coups d'épée mortels aux deux Chevaliers.
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Tout en haut de la page, on voit sept femmes qui crient, qui pleurent en faisant des gestes suite à la perte de leurs proches et touchées par la cruauté de la bataille. Les dessins mouvementés des drapeaux, les actions, l'animation, les gestes des personnages, tout est bien dessiné pour bien exprimer la fin de cette campagne historique.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE: S.M. IPSIROGLU, Chefs-d'œuvre du Topkapi, peintures et miniatures, Bibliothèque des Arts, Paris, 1980. G. FEHER, Miniatures Turques, Libraire Gründ, Paris, 1978. S. ÇAVUS, Tarih-i Feth-i Siklos Estergon ve Istol(n)iBelgrad or Suleymanname, The Historical Research Foundation Istanbul Research Center, Istanbul, 1998. S.YERASIMOS, Constantinople de Byzance a Istanbul, Editions Place des Victoires, Paris 2000. ISMAIL HAMDI DANISMENT, Izahli Osmanli Tarihi Kronolojisi, Rodos seferi 1522, Türkiye yayinevi, Istanbul 1947, p.75-93. STEPHEN C. SPITERI, Fortresses of the Knights, , Book Distributors Limited, Malta 2001, p. 106-125. KATERINA MANOUSSOU, Medieval Town of Rhodes, Ministry of Culture, Rhodes 2001, p.11-21.
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There are only a few written documents relating to the two centuries following the foundation of the Ottoman Empire and moreover the Byzantine and Arab sources are often contradictory. The first chronicles appeared after the conquest of Constantinople by the Sultan Mehemet II and especially under the rule of Soliman the Magnificent. All the campaigns of the Sultan are described by famous chroniclers and documented by the artists of the court. At the beginning of Soliman's reign the relationship between the Ottoman Empire and Venice improved and thanks to this a treaty with many articles with the aim of finding a solution to political, military, commercial and legal matters between the two powers, was signed. This treaty allowed the liberation of prisoners on both sides and the definition of borders. Moreover it became a model for all other treaties and conventions that were signed with other foreign countries. Among these the most important was the one signed with France, the purpose of which was to limit the claims of Charles V of Spain over the Mediterranean. This new Ottoman policy of openness was well received in the West, therefore thanks to the alliance with France and the neutral position of Venice, Soliman the Magnificent, following the lead of his grandfather, decided to conquer Rhodes in order to put an end to the power of the Knights of St. John over the Aegean Sea.The storming of Rhodes was important for Soliman the Magnificent in proving that he was better than his grandfather the "Conqueror", who besieged but did not capture Rhodes in 1480. Anyway to keep control over the Mediterranean and its maritime routes was an essential condition for the Ottoman Empire in pursuing the policy of openness towards the West. For this reason military control over the Mediterranean could not be left to one of the other powers. Also the timing was perfect: Pope Leo X was struggling against the Reformation that was dividing the Christian states, the rivalry between Charles V and Francis I for dominion over Europe was at its height and King Henry VIII of England was busy fighting against France so that he could not intervene against the Ottomans.
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BERRIN ALPER AND MEHMET ALPER
AMASRA CASTLE: A SMALL FORTIFIED CITY ON THE BLACK SEA
Amasra is a county town located on the coast of the western Black Sea. The settlement is geographically on a promontory, composed of building blocks projecting into the Black Sea. The Zindan Kale /Kale Adasi (Dungeon Castle) is connected to the shore via an isthmus which comprises the inner castle settlement. To its east can be seen, the "Küçük Ada" that is united with the islet. From the Zindan Kale one can cross to the second inner castle settlement "Boztepe Adasi" via "Kemere" bridge. The "Büyük Ada" at the north is independent and uninhabited. The topographic arrangement of these land pieces vis a vis each other generated two coves that trap the strong winds of the Black Sea. The one on the east is called " Büyük Liman" and the one on the west is "Küçük /Antik Liman". History Amasra is thought to have been founded by seamen from Miletos in the 7th c.B.C. as an Ionian city named "Sesamos". Sesamos soon became one of the significant centres of commerce along the western coast of the Black Sea. Specifically rich forestry products like box, acorn, chestnut, hazelnut and walnut from which oils can be extracted were an important factor in the development of commerce. 1. Amasra general view
2. Islets forming the Amasra settlement
In the history of Amasra, the most significant period was the rule of the Persian Princess Amastris in the 4th c. BC. Following the campaign of Alexander the Great to the east, Amastris came to Anatolia and founded an independent city and continued to rule it until she was murdered by her two sons. The city got its second name "Amastris" from this princess. Nothing apparent has remained from Amastris other than its name and coins. The settlement pattern and monuments of the city that the princess founded probably survived until the 3rd c., when, following the establishment of Christianity, the Hellenistic structures were damaged along with the Roman ones. Today the remnants of this period can be seen in the remains of the quay at the harbour, in the lower courses of the city walls and in the building stones of the castle. The Pontus era (226-270 BC) were years of prosperity in Amastris. According to Strabo, Amastris continued the box trade, was a significant city with its busy harbour, agora and well maintained neighbourhoods and was one of the few cities having the authority to mint coins. However, shortly before 75 BC, the city witnessed great ravages during the Rome-Pontus wars. Today only the exterior wall segment of the Boztepe Adasi is dated to the Mitridates (121-63 BC) by Crow and Hill in a comparative study.
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Amastris became one of the leading centres of timber production around the beginning of the 70s BC. Access to the city was exclusively by sea due to high mountains running parallel to the Black Sea shore until it was linked to the Roman land route running from Bythinia to Pontus in the 1st c. BC. The lodging at the entrance point to the city called "Kus Kayasi" is marked by a monument attributed to the Emperor Claudius (41-54). Amastris gained an identity as an harbour of transit and exchange as in earlier centuries as part of the Roman sea trade extending to the Crimea and the Caucases. The western harbour became a trade centre, while the eastern harbour was a naval shelter. Roman settlement traces on the neck and the main land behind consist of the remains of a basilica and a theatre as well as the canalised stream that was explicitly mentioned in the letters of Pliny written to Trajan. Amastris became an important Apostolic centre following the transformation of the Roman Empire as a Christian state into the Byzantine Empire; it strengthened its position among the church hierarchy and ascended to the level of a metropolitan in the 10th c. In 860, Amastris was severely damaged, churches were demolished and the city plundered by pirates from Russia. The city was reduced in size and took refuge in the castle after this major historical calamity. In 1936 treasure hunters found the remains of a church belonging to a
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monastery on the desolate rock in Büyük Ada. Based on excavations and historical research made by S. Eyice, it is estimated that the church could date to the beginning of the 8th c. and be connected with patriarch Kyros who was in office at the time of Emperor Iustinianos. While the Amasra Castle was controlled by the Byzantines in the 13th c., it is documented that Italian merchants settled here and established a trade centre. In the 14th c., despite the fact that its entire hinterland was captured by the Turks, Amasra remained in the hands of the Byzantines with its administration controlled by the Genoese. Up to 1460 the city continue to be a transit depot of this state and it became the last remaining refuge harbour for Christian ships sailing in the Black Sea. The Genoses administration in Amasra is documented by coats of arms placed on the walls and gates. Among these, other than the ones belonging to the Genoese State, coats of arms belonging to well known Genoese families are prominent. One of them is particularly significant for it roughly dates the Genoese rule in Amasra. A stone situated in the façade of the Içkale (inner cas3. General view of Amasra. The ancient harbour in the foreground, Boztepe islet on the left, Zindan Castle on the right. In the background the bridge connecting Büyükada and Zindan Castle is seen. (Photo: Eyice, Demiriz, Hattatoglu) 4. The monument over the Roman road called "Bird Rock"
5. The plan of the remains of the Byzantine Church on Büyükada ( after S. Eyice) 6. Roman ruines (Gymnasium?) called "Bedesten" locally (after S. Eyice)
7. Genoese coats of arms (a Genoa - Boccanegra, b Genoa - Boccanegra, c D'Auria, d. Visconti (scratched out), e Genoa, ?, D'Auria).
tle) bears the coat of arms of the Genoese doge Simone Boccanegra. Simone Boccanegra served as the Genoese doge from 1339 to 1344 and again from 1361 to 1363. Among the coats of arms is one with a snake motif, a famous one belonging to the D'Auria family, dukes of Milan, who conquered Genoa in 1421-1436. The reason why the stone with three coats of arms over the gate of B端y端k Liman dated 1431, and the stone currently preserved at the Museum of Amasra dated 1424 both begin with a defaced coat of arms could possibly be related with this event. In 1436 when Genoa was released from D'Auria control, his emblem must have been erased from these stones. It is in 1460's that Amasra came under Ottoman rule. The Christian population of the city were sent to Istanbul. The city under Ottoman rule became a minor Turkish harbour and lost it historical importance and significance.
8. East harbour gate: the Outer gate built in Genoese times with its coats of arms, and the Inner gate. 9. Byzantine lighthouse in the ancient harbour. 10. Walls of "Keep Out" Castle.
11. General plan of fortifications of Amasra ( From Crow and Hill). 12. West Gate of "Zindan Castle" (Inner Gate). 13. West Gate in 1930s (Amasra Municipality Archive), and the Facades of "Zindan Castle" (outer west gate).
14. Phasing of the Amasra City Walls.
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Castle of Amasra A comprehensive analysis of the chronology of the Amasra Castle has been made by James Crow and Stephan Hill. The information presented here is based on their research. The Amasra Castle surviving today is a Byzantine defence system raised above a Hellenistic base. At the time of the Genoese, major repairs and additions were made. In the Byzantine period, the settlement zone became entirely confined to the walled city and building stones and pieces taken from the antique structures were used in the construction and repair of the Byzantine walls. There is a bipartite defence system in Amasra.: the residential area was on "Zindan Kalesi" and "Somagir Kalesi (Keep Out Castle) was possibly used as a military base on Boztepe Adasi. The aim of both of the defense systems was to guard the east and west harbours. Therefore the southern walls of both of the
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15. Southern walls of Zindan Castle built in the Byzantine Period (8th-9th c) 16. "Dark Gate" Inner gate/ "Boztepe Gate" 1846 (drawing: J.Laurens) 17. The Boztepe Gate formed of spolia and ashlar
from the classical period. A vaulted passage was later added. 18. Vaulted passage of the Dark Gate 19. The southern facade of the Dark Gate added in the last phase.
castles facing the harbours were fortified by a double-wall defence system. At the same time the rocky nature of the terrain in both of the islets required no more than a single wall, while at the north coast of Boztepe, no wall system was built. Researchers have noted that from the 7th c. onwards, in the Byzantine period, the design of the walls is far stronger and more complex than was actually required. It is argued that this was because it was a harbour used by the Byzantine imperial navy. Also there is a lighthouse from the Byzantine period at the west harbour, and chain parts, possibly used to defend the harbour, were discovered at the workshops on the south side of the harbour in 1993. These support the hypothesis that it was strongly defended. On the other hand, while there is no evidence of monuments relating to the civil life on Boztepe, which protects the island from the north, the existence of a double wall defence system could be explained by its importance as a military harbour. If that is so, we can conclude further that the Zindan Kalesi is a Byzantine Castle which was built within the classical period city, whereas the extra space on Boztepe was fortified for military concerns and for guarding the harbour that the Byzantine navy used. Crow and Hill mentioned different construction stages of the Amasra Castle: Hellenistic substructure, Byzantine (3 stages), Geneose (2 stages). The walls of Zindan Kale, rising on rocks, represent the Hellenistic dry wall substructure with framed ashlar masonry (east gate outer wall foundation, inner west gate, Boztepe walls). The framed stone technique is used at the first stage of the Byzantine block masonry technique. On the other hand, the remains of quays reflect traces of the Hellenistic period. It is argued that the Boztepe Hellenistic wall system could belong to the Pontus Period (1st c. BC). The most significant section of the early Byzantine period is the south west Zindan Kalesi wall. This is a double wall and provided with east and west gates at its ends. The inner wall rising up to 9m is fortified with rectangular towers. The outer wall starting at the ground level of the inner wall is again provided with rectangular towers. The position of the gates opening to the area between the walls indicates that they were constructed simultaneously. The analysis of the Byzantine walls shows different construction stages.
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Initially the masonry technique incorporated mortared blockwork (including crushed brick or beach gravel). Later, spolia from classical buildings were included and such spolia were used at the lintels or frames for decorative purposes. Block work can be seen up to the top courses of the walls between the east and west gates, whereas it can be seen in the lower courses in the rest of the wall. This blockwork can be dated by comparison with the Ankara and Amasya walls dating from the 7th and 8th c. and details of the second construction stage can be compared with the remains of Iznik dating from the 8th c. To refine the chronology of the Amasra walls, the barbican projecting at the entrance of Boztepe, the "Karanlik Kapi", is particularly significant. To the front of the Boztepe gate, which was constructed with blockwork mainly of the classical period, a vaulted passage was added when the last stage the south faรงade of the gate had been constructed. Spolia elements for decorative purposes were chosen in order to ornament the faรงade. This gate is dated to the 8th century based on comparisons made with Ankara and Iznik. The section extending from the east gate of Zindan Kalesi to the east, comprising the north walls and outer west gate and east walls of Boztepe, indicate an important second construction stage. In this stage blockwork foundations were reused but smaller stones were incorporated in the masonry in the upper levels. Another specialty of this period is the brick work observed at the round bastion and partially in the arch of the outer west gate. The outer west gate, added in front of the inner west gate of the Zindan Kalesi, is also a second stage Byzantine construction. As in the first stage of the Byzantine period, the lower courses of the faรงade were constructed with large blocks, but the upper levels belong to late Byzantine and Genoese repairs where courses are not distinguishable being made of small stones or bricks. The projection over the outer west gate must have been a Genoese addition, because a similar feature can be seen over the entrance of Iรง Kale. Other examples of the second stage of Byzantine construction are two churches built within the castle. The small chapel called the Kilise Cami, is built with small stones with brick string courses. The big church, Fatih Cami, twice as large as the smaller chapel, is a single nave basilica constructed over early Byzantine period blockwork bases with alternating brick and stone masonry. Until the 1460's, the Zindan Kale remained under Genoese rule, during which repairs and additions were made. In this way, the inner castle was divided into two, in other words a private zone was created.
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This part of the castle was called by the locals a "Genoese Chateaux". The Spaniard, Clavijo, who visited Amasra in 1404 mentioned that the city outside the fortified area was in ruins with big buildings and churches. According to him, the Genoese benefited only from the harbour and tried to keep the castle in good condition for the protection of their goods and themselves. Genoese interventions are indicated by the coats of arms placed on the walls, some of which are still visible. Genoese coats of arms can be divided into two series and these overlap with two structural stages. Two coats of arms date from 1430-35 and rest of them date from 1421-36, a period when it was ruled by Milanese or just after it. Further evidence indicating Genoese repairs of the walls is the use of white mortar in the masonry. Conclusion In Turkey in 1974 the Ministry of Tourism and the Bank of Tourism initiated "Tourism Investment Zones" on the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts based on Tourism Planning activities and the investments were promoted by loans. The Black Sea coast with its dense wet weather, its hard geography and unusual life style, was not considered in this project and development of this area was left to the responsibility of local governments. On the other hand Amasra was surrounded with significant coal mining and steel manufacturing centres like Eregli, Zonguldak, Karab端k and Bartin. With this economic progress Amasra began to receive internal migrants and transformations began in its socio-economic structure. It was in the 1950s that Amasra joined the domestic tourism industry as a holiday resort on the western Black Sea; it was a holiday destination for office workers from the capital city, Ankara, until the 1980s, when the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts became popular. However, from the 1970s Amasra became a holiday resort and local attraction for factory workers in the middle to low income bracket. Consequent transformations ruined the fabric of the inner walled city, which is situated in a very limited residential area and soon traditional houses gave way to poor quality apartments. Furthermore the proximity of the castle to the beach led to tourism companies concentrating on building hotels, pensions etc. in the inner walled city. In spite of such negative progress local governments in the Black Sea region came to value the natural and historical environment and cultural heritage and
20. The Genoese gate to the inner castle in July 1847 (drawing: J.Laurens) 21. Coats of arms over the Genoese gate: Poggio, Genoa, Malaspina.
22. Spolia on the walls (bull's head, eros) 23. Genoese bastion on the inner castle wall. 24. Great Church, Fatih Mosque. 25. Small Church, Church Masjid.
believe that preservation of cultural heritage would support economic development. In 2003 the Amasra Municipality joined the "Turkish Association of Historical Cities" (the 12th member of the European Historical Cities Association) in order to further the unification of historical cities and to create a common heritage understanding of urban, cultural and environmental values among these cities. In this regard the Amasra Municipality received an award in 2008 for the project which transformed the Genoese Ch창teaux into a Museum for Genoese Coats of Arms. The project is still seeking funding. With the aid of non-governmental organizations, academics, artists, and interested local people, the protection zone of 2005 was incorporated into the Management Zone and interventions for protection and evaluation based on a sustainable management plan were commenced. Dialogue and cooperation with other member cities of the Association of European Historical Cities has to be fostered in Amasra which has historical connections with European Mediterranean Cities, and brotherhood should be established among such cities. In terms of joint studies, academic and cultural activity has to be organized with national and international contributors and technical visits and publications should be generated.
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Bibliography Nerrative of the Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo to the court of Timour at Samarcand AD. 1403-6, Translated by C. R. Markham, The Hakluyt Society, London 1859, p. 57 Crow, James; Hill, Stephan., (1990), Amasra Byzantine and Genose Fortres on the Black Sea, Fortress (2), pp. 3-15. Crow, James; Hill, Stephan., (1995), The Byzantine Fortifications of Amastris in Paphlagonia, Anatolian Studies (45), pp. 251-265. Eyice, Semavi., (1951), Amasra, Türkiye Turing Otomobil Kurumu, Istanbul. Eyice, Semavi., (1951), Amasra Büyükadasi'nda Bir Bizans Kilisesi, Belleten, (60), pp. 469-496. Eyice, Semavi., (1953), Amasra'da Cenova Hâkimiyeti Devrine ait Armali Bir Levha, Belleten, (65) pp. 27-40, planche 21. Eyice, Semavi., (1954), Deux anciennes aglises Byzantines De La Citadelle d'Amasra, Cahiers Archeologiques (VII), pp. 97-105, planche 37-38. Eyice, Semavi., (1955), Das Denkmal von Kusyakasi bei Amasra (Paphlagonien), Istanbuler Mitteilungen, (VI) , pp.109-112. Eyice, Semavi., (1965), Küçük Amasra Tarihi ve Eski Eserleri Klavuzu, TTK, Ankara. Jules Laurens'in Türkiye Yolculugi- Le Voyage de Jules Laurens en Turquie (1998), Çev. T. Ilgaz, H. Anamur, Yapi Kredi Yayincilik., Istanbul. Sakaoglu, Necdet., (1999), Çesm-i Cihan Amasra, Kültür Bakanligi ve Tarih Vakfi Yayinlari, Istanbul.
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Amasra est une ville située sur la côte ouest de la mer Noire. Elle est supposée avoir été fondée par les marins de Milet au VII siècle av. J.-C. La période la plus significative de son histoire est le règne de la princesse persane Amastris, fondatrice de la ville. Les établissements et les monuments de la ville ont été conservés jusqu'au III siècle av. J.-C., mais pendant le Christianisme les structures hellénistiques et romaines ont été endommagées. Les vestiges de cette période sont: les restes du quai dans le port, les murs inférieurs de la ville et les pierres du château. Au cours du royaume du Pont (226-270 av. J.-C.) Amastris s'est identifiée en tant que port de passage et d'échange comme durant les premiers siècles des trafics maritimes romains. Les traces romaines sont: les restes d'une basilique et le théâtre aussi bien que le canal. Amasra devient un centre apostolique important ainsi qu'une métropole pendant l'Empire byzantin. En 860, elle fut sérieusement endommagée par les pirates russes, par conséquent les dimensions de la ville furent réduites et se limitèrent aux alentours du château. Au XIII siècle, le château de Amasra appartenait aux Byzantins; entre-temps les commerçants italiens y placèrent un centre commercial. Au XIV siècle les alentours d'Amasra devinrent turcs mais la ville resta byzantine et son administration fut laissée aux Génois. En 1460 Amasra tomba dans les mains des Ottomans, devint un petit port turc et perdit son importance. Le château de Amasra est aujourd'hui conçu comme un système de défense byzantin construit sur une base hellénistique. Au temps des Génois, on été faits des travaux de rénovation.
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PATRIZIA VALLE
MASTER PLAN OF CITTADELLA'S WALLS: CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT.
In developing the proposed theme we wish to avoid attaching undue importance to the new use as such, but rather to emphasise the meaning and relationships that are established with the process of modification of the cultural Heritage, because the restoration inevitably produces an acceleration of this process. The theme, "conservation and management", includes the issue of use, which brings us back also to the sphere of the useful, or rather the idea of "integrated conservation", a concept that provides a common measure of restoration and research of compatible functions. Conservation encompases the use of the restored property, including also the change of use from the original function. It is possible to express in the re-utilization project, the concept of "formative process", so that the new function sometimes becomes more appropriate than the original, in a process of continuing moves towards perfection. After all when we speak about medieval towns, we cannot ignore their walls and the fact that they are inseparable from the city's image. However, the meaning is not only related to the defensive role, but also has been, and is still, representative of a community itself, symbolised in these walls. Through modern research, profound changes have taken place in the interpretation of national and regional history, as informed by medieval archeology, so that the study of 1. Cittadella Historical Plan, B. Mantovan, 1705 (Bartolameo S., Ceschi C., Cittadella. CittĂ Murata, Ed. Biblos). The plan is the result of a careful survey commissioned by the Venetian authorities and carried out by the expert Bartholomew Mantovan. The perimeter along the banks measured little more than 13 Padua filed (5 hectare about) and was estimated at no more than twenty ducats to the field "to be giaroso and stony bottom". Also note that the conspicuous development took the villages along the access routes into the walled center.
2. Chorography of the Paduan territory, seen from the Venetian lagoon dating from the middle of the15th century. At the center stands a large and compact urban system of Padua, all surrounded by walls. In the undifferentiated tissue of villages, the fortified centres stand out: sometimes simple towers or forts, in some cases real walled cities. Among these, in the top right of the image, is Cittadella town, which serves to connect Padua, Bassano and Valsugana on the other side. (Bartolameo S., Ceschi C., Cittadella. CittĂ Murata, Ed. Biblos). 3. Centuriation Patavium I, Research conducted by the historian W. Dorigo (Venezia Origini, Electa, 1983)on the formation of cities. In the plan, Cittadella is located in the southern borders of a large centuriation on the left of the Brenta River. It was strategically positioned in an area of natural springs, at the cross of the 3rd decumanus, placed at the south of the ancient Postumia
road, with the cardines linked with the Valsugana . 4. Historical copperplate print in the manuscript Descrittione di Padova e suo territorio of the Count Andrea Cittadella, 1605. 5.The town walls, built in 1220 with a particular shape, almost circular, but with straight sides, defined by four town gates and 32 towers. 6.The wall walk. The reconstruction of the rampart, creates a path that connects many spaces, used for exhibitions and social occasions, through multiple access points. 7.The stairs at the historical breach of the walls In the north-west side, the new stairs made from Corten steel and wood built into the historical breach in the wall, gives continuity to the walkway. By reconnecting the wall walk across the collapsed part of the fortification it also incorporates somehow the liminal sense of the wall itself.
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castles is no longer confined to military history, but is also part of social and cultural history. The castle was not only an instrument of offense or defense, but also a town, a symbol of social harmony and a cultural artistic coterie. The structure of the castles was, in the Veneto region, in a given period, the means by which the territory was protected. There is an array of fortified sites and rural areas where there are not many visible traces, but these testify to an historical phase of Venetian land use and agricultural development and the birth of a new rural landscape. Being able to understand the potential of the Venetian landscape means to look at fortifications as a process, not only for defence, but also as a social and cultural phenomenon of development. "Today's Veneto can be mirrored in yesterday's Veneto". We said that management includes integrated conservation, in the sense of an activity that is in itself very important in the long-term in respect to architectural production. This activity of "care" of the structure requires attention not only to material but also symbolically, to assure that the monument fits its role in contemporary society. Conservation work through proper management will help to focus attention on its cultural significance and not only on its appearance. In this case, the old town of Cittadella is strongly characterized by its walls, built in 1220 and still almost intact. It has a particular plan, almost circular, but with straight sections and has four town gates and thirty-two towers. Cittadella literally means "little town" of new foundation. It was a hilltop-castle constructed by the Paduans to overlook the southern borders of a large "centuriatio" on the left side of the River Brenta. It was strategically positioned in an area of natural springs and at the cross road between the third "decumanus" to the south and the ancient Postumia Road, with the "cardines" connecting the Valsugana area. An exceptional mechanism for peace rather than war, it is today also a symbol of order in a territory that is now characterized by the disordered sprawl of housing with little urban identity. The local government has invested significant resources in recent years, with contributions from the Veneto Region and central government, to strengthen the town's image through the restoration of the walls, public buildings and areas connected with them, making the public architecture a symbol of collective identification. All the works are framed in a master plan that considers all aspects of conservation, integrated planning and management. The re-use of public buildings and walls, made it possible to realize an ideal of a spread-out museum across the
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urban fabric, which, by the reconstruction of the rampart walk, creates a path that connects many spaces, one of which was recovered for social uses and exhibitions, through multiple access points and by elevator. Moreover, with the link between the Home of the Capitano, recently restored, and the Tower of Bassano town gate, it is now possible to reach once more the rampart walk. Also a panoramic glass elevator was included in the tower of Vicenza gate, which allows easier access from the street level to the walk way. Continuing on the rampart walk we find stairs enclosed by glass and a wooden and steel bridge connection with the church of Torresino, which also allows you to go down into the new exhibition space or into the conference room and museum located in the tower of Malta. In the north-west side, the new stairs made from Corten steel and wood built into the historical breach in the wall, gives continuity to the walkway. With the reconnection of the rampart walk in the collapsed part of the fortification, the stair also incorporates somehow the sense of liminality that is inherent in the wall itself. The path and the stairs are a way to look out again, introducing into the project the possibility of reflection. During the carrying out of the work all the longterm problems and the ones related to architectural restoration, aimed at preserving a fortified system, have been faced in a systematic and complete way. The interventions were of two types: the general and widespread ones and the specific and localized ones, designed to deal with particular problems in partic-
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ular areas. In general the project aimed to limit and slow down the sharp deterioration of wall structure that, at battlement and rampart walk level, was leading to serious collapse of the entire upper areas, because of the loss of cohesion of mortar and bricks. The intervention aimed at maintaining the outline of the monument, with respect to its physical characteristics and image, through a careful process of selecting the best mortar, cleaning and recovering the bricks and protecting the structures. Therefore the project's purpose was the protection and enrichment of the landscape through conserving the fortified system, which, because it was in a dangerous state of deterioration, negatively affected the life of the town. The recovery of the walls was to be a vehicle for enhancing the fortification system and public buildings as a whole, by designing a diffuse museum encompassing the idea of the City. The need to save a unique heritage, to slow down the deterioration of the monument and to restore the buildings that were located close to the walls was related also to the necessity to give them a new function. This was one of the main objectives, which related to the need to redevelop a large neglected and obsolete area, called the plain of Marta, in the town center through the creation of a service center for citizens, a theater and an outdoor space. It will be possible to place sculptures and other works of art in this large meadow surrounded by ancient walls. The meadow connects the objects that are in it, creates order and 8. The House of Capitano, characterized by the presence of wall paintings discovered during restoration works. 9. North Town Gate - Bassano Gate. Of all the town gates this is the largest and most impregnable, with 5 orders of doors and the tower 35 meters high. 10. Bassano Gate, section and plan. 11.West Town Gate - Vicenza Gate, there is a panoramic glass elevator, which from street level allows easier access to the wall walks. 12. South Town Gate - Padova Gate, facade, plan and view. The two galleries, inside the door, were restored for exhibition use, together with the connection of the ancient walkways system linked to the Malta Tower. 13.East Town Gate - Treviso Gate. Along the outer perimeter of the Gate a path was made that connects to the wall walks.
114. Mantegna palace. The new civic and social center that overlooks, through the new glass facade, the town wall and into the grassy field. 15. Plain of Marta ground This large area in the town center has becomes a new
urban landmark and a point of social cohesion. 16. The open air theatre The new theatre made in wood, realized on the green roof , and with a capacity of about 500 spectators is the new point of social cohesion 17. The theatre
at the same time establishes a relationship with the surrounding walls: gathering the objects in one place hepls to emphasise the boundary aspect and the great size of the walls. We imagined these art pieces as giant guardians placed in front of the ancient walls. The restored rampart walk with its new access points becomes a sort of Ariadne's thread providing an elevated connection around the whole city. The old wounds, weak points of the ancient fortress, opened by the vicissitudes of history, become the strengths of the contemporary city that now finds new vitality and new energy through the restoration of its walls, in a synergy generated by the architectural conjunction of ancient and modern. The new cultural centre and orientation point situated in the Plain of Marta has become a new urban landmark and a point of social cohesion. The results obtained in just a few years are undoubtedly positive and even exceed expectations. The benefits need to be measured under different evaluation criteria: not just in economic and social terms, but also in technical terms, in respect of the environment and sustainable architecture. The project has a strong urban scale value, starting from the ancient walls and taking in various themes. There were nine different projects, located around the walls, each with specific problems related to the required use, which have found a unity in the walls themselves and in what they represent in relation to the image of the City. Five major stages of design were defined following an overall plan and covering the whole system of fortifications. These comprise the four quadrants of the wall and the city gates, to which has been added the construction of the open theater and the Plain of Giants. The first stage of restoration work on the system of walls of the town, which started in 1995, was completed in October 2005 and includes the recovery of the areas to the south-west and north-west, from the Padua gate to the Bassano old gate, and the sector north east to the Treviso gate. The project involving the reuse of public buildings linked to the town walls was also completed and this included the former school in the Plain of Marta, the
Church of Torresino and the House of Capitano. Also three town gates, Bassanese, Vicentina and Trevisana, have been completely refurbished. The restoration work at the Padua gate and the planning of the Plain of Marta are now almost completed, with the construction of a wooden outdoor theatre and the recovery of the degraded areas within the walls now called the "Plain of Giants". The rampart walk that was reconstructed on the walls at the level of the old one, is now completed around three quadrants of the town, with a total length of 1100 meters, along with restoration and consolidation work on the walls and the great and small towers. In the south west sector the Church of Torresino, with an internal area of about 500 square meters, has been restored as a concert and exhibition centre while the gate tower of Vicenza has been renewed. The 3350 square meters of the Mategna Palace have been recovered for commercial activities and for town hall offices. Inside the gate of the Bassano fortress, the largest and most impenetrable with its five tiers of doors and its tower 35 meters high, it was possible to recover the charming residence of the captain of the guards. This house, of approximately 300 square meters, is characterized by the presence of wall paintings discovered during restoration works: this turned out to be of considerable importance for the history of Cittadella, especially as evidence of the period of Malatesta rule. The recovery of the 4th and final sector is now at the planning stage. This will be partly financed by LR.15/03, a fund devoted to the walled cities in the Veneto Region, and which will complete the restoration and reuse project. This rampart walk has a double purpose: as a means for visitors to walk around a monument that until a few years ago was completely inaccessible, but is also indispensable for maintenance and for the healing of the pathologies that inevitably recur periodically. We are on the side of the monument and we must continuously be part of its life, knowing that disinterest and indifference are the worst enemies of these structures. In this way the ultimate project of the Plain of Giants is the heart and the symbol of the recovery plan of this "small town". The first step to solve the problem of the lack of parking in the historical center was to create an underground car park, which finally solved the problem of that area. In this way it was possible to treat the surface, now free of cars, as a green meadow within the walls. The new civic and social center of the Mantegna palace overlooks, through the new glass facade, the grassy field with the walls as a background.
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At the same time the theatre system of the city has been re-established. We renewed the social theatre (attributed to Giovanni Bauta), a precious example of a Venetian theatre, and connected it to a new wooden open air theatre, built on the Plain. The design of this temporary structure in the Plain of Giants, built of wood, is remeniscent of the forms and the construction of the Roman theatre and also the medieval tendency to be on stage in a temporary structure, the size of a particular room, of a court or of a square. At the same time, this reversible structure somehow reflects the image and the meanings of the wooden machines, invented by Leonardo and theatrical structures designed by Palladio and Serlio. In a nutshell, the aim of restoration is conservation, but the best strategy to preserve the recovered cultural heritage, is to give it an appropriate function and to pursue an enlightened management.
Bibliography M. PETRANZAN (a cura di) Patrizia Valle. Limen: il segno del passaggio. Conservazione e valorizzazione del sistema fortificato a Cittadella, Il Poligrafo 2005, Anfione e Zeto, quaderni/restauro P. VALLE, Il restauro architettonico delle mura di Cittadella, in: Atti XIII Convegno Scienza e Beni Culturali, Lacune in Architettura - Aspetti Teorici ed Operativi, Bressanone, 1-4 luglio 1997 P. VALLE, Intervento dell'architetto Patrizia Valle, in: Recupero urbano e Centri storici, Premio Cento Città, Compagnia di San Paolo, Torino 2000 P. VALLE, Le Mura 1^, 2^, 3^, 4^ Fase; Attorno alle mura; Museo e Campo dei Giganti; Casa del Capitano, in: AA.VV. Lavori in Corso: Nuovi progetti
a Cittadella", Grafiche Antiga, 2002 P. VALLE, Recupero del sistema fortificato della cinta muraria 1^ fase, Cittadella, Padova, in: Premio di Architettura Barbara Cappochin, Padova 2003 P. VALLE, Recupero del sistema fortificato e delle aree attinenti di Cittadella, in: Premio architettura Città di Oderzo, 8^ ed.2004 P. VALLE, Progetto di recupero e valorizzazione del sistema fortificato di Cittadella, in: Progettare La contemporaneità. Premio per l'urbanistica e la pianificazione territoriale Luigi Piccinato, seconda edizione, a cura di Davide Longhi, Regione del Veneto 2006 P. VALLE,Restauri a Cittadella in: AA.VV. Atti del convegno Grandi cantieri a Venezia e nel Veneto, ASSIRCCO, 2007
La vielle ville de Cittadella est fortement caractérisée par ses murailles, construites en 1220 et toujours presqu'intactes, d'une forme particulière, presque circulaire, mais avec un plan orthogonal, défini par quatre portes de ville et trente deux tours. C'était un château au sommet d'une colline, construit par les Padouans pour surplomber les frontières sud d'un grand "centuriatio" sur la rive gauche de la rivière Brenta. Le gouvernement local a investi des ressources significatives ces dernières années avec la participation de la région de Vénétie et de l'Etat central, afin de renforcer l'image de la ville en restaurant ses murailles, les bâtiments publics et les espaces les jouxtant. Tous les travaux ont été organisés dans le cadre d'un plan d'ensemble qui prend en compte tous les aspects de la conservation, intégrant la planification et la gestion.
ETIENNE PONCELET
LE RENOUVEAU DE LA CITÉ ROYALE DE SENLIS .
Senlis est comme une île, enlacée par ses deux rivières, tapie entre ses deux forêts aux aguets devant les grands plateaux de culture de Picardie et du Valois. Elle songe de tout son poids de 2 000 ans d'histoire à son destin, elle qui fût presque capitale de la France. Le doigt de sa cathédrale pointé vers le ciel rappelle qu'elle fût aussi l'une des premières révérences à Notre-Dame en tant que suzeraine. Sa population actuelle qui tiendrait presque en totalité dans ses arènes du I° siècle porte aujourd'hui une charge patrimoniale d'intérêt européen, de portée millénaire. Ayant feint d'oublier le siècle de l'économie et après avoir fait les frais d'une gare sans train, d'un évêché sans évêque et d'un château royal sans roi, elle mérite aujourdh'ui d'être vécue comme un conservatoire du savoir-vivre à travers les siècles, au-delà des périls économiques et des modes durables. La ville d'aujourd'hui, l'ancienne cité royale de Senlis, engage maintenant fermement ses pas vers un profond renouveau, forte de son héritage patrimonial, déterminée à tracer de nouvelles perspectives. Son expérience peut nous servir de modèle dans la gestion de l'environnement monumental de nos villes et paysages chargés d'histoire. Deux mille ans d’histoire Comme l'autoroute du Nord actuelle, la voie la plus directe pour relier Paris aux villes de Flandres et à l'Europe du Nord passe par Senlis. Il faut alors traverser un jeu de vallons marécageux et forestiers baignés par deux petits affluents paresseux de l'Oise, la Nonette et l'Aunette qui se glissent entre les forêts de Chantilly et d'Halatte. En aval, un chemin passe dans les marais, contrôlé par ce qui deviendra le château de Chantilly. Un autre chemin remonte, en amont, plus au sec, traversant le petit éperon naturel qui deviendra la ville de Senlis (photo 1). Le marché d'Auguste Cette route Nord-Sud y croise la voie romaine qui relie les ports de la classis britannica aux grandes villes de l'Empire, Soissons, Reims, Aix et Cologne. A la confluence des deux rivières, à l'ombre de l'ancien oppidum gaulois, ce carrefour devient un marché qui, lors de la paix romaine, sera dédié au premier empereur sous le nom d'Augustomagus. La ville, enrichie d'une arène en ellipse de 11 000 spectateurs, est alors le chef-lieu de la petite cité des Sulbanectes (les " irréductibles ") (photos 2). Le socle de la statue de l'empereur Claude trouvé devant le donjon du château royal atteste de l'importance de la cité
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en 48. Le cardo Nord-Sud correspond à la rue de Paris qui se prolonge rue du Chastel, pour rejoindre au Nord le chemin de Compiègne (la chaussée Brunehaut menant au port d'Ostende). Le decumanus prend l'axe du confluent, sur la ligne de crête, venant du Valois et de Mont Lévêque et rejoint vers Beauvais la route du port de Boulogne. Cette voie correspond à la rue de Meaux et à la rue de Beauvais. Ces deux voies romaines cardinales sont encore bien présentes dans le tissu urbain, se croisant à l'emplacement exact de l'hôtel de ville actuel, à la tangente de ce qui sera le castrum du Bas-Empire.
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Le castrum du Bas-Empire Les invasions vont en effet concentrer la ville sur sa défense fortifiée. En 396, l'empereur Honorius décrète la mise en défense systématique des villes de la Gaule. Les arènes deviennent un fortin. Les quatre entrées des vomitoires sont obturées. Le mur du podium est remanié. L'intérieur est occupé par un casernement. Abandonnées au VI° siècle, les arènes deviendront une carrière de pierre puis une décharge publique. Elles seront encore utilisées comme une butte d'artillerie lors du siège de 1589. Plus à l'ouest, le point haut de la ville est cerné d'une enceinte urbaine qui forme le castrum, encore visible aujourd'hui sur une grande partie de son linéaire. Cette fortification est composée de murailles parementées de pastoureaux en pierre blanche et chaînées de briques foraines. Rythmées par une trentaine de tours espacées entre elles de deux jets de pilum contrôlant la courtine, leur élévation de deux niveaux est encore visible dans les vestiges du château royal (photo 3). La tour prétorienne dominant le site deviendra le donjon du Haut Moyen Age, dans l'axe exact du cardo qui monte jusqu'à ce point culminant du site (photo 4).
1. Plan géohistorique de la ville de Senlis située au carrefour des routes entre la France et la Flandre, au confluent de deux rivières, entre les massifs forestiers. 2. Les arènes de Senlis, datant du I° siècle.
3. La base du donjon roman, construit sur les fondations de la tour prétorienne. 4. Le castrum du IV° siècle avec ses trente tours et le cardo axé sur le prétoire.
5. Récupération d'une tour antique dans l'hôtel privé de la Chancellerie.
6. La gouvernance de Senlis, répartie entre le château royal et le quartier de l'évêque.
L'enceinte est percée de deux portes principales, celle de Paris, vers le Sud et celle de Reims, vers l'Est. Deux poternes complètent le dispositif dans les deux autres directions. Abritant sept hectares, le castrum de Senlis est de dimension modeste, de même taille cependant que celui de Lutèce et l'apparentant à ceux de Tours et du Mans. Représentant environ 1/8° de ce qu'était Augustomagus, il ne peut servir que de refuge à une population clairsemée dans l'ancienne ville (photo 5). La cité épiscopale Evangélisé par Saint Rieul dès le Bas-Empire, le castrum est progressivement investi par le roi et l'évêque. Au VI° siècle, la réforme de l'église, par le pape Saint Grégoire le grand, donne un statut séculier aux évêques qui peuvent jouer leur rôle d'administrateur dans les anciennes cités. C'est ainsi que le premier groupe épiscopal dédié à Saint Gervais et Saint Protais est connu vers le VI° VII° siècle (photo 6). Les Carolingiens font ensuite de Senlis une des capitales de l'Empire, dotée d'un fonctionnaire du Trésor impérial, d'un atelier monétaire et d'une prison d'Etat. Le château carolingien sous la protection de l'ancienne tour prétorienne sert de refuge à Judith, la fille de Charles le chauve que le comte de Flandres Baudouin I° bras de fer viendra séduire et enlever en 870 (photos 7 et 8). Les barons encore sous l'influence franque et se souvenant de la résistance du duc de France Hugues le grand au siège de l'empereur Otto, quarante ans plus tôt dans le château de Senlis, s'y réunissent pour élire le 3 juillet 987 Hugues Capet, roi de France. Son contemporain l'évêque Eudes I° fonde la nouvelle cathédrale Notre-Dame. Le palais épiscopal est alors installé dans la porte de Reims, servant d'abri à ce
7. Simulation du donjon royal du X° siècle et analogies. 8. Le château royal de Louis VI le gros au XII° siècle, adossé à la muraille antique; a côté le plan archéologique. 9. Vue générale du castrum, dominé par la cathédrale.
Au premier plan, l'évêché, installé sur l'ancien rempart. 10. La façade Est de l'évêché avec la tour antique réutilisée en chapelle épiscopale et la galerie Renaissance construite sur le rempart.
qui deviendra l'évêché, devenu aujourd'hui le musée d'Art et d'Archéologie de la ville (photos 9 et 10). Le castrum est encore actif à la veille de l'an Mille. C'est dans son enceinte qu'est fondée la chapelle royale Saint-Frambourg en 993 par l'épouse d'Hugues Capet, la reine Adélaïde, dont le chevet prend appui sur une des tours antiques (photo 11). Le renouveau de l'onzième siècle L'onzième siècle va voir la ville se repeupler sur les débris de la ville antique en installant ses nouvelles fondations hors les murs du castrum. En 1029, l'église Saint-Pierre s'installe presque en prolongement de la cathédrale pour desservir le nouveau faubourg qui s'est développé sur la route de Reims. L'église SaintAignan devient la paroisse du centre. En 1065, la reine Anne de Kiev, veuve du roi Henri I° fonde le monastère Saint-Vincent sur un alleu royal, qu'elle confie aux chanoines de Saint-Augustin. Celui-ci est construit en contrebas de la route, au bord de la Nonette (photos 12 et 13). La ville se repeuple progressivement autour de ses paroisses et de ses couvents. Le siècle de Senlis
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Le XII° siècle est vraiment celui de la renaissance de la ville royale. Le roi Louis VI le gros reconstruit le palais royal adossé à la muraille antique, dont la chapelle Saint-Denis est consacrée en 1142 par l'évêque Pierre. L'évêque Thibaut commence l'oeuvre de la nouvelle cathédrale Notre-Dame dont le manifeste marial sera le portail Ouest dédié à la Vierge couronnée, véritable " évangile de Senlis ". Ce portail polychrome que nous venons de restaurer présente la Vierge, selon la théologie mariale de Saint Bernard, mère et épouse du Christ, médiatrice privilégiée des hommes et leur vraie souveraine (photos 14, 18 et 19). Philippe-Auguste conclut ce siècle fort en renforçant les fortifications de la ville agrandie et en exilant son épouse répudiée Isabelle de Hainaut dans le château urbain cerné de sa nouvelle enceinte. Le siècle de Senlis s'achève par la consécration de la cathédrale en 1191 par
Salle capitulaire du prieuré Saint-Maurice.Carrelage du XIX° siècle aux armes de Saint Louis et de sa mère, Blanche de Castille
11. La chapelle royale Saint-Frambourg, fondée en 993 par la reine Adélaïde, épouse d'Hugues Capet, roi des Francs, élu à Senlis. 12. La reine Anne de Kiev, épouse du roi Henri I°, fondatrice en 1065 de l'abbaye Saint-Vincent. 13. L'abbaye Saint-Vincent devenue collège privé. 14. La façade occidentale de la cathédrale (dessin de Benoist - milieu XIX° siècle). 15. La chapelle épiscopale construite par le chancelier Guérin, évêque de Senlis en 1222. 16. L'hôtel de Vermandois. 17.Detail de la salle capitulaire du prieuré SaintMaurice; le roi Saint Louis, en majesté. 18. Plan archéologique de la cathédrale Notre-Dame de Senlis. 19. Détail du portail Ouest de la cathédrale, première représentation de la Vierge couronnée reine.
l'évêque Geoffroi II. Ce XII° siècle est aussi marqué par le chancelier de Philippe-Auguste, l'évêque de Senlis Guérin qui, après la croisade, dirige victorieusement les armées du roi en 1214 à la bataille de Bouvines. On lui doit en 1222 la nouvelle chapelle de l'évêché que nous venons de restaurer et l'abbaye de la Victoire, voisine de Senlis, confiée comme il se doit aux moines de l'Ordre de Saint-Victor (photo 15). Le XII° siècle offre également à Senlis un des rares hôtels princiers conservés de cette époque, construit par Raoul de Vermandois, Sénéchal du roi, entre la cathédrale et le château royal. Adossé comme ce dernier au rempart antique dont il utilise une tour, il recèle sous son parement tardif les arcatures peintes de la grande salle d'audience du Prince, cousin du roi. La mise en valeur de cet ensemble rare et spectaculaire est envisagée par l'équipe municipale actuelle (photo 16). Le siècle de Saint Louis Le roi Louis IX est un familier du château de Senlis où il réside régulièrement. C'est sous un chêne senlisien qu'il rend la justice. Entre deux croisades, il enrichit en 1264 le site castral de la fondation d'un prieuré dédié à Saint Maurice, le saint " maure ". Quatorze chanoines de l'Ordre de Saint-Augustin, à l'instar des quatorze compagnons du saint y sont affectés à la prière pour les oeuvres du roi. Celui-ci apportera les reliques sur place, à pied, entouré de ses compagnons d'armes (photos 17 et 20). Familier de Senlis, le roi aménage son bureau dans la tour antique, à proximité de sa chambre. Un passage relie directement celle-ci au logis des chanoines pour lui permettre de partager leur vie de communauté comme lui avait autorisé
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20. La façade Est du prieuré Saint-Maurice. 21. L'église Saint-Pierre et la façade flamboyante construite par Chambiges. 22. Le transept de la cathédrale construit par l'architecte du roi Pierre Chambiges en 1534. 23. La porte de Meaux et son système bastionné construit par l'ingénieur de Roberval en 1550 (dessin de 1789). 24. Hypothèse sur le plan de Senlis au XVI° siècle (dessin du XIX° siècle). 25. Senlis: Gravure vers 1600 (par C. Chastillon); vue depuis le Nord en 1636; vue cavalière vers 1747. 26. Le plan de Senlis en 1811.
le pape en 1258. Pendant cet âge d'or, la ville médiévale se densifie, structurée en huit paroisses. L'hôtel-Dieu s'installe rue du Châtel. Le couvent des Cordeliers est établi en ville en 1243. Ce développement de la ville est sanctionné par sa constitution en siège du bailliage en 1265. La mort du roi en 1270 est rapidement suivie par sa canonisation en 1297 préparée par son chancelier, l'évêque d'Amiens Guillaume de Mâcon. Le bureau du roi est aussitôt transformé en chapelle, la troisième du château royal. Le siècle se termine par la poursuite des travaux de fortifications cernant la ville reconstruite, jusqu'au début du XIV° siècle, sous Philippe IV le Bel. La tour de Montauban, ancienne tour avancée de cette enceinte, témoigne encore de cette enceinte. Les intérêts de la ville seront très vite réduits par le roi autoritaire qui fait abroger la commune en 1319 après 146 ans d'existence et transfère ses pouvoirs à un prévôt royal. La révolte de la Jacquerie est sans doute une des conséquences du resserrement de cet étau royal. Aux avant-postes de la guerre de Cent Ans Rempart de la capitale face à l'anglais et au bourguignon, la ville de Senlis fortifiée est aux avant-postes de la guerre de Cent ans. La dynastie des Valois, le duché voisin, arrive sur le trône. La ville devenue bourguignonne est assiégée par les Armagnacs en 1418. Jeanne d'Arc chevauche dans la plaine de Senlis le 15 août 1429.
La Paix de Senlis entre Louis XI et le duc de Bourgogne est enfin signée en 1473. La ville, redevenue royale, est fortifiée par le roi. L'évêque fait traditionnellement sa " joyeuse entrée " par la porte Saint-Rieul. Une renaissance précoce La cathédrale incendiée par la foudre en 1504 est aussitôt réparée, ce qui valut au roi Louis XII et à la reine Anne d'être placés en statue sur les tourelles de la façade Sud jusqu'à leur abattage révolutionnaire. Le transept sera créé en 1534 par l'architecte du roi Pierre Chambiges en même temps qu'il construit celui de Beauvais (photo 24). Le même architecte termine l'église Saint-Pierre, voisine, par sa façade occidentale flamboyante (photo 21). Les guerres de religion n'épargnent pas Senlis qui est assiégée par les Ligueurs en 1589. A partir d'Henri IV, le roi ne séjourne plus au château et s'installe à l'évêché enjolivé de sa galerie Renaissance par Guillaume Petit dès 1531. Le château devient alors le siège du présidial, tribunal qui fonctionnera jusqu'en 1780 date de son transfert à l'hôtel de ville. Le centre de gravité de la France s'étant déplacé vers le Sud, la ville de Senlis perd progressivement son importance politique pour devenir un simple relais parmi les chasses royales. La capitainerie des chasses d'Halatte est transférée de Chantilly au faubourg de Villevert, sur le versant ensoleillé de l'Aunette, dans
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les faubourgs de la ville. Quelques belles maisons se parent de leurs atours Renaissance comme l'hôtel de la chancellerie, construit par Henri de Marle, chancelier du roi en 1413, adossé à la " fausse porte ", habillé au XVI° siècle par une façade ornée de ses trois ordres superposés. Les fortifications du XVI° siècle subissent l'influence italienne du bastionnement, ce dont témoigne le demi-bastion à orillon de la porte de Meaux construit par l'ingénieur de Roberval en 1550 (photo 23). Celui-ci contrôle l'entrée de la ville et le passage des eaux de la Nonette. Les ouvrages avancés des portes Nord et Sud, Saint-Rieul et de Paris recevront également leur demi-lune de protection.
Le bastion de Montauban complètera la défense au Sud-Ouest. Les flancs des bastions seront équipés de leurs " beursaults " réglementaires de 28 toises pour le tir à l'arc et pour le tir à l'arbalète. Les vues cavalières de la ville au XVII° siècle nous présentent ces ouvrages renforçant l'enceinte médiévale encore ponctuée de ses tours (photos 24, 25 et 26). L'âge classique Les fondations pieuses ou charitables se poursuivent sous l'Ancien Régime avec les évêques Nicolas et Denis Sanguin qui fondent la " Présentation ". En 1669, l'hôpital de la Charité est créé. Monseigneur de Chamillart reconstruit l'aile Nord de l'évêché en 1708. L'ingénieur du roi Perronet présente son projet de route des Flandres traversant directement la ville, en 1752. La nouvelle rue de Paris, évitant la vieille enceinte, devient la rue Royale en 1753. En son centre, l'hôpital de la Charité offre sa façade classique. La trame complète de la ville actuelle est maintenant achevée (photo 27). Le dernier vicaire général de Senlis, Germain Gallard, fait le lien entre le XVIII° siècle mystique et la Révolution. Après avoir édité les oeuvres de Fénelon de 1787 à 1792, il refuse de prêter serment à la Constitution et se réfugie à Orléans. La ville aux douze clochers devient républicaine. L'église Saint-Pierre est transformée en fabrique, en caserne puis en marché. Le XIX° siècle L'essor de la ville faillit se faire au siècle de l'industrie. Les remparts du front occidental furent d'abord rasés en vue de l'extension de la ville qui, pour finir, ne se fit pas. 27. Vue de Senlis par Trudaine avec le projet de la route de Flandres de l'ingénieur du roi Perronet en 1753. 28.Photo aérienne. 29. Le plan du secteur sauvegardé de 1965. 30. Plan archéologique de l'église SaintPierre. 31. Le monument des spahis. 32. La gare de Senlis. 33. Une porte du castrum surplombée par l'hôtel de la chancellerie.
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Une gare fut construite pour accueillir le chemin de fer qui fut refusé par les bourgeois de Senlis, craignant de devenir une simple extension de la banlieue parisienne(photo 32). A la fin du XIX° siècle, la ville militaire fait encore partie de la défense Nord de Paris. Elle reçoit un régiment de spahis revenus des colonies. L'association Le Burnous, fondée en 1895, forme les prémices de ce qui deviendra le musée des Spahis créé après leur départ en 1962 (photo 31). Le Second Empire voit le développement des congrégations. En 1834, les soeurs de Saint-Joseph de Cluny s'installent à Senlis. Le corps de la fondatrice Anne-Marie Javouhey, la première à avoir libérer les esclaves en Guyane, y sera enterré le 24 juillet 1851. A l'instar des commissions historiques départementales, la sensibilité aux Antiquités historiques se traduit à Senlis par la création d'un comité archéologique municipal en 1862, date des premières protections des grands monuments de la ville (cathédrale en 1840, château royal, Saint-Frambourg et Saint-Vincent en 1862, arènes en 1875, Saint-Pierre en 1887).
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Le XX° siècle Les deux dernières guerres vont affecter Senlis dont la rue de Paris est incendiée en représailles par les Allemands le 2 septembre 1914. La rue Bellon témoigne des reconstructions des deux guerres. Un côté est rebâti après 1914. L'autre partie est reconstruite après le bombardement de 1940. Malgré cette saignée au coeur de la ville, Senlis garde les éléments majeurs de son patrimoine bimillénaire et fait partie de l'un des premiers secteurs sauvegardés créé en 1965 sur 42 hectares à l'initiative d'André Malraux, sous la direction d'Yves Boiret, Architecte en Chef des Monuments Historiques (photo 29). D'importantes fouilles archéologiques sont faites, notamment en 1943 par Georges Matherat, suivies par Marc Durand (photo 30). Les protections de monuments historiques du XIX° siècle sont complétées par huit classements et dix-sept inscriptions. Une politique patrimoniale forte est menée par la municipalité, fermement appuyée par l'association de la Sauvegarde de Senlis. En 1982, la ville rachète l'ancien évêché qui était devenu tribunal d'Instance pour en faire un musée d'Art et d'Archéologie, complétant les autres musées municipaux (musée de la Vénerie, musée des Spahis, musée de l'hôtel du
Vermandois). Depuis 1972, la cité historique est mise en scène par des " Rendez-vous de septembre " auxquels participe la population habillée à l'ancienne. En 1974, le pianiste Georges Cziffra achète la chapelle Saint-Frambourg qui est progressivement restaurée pour devenir l'auditorium Franz Liszt, éclairé par des vitraux de Miro et couvert par une couverture neuve que nous lui avons rendu en 2000. Le nouveau siècle La nouvelle équipe municipale est aujourd'hui confrontée à un renouveau du contexte urbain. La proximité de l'échangeur de l'autoroute du Nord a favorisé le développement d'une zone d'activité à l'Est de la ville. Le départ du dernier régiment, le 41° Régiment de Transmission de la présidence de la République, laisse disponible un patrimoine foncier et bâti important de 11 hectares, prêt pour une reconversion. La ville moderne reste concentrée sur son éperon barré, entre ses deux rivières, étendue de manière résidentielle sur la rive droite de l'Aunette (le faubourg 34. Le logis du roi au château royal, bâtiment transformé en orangerie au XIX° siècle et le projet d'évocation de l'ancien château royal (2009). 35. La chapelle palatiale Saint-Denis, au château royal. 36. Projet de restauration du prieuré SaintMaurice (2009); a côté le bâtiment des chanoines du prieuré Saint-Maurice.
37. Proposition de circuit de visite de la vieille ville. 38. Le jeu des places et parvis autour de la cathédrale. Au fond, on aperçoit la chapelle du chancelier Guérin.
Villevert), et développant ses extensions dans le faubourg Saint-Martin, notamment autour du quartier Ordemer, récemment désaffecté par l'Armée. La demande patrimoniale s'accroît, encourageant la nouvelle municipalité dans son ambition justifiée pour la reconnaissance comme ville d'Art et d'Histoire et pour le label du Patrimoine mondial. Aujourd'hui, cette sous-préfecture, habitée par plus de 17 000 habitants possède les atouts d'une cité antique et médiévale presque complète, enserrée dans un cadre paysagé exceptionnel, à quelques minutes de l'autoroute et à faible distance de l'aéroport de Roissy. A son patrimoine construit s'ajoute son patrimoine souterrain. La pierre dure de Senlis était célèbre au Moyen Age. Les nombreux souterrains qui s'étagent dans son sous-sol en sont le témoignage. La nouvelle municipalité vient de créer un service sécurité et risque, chargé de répertorier, sécuriser et, à terme, mettre en valeur cet ensemble. Les perspectives de renouveau Malgré les efforts continus des responsables depuis près de 40 ans, la restauration et la mise en valeur de la ville ancienne est une préoccupation constante des élus municipaux. Celle qui fût presque capitale de la France en son temps a aujourd'hui une population peu nombreuse et un patrimoine important. Le poids d'une histoire si riche et surtout le poids des pierres pèsent considérablement sur cette petite communauté d'habitants et de responsables décidés. Bien sûr l'aide de l'Etat, des autres collectivités, et des particuliers n'a jamais fait défaut mais l'oeuvre est considérable et surtout doit faire l'objet d'un effort continu, sans cesse renouvelé, poursuivant la vétusté naturelle des constructions. Après l'époque du " savoir ", celle des sociétés archéologiques, puis celle du " savoir-faire ", celle de la restauration des monuments, la ville affronte aujourd'hui sa troisième époque, celle du " savoir-vivre ", ensemble, avec son patrimoine.
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The town of Senlis has the same shape as an island embraced by its two rivers, hidden in its two forests and facing the cultivated plateaus of Picardy and Valois. The town displays two-thousand years of history during which it almost became the capital of France. Its cathedral was one of the first to honour Our Lady as queen. The present population, which could be entirely contained in the two 1stcentury arenas, is heir to an ancient heritage of great European interest and importance. With its century of economic development now forgotten, being left with a train station without trains, a bishop's palace without a bishop and royal castle without a king, the town deserves to be cherished as a small museum of the "savoir vivre" through the centuries, beyond the economic death of goods and long lasting trends. The present town is firmly following a renewal policy, aimed at tracing new perspectives thanks to its cultural heritage. This experience could be a model for the management of the monumental environment of our cities and of our landscapes, full of history.
GABOR MESTER DE PARAJD
AMÉNAGEMENT DES ABORDS ET ESPACES NON BÂTIS DE LA GRANDE ENCEINTE DU CHÂTEAU DE VINCENNES
Le Château de Vincennes, situé aux portes de Paris, illustre la complexité de l'aménagement d'un site qui n'a cessé d'évoluer depuis plus de huit siècles: des bâtiments rajoutés, des bâtiments supprimés, des bâtiments transformés, des dispositions militaires et défensives, mais aussi résidentielles et fonctionnelles qui ont modifié en profondeur la composition du site. Quelle lecture et quelle fonctionnalité donner à un tel site qui est, aujourd'hui, ouvert au public et à la visite, mais qui garde, en même temps, son affectation et son usage militaires. Rappel historique Fondé dès le XIIème siècle par Philippe Auguste, le Château de Vincennes sera une des résidences favorites de Louis IX (Saint-Louis) qui bâtira un vaste palais, le "Manoir capétien", récemment reconnu par des fouilles archéologiques, mais c'est le XIVème siècle, avec le règne de Charles V, qui don-
1. Vue d'ensemble avec la grande enceinte.
nera la véritable identité du Château, d'abord avec le donjon et sa "chemise" (1364 - 1370), (fig. 2) puis avec la grande enceinte (1372 - 1380) (fig. 1) et, enfin, avec la fondation de la Sainte-Chapelle à partir de 1379. A la Renaissance, François 1er reprend le chantier de la Sainte-Chapelle qui ne sera achevée qu'en 1552 par Henri II (fig. 4). La seconde grande période, entre 1654 et 1660, sera celle de Louis XIV, le Roi Soleil, qui projette de faire de Vincennes, sa résidence principale et le siège permanent de la cour,avant, finalement, de mettre en œuvre cette idée à Versailles. L'équipe qui créera Versailles, travaille déjà à Vincennes: Louis Le Vau, l’architecte et André Le Nôtre pour les jardins. Après les tourmentes de la Révolution, Napoléon transforme le Château, à partir de 1808, en place de défense avancée de Paris. Cette nouvelle fonction, strictement militaire et défensive, est confirmée tout au long du XIXème siècle et jusqu'à 1944, et entraînera des transformations majeures, au fur et à mesure de l'évolution des armements et des concepts de
défense: expérimentation des nouvelles armes, début de l'aviation militaire sur l'esplanade du Château. Le contexte actuel 1. Les usages et les fonctions Le Château de Vincennes appartient à l'Etat. - l'essentiel du site est occupé par le Ministère de la Défense et regroupe le Service Historique de la Défense, c'est-à-dire les archives de l'armée française depuis ses origines, de toute l'armée, des quatre armes: Terre - Marine - Air Gendarmerie; - une petite partie, seulement, est occupée par le Ministère de la Culture (le donjon, la Sainte-Chapelle) pour l'ouverture au public et la visite; - la Ville de Vincennes, située en face du monument, "investit" également le Château, à l'occasion de manifestations de toutes sortes: concerts, animations… 2. Les contraintes du site - l'évolution de l'environnement avec une urbanisation intense aux portes de Paris: on est loi du "château de plaine" isolé dans sa forêt (fig. 2), - les accès extérieurs : RER, métro, bus, voitures
2. Vue aérienne du Château et de son environnement urbain
3. Le donjon de Vincennes après sa restauration terminée en 2007. 4 La Sainte-Chapelle
5. La Tour du Village : entrée principale du Château 6. Vue du grand axe
7. Projet des abords Jean Trouvelot ACMH - 1942-48
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- le stationnement extérieur et intérieur, - les entrées: seulement trois entrées sont disponibles avec des passerelles étroites, les autres ayant été désaffectées (fig. 5), - les liaisons intérieures (fig. 6), - les fonctionnalités ou plutôt les " non-fonctionnalités " pour les livraisons, les circulations verticales, l'accès des personnes à handicaps, - le constat sanitaire: les contrescarpes avec la poussée des arbres, les ornières, les pavés disjoints, les sols, l'absence d'infrastructures pour l'accueil du public (toilettes et caféteria),
8.Coupe sur les contrescarpes avec leurs talus rapportés et vue des contrescarpes 9. Critique d'authenticité : plans de l'évolution historique des espaces non bâtis (XIVè au XXè siècle)
10. La poterne Nord-Ouest désaffectée: vue extérieure et vue intérieure. 11. Plan de synthèse de l'étude patrimoniale des espaces non bâtis (2008)
- les constats techniques : structures des planchers, avec des surcharges d'exploitation inadaptées, - la sécurité du public dans la non-conformité des parapets des contrescarpes. Le schéma directeur d'aménagement Dès les années de l'immédiat après-guerre, l'Architecte en Chef Jean Trouvelot avait établi des propositions (fig. 7), complétées par Yves BOIRET dans les années 1990. Mais le sujet est d'une grande complexité, avec de nombreux partenaires et des
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12. Plan de repérage des éléments structurants (2008)
13. Projet pour l'avenir (esquisse G. Mester De Parajd 2009).
positions et des objectifs souvent contradictoires: l'Etat Culture, l'Etat Défense, la Ville de paris, la Ville de Vincennes, chacune avec ses propres services. Aujourd'hui, des progrès ont été faits: - pour les abords extérieurs: • les talus de la fin du XIXème siècle, implantés contre les contrescarpes et boisés, seront supprimés pour dégager l'élévation des courtines médiévales du "château de plaine" (fig. 8), • les accès disparus seront restitués pour désenclaver le château: poternes Nord-Ouest et Sud-Ouest, poterne Ouest du donjon (fig. 9); - pour les espaces non bâtis à l'intérieur de l'enceinte: • une étude de "critique d'authenticité" des dispositions historiques vient d'être
réalisée (fig. 10), • cette étude a permis de déterminer un "état de référence" qui, bien sûr, n'est pas une photographie du monument à une date donnée, mais une synthèse "raisonnable"d'un état relativement cohérent (fig. 11), • on retrouvera, ainsi, la hiérarchie des trois espaces : l'avant-cour, la cour centrale et la cour royale, avec une progression depuis les espaces de services vers la cour d'honneur, • l'objectif sera de "recadrer" les espaces, au lieu du "no man's land” actuel, par le "marquage" de bâtiments disparus, à défaut de pouvoir les reconstruire, • les éléments structurants seront mis en valeur :
- le Manoir Capétien, - le puit, - la barbacane du donjon pour gérer les dénivelés (fig. 13), • les potentialités pour l'avenir seront, par ailleurs, préservées: En effet, si pour la plupart des monuments, la préoccupation est de trouver une "réutilisation", au Château de Vincennes, chacun des 60.000 m² est utilisé, et la "nécessité" serait plutôt de trouver des surfaces supplémentaires: - le Service Historique de la Défense dispose aujourd'hui, sur le site, de 95 km-linéaires d'archives; ses besoins actuels sont de l'ordre de 5 à 8 km linéaires supplémentaires par an, soit une projection immédiate de 100 à 150 km linéaires supplémentaires; les études sont donc en cours pour la densification des espaces de stockage; - une nouvelle bibliothèque est également à l'étude pour répondre aux normes actuelles, dans le cadre de la politique d'ouverture au public du Ministère de la
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Défense; - demain, ce sera peut-être le Musée de l'Histoire de France, qui sera installé à Vincennes (fig 13). En conclusion: Les nouveaux besoins fonctionnels seront les motivations des prochains programmes de restauration, et même de restitution, au Château de Vincennes. Le système semble donc s'inverser: on veut restaurer un monument, mais il faut d'abord trouver une justification, un usage économique, pour obtenir les financements; à Vincennes, comme dans quelques autres grands monuments, comme le Château de Versailles, l'intensité et l'ampleur de l'utilisation, imposent des travaux de restauration et parfois de restitution (les poternes Ouest, la casemate Nord-Ouest); à Versailles, la récente restitution de la Grille Royale a été justifiée par la nécessaire gestion des flux des 5 millions de visiteurs annuels. Au Château d'Angers, l'incendie du Logis Royal du XIVème siècle, en janvier 2009, nous conduit, aujourd'hui, à réfléchir à la restitution, en pleine ville, de la barbacane Sud et de son pont-dormant, pour rouvrir la porte Sud et désenclaver le Château, ne serait-ce que pour l'accès des pompiers. L'accessibilité des monuments aux personnes handicapées (à tous les handicaps), thème des Journées Européennes du Patrimoine, cette année, devient aussi, et fréquemment, une nouvelle approche pour la restauration des monuments historiques.
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The castle of Vinciennes located on the outskirts of Paris, shows the complexity of the organisation of a site in continual evolution for more than eight centuries. I What intelligibility and functionality can be given to this site which is nowadays open to the public but at the same time must preserve its original use and military nature? The Castle of Vicennes was founded in the 13th Century by Philip Augustus and then became one of the favourite residences of Luis IX (St. Luis), who built the large palace called "Capetian Manor", recently discovered by archaeological excavation. However only in the 14th Century during the reign of Charles V, did the castle find its real identity thanks in the first place to its keep and to its "jacket" (1346-1370) and then to the foundation of Saint Chapel (1379). During the Renaissance Francis I started the construction of the Saint Chapel, which was completed in 1552 by Henry II.A second important construction phase was between 1654 and 1660 under the Sun King, who was planning to transform Vincennes into his main residence and the permanent seat of his court. On this occasion the team that worked in Versailles were hired and the architects Louis le Vau and Andrea le Nôtre designed the gardens. Subsequent to the French revolution Napoleon transformed the castle into an advanced defensive stronghold for Paris in the years 1808. This new function, strictly military and defensive, remained for all of the 19th century up until 1944 with all the transformations necessary for the evolution of armaments, including experimentation with new weapons and the opening of the esplanade of Vincennes for aviation. Nowadays the castle of Vincennes belongs to the State and the greater part is occupied by the Ministry of Defence including the Historical Service of the Defence with its four armies: "Armée de terre" (land forces), "Marine nationale" (navy), "Armée de l'air" (aviation) and "Gendarmerie nationale" (national police). Only a small portion is occupied by the Ministry of Culture (the keep and Saint Chapel) and is open to the public for visits. Also the adjoining town of Vincennes uses the castle for all sorts of events: concerts, promotion activities etc.
JONATHAN COAD
MANAGING 18TH-19TH MARITIME MONUMENTS: CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC BRITISH NAVAL BASIS1
Europa Nostra's meeting on the island of Rhodes is a timely reminder that the term 'military monuments' can also encompass the architecture and engineering works of naval bases. The latter have a great deal in common with fortifications in terms of conservation and re-use. Although the fortifications of Rhodes are now the most tangible mementos of the Knights, the latter had to evolve into a seafaring order and become a naval power both here and later at Malta, where their boat stores and houses for the galley captains still survive2 In England, the security provided by the combination of an island kingdom and from the late fifteenth century a permanent navy, effectively removed the need for the sort of massive frontier fortresses developing on mainland Europe. The only major exceptions after 1500 are defences protecting the main dockyard towns of Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth, and later the principal overseas bases at Malta and Bermuda. These defences reached their apogee around 1870 with a series of massive ring forts3. 1. Location map of naval bases in Great Britain.
1 This is a condensed version of a more detailed paper to be published in the centenary volume of the Mariner's Mirror, the journal of the Society for Nautical Research, in 2011. 2 Coad, 1989 341-45. Subsequently the British Royal Navy used these buildings. 3 The defences of naval bases in Great Britain are discussed in Saunders 1989. For Malta see Spiteri, 1996 and for Bermuda see Harris, 1997
This paper focuses on Great Britain's naval bases rather than the fortifications built to protect them. The dockyards early on developed as distinct and separate enclaves, like medieval fortresses surrounded by high walls and set apart from the immediate civilian settlements that provided their labour. Over the last 40 or so years, much conservation work has been done in these bases and this paper is an attempt to share the experiences that in many cases have wider application. Portsmouth Dockyard was established on a permanent basis in 1495, Chatham in 1547 and Plymouth, now Devonport in 1689. The principal tasks of these royal dockyards were building, fitting-out, repairing and maintaining the fleet. Nearby were the ordnance yards for the weapons and ammunition, the victualling yards responsible for provisioning the fleet, and later in the 18th century, the great naval hospitals for the care of the sick and wounded. The complexity of warship construction and the wide variety of materials required, effectively ensured that the dockyard towns contained a huge concentration of skills. In pre-Industrial Britain they could lay claim to being probably the most versatile industrial communities in the country. By 1750, it has been claimed that the combination of the fleet and its shore facilities had made the
2. The monumental Royal William Victualling Yard at Plymouth, constructed over a ten year period from 1824. In the foreground is the corn mill and bakery; in the distance is the brewery. The entrance to the basin for victualling craft can be seen in between. The yard is being converted into residential use. (photo: Jonathan Coad). 3. Chatham Dockyard. The former Mast Houses and Mould Loft in 1990 after conservation and part-conversion to a visitor centre for the historic dockyard.(photo: Jonathan Coad)
4. The Royal Naval Hospital, Haslar. Constructed on the west side of Portsmouth Harbour between 1746 and 1761 as the first purpose-built, navy-run hospital for the Royal Navy, Haslar catered for up to 2,100 sick and injured seamen by 1778. As constructed, the rear range shown in this print was omitted. The hospital closed in 2007 and its future, together with its spacious grounds, is undecided at the time of writing.
5. Portsmouth Dockyard. In the foreground in Monitor M33, one of only two surviving British warships from the 1914-18 war. Beyond is HMS Victory, laid down at Chatham in 1759. Inside the cover building astern of Victory is the Tudor warship, Mary Rose. These three vessels are berthed permanently in eighteenth century dry-docks. The complex of six dry docks around No 1 basin here, dating from around 1695 to 1805, are the oldest such complex in the world. (photo: Jonathan Coad).
Royal Navy into the greatest industrial organization in the western world4. The gradual introduction of steam propulsion in the 1830s and then the launching in 1860 of HMS Warrior, the world's first all-metal armour-plated warship, led to a further expansion of the royal dockyards to meet the challenges of these accelerating technological developments. In effect, to avoid disruption to the fleet, new steam yards with engineering workshops, foundries, machine shops, boiler shops and larger basins and dry-docks had to be grafted on to existing dockyards. Within both existing and some former British naval bases there remain a remarkable and important legacy of 18th and 19th century buildings and engineering works. Many of these are of monumental quality and self-evidently of historic importance, such as the Old Naval Academy, opened at Portsmouth in 1733 to train officer cadets. Others have only revealed their historic importance as a result of documentary research. Research identified that a substantial timber-framed building was constructed at Chatham Dockyard in 1753 as working mast houses with a mould loft on the first floor. We can be pretty certain that HMS Victory's lines were drawn out on the mould floor here exactly 250 years ago and her first masts and yards manufactured on the floor below. The dockyards were not just places of work: they all had small resident populations both of senior dockyard officers and of watchmen and yard porters in charge of the main gates. Housing was provided for these and scaled according to rank. The Porter's Lodge of around 1712 still stands inside the main gate at Portsmouth, and at Chatham the Commissioner's House of 1704 is the oldest intact dockyard building, notable for its painted ceiling from the stern cabin of the Royal Sovereign. The terracing in its garden belongs to the previous commissioner's house on this site and dates from the mid 17th century. The grandest of all the former commissioners' houses was built at Portsmouth in 1784 and remains in official use. In the eighteenth century, other senior yard officers were generally housed in handsome terrace residences, those at Chatham built between 1722 and 1731 are unique in their crenellated parapets, a military motif appearing on a number of buildings in this yard constructed at that time. Spiritual welfare for dockyard employees and the crews of ships present was also catered for with a series of dockyard chapels. The earliest surviving one is at Portsmouth, dating from 1785; the least altered is the fine example at Chatham built between1806 and 1810. The most complex and expensive installations were dry-docks. At Portsmouth those constructed at intervals between 1690 and 1805 is almost certainly the world's oldest such set. Only one unaltered eighteenth century slip remains at Devonport, dating from 1774. Its roof was added some forty years later when slip
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6. Chatham Historic Dockyard. The five covered slips in 2007 after restoration. The nearest all-timber slip roof was built in 1838; the central three all-metal slip roofs date from 1847 and the far end metal roof was constructed between 1852 and 1855. All were designed to protect wooden sailing warships. (photo: Jonathan Coad). 7. The south end of Chatham Dockyard in 1982. Behind the two huge storehouses fronting the river lie the immensely long spinning and laying house of Chatham Ropery. There has been a ropery here since the early seventeenth century, but most of the buildings date from a reconstruction between 1786 and 1792. 8. Chatham Ropery. Looking along the 366 metre laying floor. In the foreground is one of the rope-making machines installed here in 1811. The ropery is still in production. (photo: Jonathan Coad)
roofs were first introduced in Britain. Chatham has a unique group of five covered slips dating from the second quarter of the 19th century, their roofs built between 1838 and 1855. 7 Slip remained in use building submarines until the mid-1960s. Building a wooden warship was very much a craft industry using hand tools. Timber remained pit sawn well into the 19th century in spite of the introduction of steam sawmills, first at Chatham in 1814. Sail making took place in sail lofts, so called because only on the top floors of the buildings could the central supports be omitted to allow the sail makers an uninterrupted area to spread out the canvas for the great mainsails. The surviving Chatham sail loft dates from the 1720s; in its later years the sail-making floor proved ideal for manufacturing inflatable life-rafts for warships. Among the more specialized workshops were those of the metalworking trades, such as the great smithery at Chatham, designed in 1805 and in use until 1974. Part of it is now being converted to house the national collection of historic ship models. Naval ropeworks had some of the most distinctive buildings, the great ropehouses up to 366 metres in length. There has been a ropeworks on its current site at Chatham since before 1620, but most of its buildings date from a rebuilding from 1786-93. It remains operational and made all the cordage for the Royal Navy until the closure of the dockyard in 1984, using laying machines some of which will be 200 years old in 2011.
The 18th century warehouses used to stockpile stores for the fleet and to hold equipment from ships being laid up are some of the most handsome dockyard buildings. Notable examples survive at Portsmouth from the 1770s and at Chatham where the Anchor Wharf stores of the 1780s are some of the largest warehouses ever built for the Royal Navy. In 1797 the first steam engine owned by the Royal Navy was installed in Portsmouth Dockyard. It was used for pumping out the dry docks and for powering woodworking machinery. More significantly, from 1803 it also drove machinery invented by the Frenchman Marc Isambard Brunel for the mass-production of ships' blocks, some of the very few items needed by a sailing warship in large numbers to standard sizes - HMS Victory, for example, required around 1,700 blocks, principally for the standing and running rigging and for the guns' tackle. By 1808 the 45 machines were producing 130,000 blocks annually and some remained in use until 1965. They are the first instance in the world of the use of machine tools for mass production and mark the start of the modern factory production line system5. This necessarily very brief survey gives an indication of the wealth of historic architecture, engineering works and machinery that survive in the Royal Navy's operational and former bases. Over the last forty years, some of the conservation issues that have affected these may have a wider interest and application. In 1966 the Ancient Monuments Inspectorate began a survey to assess the historic importance of the royal dockyards6. This was then the height of the Cold War and security considerations meant that very little was then known in the outside world about their architectural history and their buildings and engineering works. As a result of this work, nearly all the pre-1840 structures and a select number of later ones were given statutory protection as Ancient Monuments. On-going work in the Admiralty records in the National Archives, the National Maritime Museum and elsewhere led to the accumulation of a great deal of new and detailed information that continues to form the essential basis for decisions on conservation and adaptation. As with the great majority of historic buildings, the best future for these naval buildings lay in keeping them in use, if not for their original purposes, then for compatible uses that would respect their historic fabric and would ensure they continued to be properly maintained. Regular meetings were established in the 1970s in each dockyard to inform yard planners, to make them aware of the historic importance of buildings and engineering works, and to offer technical and practical conservation advice where needed. On the plus side, as these buildings were government-owned, there was an obligation on the Ministry of Defence to set a good conservation example - but no extra money with which to do it. This latter point was not an insurmountable obstacle as increasingly it was possible to show that a conservation approach was not necessarily more expensive and indeed could save substantial sums of money compared to building afresh. Many of the dockyard buildings presented no problems as they were still being used for their original or very similar purposes. Into this category comes the terrace of houses built in the early 1720s for the Ordnance Board officers at their new yard at Plymouth. These still house senior dockyard officers. Similarly, the office building constructed at Chatham in 1808 for the yard officers remains in use as offices. The monumental factory buildings of the steam navy have tended to remain as engineering workshops needing little adaptation, such as No 2 Ship Shop at constructed at Portsmouth in the 1840s to service steam warships in the adjacent and contemporary basin. The even more monumental Quadrangle complex of engineering workshops, stores and offices at Devonport, as Plymouth
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9. Devonport.. The terrace of houses built in the early 1720s for the senior officers of the Ordnance Yard adjacent to the new dockyard (photo: Jonathan Coad). 10. Portsmouth.. The Steam Basin constructed in the 1840s for the Royal Navy's new steam vessels. To the left is the contemporary former West Factory, built to service the ships' machinery. (photo: Jonathan Coad) 11. Devonport. The former 19th century foundry after
modernisation and conversion to an engineering workshop. 12. Chatham Dockyard. A 1982 photograph of one of the steam engines and a wagon on the dockyard railway system. Both of these were saved for preservation when the dockyard closed in 1984. Behind to the right is part of the 1704 Commissioner's House, the oldest intact building in a British dockyard. To the left is part of the dockyard offices of 1808 (photo: Jonathan Coad).
Dockyard had been renamed in 1844, had at its rear a massive foundry, unused since the late 1970s. This was later very successfully adapted as engineering workshops and stores, retaining its original spatial quality and introducing effective but hidden roof insulation by raising the metal roof covering by some 20 cm so that the insulation did not impact on the metal roof trusses. The trend for open plan offices also worked in favour of reusing redundant storehouses with their large internal spaces. At Portsmouth the Museum of the Royal Navy, funded by the Ministry of Defence, is largely housed in two of a range of naval storehouses built between 1763 and 1782. Their interiors have been skilfully adapted for museum use in a way that preserves much of the feel of the Georgian interiors as well as a degree of the spatial quality. The greatest conservation challenge in the last forty years came with the announcement in 1981 that the huge naval base at Chatham would close in 1984. Ultimately, the early twentieth century naval barracks were to find a use as a university campus, while the late nineteenth century extension for the steam navy was to be redeveloped as a mix of housing and commercial use, preserving the three basins, the associated dry docks and a few of the more notable buildings. The jewel in the crown at Chatham however was the old dockyard, spread out along the bank of the river Medway. It had largely escaped modernisation and the wartime bombing that had so damaged Devonport and to a letter extent Portsmouth. Earlier research had shown that this was the best-preserved and only example of an almost intact royal dockyard from the great age of the sailing navy. The Ancient Monuments Board was immediately able to advise ministers of its importance and leading conservation bodies were brought together to consider its future. Such discussions inevitably take time during which the run-down of the yard had started. While the buildings were protected by conservation legislation, their movable contents were not. Crucially, the Ministry of Defence agreed considered
to be of historic interest by the Inspectorate of Ancient Monuments and the National Maritime Museum would be put aside pending a decision on the future of the dockyard. As a result, several thousand items were saved. These ranged from equipment used in the smitheries - from hand tools to massive steam hammers, plate rolling machines and steam cranes, together with examples of the rolling stock used on the dockyard railway system. At the same time, the dockyard history society, formed by those working in the dockyard, salvaged and set aside hundreds of smaller items such as hand tools, models and smaller items of equipment that would almost certainly otherwise have been destroyed. Several thousand plans and drawings were transferred to the National Maritime Museum. When late in 1983 the government decided to endow a trust to look after the historic dockyard, uniquely it meant that the new Chatham Historic Dockyard Trust had not just the historic buildings but sufficient of their contents and other equipment to enable visitors to understand how this great industrial enterprise had worked. Conservation of a historic site of this scale is not cheap. The Trust was given an endowment of just over ÂŁ11million in 1983. This has been supplemented over the last 25 years by a further ÂŁ43million from a combination of grants, including from the Heritage Lottery Fund. Further income is generated from visitors and from rents from many of its buildings, the combination of monies allowing the Trust to pursue its triple aims of conservation, sympathetic reuse of buildings and interpreting the site to visitors. Chatham Historic Dockyard has been an outstanding success in terms of conservation of the site, finding new uses for buildings and making the dockyard attractive and understandable to visitors. The lessons to be learnt from the last 40 or so years are the obvious ones, perhaps above all that buildings stand the best chance of survival if they have continuing and sympathetic uses. But where a complete dockyard or similar industrial or military complex of historic importance is faced with closure, the Chatham experience has valuable lessons. First and vitally, the research work that demonstrates the importance of a site needs to be done and preferably published as soon as, and if possible before, it is known that the site is to be redundant. To garner support, this historic importance needs to reach a wide audience, so television producers and local papers need to be made aware of it. Dissemination of such information can have a powerful effect on public opinion and on conservation and amenity bodies. These in turn can bring pressure on governments. If research is only begun when news of closure becomes known, it is likely that a site's future will have been decided before its importance is appreciated among the decision-takers. Secondly, at an early stage check for and if possible secure relevant equipment, furniture, other artefacts and records - plans and papers.
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These are all too easily lost, stolen or destroyed during closure. Liase with those who work there; many of these people are interested in the history of their workplace and have insiders' knowledge of the whereabouts of records and interesting equipment. Finally, where a site is complex, try to ensure that its future is in the hands of a single Trust or conservation organisation with overall control. This is really the only way to ensure there are common standards for its conservation, maintenance, re-use and display; such an approach is vital to preserve not just the buildings and engineering works but also their setting and the all important 'sense of place'.
Notes 1 This is a condensed version of a more detailed paper to be published in the centenary volume of the Mariner's Mirror, the journal of the Society for Nautical Research, in 2011. 2 Coad, 1989 341-45. Subsequently the British Royal Navy used these buildings. 3 The defences of naval bases in Great Britain are
Select bibliography J.C. Coad, The Royal Dockyards 1690-1850. Aldershot, Scolar Press, 1989. Coad, J G 2005 The Portsmouth Block Mills. Swindon, English Heritage. J.C. Coad, Forthcoming ‘Indifference, destruction, appreciation,conservation’: A century of changing attitudes to historic buildings in British naval bases.'
discussed in Saunders 1989. For Malta see Spiteri, 1996 and for Bermuda see Harris, 1997. 4 N A M Rodger in Coad, 1989, ix. 5 Coad, 2005 110-111. 6 The late Andrew Saunders and Dr Arnold Taylor, then Chief Inspector of Ancient Monuments were responsible for initiating the survey that was undertaken by the author.
Mariner's Mirror, centenary volume, 2011. E.C. Harris, Bermuda Forts 1612-1957. Bermuda, Bermuda Maritime Press, 1997. A. D. Saunders, Fortress Britain. Liphook, Beaufort Publishing, 1989. S.C. Spiteri, British Military Architecture in Malta., Valletta 1996 (S.C. Spiteri PO Box 460, Valletta).
En Angleterre, la sécurité résultant de la combinaison d'un royaume d'une île et, à partir de la fin du XV siècle, d'une flotte permanente, a effectivement éliminé la nécessité de forteresses frontalières massives sur la terre ferme de l'Europe. Les seules exceptions après 1500 sont des défenses qui protègent les principales villes de Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth - importants chantiers navals -, et plus tard les principales bases d'outre-mer à Malte et aux Bermudes. Ces défenses ont atteint leur apogée vers 1870 avec une série d'imposantes forteresses circulaires. Ce document se concentre sur les bases navales de la Grande-Bretagne. Les arsenaux se développèrent comme des enclaves distinctes et séparées des proches établissements civils, comme des forteresses médiévales entourées par de hauts murs. Dans les dernières 40 années beaucoup de travaux de conservation ont été faits sur ces bases et ce document est une tentative de partager les expériences faites souvent sur une plus vaste échelle.
GEOFFREY STELL
MONUMENTAL CONNECTIONS: RHODES, THE ENGLISH TONGUE, AND SCOTLAND, 13091522
Introduction In recent decades there has been a considerable burgeoning of international historical studies about the Knights Hospitaller, especially in relation to their occupation of Rhodes and Malta in the late medieval and early modern periods. These studies have also shone much detailed light upon the impact and organisation of this remarkable order across Europe as a whole, showing how its resources were administered and channelled into long continuing efforts to remain a strong bulwark of Western Christendom in the Mediterranean region. As a result, there is now a much greater understanding of how the knights organised themselves and were able to fund building (and especially defence) works of such magnificent scale and strength, ultimately bequeathing monumental legacies in both Rhodes and Malta that are of breathtaking precocity, grandeur and sophistication. In order to understand these outstanding monuments against their European background and to obtain a more balanced overall appreciation of the international physical effects of hospitallers' activities, however, architectural scholars now have both the opportunities and incentives to match and make good use of this historical research. As a brief preliminary contribution to this exercise, this essay summarily reviews the evidence for the buildings and monuments associated with just one of the most geographically distant of the widely ramified hospitaller constituencies, the langue or tongue and priory of 'England', which, somewhat awkwardly, also embraced Scotland. Hopefully, this review of the architectural histo-
1. Rhodes, Museum Square, Inn of the English langue (from Kollias, Knights of Rhodes (1991), Š Ekdotike Athenon) 2. Rhodes, Museum Square, Inn of the English langue: 177 detail of armorial, 2009
3. Rhodes, City Fortifications: ramparts in the sector of the English langue (from Kollias, Medieval City of Rhodes (1998), © Ministry of Culture, Archaeological Receipts Fund) 4. Bodrum Castle, Turkey, c.1960 (from Riley-Smith, Hospitallers (1999), © The Order of St John and the
estate of A F Kersting (1996-2008)) 5. Bodrum Castle, Turkey: armorial above a gateway, arms of Thomas Docwra on the right (from RileySmith, Hospitallers (1999), © The Order of St John) 6. Clerkenwell Priory, London: woodcut showing priory church in 1508
ry may encourage or stimulate similar studies elsewhere, thereby adding incrementally to knowledge of all the monuments - including the small and not-sogrand - associated with a military order that, especially in its late medieval Rhodian phase, was truly European. Historical studies of the knights hospitaller Undoubtedly one of the great historical phenomena of late medieval Europe, the Knights Hospitaller have long attracted much interest and fascination, aroused in large measure by their impressive international network, second only to the medieval Papacy itself. In recent decades, however, that interest has burgeoned into a veritable 'explosion' of documentary research, much of which has been focused upon the rich and eventful period after 1309-10 when the beginnings of the hospitaller occupation of Rhodes coincided, fortunately from their viewpoint, with the downfall of the Knights Templar. Appropriate to the multi-lingual nature of the subject, these studies have appeared variously in French, Italian and German, but the list appended below under 'Select Bibliography' is merely a selection of works which are in, or have been translated into, English, and which relate mainly to the English langue and province. It also focuses on the two centuries of Hospitaller history on Rhodes, to which the contributions of two scholars, Elias Kollias and Anthony Luttrell, stand out.
It is no disrespect to this profound and enlightening historical scholarship to suggest that it may have only a marginal impact on the huge and growing numbers of visitors to Rhodes. Made more widely accessible, however, it has considerable potential to heighten understanding of the wider European context within which the hospitallers operated, a background which many of the present-day cultural tourists share and to which they can easily relate. This scholarship also provides an excellent framework for architectural studies to be conducted in a similar, internationally co-ordinated manner, an exercise that also has the potential to make its own significant contribution to Rhodes and the rest of hospitaller Europe. As ever, the most effective management of the physical environment is that which is predicated on the best available information that is shared by managers and managed alike. European langues and priories Even in an age renowned for piety and Christian endeavour, the Knights Hospitaller were exceptional, particularly in matters of international organisation. Like the Knights Templars, whose property they inherited after 1312, they were essentially a military order, but they also followed a religious life adapted from the Augustinian canons. They thus served as brother knights as well as unordained clerics, dual roles that might frequently be in conflict. The brothers serving at the central convent during the Rhodian period varied in number between about 250 and 450, and they were grouped into langues or tongues both before and after Rhodes, each with their own auberge and pilier or chief officer at the head. Possibly in operation by 1283, certainly by 1295, this linguistic division first comprised seven tongues: Provence; Auvergne; France; Spain; Italy; England; and Germany. Germany temporarily disappeared for almost a century after 1330, and then in 1461 'Spain', really Iberia, was divided into two, Aragon and Portugal-Castile, the latter a slightly curious amalgam. This brought the number of langues up to eight until England disappeared at the dissolution in 1540 and was then represented by proxy. Though obviously cosmopolitan, the order remained predominantly French, dominated by the three French langues that supplied by far the greatest number of grand masters. Beyond the headquarters in Rhodes and later Malta, was a system of administration grouped into provinces known as priories and grand priories, and further subdivided into regional commanderies or preceptories. It was through this system and the payment of responsions that the order was able to fund and run great hospital establishments, invest in expensive fortifications and galley fleets, and employ armies of mercenaries and subordinates. Without the background support of this sophisticated financial network, the Rhodes that we see today would be a very different and much less impressive place. Architecture of the English langue Viewed in broad perspective, the langue and priory of England was an important, though not one of the greatest divisions of this remarkable international network, and, overall, its architecture cannot be claimed to have been among the grandest. In Rhodes itself, it is associated with one of the least distinguished and most rebuilt of the auberges (inns), although the battle stations on the city defences and works at Bodrum Castle on the Turkish mainland were and remain of considerable substance and significance. Likewise, beyond Rhodes, the English langue had comparatively less institutional and architectural impact than other langues and priories, especially those associated with Italy, Spain and France.
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7. St John's Gate (Museum of the Order of St John), Clerkenwell, London, 2004, 8. St John's Gate, armorial on south front, arms of Thomas Docwra on the right, 2007. 9. Torphichen Preceptory and Parish Church, West Lothian, Scotland: aerial view from west-north-west, 2008 (Š John and Rosie Wells) 10. Torphichen Preceptory and Parish Church: from north-west, 1955 (Crown copyright, RCAHMS)
Nevertheless, the physical remains of the grand priory of 'England', including Scotland and Ireland, make up in archaeological and historical subtlety what they may lack in grandeur, displaying a variety of building types and degrees of fortification far behind the eastern front in Rhodes. City of Rhodes and Bodrum castle The starting-point for this brief monumental review is one of the lesser and more heavily restored landmarks in Rhodes, a relatively undistinguished building which stands on the south-east side of Museum Square. The building is in fact a replica, a 1919 reconstruction in the same position and style as a 1443 original that had been destroyed in the mid-19th century. On the strength of a sculptured heraldic panel that bears the arms of the English royal house and those of the turcopolier, John Kendal, however, the 15th-century building has been plausibly identified as the auberge or inn of the tongue of England. Those sections of the fortifications of Rhodes associated with the tongue of England are in the south-eastern sector of the defensive circuit that rings the city. Although far more impressive landmarks than the auberge, there is some confusion over precisely which lengths of the defences were associated with the English langue, especially in the final conflict in 1522. As Elias Kollias pointed out, the designated battle stand of the tongue of England that was set out in a decree of 1465 was between the Tower of Spain and the Tower of the Virgin. In 1522, this section was actually defended by the tongue of Aragon, while, conversely, the designated Aragon battle station, between the St Athanassios and the St John Gates, was the English tongue's actual fighting zone. Fewer doubts surround the English tongue's contribution to, and association with, the castle of St Peter, Bodrum, formerly Halicarnassus. Evidently begun after the loss of Smyrna in 1402, this most impressive and substantial Rhodian outstation was built on the Anatolian mainland opposite Cos, occupying the site and reusing materials from the mausoleum of Mausolus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. One of its most prominent features is the 'English' tower at the south-eastern corner of the castle enclosure. Its face bears a line of sculptured English coats-of-arms, including those of the first Lancastrian king, Henry IV (1399-1413), six members of his family, and 17 out of a further 19 shields commemorating English Knights of the Garter. The English langue clearly remained heavily committed to Bodrum. Building works undertaken there in the 1490s were under the direction of Sir Thomas Docwra, whose arms along with those of the then grand master, Pierre d'Aubusson, still stand above one of the castle gateways. Possibly involved in the
successful defence of Rhodes in 1480, Docwra enjoyed a successful career in the order of St John. In 1495 was elected turcopolier and made captain of the order's galleys, the role in which he made his contribution to Bodrum. Later, in 1501, while still on Rhodes, he was elected grand prior of England to which he then returned, carrying out further substantial building works at its principal house, Clerkenwell in London, and remaining head of the order in England until his death in 1527. England and Wales Established by about 1140 in the first phase of English endowments, the priory of St John, Clerkenwell, just outside the north walls of the city of London, was the provincial headquarters of the Knights Hospitaller in Britain, the house through which the main business of the English langue was administered. By the 1330s Clerkenwell had a total complement of over 60 staff, and was physically growing to considerable proportions. A 19th-century version of a composite engraving of 1656 conveys a good impression of its one-time extent. It shows the priory gateway (St John's Gate, which still survives), the cut-down remains of the church, minus nave and bell-tower which had been removed in the 1540s, and the end windows of the church (which also still survive) flanked by one of the great halls of the priory. Replacing a 12th-century original, the priory gateway was rebuilt by Thomas Docwra in the early 16th century, probably around 1504-6, and, as at Bodrum, his armorial is among those displayed on the gatehouse. Now handsomely refurbished, the gatehouse is also home to the St John's Gate Museum of the Order of St John, one of the few places where the history of the order in both its international setting and its local context can be appreciated. Another significant surviving element is the crypt of the priory church, which dates from the original foundation in about 1140 and was extended in 1185. It stood beneath a church with a circular nave, modelled on the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Although, as Jonathan Riley-Smith points out, it has never been established conclusively whether, following the suppression of the Templars, the Hospital of St John became the greatest landowner in medieval England from the 14th century onwards, there is every indication that indeed it was. By 1350 the number of preceptories stood at 59, although by dissolution in 1540 that figure had been drastically reduced by two-thirds to 19. Obtaining a physical measure of the undoubted wealth and power which the order exercised in England during their Rhodian heyday is, however, extremely difficult. Unlike present-day France or Spain, for example, there are few, if any, sites which retain all the surviving elements of a preceptory establishment, the various architectural components churches/chapels, domestic chamber blocks, towers, gatehouses - surviving in
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varying measure at different sites across the country. Functionally and symbolically, as Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc noted, the tower was a prominent component of preceptory/commanderie architecture across Europe. However, the overall impression of English preceptories that is gained from surviving remains and pictorial records is of architecture of a much less emphatic and dominating character, building complexes of relatively modest scale that were laid out in forms analogous to contemporary manorial complexes. Moor Hall, Middlesex, for example, appears to have been an archetypal English hospitaller property, consisting of a camera (chamber block) and chapel that were depicted in a late 18th-century watercolour and in photographs taken before its demolition in the 1950s. Although much altered and landscaped, the preceptory at Chibburn in Northumberland probably comes closest to demonstrating the scale and layout of a smaller English house. Converted into a dower house in the 17th century and surrounded by open cast mining in the 20th, enough still survives to permit an authentic reconstruction showing tower, hall, chapel and other buildings set within a circular earth-and-bank enclosure. In 1338 there were 10 members of the hospitaller community here, including a preceptor and two brother knights. Ireland The Knights Hospitaller also had a significant presence in medieval Ireland, especially after the absorption of the Templar properties in the early 14th century. They arrived in the train of the Angevin invaders in 1172 and were first settled at Wexford. About two years later, the priory of the hospital in Ireland, which in due course became part of the English langue, was established at Kilmainham on the eastern outskirts of Dublin. All the preceptories subsequently established in
11. Torphichen Preceptory: from north-east, c.1920 (Crown copyright, RCAHMS) 12. Torphichen Preceptory: south transept, 2009 (Š Jim Knowles) 13. Torphichen Preceptory: north transept, boss and vaulting rib with Meldrum inscription, c.1920 (Crown copyright, RCAHMS) 14. Torphichen Preceptory: Dundas monument in blocking of chancel arch, c.1920 (Crown copyright, RCAHMS) 15. Knights Hospitallers' town house, Linlithgow, West Lothian, Scotland: tower block, c.1880 (Š Edinburgh City Libraries)
Ireland, including those acquired from the Templars, were subject to Kilmainham Priory, which thereby became extremely wealthy and well endowed with properties right across Ireland. At the suppression in 1540 its own buildings were considered to be among the best in the country. Its successor on this site, the Royal Hospital for Old and Disabled Soldiers, which was built in 1680-4 and now serves as the Irish Museum of Modern Art, is also architecturally distinguished, but its supremely elegant footprint masks all remains of the medieval priory. By the 14th century there were about 20 preceptories in Ireland. Many had been built as fortified manor houses or tower-castles rather than as monasteries, probably deliberately to assist in the processes of colonisation and subjugation. Additionally, there were numerous free hospitals or frank houses, managed by the laity and catering exclusively for members of the order when travelling or staying in towns. Many of the surviving remains of Irish preceptories assumed the characteristic Irish tower house form, well exemplified by Kilteel, Co. Kildare. This fortress on the south-west border of the Dublin Pale retains a relatively substantial 15th-century tower and gateway, a reflection of the importance of a house which was evidently host to three general chapters of the order in the second quarter of the 14th century. Scotland: Torphichen and Rhodes One of the most distant hospitaller outposts in Western Europe, Scotland remained in regular contact with Rhodes throughout the later Middle Ages, linked by arduous months'-long routes by land and sea. Founded by King David I (112453) in about 1150, Torphichen Preceptory, West Lothian, was the principal, indeed the only major, Scottish house of the Knights Hospitallers, though the order had significant estates in south-west and north-east Scotland, together with numerous small parcels of land scattered throughout the country. Torphichen remained a hospitaller property for just over four centuries, until 1564, when the last preceptor, James Sandilands, came to a financial agreement with the Scottish Crown and in return received the former ecclesiastical estates as a hereditary secular barony. Within the English langue Torphichen was unique insofar as it was a single preceptory that represented an entire kingdom. Moreover, since 1296 that medieval kingdom of Scotland had successfully fought to maintain its independence from the neighbouring kingdom of England, in whose chief city the knights' governing grand priory of Clerkenwell stood. Given that, politically and militarily, Scotland and England frequently found themselves at odds, such an organisational framework was clearly fraught with inherent difficulties in matters of administrative
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16. Knights Hospitallers' town house, Linlithgow, West Lothian, Scotland: drawing of interior of hall by Thomas Ross, 1878 (reproduced in Mac Gibbon and Ross, Castellated and Domestic Architecture, volume 1 (1887)) 17. Colin Campbell of Glenorchy (either 1400-80 or,
more probably, c.1395-1475): portrait reproduced from Innes, Black Book of Taymouth (1855), following page 10 18. Glenorchy charmstone (Š National Museums Scotland, licensor www.scran.ac.uk.)
appointments and finance. The problems became much worse and more widespread at the period of the Western Schism (1378-1417) when the two sides also found themselves at odds, in varying combinations, with France, the Vatican and Rhodes over differences in support of the rival Papacies in Avignon and Rome. However, the Great Schism appears to have had the effect of strengthening Scottish contributions to the order, certainly in terms of the recruiting of brothers and associate laymen, an activity which appeared to reach a high point around the middle of the 15th century. The minimum qualification for any brother aspiring to the preceptorship of Torphichen was five years' membership of the order and three years' residence and military service at Rhodes. One of the Rhodes-trained knights who rose to this distinction in the 1430s and left his architectural mark on Torphichen was Andrew Meldrum. He was of a family that had first become tenants of the hospitallers at Ellon, Aberdeenshire, in 1345, and which, by the 15th century, had produced a number of knights of the order, Andrew included. There are records of his fairly frequent travels on preceptory business to England, Flanders and Rhodes, from which he returned from military service in 1433. His command at Torphichen was marked by a measure of rebuilding and embellishment and he was probably responsible for much of the distinctive ribbed vaulting in the crossing and transepts. The quadripartite ribs of the north transept meet at a central boss inscribed with the sacred monogram IHS, while the south rib bears a Gothic-lettered Latin inscription commemorating 'Andrew Meldrum, knight of the order of St John, preceptor'. A case formally disputed in Rhodes between two Scots in 1466 also clearly showed how the long arm and support of the Rhodes grand master made all the difference in promotions, usually formally presented as 'expectations', to the preceptorship in far-distant Scotland. The loser in the 1466 case evidently ended his days as a conventual knight residing in Rhodes, while his successful adversary, the long-serving William Knollis (d.1510), repaid his appointment by regular payments of responsions and by the establishment of at least two of his protĂŠgĂŠs as Rhodes-based conventual brothers. Later events were to draw Torphichen even closer to the hospitallers' highly developed central institutions, and probably saved the preceptory from premature
secularisation at the hands of the Scottish Crown. The last Scottish preceptor associated with Rhodes was George Dundas who was appointed as successor to Knollis in 1510, having been acknowledged as such by the grand master of Rhodes since 1504. However, having then set out for Rhodes in 1510 with a fighting retinue, he spent the next six years of his theoretical Scottish preceptorship actually in Rhodes, litigating to establish his rights. The initial problem centred upon the fact that, almost as soon as Dundas had left Scotland, King James IV switched his support to a rival claimant, another of his trusted public servants. In 1513, when diplomatic relations with England were deteriorating, James wrote to the grand master, expressing his astonishment at the position that this case had highlighted. He claimed he had not been aware that Scottish appointments were made through the English turcopolier, that Scottish responsions were paid through the treasurer in the English grand priory, and that Scottish members of the order were required to look upon the prior of England as their lord and protector. If he had known all that, he would never have tolerated such a situation, and shortly afterwards he re-asserted to the grand master that no Scot should be installed at Torphichen if he held the prior of England as superior 'on the pretext that Scotland is English-speaking' Fortuitously for Dundas and the hospitallers, this crisis dissolved a few months later when James and the rival claimant were both killed at the disastrous battle of Flodden. Dundas finally returned from Rhodes to Scotland in 1516 and was firmly re-installed in his position as preceptor from 1518 onwards. In addition to his resumption of regular payments of responsions through the English treasurer, Dundas is also found repaying loans to Thomas Docwra, prior of England, presumably litigation costs and travelling expenses which he had incurred during his enforced six-year sojourn on Rhodes. George Dundas died in 1532, by which date the knights had lost possession of Rhodes and were re-establishing themselves on Malta. His successor as preceptor of Torphichen was his nephew, Walter Lindsay, a warrior knight in the traditional mould who was among the Scots who fought at the siege of Rhodes in 1522. It was Lindsay who in 1538 had a carved monument inscribed to the memory of his maternal uncle and predecessor erected in Torphichen church. Later re-set in the blocking of the chancel arch, the LindsayDundas sculptured slab is also in a broader sense the last monument to over two centuries of a relationship with Rhodes. Scotland: medieval architecture of Torphichen preceptory What remains today is a mere fragment of the preceptory church and of the overall complex as it would have existed in it late medieval, Rhodian heyday. Nonetheless, it is a building of some considerable extent, bulk and grandeur. It comprises a pair of two-storeyed transepts of unequal size, a three-storeyed crossing tower formerly containing a bell-chamber and hospice or lodging above, and a later parish church (1756), built over the nave of the preceptory church, re-using the lower portions of the original side walls. Other less obvious remains include the foundations of a cloister on the north side of the church, while a blocked arch marks the position of the structural chancel or eastern limb of the church, of which the foundations have long been removed. Beyond the cloister garth west of the church, is the site of the preceptor's residence which is known to have had a great hall on the first floor. There is also part of a surviving gateway into what would undoubtedly have been a large enclosure containing buildings associated with the functioning of Torphichen as a manorial estate centre. Fragmentary as they are, the surviving architectural remains show a building his-
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tory of some complexity and sophistication, reflecting a richness and development over a long period and expressed in solid and dignified style, the sober good tastes of successive incumbents. The earliest dateable evidence is a late 12th-, early 13th-century arch on the west of the crossing associated with the first unaisled western limb of the church. During the 13th century the nave was widened to incorporate at least one arcaded aisle, single-storeyed transepts were added to create an overall cruciform layout, and above the crossing a large threestoreyed tower was raised, lit by two-light windows with plate tracery. By far the greater part of the medieval fabric that is visible today, however, dates from a major phase of reconstruction that extended from the late 14th century to about the middle of the 15th century, a period, as we have seen, when associations with Rhodes were particularly strong. During this phase, the transepts and the crossing were virtually rebuilt with large inserted windows, and they were ceiled internally with quadripartite ribbed vaulting without wall-ribs. A rare feature associated with this work is a working drawing for one of the vaults incised in plaster on the west wall of the south transept, and there are hints of other similar drawings on the opposite wall. Another significant aspect of this work was the creation of hospice accommodation above each of the transepts in the form of chambers that were equipped with fireplaces and reached by a heightened newel stair at the crossing. This phase appears also to have included the creation of
19. Kilchurn Castle, Argyll: aerial view from northwest, 1971 (Crown copyright, RCAHMS) 20. Kilchurn Castle, Argyll: from north-east, 1969 (Crown copyright, RCAHMS)
21. Kilchurn Castle, Argyll: ground plan (published RCAHMS, Inventory of Argyll, volume 2, Lorn (1975), Crown copyright, RCAHMS)
direct access from the north transept to the cloisters where a dormitory range may also have been added. Whatever work was undertaken on the long eastern limb of the church, however, appears to have remained incomplete at the Reformation in 1560. Scotland: Linlithgow palace and town house Merely three miles (five kilometres) north-east of Torphichen is Linlithgow, a burgh and centre of a sheriffdom that had grown up from the 12th century alongside a royal manor house, considerably enlarged into a palace after 1424 following a disastrous fire. Situated roughly half-way between the major royal castles of Edinburgh and Stirling, Linlithgow Palace became a favourite and much frequented residence of the later Stewart monarchs, being the birthplace, in 1512, of King James V and, in 1542, of his much celebrated and tragic daughter, Mary Queen of Scots. The occasional royal presence meant that houses in Linlithgow, like those in Edinburgh and Stirling, came to accommodate, or be built on behalf of, nobles, courtiers and foreign ambassadors. None was greater in this locality than the preceptor of Torphichen who appears to have had by far the grandest house in the town. Indeed, prior to its demolition in 1885-6, the Linlithgow town house of the Knights Hospitaller, was among the largest and most impressive medieval town house to be found anywhere in Scotland. An urbanised version of the Scottish combined tower and hall tradition, the building's most conspicuous external feature was a lofty, four-storeyed tower, a defensible solar block with oriel windows and stone vaults over the ground, first and second floors which were reached by a turnpike stair. An external forestair gave access from an open courtyard. Adjoining the tower was a much-altered twostoreyed hall range that ran along one side of the courtyard with a once-grand first-floor hall set above three vaulted cellars. The architectural evidence points to a late 15th or early 16th century origin for the design, and to a rebuilding of the street frontage at the lower end of the range in about 1700. Unfortunately, historical records are slight, the best single piece of evidence being a detailed inventory of furnishings and movables dating from 1566, following the death of the last preceptor. Many of the architectural details bear striking similarities to those that still survive in the nearby royal palace, to such an extent that it would not be unreasonable to suggest that the hospitallers may have engaged the same craftsmen. The oriel windows, for example, are not unlike one dating from the reign of James IV (1488-1513) in the king's bedchamber in the royal palace. Inside the hall, there are other similarities of detail, particularly in the shouldered door-heads and the lintelled, canopied fireplace with its bowtell-moulded jambs, which correspond closely to those in the east and west quarters of the palace. The arch-braced oak roof, a comparatively rare form for Scotland, was of relatively modest span but the overall effect was very grand. There is a very good chance that it was aping the style of the much larger roof over the great hall of the palace, which has been roofless since 1746, and that timber for both roofs came from the hospitaller's own estate at Torphichen. Probably still the best in the locality, this was a source of oaks which King Edward I of England is known to have used for the building of his peel at Linlithgow in the early 14th century. Scotland: other Hospitaller associations Among the many hundreds of properties that formed part of the Hospitaller estate in Scotland was that of Stenhousemuir, about nine miles (15 kilometres) to the
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north-west of the preceptory. A site in this otherwise unremarkable stretch of territory had been a major medieval pottery production centre containing several kilns and drying hearths which were excavated over 50 years ago. Among the large assemblage of redware pottery recovered from the site were two vessels whose decorative insignia clearly reflected the Hospitaller connection and offer a glimpse of their 'brand' of domestic artefact. One bodysherd and the composite fragments of an almost complete jug were decorated with incised eight-pointed so-called 'Maltese' crosses, a device had become almost exclusive to the order by the later Middle Ages, long pre-dating their arrival on Malta in 1530. Outside the formal structures of Hospitaller organisation, many Scots came into contact or became associated with the order to a greater or lesser extent, many as pilgrims to and from the Holy Land passing through Rhodes en route. One of the most unusual of these 'pilgrims' was that of the heart of King James I, sent in a casket shortly after his murder in 1437. In a similar mission a century earlier, Robert Bruce's heart only got as far as Teba in Spain, but on this occasion James's heart actually reached the Holy Sepulchre via Rhodes. An un-named, Rhodesbased knight of St John then brought it all the way back to Perth in Scotland for burial. Many of the Scottish nobility, like those of other, nearer lands, also became increasingly drawn into the conflict with the Turks, fighting as laymen, not necessarily as fully-fledged knights of the order of St John. One who is known to have fought with the knights at Rhodes without actually becoming a member of the order was Sir Colin Campbell, from Argyll in the West Highlands of Scotland. In 1432, his father, Duncan, first Lord Campbell, established Colin in northern Argyll by granting him the lands and lordship of Glen Orchy, which became the new branch's territorial designation. Colin's long career (either 1400-80 or, more probably, c.1395-1475) established the family's fortunes through marriage and service, enabling him to become a major power within the growing Campbell empire during the middle of the 15th century. He was much travelled, so much so that he came to be known in Gaelic as Cailean Dubh na Roimh, 'Black Colin of Rome'. An account in the 16th-century family history known as The Black Book of Taymouth asserts that Colin was maid knicht in Isle of Rhodos. Family tradition also points to a charmstone which Sir Colin woir when he fought in battell at the Rhodes against the Turks, he being one of the knychtis of the Rhodes. Colin was married at least three times after 1448, so this last claim is rather puzzling given the order's rules on celibacy. It is conceivable that he entered the order as a youth and later apostatised, though, as Jane Dawson has concluded, it seems more likely that the family scribe has misunderstood the nature of Hospitaller knighthood. What the scribe may have been misintepreting was a high honour that was conferred upon Colin, not reception into the knightly fraternity but probably the gift of an eques auratus apud Rhodos, the 'gilded horse' referred to in the accompanying illustration in The Black Book of Taymouth. The Glenorchy charmstone is now a prized relic in the collections of the National Museum of Scotland. Possibly dating from the 7th or 8th century, the ancient crystal charmstone is set in a 17th-century silver mount, decorated with four pieces of red coral alternating with four silver balls. It has a suspension loop so that it could be hung on a chain and dipped in water, the water then being used for healing purposes. There seems no reason to doubt the tradition that it was worn by Sir Colin Campbell when fighting in Rhodes, probably in the 1440s, and that it returned safely with him to the West Highlands.
Colin died in 1475 at Strathfillan, where he had built a tower, and was 'honourably' buried in Kilmartin in Argyll, his tomb almost certainly covered by one of the many distinctive but uninscribed sculptured graveslabs that still survive there, one of the largest collections in the West Highlands. His principal identifiable monument, however, is the tower and enclosure that formed the first phase of his family's principal stronghold in Breadalbane, Argyll, Glenorchy, now Kilchurn, Castle, long renowned as one of the most picturesque ruins in the Scottish Highlands. Admired, painted, sketched and photographed by successive generations of artists and tourists, Kilchurn Castle has an another but much less known claim on the traveller's attention - an authentic connection with Rhodes through the life and works of its original builder. Situated many thousands of miles behind the eastern front-line of Christendom, Kilchurn is thus tangible testament to the sheer extent and pulling power of the Rhodes-based Hospitaller empire. Remarkable even by modern standards and modes of travel, it is time that such monumental connections are made more widely known to all those who manage and enjoy the built heritage of Rhodes and Scotland. Acknowledgements For assistance with references and illustrations the author is indebted to Laurie Alexander, Derek Hall, Jim Knowles, Con Manning, Sandy Thomson, and John and Rosie Wells.
Select bibliography Beatson G.eorge Thomas, The Knights Hospitallers in Scotland and their Priory at Torphichen (Glasgow, 1903) Borchardt, Karl, Jaspert, Nikolas, and Nicholson, Helen J (eds.), The Hospitallers, the Mediterranean and Europe, Festschrift for Anthony Luttrell (Aldershot, 2007) Chibi, Andrew A, 'Docwra, Sir Thomas' Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004) Cowan, Ian B, Mackay, P H R, and Macquarrie, Alan, The Knights of St John of Jerusalem in Scotland (Scottish History Society, Edinburgh, 1983) Dawson, Jane E A, 'Campbell family of Glenorchy' Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004) Freller, Thomas, The German Langue of the Order of Malta (Santa Venera, 2010) Gervers, Michael (ed.), The Cartulary of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem in England, Secunda Camera, Essex (The British Academy, Oxford, 1982) Gervers, Michael (ed.), The Cartulary of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem in England,
Part 2, Prima Camera, Essex (The British Academy, Oxford, 1996) Hall, Derek W, and Hunter, Doreen, 'Excavations of some medieval redware pottery kilns at Stenhousemuir, Falkirk, between 1954 and 1978', Medieval Archaeology, volume 45 (2001), 97-168 Innes, Cosmo, The Black Book of Taymouth (Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh, 1855) King, Edwin, and Luke, Harry, The Knights of St John in the British Realm (London, 1967) Kollias, Elias, The Knights of Rhodes, the Palace and the City (Athens, 1991) Kollias, Elias, The Medieval City of Rhodes and the Palace of the Grand Master (Athens, 1998) Larking, Lambert B, The Knights Hospitallers in England: being the report of Prior Philip de Thame to the Grand Master Elyan de Villanova (Camden Society, London, 1857) Luttrell, Anthony, 'The Hospitallers' Western Accounts, 1373-1374 and 1374-1375', Camden Miscellany 30 (Camden Society, 189 London, 1990), 1-22, 499-500
Luttrell, Anthony, The Hospitallers of Rhodes and their Mediterranean World (Aldershot, 1992) Luttrell, Anthony, The Hospitaller State on Rhodes and its Western Provinces, 1306-1462 (Aldershot, 1999) Luttrell, Anthony, The Town of Rhodes: 1306-1356 (Rhodes, 2003) Luttrell, Anthony, Studies on the Hospitallers after 1306 (Aldershot, 2007) MacGibbon, David, and Ross, Thomas, The Castellated and Domestic Architecture of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1887-92), volumes 1 (1887) and 5 (1892) MacGibbon, David, and Ross, Thomas, The Ecclesiastical Architecture of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1896-7), volume 3 (1897) Mackay, P H R, 'Torphichen Preceptory: a footnote to the published descriptions', Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, volume 99 (1966-7), 167-72 and plates 12-13 Macquarrie, Alan, Scotland and the Crusades, 1095-1560 (Edinburgh, 1997)
McNeill, Charles (ed.), Registrum de Kilmainham, Register of Chapter Acts, 13261339 (Dublin, 1932) Nicholson, Helen, The Knights Hospitaller (Woodbridge, 2001) O'Malley, Gregory, The Knights Hospitallers of the English Langue 1460-1565 (Oxford, 2005) Riley-Smith, Jonathan, Hospitallers, The History of the Order of St John (London and Rio Grande, 1999) Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS), Inventory of Midlothian and West Lothian (Edinburgh, 1929) RCAHMS, Inventory of Argyll, volume 2, Lorn (Edinburgh, 1975) Spiteri, Stephen C, Fortresses of the Knights (San Gwann, 2001) Synnott, Pierce N N, Knights Hospitallers in Ireland 1174-1558 (Sine loco, c.1980) White, Newport B (ed.), Extents of Irish Monastic Possessions 1540-1541 (Dublin, 1943)
Il y a eu dans les dernières décennies un bourgeonnement considérable d'études historiques internationales sur les Chevaliers Hospitaliers, plus particulièrement par rapport à leur occupation de Rhodes et Malte. En conséquence, il y a maintenant une bien meilleure compréhension de comment s'organisaient les Chevaliers et comment ils furent capables de financer des travaux de construction (et plus particulièrement de défense) à une échelle si magnifique et en si grand nombre. Cet essai passe en revue sommairement les marques des bâtiments et monuments associés à l'une des géographiquement plus distantes circonscriptions des Chevaliers largement ramifiées, la "langue" et le prieuré d'Angleterre, qui comprenaient également l'Ecosse. Avec l'espoir que cette revue de l'histoire architecturale puisse encourager des études similaires, accroissant de cette façon la connaissance de tous les monuments associés à un ordre militaire qui, plus spécialement à cette époque de la fin du moyen-âge à Rhodes, était européenne.
ANTONIO SANCHEZ-GIJON
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE TOLEDO'S DEFENCES
Toledo, for the purpose of this presentation, which intends to explain the historical development of its fortifications, is the city/that sits just in the middle of a space and of one time conceptually coherent. In regard to space, Toledo is placed at cross-hair of the East-West and North-South axis of the Iberian Peninsula, that is, almost at its metric centre. It is also placed almost just at the mid-course of the Tagus river in its voyage through the land of the ancient Castillian kingdom along its East-West course. The history of Toledo during the times of the Moorish domination of Spain is roughly split by half into a period of Muslim control of 374 years and a period of 407 years under Christian one, until the end of that period in 1492. Nonetheless, such geopolitical determinations wouldn't have made of Toledo what it became were it not for two topographic accidents of, apparently, not very meaningful character: the conjunction of a ford across the longest river of the Peninsula and one rocky promontory at the western bank of one of its meanders, shaping that rocky mountain almost as a peninsula (Fig. 1). This peninsula is isolated by the river on three of its cardinal points: to the East (almost in its total length), to the South and to the West. The first inhabitants of Toledo found it quite convenient to rely on the security offered by a rugged and steep hill on four parts, 1. Toledo’s enceintes: Gates: Castillejo del Alcàzar 2 Alcántara 3 Alarcones 4 Del Sol 5 Valmardón 6 Cambrón 7 Grederos 9 Vado 12 Bisagra Nueva 13 Bisagra Vieja 14 Postigo dela Granja 1
Towers: Pentagunal 10 Antequera 11 De la Reina 8
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and the convenience of being able to wade through the river to go about their business. So it is only natural that the first inhabitants of Toledo, since Roman and Visigothic times, through the Arab period, built their first and strongest artificial defences near the point where the ford met the north-eastern corner of this fluvial headland. It was only appropriate that the tower-gate that is considered one of the oldest, if not the very first, was called by the Arabs the Ford Gate (Puerta del Vado). It was also only natural that the first rock castle of the Arab period was also built on this part of the city, allowing it to control the river from above. It is from this encounter area between the castle and the ford that the two historical and present city walls systems developed. For that reason I will call this area, and only for intuitive purposes, the original nucleus of Toledo's defences. Let's see how this so-called nucleus looks like. It consists of the castle, or Al-Qasar of Arab times or Alcazar of Christian pnes, dominating the hill, and the neighbouring Vado or Ford Gate already mentioned, plus the fortified bridge of Alcantara, and the castle of San Servando, of Arab origin, at the opposite bank of the river (Fig. 2). From this nucleus there develops towards the South a series of minor fortifications of which not much will be said because they are not important as here the rocky hill is steep and the river rapid. This applies also to almost all of West side of old Toledo. This leaves us with the East and North side of the Toledo figurative peninsula, which, though rugged also and steep, is open to direct overland access. Thus, from the nucleus already described, two lines of defence develop, facing mainly the North, not parallel one to the other but converging at the extremes. They are the First and the Second Enceintes, or the interior and the exterior walls. Or, as you may say, the oldest and the newest. They were roughly developed between the VIII and the XI centuries, and the XII and the XVI centuries respectively (See Fig. 1). A millenary history Underneath the walls of the first enceinte there have been identified small pieces of the
Roman fortifications dating back to the period of Flavian emperors. Some remnants belong to the area where the Alcazar is built, denoting the existence of a proper castrum. Toletum, occupymg a central position in the network of Roman roads. That centrality was politically increased when Toledo was bestowed the title of Primate Siege of the Church in the time of the Visigoths. This fact made of Toledo the undisputed capital of the kingdom until its demise by the Arab invasion. Nonetheless, the siege of political power, its castle and palace, had been placed by the Visigoth kings at the North-western corner of the promontory, far from what I have called the 'nucleus'. Toledo was not chosen as the capital of the Arab emirate or of its succeeding caliphate, but Cordova, in the South, in a land much richer that the barren terrains of the Central plateau. This proved to be a fatal decision, since it facilitated the military exploits of the Christian refugees of the Northern Spain. Moreover, Toledo never represented an assured military asset for the emirs and caliphs of Cordova. Even under the Muslim period, Arabs did not constitute a substantial part of the population, since the majority of it was formed by Berbers, Christians or 'Mozarabes', as they were called, and Jews. Toledo's people rose against Cordova as early as 741. During most of its history, Toledo remained as an autonomous or independent body under both the emirs and caliphs of Cordova. The siege put to it by the great caliph Abderraman Ill, lasted two years and ended in 932. This prestigious sovereign raised new walls and towers in the defensive nucleus. He also built a chain of fortresses along the Tagus valley to defend fords and bridges, both towards East and West of the Peninsula. Abderraman' s successors did not manage to keep Toledo under control. At the beginnings of the XI century Toledo raised as an independent kingdom, a 'taifa', extending over most of central Spain. The relationships of the kingdom of Toledo with the different Christian kingdoms were very fluid. Some times there were alliances, 0 feudal pacts among Moor and Christian princes, some other times there was war. The factional nature of the Spanish Muslim body politic, extremely acute in central Spain, called for the building of many castles and towers, by the
2. Toledo defences core. 3. San Servando castle over the river. 4 Outher walls of Toledo 5. The Alcazรกr 6. The first walls embedded in the urban web. 7. Puerta del Sol, moorish style,but non moorish. 8. Puerta Alarcones.
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sovereigns of various territorial kinglets. The final fall of Toledo was not due to a siege or a military onslaught, but to a pact of mutual convenience between the Toledo king, AIQadir, and the Castillian king, Alfonso VI, en 1085. It would have been possible to think that being Toledo in Christian hands, it should feel secure vis a vis any menace coming from the North, but the same king that took Toledo ordered in year 1101 the fortification of the North walls, adding large new segments of it, because there were Christian neighbouring kingdoms with territorial ambitions. Besides this fact, in the course of the XII century Toledo was subject to two waves of attacks, those carried out by the Almoravid and Almohadid invaders coming from North Africa. It was besieged between years 1171 and 1173, between 1178 and 1178, in 1190, and between 1196 and 1197. During this period new towers were added to the walls, others were reinforced and new gates were open protected by complex defensive configurations (Fig. 4), some of them inspired in European models or copied from the experience of the crusader castles of the Holy Land. Once the invaders and the moors were pushed down the Spanish territory towards Andalucia, Toledo acquired a particular political and cultural prestige in the kingdom of Castille, for just being the siege of the Spanish primate. This siege was always generously endowed with land and urban property by the crown; those riches were used to a large extent for the purpose of defence. In fact, the maintenance and modernisation of Toledo's walls pertained to the archbishop. He also played a critical role in all the civil wars that devastated Spain from early on through to the Catholic Kings (late fifteenth century). All this called for a continuous effort of walls maintenance. It is only fit that the "Cortes" (the parliament) held in Toledo in 1480 approved legislation that put an end to the rights of church and nobles to keep sovereignty over their castles. Since then the kings of Spain held sway over any castle anywhere in their kingdoms. During this multi-centenary period the Alcazar or castle underwent many changes. The buildings of a new epoch rose on top of
those of an older one. Mention has already been made of the little that has been found of the Roman period. From the Visigothic times little, if anything, remains in this zone. From the emirate and caliphal times there remains the base of two parallel walls, one of them 45 m. long and 2.60 m. thick, and the other of 1.60 m. thickness. On top of the old Moorish Alcazar there was built in the XIV century a castle and a palace. Later on, this work was mostly demolished to give space to the construction of the inmense new Alcazar built by emperor Charles V in the first half of the XVI century (Fig. 5). During these last years large parts of the Alcazar's foundations were open up in the course of a major research and restoration works that revealed the existence of a large portion of the XIV century castle and palace, consisting in a rectangular platform of 14 x 17 m. The imperial Alcazar is the dominant architectural feature of the Toledan landscape, frequent in the artistic representations of the city as those of Domenico Tehotocopulis, El Greco. The first enceinte or interior walls I'll busy myself now with the interior walls, or rather of what remains of them today. Its purpose was to defend the primitive Arab medina (town). They run roughly in an East-West direction, along the crest of the promontory. There remains few pure elements of Arab origin. Its walls and towers are embedded in the urban tissue of today. Only a few tracts of walls (Fig. 6) and three gate-towers are recognised as of Arab origin. These three are Puerta del Sol (Fig. 7), Puerta de Alarcones (Fig. 8) and Puerta de Valmard6n (Fig. 9). In these last two, the reforms carried out throughout the centuries make it almost impossible to recognize under their present appearance its Moorish attributes. The Puerta del Sol itself, which has an strong Arab stylistic component, owes little to that period, since it was totally rebuilt in the XIV century by the archbishop of the time, though it was based on Arab fundaments, which also had been built on top of Roman fundaments, of which there are some remnants. Its architectural technics and the esthetical appearance attest to a centuries-long permanence of Muslim "alarifes",
9. Puerta Valmard贸n 10.Puerta de Cambr贸n 11. Puerta Bisagra Nueva 12. Tower of puerta del Vado 13. Antequera tower 14. puerta Bisagra Vieja 15. The other walls seen from behind 16. Towers and walls along the northern curtains
masons and builders of Muslim origin, which lived in the city at least until the early XVI century. In the Puerta del Cambron zone (Fig. 10) one can firtd the junction between the interior and exterior walls. These last were built from the XI century on in order to protect the out-ofwall unprotected outskirts of the city (See figure 1).
17. tower on the northern walls 18. Part of the other walls 19. Tower over river Tagus 20. Complex of towers and walls to protect the river 21. The St Martin Bridge and its two towers. 22. The north west side of thw town defended by the Tagus river. 23. St Servando castle, originally moorish. 24. The main nucleus of defences.
Northern Walls and Second Enceinte We will divide this Northern front in two sections, each one at each side of the walls' central feature, the Puerta de Bisagra Nueva (Fig. 11), which dates from the early Sixteenth century, and due to the royal architect Covarrubias. Being specific, between the Puerta del Vado or of the Ford and that of Bisagra Nueva there are twelve other towers either of a rectangular, square or round plant. The Vado Gate, only discovered in year 2001, is entirely Arab in origin and plan (Fig. 12). At present it is being excavated under its small tower. A little further north one can find another gate-keep, that of Antequera (Fig. 13), of an unmistakable Arab character. The Bisagra Nueva Gate is composed of two voluminous semi cubes, united by an arch crowned by a tympanum with the imperial coat of arms. These towers were apt to artillery defence, as witnessed by their cannonholes at the base of each semi cube. At both flanks of the gate two wide traffic spans were opened late last century for the purpqse of giving access by motor vehicles to the central town. Going two hundred meters to the West, one find the more complex part of the whole walls, that around the Puerta de Bisagra Vieja, or Old Bisagra (Fig. 14). This complex comprises an iron grilled gate, a little arms court, embedded towers and walls and crenellated corridors belonging to an old palace. This complex was rebuilt last century in a historicist style that transformed the original character. It is also possible that what we call Puerta de Bisagra Vieja is not so old in the end, because there are those who contend that the original compound of centuries XI-XII was totally refurbished during the XVI century. Nonetheless, it has been said of this com-
plex of buildings that it represents the architectural traditions of two worlds or of two civilizations if you wish, the Castillian and Moorish ones (Fig. 15). Further West runs a long wall flanked by towers of different sizes and plants (Figs. 16-19) We arrive this way to the Puerta del Cambron, a work belonging to the XVI century, in whose proximity the internal line of walls meets the external. Exiting town out of this gate and going West one passes in front of a walled enceinte, with towers that reach to the area where there was, according to tradition, the castle and palace of the Visigoth kings. There is a powerful complex of towers (Fig. 20) and a fortified bridge (that of San Martin) (Fig. 21), controlled by two tower-gates at its extremes; the North gate is of medieval origin and the other is modem (XVI century). A diversified system of walls controls both banks of the river, giving access to water works. It is in this area that the river bends towards the South, where one only finds steep rocky ground, a feature that allowed to dispense with major fortifications, as can be observed from the opposite side of the river (Fig. 22). Further on, the river leads us to the original nucleus of the defence, and in midcourse we have found only a few stretches of walled banks, before meeting again the Alcantara bridge below the Alcazar and San Servando Castle. This castle, San Servando (Fig. 23), sits on a hill overseeing the bridge. On this spot there was in Visigothic times a convent. Then, on top of it, came an Arab castle, followed by a convent of the Cluny order and then a castle of the Temple. Then it was handed over by the king to the archbishop of Toledo, who gave the castle its definite plant. Eventually San Servando was abandoned, and after a few centuries of neglect it was rescued as a memorial feature of the modern Infantry academy of the army. We end here, with a representative view of the Toledo's rock and castle (Fig. 24), this walk around a city that, with the skill of a juggler, has moved around, as well as back and forth, its old stones in order to have an appropriate answer to each challenging period of its history.
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L'histoire de Tolède à l'époque de la domination mauresque de l'Espagne se décompose approximativement en deux périodes : une période de contrôle par les Musulmans de 374 ans et une période de 407 ans de contrôle par les Chrétiens jusqu'à la fin de cette époque, en 1492. Les premiers habitants de Tolède, depuis l'ère romaine et l'ère wisigothique, jusqu'à la période arabe, construisirent leur premières et plus fortes défenses artificielles près de l'endroit où le gué rencontre l'angle nord-est de ce promontoire fluvial. Il était approprié que la porte-tour qui est considérée comme une des plus anciennes si ce n'est la première, ait été appelée par les arabes la Porte du Gué (Puerta del Vado). Il était aussi naturel que le premier château de pierre de la période arabe ait été également construit dans cette partie de la ville, lui permettant de contrôler la rivière d'au-dessus. C'est à partir de cette aire de rencontre entre le château et le gué que les deux réseaux de murs, historique et actuel, de la ville furent développés. Ce noyau se compose du château Al-Qasar de l'époque arabe ou Alcazar sous les Chrétiens, dominant la colline, la porte voisine Vado ou Ford déjà mentionnée ainsi que le pont fortifié d'Alcantara et le château de San Servando d'origine arabe sur la rive opposée de la rivière. A partir de ce noyau fut développée vers le sud une série de fortifications mineures. Cela nous donna le côté est et nord de la péninsule figurative de Tolède qui, bien qu'accidentée et escarpée, offre un accès direct par voie de terre. Ainsi, du noyau déjà décrit, deux lignes de défense se développent, faisant face principalement au nord, non parallèles l'une à l'autre mais convergeant aux extrémités. Ce sont la première et la deuxième enceinte, ou murs intérieurs et extérieurs. Ou encore les plus vieux et les plus récents. Ils furent principalement développés respectivement entre le VIIIème et le XIème siècle et le XIIème et XVIème siècle.
PEDRO PONCE DE LEĂ“N
THE RESTORATION AND SOME NOTICES ABOUT THE FORTIFIED GATE OF BISAGRA NUEVA IN TOLEDO (XII - XX c.)
Foreword Few architectural monuments such as fortified enclosures have responded, in a clear and unique way to the purpose for which they were created. In the walls of Toledo, the origin is unknown, although its existence is known in Roman times. With the Visigoth occupation, Toledo became the capital of the kingdom and seat of the Court, (in 674a.c., under the reign of Wamba), and then it appears the first reference to its fortified walls and gates. Occupied by the Arabs in 714, it was conquered in 1085 by Alfonso VI, king of Castile. So, it became again the capital of the kingdom of Castile and in the XVIc., imperial city with the Habsburg King Felipe II in 1560. Throughout its history, the best and most prestigious master builders, architects, builders and engineers, worked on the defensive constructions in Toledo, to improve, repair and expand the protection and defensive elements of the city. The ensemble of fortifications of Toledo was declared a monument by Royal Decree on 21 December 1921.
1. View of Toledo from the north (table of el greco,end of xvic.); first the Tavera hospital of Tavera, and in the background the walls of Toledo; in center the Gate
of Bisagra Nueva . 2. Photograph from 1896; see the portcullis and the religious and military authorities
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3. Plan of the surrounding area (2001) of Bisagra Nueva Gate.
4. Plans of the Bisagra Nueva Gate: a. Ground floor (the Islamic construction phase is hatched); b. First floor; c. Second floor; d. Third floor-roof plan.
As we will see, the enclosure walls are a key element n the origin and development of the city of Toledo, declared in 1987 World Heritage Site. The visible length of the preserved remains exceeds the 3.500 meters, making it one of the largest fortified enclosures preserved in Spain. On the walls of Toledo the fortified gates have a singular meaning; They also form a small fortified enclosure, independent of the rest of the walls, and with the ability to have a permanent garrison of soldiers. The New Bisagra Gate was also the residence of the governor or responsible for the walls of the city, and the suit-
able place for important ceremonies: The hall reception for the king, the bishops of the city, the governor and for other important figures. These fortified gates are composed by at least double doors, so that access to the interior rooms is possible through a smaller door located in the space between the double doors. In addition, these doors opening in opposite directions, so that their conquest was more difficult, and had a portcullis and vertical loopholes inside. In 1998, a multidisciplinary team commissioned by the Fundacion Caja Madrid drafted a General Report, which brought together a collection of news and written references, graphics, and photographic designs on the fortified elements of the city of Toledo, who provided key information. With the general information included in that report, supplemented and supported by the results of earlier studies such as that proposed by some (physical, chemical, dendrochronology and carbon-14), as well as the findings of archaeological excavations, was achieved an adequate and scientific basis to undertake the work of consolidation and restoration of the walls. The reasons for the restoration: To the character of the single walled complex of Toledo must be added the special interest of conservation of its elements, little studied, which should highlight all the fortified gates of different periods and settings, and the worrying state of conservation of good of its elements, as afterwards will be explained. Throughout its history, the inhabitants of the city of Toledo (known as a city of culture after, Christian, Islamic and Jewish), have been used their fortified gates as a framework to celebrate major events. Thus fortified gates become an appreciated feature and loved by locals; proof of this "intimate affair" is the historical references medieval testamentary gifts of their people for their conservation. The small enclosure area was also used for fairs, weekly markets and even for series of bullfights. Therefore, in 1998 started the recovery process, involving the City of Toledo, the Regional Government (Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha) and the Fundaci贸n Caja Madrid. As a result of that, the global restoration of the walls was divided in different sectors or sections. In all the sectors were included the fortified gates of the city: New Bisagra Nueva (New Hinge), Bisagra Vieja (Old Hinge) la Puerta del Cambron, la Puerta del Sol, la Puerta de Alarcones and la Puerta de Balmard贸n. After that, in 2004 a "new" fortified gate was discovered during the archaeological excavations in the interior of one tower. In the fifht sector or "Vth. Section", the intervention in the Bisagra Nueva Fate was specifically foreseen. So, the restoration project was drafted in 1999 by order of Hon. City of Toledo. Description of the fortified gate. The New Bisagra Gate is located at the north end of the Historic City of Toledo, right in the meeting of the Old Road to Madrid. As we well see, the origin of the gate is Islamic (Xc.), or even previous. His current appearance, with modifications, is the result of the design made by the architect Alonso de Covarrubias, Master of the Cathedral of Toledo, that also became Real Architect in 1537. Restoration works began in 1540 and ended in 1575. Its importance was enormous, not only because of its location at the entrance to the city, but also by its iconic and symbolic content. The Area covered is about 618m2, and the open but enclosed area is about 583m2, In 1550, D.
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8. North elevation. see the fronton with imperial double headed eagle .
9.- North elevation with geometric and rate analysis. 10. Longitudinal section. 11. Longitudinal section with geometric and rate analysis
Pedro de Cordoba was the major of Toledo (Corregidor). The gate, (consisting of two independent gates connected by pieces of wall to form an intermediate compound), was built in the southwest over the remains of a older Islamic gate, built during XIc.. The geometrical analysis of the building at the ground floor level permits to deduce a set of measurements, proportions and geometric relationships between the plan (with a "unit" based on the diameter of the outer cubes), and the elevations and the cross section, showing the talent, ingenuity and knowledge of its author. The outer gate is massif, and executed based on masonry taken with lime mortar. The walls have the appearance of supporting artillery fire. There are brick vaults topped with lime mortar inside the cubic towers and access. The floors are supported by brick vaults, and the roofs are topped with handmade clay tile 30x30 in a rather good condition. In the Interior gate, the constructive techniques and manufacture of the materials are rather different. The decks and interior floors are supported by wooden beams and plaster and lime plaster and brick. The sloping roofs are glazed tile in the spire and curved tile old in the rest. The exterior walls are of masonry, of different heights. The first floor had to be the home of the governor of the walls. Given to the character of unique" boundary post" of the New Bisagra Gate in Toledo, the references are numerous, and some of them contain important information about his situation and morphology at different times, and some of them are: - By 1540, during the works, the sculptor Nicolรกs de Vergara the Old, had begun the works on the arch, helping to trace and saying "traces and plants and mountains and the official order".
-By February 5th, 1541, and from the German city of Spira (Speyer), the Habsburg emperor Charles I authorized the construction of the Hospital of the Cardinal Tavera outside of the walls of Toledo, and he mentions the Bisagra Gate, as showed in the next paragraph of his correspondence: "Diego de Guzman's told me he wanted to build near the New Bisagra Gate of Toledo a Hospital and I provide it. I loose a lot of you please do such a good thing because both can serve our breasts. The place I feel good, and so with his blessing can do to start the work. ". - By 1550, on this date are two tombstones in the New Bisagra Gate, made by Charles V and adding one of them on behalf of Corregidor d. Pedro de Cordoba, according to Parish. - On 23th., December 1559, the city provides to the grand master of the works, Alonso de Covarrubias some conditions and designs for the Bisagra Gate: "Under the terms of Covarrubias, they would do a cover of the Tuscan order of arch and barrel vault, between two pillars, that is topped with a rustic order entablature to align with the segments of the arch. On this march a narrow ledge Tuscan separate the upper shield door. The second body of the cover is carve a large shield, above a large double-headed imperial eagle and crowned that would fill the entire space between the two hubs of the door. This body is finished with its entablature, pediment and acroteria glasses. In the cubes would appear two coats of arms of the city, surrounded by fringes of links and finished at the top with a lion's head, in each of them carve a "king or emperor larger than life seated in his chair as usual. " The cubes finish off with a padded butt. The inner door would also half-point and she would, at the top, a move that linked the two towers for strategic purposes. The cubes would be made of masonry and the inside of
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the door lintels take two main entrances, which gave way to the stairs inside the cubes - By 1561, concerns that because of the celebrations held at the New Bisagra Gate, to receive the queen Isabel de Valois, wife of King Felipe II, there was such an influx of people that "for this event and for others outside the city, it was necessary to enter and leave the people, old gate was opened, during so many years closed. - By 1857, there were three Gates quoted as practicable on the outside wall of the city, besides the two that give exit to the bridge, "of which there is only one with sales tax and registration, which is the Bisagra Nueva, and other two (titled the Cambr贸n and San Isidoro or New Gate) are only small gates by which It's allowed to pass only pedestrians to persons or riders, but not loadings or goods. So, we note some specific information and characteristics of the New Bisagra Gate, complemented by the attached drawings and photos
Guiding principles of intervention: According to the findings and conclusions of previous work, a set of general principles of intervention in the fortified walls were established; the most important were: 1 .- To give up the search (by random or / and archaeological surveys) the sections of walls (and doors), not visible today, although their discovery would be an important contribution to global knowledge of the campus and the city's history , because it would require the consolidation and maintenance of the remains and vestiges found, with the consequent economic burden. At present, the remains buried are not in danger of destruction. 2 .- To focus previous analysis raised in the Gates conserved, and devote a significant portion of the resources available at the Gates, cause they are the major players in the walled area in poor condition. Gates represent the symbol of power in all the walls and enclaves of greater strategic value, serve as a reference to the population. Of them even it's said that "God save the Gates" (in 1254). And in its environment are developed much of civic activities. (Markets, exhibitions, collection of tolls, and even celebration of Mass on arrival of church leaders etc.), The governors were appointed by the Mayor (1576). 3.- To foresee in some of the monumental gates of the city the possibility of setting areas of Reception, Information and Interpretation for the visitors; these gates also offered unprecedented viewpoints over the city and its walls. 4.-To Show and Share by appropriate means the results of the restoration works, the objects found in archaeological excavations and findings on different times and changes in the walls of the city, would be also an adequate final reuse. 5.-To employ construction techniques and materials similar to the originals ones, once proven to be suitable, in order to reduce costs and allow for the future footprint of a single act. This will perform a selection process of different materials (also based on the collected historical information), establishing the following conditions: -For binders: + Lime mortar of lime and cement compatible with previous trials of original mortars,filling in gaps. +Lime mortar grouting field. * Gypsum as binders and coating materials, Gypsum interiors. * Washed river sand grain sized. -For masonry materials:
* Stone "berroqueĂąa" (migmatitias, granite or gneiss) in the form of rubble or ashlars from the quarries of sales and other adjacent towns. * Limestone, in the form of rubble or ashlar, from nearby quarries * Solid brick tile. Minimum size: 26 x 13 x 5 cms., Cooking temp.> 800 Âş C. * Base bottom of the gargoyles (bowl): Slate of the close "Sierra de Guadalupe". * Material separator between the original factories and screeds: Suggests bringing a lead sheet. Main causes of damage and injury A) The climate; erosive natural partners, site conditions: -The effect of rainwater, with the freeze-thaw cycle. -The "thermal breaks" day-night, with marked differences in temperature. -The embalming on the inside of exterior walls of rainwater. -The ascent of moisture from the subsoil by capillarity. -The effect of salinizacion of the exposed surfaces. -The abuse of cement mortar, which by its lack of porosity keeps the walls filled with high humidity. -The erosion of the exposed surface of the walls due to wind. B) The actions of the living and plantes: - The man with the pollution caused by smoke and gases and road traffic, vandalism (thankfully isolated), painted graffiti, as an indirect result of the accumulation and lack of adequate maintenance and control of visitors. -The easements created by the visible electrical installations (wiring, masts, wing, transformers, junction boxes). -The moisture added due to occasional loss and damage to the supply networks and sewage. -The action of the birds that nest inside the walls, doors and spire, combined with the destructive effect of their droppings, and action (to a lesser extent) of the wood decay. -The natural and spontaneous growth of all plants, mostly vines and grass, with its roots and ramifications that accelerate the deterioration. - Micro-organisms and fungi, which appear on the stone surfaces, due to a combination of the above agents. C) Damages related to the road traffic: - It would be necessary, however, alleviate as much as possible the traffic density of its surroundings, as in this Real Street (which starts at the South Gate) is the access road used by traffic from North the City to the close area. - It is precisely this density of traffic the source of one of the most serious diseases affecting the exterior of the door canvasses. Specific restoration criteria on new Bisagra Gate: a)- Getting a refreshing and effective building, using materials of proven longevity, which are still easily removable without damaging the original elements, is, achieving reversal of what has been done without damaging the existing. b) - Having an adequate scientific and historical basis, to avoid errors c) - To achieve harmony between the preserved remains and intervention d) - Provide the purpose and usefulness to the door and its precincts, today dedicated to the Parish Meeting Room and related applications. e) - Display and by appropriate means to disseminate the results of the work of this intervention. f) .- Reuse, after restoration, the interior rooms of the gate.
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Specific restoration works on new Bisagra Gate: At the gate were made the following findings and analysis -Archaeological excavation: -Dendrochronologycal analysis carbon and 14: (with surprising results regarding the antiquity of the door leaves); the leaves of the south door dates from XVth. c., and part of the wooden timber frame too. (See attached table). -Placement of protective zinc sheet on cornices. -Grouting-chopped and wounds of cement. -Raised pavement ceramic tiles. -Reopen of small ports and external embrasures of cubes. (with the discovery of primitive documents -Grouting lime mortar, no cover rigs. -Consolidation of shield and exterior facades. (high relief). -Channel-leaded gargoyle and remodelling of the missing. -Protection of holes to prevent entry of birds and intrusion. (bars & mesh). Interior cubes and door. - Roof repair and consolidation of its structure - Recovery of old terrace on the door. - Stripping and protection of woodwork and hardware brushed and balustrades balconies. - Repair of doors and sheets of wood and metal lining. - Removal - electrical wiring and having elements. - Treatment against humidity. - Consolidation of old plaster . - Tympani interior and motion recovery. - Interior performance fitness for other uses. - Protection of holes to prevent entry of birds. As a result of these efforts, the New Bisagra Gate has regained some of its history, with the contribution of news, documents and unpublished knowledge obtained through the process of restoration of its elements and research. Nowadays it serves as the headquarters of a school workshop of restoration of the walls of the city of Toledo. Reuse with decent and consistent use is the basis for its future survival.
12. Views of the New Bisagra Gate in 19th centyry and in the early 20th century.
13.- View of the New Bisagra Gate nowadays.
Singular historical references: - Year 674, the Visigothic king Wamba "restored with the help of God this city, Wamba, King distinguished, which spread the glory of his illustrious people." "Just as he wrote this in memory of the martyrs, on the same towers of the gates on the dedication he had consecrated ..."( J.E.Lopez Pereira, Cr贸nica moz谩rabe del 754, ed.1980, pp.53-55). - Year 834, Prince Abd al-Rahman II ordered to restore the castle near the gate of Fort-in Ibn al-Athir-horse gate, according to Nuwairi-and Gate-Bridge-in Ibn` Idari (Ibn Al-Atir, 1901, Annales du Maghreb et de l'Espagne, p. 209; AlNuwairi, 1917, History of Muslims in Spain and Africa, p. 41; Ibn `Idari, 1904, al-Bayan, p. 138). 10th century, ibn Hawqal considered Toledo among the "largest and best fortified of al-Andalus ..., surrounded by walls" (Ibn Hawqal, 1971, Setting the world, pp. 63 and 69).
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- Year 932, construction and fortified redoubt Hizam that closed the bridge on the end closest to the city (alfagia); ibn Hayyan tells how after a long siege to the city submitted, `Abd al-Rahman III "came at the discretion, toured their places and went through its corridors, marveling at his infallibility, surprisingly high hills aligned structure inside, sturdy walls that surrounded it completely, without the river surrounding the citadel,...". - XI century, a paragraph of al-Hiyari is collected by ibn Sa `id al-Magribi (XIII) which alludes to the door of the sacred: "Through the door of the Sagra (Saqra) (Bisagra), is pomegranates are unparalleled, whose flower is the size of the grenade". Specific bibliography M. CASTAÑOS , La Puerta Nueva de Bisagra es de origen árabe. B.R.A.H. nº6, XLIX, p.332. R. GARCÍA , La Puerta Nueva de Bisagra,"Arq",1922, p.91. F .MARIAS, La arquitectura del Renacimiento en Toledo (1541-1631), 4 vols., Toledo, 1983-85, Vol. III, p.344, 345. P. PONCE DE LEÓN, Proyecto de Restauración de la Torre de Doña Blanca en Albarracín. Ayuntamiento de Toledo-Fundación Caja, Madrid, 1999. F. SANTA CRUZ, Alonso de Covarrubias. V centenario de un arquitecto toledano universal, Revista "Punto y Plano", nº5-6, pág. 30 y ss.. Puerta Nueva de Bisagra, Vol. de la Sociedad Arqueológica de Toledo 8 ( 31 de marzo de 1901), pp. 179-180. L'origine des murailles de Tolède est inconnue, bien que son existence est datée à l'époque romaine. Avec l'occupation visigothique, Tolède devint la capitale du royaume. Occupée par les Arabes en 714, elle fut conquise en 1085 par Alphonse VI, roi de Castille. Donc, il est devenu à nouveau la capitale du royaume de Castille et dans le XVIc., Ville impériale avec le roi Felipe II Habsbourg en 1560. Tout au long de son histoire, les meilleurs architectes, constructeurs et ingénieurs, ont travaillé sur les constructions défensives à Tolède, afin de réparer, améliorer, et d'élargir la protection et éléments défensifs de la ville. L'ensemble des fortifications de Tolède a été déclaré monument par arrêté royal le 21 Décembre 1921. La ville a été déclarée en 1987 site du patrimoine mondial. La longueur visible des vestiges préservés dépasse les 3.500 mètres. Les portes fortifiées ont une signification bien singulière, constituant un petit château, indépendant avec la possibilité d'avoir une garnison permanente. La Porte Neuve de Bisagra était en plus la résidence du gardien de l'enceinte de la ville, et le lieu pour les cérémonies importantes tel que la réception du roi, des évêques, du gouverneur et d'autres personnalités. En 1998, une équipe multidisciplinaire commandée par la Mairie de Toledo, Le Gouvernement Régional et la Fundacion Caja Madrid a rédigé un essentiel rapport général, qui a réuni une collection de références: écrites, graphiques, photographiques et dessins sur les éléments fortifiés de la ville de Tolède. Avec les informations générales de ce rapport, complété et soutenu par les résultats d'études antérieures comme celle proposée par certains (physiques, chimiques, la dendrochronologie et le carbone-14), ainsi que les résultats des fouilles archéologiques, a été atteint une base scientifique pour entreprendre les travaux de restauration des murs de Toledo. Cet article analyse les aspects intéressants de la restauration de la porte Bisagra Nueva, d'origine islamique (IXe siècle), transformée et reconstruite au XVIè. siècle, son histoire constructive, ses fonctions, son symbolisme.
CONLETH MANNING
CLONMANCNOISE MONASTIC SITE: ITS STUDY AND PROTECTION
In a quiet water 'd land, a land of roses, Stands Saint Ciaran's city fair; And the warriors of Erin in their famous generations Slumber there. There beneath the dewy hillside sleep the noblest Of the clan of Conn, Each below his stone with name in branching Ogham And the sacred knot thereon. There they laid to rest the seven Kings of Tara, There the sons of Cairbre sleep Battle banners of the Gael, that in Ciarรกn 's plain of crosses Now their final hosting keep. T.W. Rolleston
1. Aerial view of Clonmacnoise from the south-west (Department of the Environment,
Heritage and Local Government - DEHLG).
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Introduction Clonmacnoise is situated near the centre of Ireland on the east bank of the great River Shannon. It is difficult to come up with a single term to describe this monument, which was at once a monastery, the seat of a bishop and a settlement, which grew large enough to be classed as a town. Other terms that have been used for it are: ecclesiastical settlement, monastic town or city of God. It fell into serious decline around the late thirteenth century, eventually becoming deserted as a settlement, and from the seventeenth century up to the present has consisted of a large graveyard with mostly ruined ecclesiastical buildings and a ruined castle nearby all in a rural setting. These buildings, three ornately carved monumental stone crosses (high crosses) dating from the 9th/ l0th centuries and a very large collection of cross-inscribed grave slabs (cross-slabs) dating from the 8th to 12th centuries are testimony, along with the historical record, to the great importance of Clonmacnoise in the early medieval period. History Clonmacnoise was founded by St Ciarรกn in the second quarter of the sixth century and despite the fact that he died soon after, about 549, it became a famous church and monastery and a populous settlement grew up around it. As the fame of its saint grew it became a sought-after place of pilgrimage and burial and the settlement became a centre of trade and craftsmanship. It also became renowned as a centre of learning and manuscript production, both religious and secular, and chroniclers here began keeping records of events from at least the 8th century. The erection of some of the buildings is recorded in these early Irish annals. The River Shannon was the border between the province of Connacht to the west and that of Mide (Meath) to the east. At certain stages in its history Clonmacnoise was allied with Connacht, while at others it was allied with Mide. It benefited from the patronage and protection of the kings of these provinces, who, between the 9th and 12th centuries, were at times powerful enough to claim the title of high king of Ireland. Two developments in the twelfth century weakened the power of Clonmacnoise. The first was the reform ofthe Irish church, through which power
2. Printed plan of Clonmacnoise from Ware 1658.
3. A view of the graveyard cluttered with modern grave stones in the early 1950s (DEHLG).
in the church shifted from the abbots of the old Irish monasteries, such as Clonmacnoise, to the bishops of newly established territorial dioceses, while the monasteries were often taken over or replaced by new Cistercian or Augustinian foundations. The second was the conquest of a large part of Ireland by the AngloNormans, beginning in 1169, which destroyed the power of most of the Irish kings. Though Clonmacnoise did become a diocesan see it ended up a small and poor diocese away from the main centres of wealth, power and influence. In an attempt by the Anglo-Normans to control the area, a castle was built here in the early 13th century but it appears to have been abandoned by about 1300. Clonmacnoise struggled on as the centre of a small impoverished diocese until 1569, when it was united with that of Meath. It enjoyed a brief period of revival in the middle of the I7th century as a result of the 1641 rebellion and the establishment of the parliament of Confederate Catholics at Kilkenny only to fall into ruin again with the Cromwellian reconquest of 1649-53. Since then, though abandoned as an important ecclesiastical centre and deserted as a settlement, it remained an important place of burial and pilgrimage for the people of the surrounding districts. Antiquarian interest The earliest surviving plan of the site is a copy by James Ware of a sketch drawn by the Protestant bishop of Meath, the famous historian, William Ussher, in 1621. He recorded and named ten churches within or attached to the walls of the graveyard. A print by the Czech engraver, Wenceslaus Hollar, based on this plan, was published in the second edition of Ware's Hibernia et antiquitatibus eius disquisitiones in 1658. The details of the buildings in this bird's eye view are entirely fanciful as it was based solely on the plan and, for example, the round tower was misunderstood by the engraver and is shown as a strange kick-out in the graveyard wall. More accurate illustrations of CIon mac noise can be found in Waiter Harris's translated and extended edition of Ware's Antiquities of 1739. These illustrations by Jonas Blaymires consist of a plan and view ofthe graveyard, elevations of some of the buildings and crosses and a view of the castle.
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In the early 19th century the site became the focus of more serious antiquarian study and recording. The person mostly involved was George Petrie, an artist and gifted antiquarian. Petrie's work on the churches and cross-slabs and his paintings and other illustrations helped to bring Clonmacnoise to national attention. In the 1850s and 1860s the Kilkenny Archaeological Society (now the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland) began to take an interest in the site and was instrumental in having an individual prosecuted for causing damage to the ancient monuments. It also carried out important conservation work at the site especially at the Nuns' Church under the supervision of one of its founders, the Rev. James Graves. This was some of the first work of its type carried out in Ireland or Britain and set a high standard for proper conservation of ruined medieval buildings. A national monument After the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland in 1869 many ruined ecclesiastical buildings in Ireland were taken into care by the Office of Public Works to be conserved as national monuments. The buildings and other monuments at Clonmacnoise became national monument no. 81 in 1877 and since then conservation and general maintenance works at the site have been funded by the government. A major study of the cross-slabs by R.A.S. Macalister was published in 1909 and about the same time the first official guidebook to the monument was produced being an offprint from the 75th Annual Report of the Commissioners of Public Works in Ireland 1906-1907. Both publications contained the same illustrations of 207 of the slabs and the same plan of the site and selected plans and elevations of the churches. By the 1950s the graveyard had become very cluttered with headstones and modern Celtic cross memorials to the extent that it was difficult for the visitor to appreciate the ancient monuments and for the authorities to maintain them. The condition of the site at this time is well reflected in the following satirical version by Frank O'Connor (1950,96) of Rolleston's verses on Clonmacnoise (quoted above): In a smelly, weedy place, a place of mourning, Stand some heaps of ruined stones, Where the Irish middle classes under massive heaps of granite, Rest their bones. There they laid to rest the pious Misses Dunphy, There Mulloys, the butchers, sleep, From beneath their Celtic crosses oozing in luxuriant grasses, Good for sheep. Whether or not influenced by this satire, the acquisition by the State of the graveyard from the Church of Ireland in 1955 was a major landmark in the management of the site. It was followed by the closure of the old graveyard for burial, in order to improve the presentation of the monument, and the opening of a new graveyard on an adjacent site. To lessen the clutter many of the modern headstones in the old graveyard were laid flat and many of the modern Celtic crosses were moved to the new graveyard. Unfortunately the entire area of the new graveyard was part of the ancient settlement at Clonmacnoise and much archaeological information was destroyed by the digging of graves there in the intervening years. Another initiative following on the acquisition of the old graveyard was the erection of two parallel walls for the outdoor display of most of the large collec-
tion of cross-slabs from the site. By the 1970s the increase in visitor numbers made it necessary to have a permanent official presence at the site and a guide service was operated initially from a converted modern house immediately west of the graveyard. This was soon insufficient to cater for the ever-increasing numbers of visitors. In the mid 1980s a number of the cross-slabs were stolen after having been wrenched off the walls on which they were displayed. The thief was eventually caught and prosecuted and the slabs were recovered but it was clear that they needed to be securely housed. A report by a stone conservation expert on both the cross-slabs and the crosses recommended that they be housed indoors to protect them from further weather damage. Plans for a new visitor centre were drawn up in the late 1980s for the garden behind the house used by the guides. The footprint of the proposed buildings was excavated archaeologically and produced evidence of occupation, metal working, cultivation, a roadway and other activities in the early medieval period. The new buildings were designed to house the crosses, some of the cross-slabs and a reception area and audio-visual theatre. After the new centre was built and the crosses moved into it, the original locations of the three crosses in the graveyard were excavated. The Cross of the Scriptures and the South Cross had never before been moved and excavation showed that timber crosses had stood at both sites before the stone crosses were erected in the 9th/l0th centuries. High quality replicas of the crosses were made and placed at the original sites. The majority of the cross-slabs were housed in a purpose-built building on site but are not on public display. In 1994 the first proper official guidebook since that of 1906 was published. Recent excavation and research The discovery of a stone with ogham script during the digging of a grave in the new graveyard presented an opportunity to carry out a rescue excavation in the 1990s in a corner of that graveyard that was then still mostly undisturbed by 4. The Cross of the Scriptures (c. AD 900): Being moved in 1992; as displayed indoors in the visitor
centre at Clonmacnoise; and the replica in place on the original site (DEHLG).
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5. The west front of the cathedral at Clonmacnoise after recent conservation work (DEHLG).
6. A plan of the cathedral at Clonmacnoise showing the building phases.
graves. This excavation produced remarkable evidence for the settlement at Clonmacnoise, and uncovered the foundation platforms of circular houses laid out along a street and dating from the early medieval period. An excavation carried out prior to the building of a new tourist office in 2000 uncovered a large enclosure ditch, which was part of a series of enclosures around the settlement. Underwater survey and excavation in the river close to the castle in the 1990s revealed the remains of a remarkable wooden bridge, which was dated by dendrochronology to AD 804. This is, to date, Ireland's oldest bridge. While the crosses have been the subject of study over many years, the study of the churches and the castle had largely been neglected until recent research was published. This has demonstrated that the cathedral in particular, with its annalistic building date is a key building in our understanding of the earliest masonry churches built in Ireland. The cathedral and Temple Ciarรกn These two churches, the larger, known today as the cathedral, being the main congregational church ofthe settlement and the smaller, Temple Ciarรกn being the shrine chapel of the patron saint, beneath which the saint is reputed to have been buried, are a centrally important suite of buildings on the site. The cathedral was originally built in AD 909 according to the Irish annals by Flann mac Maelsechnaill, high king of Ireland, and Colmรกn, the abbot of Clonmacnoise. This was a particularly important time for Flann because the previous year he had defeated the king of Munster in battle and as a result could for the first time realistically claim to be king of Ireland. It is likely that the building ofthe cathedral and the erection of the Cross of the Scriptures were patronised by Flann in celebration of his victory and new found status. Flann was of the royal family of Mide. By the mid twelfth century the O'Conor kings of Connacht were the most powerful kings in Ireland and the last high king of Ireland, Rory O'Conor, was buried in the cathedral at Clonmacnoise in 1198. His father, Toirrdelbach, also a claimant to the high-kingship, was buried here in 1156. As originally built in 909 the cathedral was a plain rectangular structure which measured 18.8m long and 10. 7m wide internally, making it the largest surviving pre-Romanesque church in Ireland. In common with other early masonry churches in Ireland, dating mainly from the 10th and early 11 th centuries, it has a fea-
7. Temple Ciarรกn at Clonmacnoise from the west (DEHLG).
8. The round tower at Clonmacnoise and the Cross ofthe Scriptures in its original location (c. 1990)
ture known as antae, which are short pilaster like extensions of the side walls beyond the end walls. They served to carry the end rafters or barge boards of the roof, which extended over the gables. It is a feature of church building that is unique to Ireland and is thought to derive from earlier wooden churches. The cathedral has had many alterations over the years but, though narrowed about AD 1300 as a result of the rebuilding of its south wall 2m north of its original site, it has retained its simple unicameral plan but none of its original openings. The original building of 909 would have had only one doorway, which was centrally placed in the west gable wall. This was replaced by a transitional-style doorway of about AD 1200, which is now off centre because of the later rebuilding of the south wall. A small sacristy was also added to the south side around 1200 and when the south wall was rebuilt and moved southwards the sacristy door was rebuilt in the new wall and the east and west walls of the sacristy were extended northwards to the new wall. The next major phase of alteration was in the mid fifteenth century when a finely carved north doorway was added as well as an elaborate vaulted canopy over the east end of the church. The sacristy was also vaulted and heightened at the same time and domestic accommodation, possibly for vicars choral, was provided over these vaulted areas. After becoming ruined in the sixteenth century the cathedral was reroofed for the last time in 1647 during the period of the Catholic Confederation of Kilkenny, but fell into ruin again soon after and has remained a ruin ever since. Temple Ciarรกn is a tiny structure and was built mostly of the same brownish sandstone as the cathedral. Both buildings have deep antae and putlog holes that penetrate the wall and are likely to be of around the same date. It has a different alignment from the cathedral but this may have been determined by the earlier stonelined grave feature which was uncovered beneath the northern half of its floor in the 1950s. This was presumably the feature regarded as the grave of the saint. There is no annalistic reference to the building of this church but it is likely to have replaced a wooden church on the same site. It is referred to as Eclais Bec (the little church) in the Irish life of Ciarรกn. The word used in the Latin lives is basilica, a word which, in an Irish context came to mean a church with relics or containing the burial of a saint. There are references in the annals to the deaths of nine airchinnigh (heads or superiors) of Eclais Bec between the years 898 and 1097. This office at Clonmacnoise, with control of the saint's burial place, was
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clearly an important and lucrative position. Clay from the saint's grave had special curative and protective powers and the removal of clay from under this church may be partly responsible for its badly ruined state. A chalice was made for it in 1647 and along with the cathedral it may have been reroofed at that time. It was still roofed in 1684 and Blaymires's illustration shows the bare couples of the roof still standing in 1738. The south wall and the south part of the west wall were built in the 1860s by the Kilkenny Archaeological Society to help keep the remaining parts of the original building standing. The round tower Another very distinctively Irish feature of early ecclesiastical sites is the round tower and a fine example, albeit with its upper half missing, survives at Clonmacnoise. These were freeestanding bell towers as the Irish name for them shows. Such towers were built in Ireland between the tenth and twelfth centuries and that at Clonmacnoise is unique in having a building date. The annals record that it was completed in 1124 by the abbot of Clonmacnoise and by Toirrdelbach Ua Conchobair, king of Connacht and high king of Ireland. Also recorded is the fact that it was struck and damaged by lightning in 1135, which is the likely explanation of the loss of its upper half. A roughly built bell chamber with eight openings was subsequently added to the truncated tower. The tower was well built with limestone ashlar and, as is normally the case with such towers, has a high-level doorway facing the doorway of the main congregational church on the site, in this case the cathedral. It is possible that this tower replaced an earlier round tower as was proven to be the case with the twelfth-century tower at Devenish, Co. Fermanagh, where excavation uncovered the foundations of an earlier tower. 9. An aerial view of the castle from the north with high water levels in the river (DEHLG).
10. Plan of the castle at Clonmacnoise. 11. An aerial view of the Pilgrims' Road running along the esker with Mongan Bog to the left (DEHLG).
The other churches The multiplicity of churches in close proximity on important early Irish ecclesiastical sites has been compared with the multiplicity of altars and chapels in parish churches and cathedrals in other countries in Europe. Prior to the lih century the Irish did not build large elaborate churches with separate chancels, transepts or aisles, so that rather than add a chapel to an existing church they simply added a new church nearby. At the old graveyard at Clonmacnoise there are the remains of five other churches, apart from the two already described, and cartographic evidence for three more. As well as this there is evidence for three churches in a separate external enclosure some 500m to the east at the site known as the Nuns' Church. Of these churches only two are known to have had antae: a small church no longer in evidence beside the Nuns' Church and the oldest part of Temple Dowling, originally known as Temple Hurpan. These are likely to be of 1001111 th-century date. There are two fine 12th-century Romanesque churches of which the best documented is the Nuns' Church, with its finely carved doorway and chancel arch, built, according to the annals, by Dearbhforgaill of the royal family ofMide in 1167. The second, Temple Finghin, is, to judge from its carved details, roughly contemporary. It has a small integrated round tower, possibly built with salvaged stones from the damaged upper portion of the main round tower, but its raison d'etre is uncertain. One strong possibility is that it was another nunnery church of Augustinian canonesses of the Arrouaisian observance, in this case benefiting from the patronage of the Ua Conchobair kings of Connacht. Two of the remaining churches can be dated to the very early 13th century: Temple Ree, associated with the O'Melaghlin kings of Mide, and Temple Conor, associated with the O'Conor (Ua Conchobair) kings of Connacht. The Castle This is an interesting example of a castle that was designed to be built partly of masonry and partly of earth and timber more or less from the start. In fact the
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12. A distant aerial view of Clonmacnoise with the Shannon in flood and a bog being harvested in the distance on the Connacht side of the river (DEHLG).
masonry elements, consisting of a rectangular hall-keep and an attached square inner ward with a small gatehouse at one corner, could not be easily defended without the now-missing timber defences on the earthen banks of the outer ward, barbican and outworks. The castle was built by the Anglo-Norman chief governor of Ireland and archbishop of Dublin, Henry of London, in 1214 to help control this important settlement and crossing point of the Shannon. There was also a resurgence of Gaelic power in the area and attacks on Anglo-Norman settlers and the building of the castle was part of a campaign to suppress this activity. The castle does not seem to have had a very long life and, while it is last mentioned in official records in 1233, it appears to have been abandoned before the end of the 13th century, when government influence in the area and in the bishopric of Clonmacnoise was seriously on the wane. Previous commentators had assumed that the shattered and very fragmentary remains of the hall-keep were the result of slighting with gunpowder in about the sixteenth century. A more likely explanation is that the damage was the result of undermining by the local Gaelic chiefs about 1300. The great ditch around the castle may originally have had water in it for at least part of the year. When water levels are high in the river it still partly fills with water. The barbican feature could also have been used to protect boats, which could be beached here on the bank of the river. The outer ward has four platforms (marked a-d on the plan) at the corners of the bank and these undoubtedly held wooden towers. While the stone-built inner ward appears to have been poorly defended, the hall-keep itself had a first-floor doorway approached through a forebuilding, within which there was a drawbridge controlling access to the entrance. The battlements of the hall-keep would have been further defended by a timber hourd.
The landscape of Clonmacnoise Much of the beauty and attraction of Clonmacnoise I ies in its peaceful rural setting and indeed the immediate hinterland is of great ecological importance. In the first place there is the River Shannon, a natural and largely undrained river system, which rises and falls in level seasonally. Immediately to the north-east of Clonmacnoise, within a bend in the river, is an area of farmland, which floods each Winter and is known as the Callows. This has a distinctive flora and, along with other areas of Callows (flood plain) in the vicinity, is one of the last refuges of a bird called the corncrake in Ireland. Clonmacnoise itself was built on eskers (ridges of sand and gravel, which were formed under glaciers during the last ice age). Bands of these eskers run for miles across the countryside and formed good dry natural route ways. A number of old route ways along the eskers converge on Clonmacnoise, the best preserved being what is known as the Pilgrims' Road which, after passing the Nuns' Church, runs eastwards from Clonmacnoise along the eskers. Another major feature of the landscape around Clonmacnoise are the bogs. These have grown over thousands of years and because ofthe pollen grains preserved in them are a repository of information on vegetation and climate over the centuries. They also contain archaeological remains in the form of well-preserved wooden trackways and occasionally marsh land settlements. Most ofthe bogs in the area are being, or have been, harvested for turf-burning electricity-generating stations. However, the bog closest to Clonmacnoise, Mongan Bog, is protected and is now a rare surviving example of such a bog. Much of the stone used at Clonmacnoise was quarried in the vicinity. To the west of Clonmacnoise, an area of exposed limestone called the Rocks of Clorhane was the source of limestone used in the round tower and some of the churches. The sandstone that was used almost exclusively in the earliest stone churches, the cathedral and Temple Ciarรกn, and in many of the cross-slabs was probably sourced from glacial erratics in the town land of Bloomhill to the north-east of Clonmacnoise. While Clonmacnoise is clearly of great archaeological and historical importance, the surrounding landscape is of considerable ecological importance. Clonmacnoise is at present a candidate World Heritage site and its outstanding universal value is seen to encompass both its cultural and natural heritage. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Abigail Walsh for scanning the plans, Tony Roche for scanning the photographs and Con Brogan, who took all of the photographs except Fig. 3.
References Anon. Clonmacnois, King's County. Historical and descriptive notes on the structures, with plans, elevations, and details. Also a descriptive catalogue, with drawings, of the inscribed slabs, including those with inscriptions in the Irish language. Extract from the
75tl1 annual report of the Commissioners of Public Works in Ireland, 1906-1907. Dublin no date. K. Emerick, Whitby and Clonmacnoise, in H. King (ed.), Clonmacnoise Studies Volume 2: seminar papers 1998, Dublin 2003, 209-21. 219
W. Harris (ed.), The whole works of Sir James Ware concerning Ireland, revised and improved. Dublin 1739. H. King, Moving crosses, in Archaeology Ireland 6(4) (1992), 22-23. H. King, Burials and high crosses at Clonmacnoise (Ireland), in G. De Boe and F. Verhaeghe (eds), Death and burial in medieval Europe. Papers of the 'Medieval Europe Brugge 1997' conference, vol. 2, Doornvelt 1997, 127-31. H. King, The economy and industry of early medieval Clonmacnoise: a preliminary view, in N. Edwards (ed.), The archaeology of the early medieval Celtic churches, Leeds 2009, 333349. R.A.S. Macalister, The memorial slabs of Clonmacnoise, King's County. Dublin 1909. C. Manning, Clonmacnoise, Co. Offaly, Dublin 1994 (2nd edition 1998). C. Manning, Clonmacnoise Cathedral, in H. King (ed.), Clonmacnoise Studies Volume 1: seminar papers 1994, Dublin 1998, 56-86. C. Manning, Some early masonry churches and the round tower at Clonmacnoise, in H. King (ed.), Clonmacnoise Studies Volume 2: seminar papers 1998, Dublin 2003, 63-95.
C. Manning, Finghin MacCarthaig, king of Desmond, and the mystery of the second nunnery at Clonmacnoise, in D. Edwards (ed.), Regions and rulers in Ireland, 100-1650: essays for Kenneth Nicholls, Dublin 2004, 20-26. C. Manning and F. Moore, An ogham stone find from Clonmacnoise, in Archaeology Ireland 5(4) (1991),1011. F. Moore, Ireland's oldest bridge - at Clonmacnoise, in Archaeology Ireland 1 0(4) (1996), 24-7. D. Murphy, Excavation of an early monastic enclosure at Clonmacnoise, in H. King (ed.), Clonmacnoise Studies Volume 2: seminar papers 1998, Dublin 2003,1-33. P. Murray, George Petrie (1790-1866) The rediscovery of Ireland's past. Cork 2004. F. O'Connor, Leinster, Munster and Connaught, London [1950]. K. O'Conor and C. Manning, Clonmacnoise Castle, in H. King (ed.), Clonmacnoise Studies Volume 2: seminar papers 1998, Dublin 2003,137-65. G. Petrie, The ecclesiastical architecture of Ireland. Dublin 1845. J. Ware, Hibernia et antiquitatibus eius disquisitiones, London 1658.
Clonmacnoise, situé au bord de la rivière Shannon au centre de l'Irlande, était un site monastique et une communauté très importante dans le haut Moyen Age. Il a été fondé par St. Ciarán au VI siècle et est devenu un centre ecclésiastique populeux qui bénéficie en différentes périodes de la protection des rois de Connacht, à l'ouest, et des rois de Mide, à l'est. Dans la réforme du XII siècle de l'église irlandaise il est devenu le siège d'un évêque mais son importance diminua à partir du XIII siècle. Il resta un épiscopat appauvri jusqu'au XVI siècle et, à part une brève renaissance au milieu du XVII siècle, la plupart de ses églises tombèrent en ruine. Au cimetière il y a les restes de sept églises, une tour ronde et trois hautes croix sculptées, l'Église des Religieuses à l'est et un château à l'ouest. Il y a aussi une très grande collection de blocs gravés qui datent du VIII au II siècle. Un intérêt sérieux pour l'antiquité dans le site a commencé au XIX siècle et en 1877 il est devenu un monument national dans les mains de l'État. Dans les années 1950 le cimetière où se trouvent les églises fut acquis par l'État et des améliorations furent faites aux monuments et à leur environnement. Dans les années 1980 on a construit un nouveau centre pour les visiteurs et les hautes croix ont été mises à l'intérieur pour les protéger, remplacées par des copies parfaites. Dans les dernières trente années beaucoup de recherches ont été faites sur Clonmacnoise. Les fouilles archéologiques ont découvert un pont en bois qui date de 804, un fossé clôturé et des parties du plus vaste établissement avec les restes des maisons et des rues. On a étudié une partie des bâtiments qui ont survécu, tels que la cathédrale, construite originairement en 909, leTemple Ciarán, un petit sanctuaire, la tour ronde, construite en 1124 , et le château, construit originairement en 1214. Le château était, presque dès le début, construit en partie en pierre et en partie en bois. Le paysage de Clonmacnoise est écologiquement très important avec sa rivière, ses prairies qui sont inondées en hiver, ses eskers (stratifications de gravier) qui ont formé des chemins naturels et ses marécages de tourbe. Le site est important pour son héritage soit culturel que naturel.
JOACHIM ZEUNE
THE HISTORIC TOWN OF ZEIL AM MAIN (GERMANY, LOWER FRANCONIA) AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS: A CASE STUDY
Zeil am Main is a little town on the River Main midway between Schweinfurt and Bamberg, containing about 6.000 inhabitants, well-known in Franconia for its historic houses, wine and beer. Its vivid, eventful and long history is well reflected by the fate of its town wall. During the Middle Ages the strong stone house - domus lapidea - of Zeil mentioned in 1142 with its settlement belonged to the bishopric of Bamberg, forming an exclave within territory of the bishopric of W端rzburg. As W端rzburg had a keen interest in expanding its territory, Zeil occupied a very important strategic position, serving as an outpost against the always hungry neighbour. This is well documented by the fact that Zeil was given the privilege of a town in 1379 by bishop Lamprecht of Prun.
1. Aerial view of Zeil am Main from South in 2007. The town wall around the old town has been marked to show its course. Clearly visible is the huge modern expansion of the town. (City of Zeil am Main).
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But its was only in the 1430s under the threat of the invasions of the Hussites that Zeil erected its present town wall, which consisted of a wet ditch, a low wall of enceinte with a covered wall walk, two tall gate towers and several small flanking towers. The "Untertor" (Lower Gate) faced Bamberg to the south, the "Obertor" (Upper Gate) Hassfurt to the northwest. The gates were connected by a main road while a minor road ran towards the small "G채nsetor" ("Geese Gate"), all of them passing the "Marktplatz" (market place) where the town hall and town church St Michael stood. The plan of the town was a triangular one, with the apex to the south. Mainly because of its great wines Zeil quite obviously was a prosperous town during the 14th and 17th centuries when most of its highly decorated timber-framed houses were built. After having been destroyed in 1554, Zeil from 1616 to 1631 gained a sad reputation during the Inquisition when Bamberg burned here more than 300 people under the accusation of witchery. In the course of French occupation the town had lost all its wealth in the early 19th century by paying high war taxes and by feeding the French troops. The town wall fell into decay, thereby losing its main function of protecting the citizens. Unable to keep the town wall in repair, and unable to stabilize its bad financial situation, from 1829 onwards bits and pieces of the town wall were sold as a quarry, including the "Untertor". The responsible country judge, significantly named "Kummer" (which in English means "sorrow" or "worry"), argued that the demolition of the town wall would not only increase the urban income, but would also be a medical improvement as it would enable air circulation within the town. In 1842 when building material for a new road to Hassfurt was needed the wall next to the "Obertor" was demolished. By then Zeil as a home of farming citizens had just 1.240 inhabitants with falling numbers, with bad prospects, and without almost any future. But things began to change when the railway reached Zeil in 1852, bigger ships sailed down the River Main and the street network was improved by building a bridge across the River Main in 1910/11. Gradually industry began to discover
2. View of the town in 1550, as seen from South. In the foreground is the Untertor ("Lower Gate") demolished from 1829 onwards. (City of Zeil am Main.) 3. View of the town in 1598, now seen from West. To the left rises the Obertor ("Upper Gate"). Note the outer defences and the water pond. (Drawing by Petrus Zweidler). 4. View of the historic market place with the Town Hall (15th/16th c.) and the Church of St. Michael (Foto Joachim Zeune 2009). 5. Stretch of wall at south side between to later houses. Most of the town wall was swallowed by the town expansion (Foto Joachim Zeune 2009). 6. Town wall with wall walk at the west side of the old town. Though carefully restored over the last years, cars spoil the historic atmosphere (Foto Joachim Zeune 2009).
Zeil as a strategic site. In addition to whetstone fabrication and a sawmill, the opening of a big cotton mill in 1886 created hundreds of workplace jobs. With the increasing number of inhabitants Zeil slowly began to expand, now facing the problem of being squeezed in its old town wall. By 1914 more than 30 new houses had been erected, and the number of inhabitants was getting close to 3.000. But it took until 1948 for a new settlement area to be created just to the west of the old town. In 1960 a big sugar beet factory opened, followed by a big kitchen furniture manufactory which employed more than 1.500 people.
7. "Obertor" ("Upper Gate") with its tower seen from the town interior. The tower got restored in 2008 (Foto: Joachim Zeune 2009). 8. Fragment of town wall at south side after restora-
tion. For better convenience a modern postern has been inserted. Note the wall walk along the wall top resting on corbelled arches (Foto: Joachim Zeune 2009).
With the steadily growing population and the steadily increasing traffic new problems arose. Better life quality could be gained outside the old city where people found more space, less traffic and better shopping facilities, whereas there was an endless line of cars and lorries crawling right through the centre of the town, hardly any parking space and shops, narrow side streets, bad air, heavy noise and old houses badly needing refurbishment. Though the many historic buildings of Zeil were officially protected by the Landesamt fßr Denkmalpflege, internally the problems of the citizens had priority. The shops along the main road opted for larger windows for better display of their goods and in one special case a powerful investor even succeeded in replacing an old house by an ugly modern building which today disturbs the historic ensemble in a dramatic way. The façades of the dwelling houses were often altered for bigger doors and windows, garages were built against the town wall or even passages worked through it to get straight into the gardens outside the town wall. In some places the town wall obstructed the panoramic views of private residents and was thus reduced in height. Though these activities were often done illegally, they were tolerated or ignored as there was an urgent need to keep people within the town. After an industrial area had been built just outside the gates of the "Obertor", a bypass was built in 1995 passing the town at its western side, serving also the industrial zone. An important step towards economic improvement was the creation of a harbour in 2001, allowing the shipping of goods on the River Main northwards, especially of wood. All this helped greatly to improve the living quality within the old town. Nevertheless, young people tended to move either outside the town or into bigger neighbouring cities like Bamberg, Schweinfurt, Wßrzburg or Coburg, leav-
ing just old people within the city. From 1979 onwards the town administration realized that the most precious value Zeil had was its picturesque historic substance and developed a concept to turn the historic town into an attractive residential area. The basic idea was to promote the value of the historic ambience by giving grants and support to everyone restoring or reshaping a historic house. This was possible due to the fact that from 1988 onwards Zeil received heavy subsidies from the government by the so-called "Städtebauförderung" which helps towns to realise necessary improvements of all kinds. Another very important contribution to the improvement of Zeil's historical appearance were the regulations for the shaping of the town, published in 2001. Firstly, it established that the historic townscape must be preserved and that all building activities within the old town must take this into account. Otherwise the narrow lanes would no longer serve as places of leisure and the old town would lose its function as a town centre. The regulations also served as helpful handouts for architects and citizens when planning alterations to the historic houses, especially when designing façades and external areas. For example, photovoltaic-systems (solar panels) or visible satellite-bowls are strictly forbidden within the old town. Zeil nowadays is an attractive place to settle in. The basic living conditions were improved by renewing the sanitary systems, reorganising the infrastructure, installing two big parking places just outside the town, creating a dense social network with a focus on children, and filling the streets with life. In August there is the famous "wine festival", at Christmas a beautiful market. To make Zeil an enjoyable place to live, over the last years several millions of Euro were spent to turn the dirty and overgrown bed of the River Altach which crosses the town into a beautiful, romantic watercourse. In respect of tourist accommodation, Zeil in 2008 provided 6.800 bed-nights and hosted an incalculable number of day tourists. It is well embedded in a dense network of walking and biking trails, with a very famous wine walk - the Abt-Degen-Steig. There are guided tours through the historic town and several historic pubs offer local food, wine and beer. At the same time the town administration makes strong efforts to conserve its public historic monuments as another attraction to both the local people and the tourists. From 1995 careful consolidation work has been undertaken on the town wall and is now almost finished. The stretch of wall along the western side is especially well preserved and quite impressive. Here the town administration bought some garages and neglected houses built against the town wall and tore them down to separate the wall again from the adjoining buildings just like it had been until the 18th century. Now part of the wall-walk will be reconstructed. The town church, the town hall and the famous pilgrimage church at the "Käpelle" are also in good condition. The neighbouring castle of Schmachtenberg, built c.1430 and crossed by the Abt-Degen-Steig, has been carefully restored over the last ten years, with information panels telling the new facts of the history and architecture of the ruined castle. Today there are only fifteen historic houses with old people living in them. . Young people have found an identity with their old town and rediscovered the advantages of living in a well-kept old building within a sound historic ensemble and an infrastructure of high modern standard. Though Zeil has lost 1.000 workplace jobs during the present economic crisis, it still faces a promising
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future. The author wishes to thank Bürgermeister Christoph Winkler for his great help in putting together the facts and illustrations - and of course for his very important comments on them.
Zeil am Main est une petite ville sur la rivière Main, à mi-chemin entre Schweinfurt et Bamberg, d'environ 6.000 habitants, bien connue en Franconie pour ses maisons historiques, son vin et sa bière. Mais ce n'est que dans les années 1430 suite à la peur des invasions des Hussites que Zeil érigea ses murailles actuelles qui comprennent un fossé humide, un mur d'enceinte bas avec un chemin couvert, deux grandes portes tours et plusieurs petites tours adjacentes. L'"Untertor" (Porte inférieure) faisait face à Bamberg au sud, l'"Obertor" (Porte supérieure) à Hassfurt au nord-ouest. Les portes étaient reliées par une route principale alors qu'une route secondaire allait jusqu'à la petite "Gänsetor" (Porte des oies), toutes traversant la "Marktplatz" (place du marché) où la mairie et l'église St Michel se dressaient. Le plan de la ville était triangulaire avec son point culminant au sud. Principalement en raison de ses grands vins Zeil était manifestement une ville prospère au 14ème et 17ème siècle quand la plupart de ses maisons à charpente de bois très décorées furent construites. Après avoir été détruite en 1554, Zeil acquis une triste réputation entre 1616 et 1631 sous l'Inquisition quand Bamberg brûla ici plus de 300 personnes sous l'accusation de sorcellerie. Au cours de l'occupation française la ville perdit toute sa richesse au début du 19ème siècle en payant de lourdes taxes de guerre et en nourrissant les troupes françaises. La muraille de la ville tomba en ruines, perdant par là sa fonction principale de protection des citoyens. Incapable de conserver la muraille de la ville en bon état et incapable de stabiliser sa mauvaise situation financière, à partir de 1829 des morceaux et pièces de la muraille de la ville furent vendus comme pierre de carrière, y compris l'"Untertor". Mais les choses commencèrent à changer quand le chemin de fer attint Zeil en 1852, de plus gros bateaux naviguèrent sur la rivière Main et le réseau de rues fut amélioré par la construction d'un pont sur la rivière Main en 1910/11. Graduellement l'industrie commença à découvrir Zeil comme site stratégique.
MICHAEL LOSSE
THE TOWN-FORTRESS ÜBERLINGEN AT NORTHERN LAKE CONSTANCE (BODENSEE)
Introduction The German city of Überlingen (state: Baden-Württemberg, district: Bodenseekreis), situated at the northwestern lake portion of Lake Constance, the so-called Überlinger See, is one of the most picturesque towns in the former Linzgau county and at the entire Lake Constance (fg 1). "A town on whose walls and quays the waves of the lake lap; a town whose striking scenery is silhouetted against […] green vineyards; a pulsating holiday centre alternating with quiet havens of peace", as one can read in a brochure for tourists, published by the town in the 1990es. From the lakeside promenade there is a spectacular view of the Alps and the majestic Säntis, one of the most impressive peaks of the Alps. The inhabitants of Überlingen are rightly proud of their medieval and 16th century town and its rich but not always lucky history. The late medieval fortification which comprised 7 town gates, 18 towers and bulwarks1 and a large, in some parts very deep moat is partly well preserved and dominates the unmistakeable 1: Überlingen, aerial view (courtesy of the former mayor of Überlingen, Mr. Lutz, and Kur- und Touristik Überlingen GmbH).
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silhouette of this former "Free (Imperial) City of the Holy Roman Empire of German Nation" together with the 14th/15th century Town Hall with its Penny Tower and the 15th/16th century Minster, the Franciscan's priory, the Knights Hospitaller's Castle (called "JohanniterSchloß") and the late 15th century palace of the Reichlin-Meldegg family with its crenellated wall, crowning the highest place within the old town. Symbol of the Gothic and Renaissance town is St. Nicholas' Minster, the largest gothic building in the whole area of Lake Constance, sheltering the magnificent high altar of carved wood (1613/16), a remarkable work of the famous sculptor Jörg Zürn and his brothers. The town's lake promenade is dominated by the large edifice of the Greth, the former Corn Exchange, where in the late Middle Ages until the 18th century Überlingen's merchants traded in corn and wine, a.e. with Switzerland and Tirol in Austria.
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When the railway was built in the 1890s, two tunnels were made for it under the old town, so there weren't any damages at the fortifications as in other German towns and cities during 19th and early 20th century. Some of the railway buildings are castle-like structures, for instance the gates of the tunnels (fg 2). Generally many public and technical buildings in Überlingen were built like late medieval gothic castles, e.g. the prison "AmtsGefängnis" 1892/93 (fg 3) and the waterworks, the so-called "Wasserschlößle", 1901 (fg 4). Nowadays the old town with its steep streets and lanes is surrounded by modern buildings, mostly private residences, but also by large skyscraper-like residential houses. And there are plans, to make the fortress' moat a bypass road. The city of Überlingen is member of the movement "Citta Slow". The hills and slopes in the countryside round Überlingen were formed by glaciers in the Ice Age, which left a hilly moraine. The light grey sandstone in this area is a sediment of a former ocean. It is easy to belabour but susceptible to the beating of weather. History2 The city of Überlingen developed on a perfect
geographical spot in the early medieval times between Lake Constance and the lower Linzgau slopes. In those times this place provided the perfect situation for the laying-out of a (fortified) settlement. At the northwestern straits of Lake Constance an old trade route crossed the lake between Überlingen and the peninsula Klausenhorn near Dingelsdorf on the southern shore of the Überlinger See; there existed an early ferry. Überlingen commanded this passage and controled the important trade route, which was part of the Königsstraße (i.e. King's Road) leading from the town of Ulm in Upper Swabia to the bishop's town of Konstanz at Lake Constance and from there further south. And the road from the city of Stockach to Überlingen, and then along Lake Constance's shore to Uhldingen and on to the city of Friedrichshafen, and also the east-west train tracks, generally follow the path of an old Roman road. The history of when the first medieval settlement was established here has not been defintely clarified. There are almost no written sources relating to the foundation of the medieval town and its early history, but a village named Überlingen is referred to in (later) documentary evidence in the early 7th century. Written record of Überlingen's history in the Middle Ages begins with a mention of the visit of St Gallus, who is said to have been in Überlingen (ad Iburningas villam) around the year 612 as a guest of the Alemannian Duke Gunzo, whose "castle" is thought commonly in the local area to be the so called "Gunzoburg" (i.e. Gunzo's Castle) northwest to the Franciscan monastery, outside the inner enceinte of the walled town (fg 5). However, there are no indications that this building was already founded or built in the early Middle Ages. Around the year 770 in Überlingen or very close to the village there existed a presumable Royal farm and court of the Frankish Carolingian dynasty. In the year 770 Count Roadbert signed a document in the villa publica Überlingen, which is the fist real known mention of Überlingen. At the latest in the 10th century a settlement with a chapel in place of the nowadays late gothic Minster and perhaps a landing place or harbour at the shore
2. Überlingen, railway tunnel, 1895, with crenellation and castle-like walls and gate (photo: M. Losse). 3. Überlingen, prison (Amts-Gefängnis), 1892/93 (photo: M. Losse). 4. Überlingen, waterworks (so-called Wasserschlößle), 1901 (photo: M. Losse). 5. Überlingen, Gunzoburg, courtyard (photo: M. Losse).
6. Überlingen, the development of the city and its fortifications up to the 15th century (Telle 1928).
of Lake Constance existed here. In 1167 King Friedrich I. Barbarossa took over Überlingen from the counts of Pfullendorf, and in 1180 he established a market in the settlement which received the freedom of a city around the year 1200, maybe 1211. Not before 1268 Überlingen became a "Free (Imperial) City of the Holy Roman Empire" (later called "Holy Roman Empire of German Nation")3. It kept this status till 1802/03 when the town, during the Napoleonic era, came under the rule of the Dukes of Baden. Not later than 1240 Überlingen's seal included the imperial eagle to show its status. The existence of the town's defences is first attested under the reign of King respectively Emperor (since 1220) Friedrich II. (*1194, †1250). In the year 1275 the German King Rudolf I. of Habsburg took Überlingen under royal protection. His successors confirmed the city's privileges, and in the year 1348 King Karl IV. promised, that Überlingen should never be sold by the German Empire to someone else. During the late Middle Ages Überlingen became the leading city in the area of Lake Constance, (the old county) Linzgau and Oberschwaben (i.e. Upper Suebia). Settlements like Buchhorn (since the 19th century called Friedrichshafen), Ravensburg, Wangen, Memmingen and Kaufbeuren adopted Überlingen's freedom of a city. The economic strength of the city became enormous. In 1241 Überlingen had to pay 132,50 Marks Silver as taxes to the Empire, the highest amount in Oberschwaben, whereas the much bigger town Ulm had to pay only 80 Marks. Überlingen's economic power was a result of its location at a traffic junction at important medieval roads leading at example to the important town Pfullendorf, to the city of Konstanz, which was one of Germany's most important episcopal sees, and to Lake Constance. Presumably in the 13th century Überlingen's urban area was enlarged by pouring on earth and stones into Lake Constance. In the late Middle Ages Überlingen's merchants traded especially in corn and wine. Northern Switzerland (Graubünden) and Austria (Vorarlberg, Tyrol) bought grain at the Überlingen markets and at Lake Constance.
During the 15th century Überlingen's citizens possesed 25.000 acres of vineyards. Written sources tell us about a merchant from Überlingen trading corals from Barcelona (Spain) in 1383. After receiving an important privilige for Überlingen's markets from Emperor Karl (Charles) V. in 1547 the city hold a monopol in the western Lake Constance area. Due to their economic strength, the citizens of Überlingen were able to set up a number of impressive and artistic precious public buildings (see below), churches and private residences. Orderers of those late Gothic and Renaissance buildings were, beside the town, different monasteries, who built some palace-like courts used as trade establishments, and, last but not least, private persons, most of them members of Überlingen's patrician and merchant families. Many of those buildings are still existing and well preserved (see list below). Überlingen's progressive constitution was remarkable. Beside the urban patricians quite soon the craftsman's guilds and corporations were given a share in the city's in the government and the municipal council. As a result Überlingen spared, differently from other cities (a.e. the city of Konstanz), from larger political and social conflicts. Überlingen became member of some of the late medieval urban leagues in South-West-Germany. And in the 15th and 16th centuries the Free Town of the Holy Roman Empire of German Nation, Überlingen, managed to become a territorial power with a lot of the surrounding villages, hamlets, castles and farmyards under its rule; by the end of the 15th century it were some 40 villages, hamlets and farmyards. One of the strongest powers in Überlingen was the public hospital, the Heiliggeist-Hospital, which also owned a lot of hamlets and farmyards in the Linzgau and the Hegau counties and at Lake Constance. The hospital's church in Überlingen was pulled down in 1858. During the reformation of the church in the 16th century Überlingen remained a catholic city, whereas the cities of Konstanz, Lindau and (the nowadays) city of St. Gallen became members of the Reformed or the Calvinist Church. So in 1526 the expelled episcopal chapter of Konstanz found asylum in Überlin-
7. Überlingen in the 1640s. Copper engraving by Matthaeus Merian. 8. The Swedish siege of Überlingen in 1634 (Telle 1928). 9. Überlingen, fortifications of the eastern front of the fortified city at the end of the 17th century (Telle 1928). 10. Überlingen, Aufkircher Tor (Aufkirch Gate) (photo: M. Losse). 11. Überlingen, Badturm (Telle 1928). 12. Überlingen, Badturm (photo: M. Losse). 13. Überlingen, Franziskaner Tor (Franciscan Gate) (photo: M. Losse).
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gen. Previously Überlingen, since the late 15th century the city had become an ally of the Habsburgian dynasty, helped to put down the uprise of the farmers in South-West-Germany, especially at Lake Constance. With the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) Überlingen's prosperity ended. During this war the fortified town successfully resisted the attack of the troops of the Protestant commander-inchief Bernhard von Sachsen-Weimar in 1632, and the four-weeks onslaughts of Swedish troops under the command of general Gustav Horn in 1634. Überlingen's citizens, in thanksgiving for deliverance from marauding troops, vowed to hold sword dances and religious processions (Schwedenprozessionen) through the town every summer - a vow faithfully kept up to the present day. After all the Commander of the Württembergian fortress Hohentwie4, Konrad Widerholt (*1598, †1667), succeeded in conquering the fortified town of Überlingen. In this war Württemberg formed part of the Protestant alliance, which had been supported by Sweden since 1630. Commander Widerholt, however, under orders from the Duke of Württemberg to surrender to the German Emperor, chanced a bold diplomatic move: Widerholt declared allegiance to Bernhard of Weimar and to the French and thereby evaded handing over the fortress. With French backing, commander Widerholt acted as a condottiere or warlord in the 1630s and 1640s. After Widerholt had conquered Überlingen the town had to suffer from a French, a Bavarian and finally from a Swedish occupation. In consequence of the Thirty Years War Überlingen's markets collapsed, they never recovered totally, and an economic decline began. Most of the vineyards were destroyed, and a lot of the expenditures of the war were transferred to the Free Towns of the Empire. Überlingen lost its strength as a territorial power and was forced to sell important parts of its property underprice. As a result of the Napoleonic Wars Überlingen, like other Free Cities of the Holy Roman Empire of German Nation, lost its political status, its legal, economic and political autonomy, and, as mentioned above, came under the rule of the Dukes of Baden in 1802/03. In 1862 a new port was built by the Duchy of
Baden, comprising a part of the eastern moat of the town's defences after 1857 the former hospital had been pulled down to give space for another part of the port. As a spa Überlingen obtained some importance during the 19th century. At the end of the 19th century the town's moats, originally built to protect the town from attacks, were transformed into gardens and park-grounds (Stadtgarten) with exotic trees, flower-beds and cactuses, which like the famous botanical gardens on Mainau Island in Lake Constance - became an object of interest for the whole area. In the 1890s part of the railway along Lake Constance was built, but Überlingen never became a real industrial city. During the 19th century it was a popular spa and health resort with a lakeside promenade. In 1901, the railway link was connected through the city of Friedrichshafen, making travel to and from Überlingen much easier and quicker, and improving the city's prospects as a spa. By the 1950s, Überlingen was amongst the premier tourist destinations on Lake Constance, particularly for visitors interested in the health cure. Nowadays Überlingen after the city of Friedrichshafen is the second largest city in the Bodenseekreis district. Since 1993 Überlingen has been categorized as a large district city (Große Kreisstadt). The city's area is 58,67 km2, i.e. 22.65 square miles, its population is about 22.000 persons. Überlingen's fortifications<5> Überlingen's first fortification was built during the 13th century (fg 6). As mentioned above, the existence of the city's defences is first attested under the reign of King respectively Emperor Friedrich II. (*1194, †1250; Emperor since 1220). In the 15th and 16th centuries the city was protected by a number of interlocking moats and walls, after some of the city's suburbs had also been fortified in the late Middle Ages (14th century). Around 1500 Überlingen was strengthened against attacks and for the defence with artillery and became a real fortress-town. Merian's copper engraving published in Frankfurt/Main in the 1640s gives a detailed artist's impression of the whole fortress in those times.(fg 7). Some sections of the moat now had a depth of 20
14. Überlingen, Franziskaner Tor (Franciscan Gate) (photo: M. Losse). 15. Überlingen, Gallerturm (Galler Tower) (Telle 1928). 16. Überlingen, Gallerturm (Galler Tower) (photo: M. Losse). 17. Überlingen, Gallerturm (Galler Tower) (photo: M. Losse). 18. Überlingen, Gallertor (Galler Gate), gun loop (photo: M. Losse). 19. Überlingen, Gallergraben (Galler Moat) and Gallerturm (Galler Tower) (photo: M. Losse). 20. Überlingen, Gallerschanze (Galler Bulwark), the nowadays "Uhlandhöhe" (photo: M. Losse).
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metres. During the Thirty Years War (16181648) Überlingen's fortifications were strong enough to successfully resist the attack of the troops of the Protestant commander-in-chief Bernhard von Sachsen-Weimar in 1632, and the four-weeks onslaughts of Swedish troops under the command of general Gustav Horn in 1634.(fg 8). It is remarkable that a couple of the circular bulwarks built around 1500 during the 16th and 17th centuries were made towers, when more storeys were added (a.e. St John's Tower, i.e. St.-Johann-Turm, around 1632). Those upper storeys contained batteries for a better defence of the fortress' forefield, which was quite common in the Lake Constance area.<6> On some parts of the enceinte earthworks were set up, some of those cavalier-like structures (a.e. St John's Battery, i.e. St.-JohannBatterie). At 30th January 1643 the Commander of the Württembergian fortress Hohentwiel, Konrad Widerholt, conquered the fortified city of Überlingen, which later became a stronghold of Widerholt's French allies. Under French rule parts of the city were quickly bastionated. Several earthworks were built in front of the medieval enceinte. Construction work began, especially on the eastern front of the townfortress (fg 9). New fortifications were erected. In January and again in April 1644 Bavarian troops besieged Überlingen. The French surrendered at the 12th of May. In January 1647 a French army besieged the Bavarians in Überlingen, which was handed over to Swedish troops in March 1647. After the Thirty Years War, which ended in 1648, a lot of rebuilding and strengthening of the fortifications had to be done, but not only some new defensive works were added, at example the old fashioned Rosenobelturm (Rosenobel Tower) and the Rosenobelschanze around 1657. During the 18th century the fortress was increasingly neglected and some parts were abandonded. And at the end of the 19th century the city's moats were partially transformed into gardens and park-grounds. Überlingen's citizens were not only obliged to serve in the city's army. As citizens of a "Free
(Imperial) City of the Holy Roman Empire (of German Nation)" they also had to serve in the German imperial armies. In 1461 Überlingen had to send some soldiers to defend the Empire against the Turks, in 1475 a contingent of 130 soldiers from Überlingen fought near Köln (Cologne) in the Burgundian War ("Burgundischer Krieg"). And in 1491 an imperial decree told Überlingen to send 148 infantrymen, 15 cavalrymen, 2 cannons (socalled "Schlangen") and 6 1/2 waggons at war. During the Thirty Years War, especially in the years from 1632 up to 1634, Überlingen's troops fought in different combats in the Lake Constance area.
21. Überlingen, Quellturm (Fountain Tower) (Telle 1928). 22. Überlingen, Quellturm (Fountain Tower) (photo: M. Losse). 23. Überlingen, Rosenobelturm (Rosenobel Tower) (Telle 1928). 24. Überlingen, Rosenobelturm (Rosenobel Tower) (photo: M. Losse). 25. Überlingen, Rosenobelturm (Rosenobel Tower) (photo: M. Losse). 26. Überlingen, St.-Johann-Turm (St John's Tower) (Telle 1928). 27. Überlingen, St.-Johann-Turm (St John's Tower) (photo: M. Losse).
Important city gates, towers and bulwarks (in alphabetical order)
Aufkircher Tor (Aufkirch Gate) (fg 10) This city gate was named after the small village Aufkirch, some 2 kilometres away. The gate was also called Mitteltor, Klotzentor, Küchlinstor and Toldistor. It was first mentioned in written sources in the year 1452, wenn Überlingen's suburb Dorf was fortified and connected with the city's fortifications. The Aufkirch Gate is situated between the Wagsauter and the Galler moats, it marks the northern boundary of the city's fortification. The three-storeyed tower is a product of different phases of construction. Its later added drawbridge was removed. Nowadays the building is used as the headquarter of the sword dances company (SchwertletanzKompanie), responsible for the religious processions through the town every summer (see above: History) and whose existence is attested since 1646. Badturm (fgs 11-12) The Badturm, also called Kuderturm and Dammturm, was the northwestern pilar of the city's fortifications. It was named after the Badhotel (the Spa Hotel) had taken possession of the tower in the 19th century. The rectangular, six-storeyed tower shows remarkable loopholes in the buildings corners, which are very seldom in Germany, but more common in Ireland. In 1634 a two-storeyed battery was added, but destroyed in the 19th century.
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Franziskanertor (Franciscan gate) (fgs 13-14) This city gate was named after the Franciscan Church standing beneath the gate tower and was also called Barfüßertor. Barfüßer was another Name for the bare-footed Franciscan monks. The four-storeyed late Gothic Franciscan Gate with its stepgables and rusticated ashlar blocks on its corners, built around 1494/95, is said to be one of the finest gothic gate towers in the Lake Constance region. It marked the northern boundary of the older, the inner enceinte of the town. The tower with almost no defences was first of all an representative building and no defensible structure. Gallerturm (Galler Tower), Gallertor (Galler Gate), Gallergraben (Galler Moat) and Gallerschanze (Galler Bulwark) The strong Gallerturm (fgs 15-17) was named after the nearby property of the St Gallen monastery. It was also called Wahlenturm or Wallenturm. The magnificent rounded tower rising above the Tower Gardens and the Galler Moat was built around 1503 and flanks the western Galler fortification wall. Its height is 30,3 metres. The five-storeyed tower had a number of loopholes in its lower part and gun loops in the upper storeys, but was converted into a romantic tourist's residence during the 19th century7. Nowadays its used by an art society. The tower was partially surrounded by a barbican. The Gallertor is a small simple town gate, which opens in the wall and leads from an inner moat (Blatterngraben) into the main moat, the Gallergraben (Galler Moat). Its flanked by a gun loop (fg 18). This Gate was protected by the Gallerschanze (Galler Bulwark), an earthwork built in 1587 behind the town wall in a high position (fg 19), overlooking the moat (fg 20). The bulwark was converted to a memorial place for the famous German Romantic author Ludwig Uhland (†1862) in the 19th or early 20th century. Since then its known as Uhlandshöhe (Uhland's Height). Quellturm (Fountain Tower) (fgs 21-22) This small semicircular, five-storeyed tower close to the Gallerturm is said to been built during the 2nd half of the 16th century8 to
defend a part of the Gallergraben (Galler Moat, see above) and to protect a fountain of mineral water, which rises in its groundfloor. The healing properties of the city's mineral waters had been understood since the early 16th century. Rosenobelturm (Rosenobel Tower) (fgs 23-25) This large tower-like, three-storeyed bulwark was the northernmost corner pillar of the inner fortifications. After its destruction during the Thirty Years War it was extended to its present imposing but olf fashioned round in 1657. The bulwark underwent several restorations during the 20th century. Its gun loop were made for flanking fire into the moat.
28. Überlingen, St.-Johann-Turm (St John's Tower) (photo: M. Losse). 29. Überlingen, St.-Johann-Turm (St John's Tower) (photo: M. Losse). 30. Überlingen, St.-Johann-Batterie (St John's Battery) (photo: M. Losse). 31. Überlingen, St.-Johann-Batterie (St John's Battery) (photo: M. Losse). 32. Überlingen, Zeughaus (Arsenal and Armoury) (photo: M. Losse). 33. Überlingen, St Nicholas Minster (photo: M. Losse). 34. Überlingen, Market Square with Town Hall and St Nicholas Minster (photo: M. Losse).
St.-Johann-Turm (St John's Tower) (fgs 26-29) This rounded Tower, built 1522-23, was part of the eastern fortifications of the town and of the Knights Hospitallers' castle, which formed part of the city's fortifications and gave the tower its name. The tower originally was built as a three-storeyed bulwark to protect the moat. In 1632 three more storeys were added to increase its height to 37 metres in order to resist the Swedish forces. The upper storeys contained batteries for a better defence of the fortress' forefield. During the Swedish siege of 1634 St John's Tower was one main base of Überlingen's Artillery. Nowadays the tower is used as a meeting point for the city's firebrigade. Additional to the tower the St.-JohannBatterie (St John's Battery) was built in the 17th century (fgs 30-31). The battery is in a very neglected state. Wagsauterturm (Wagsauter Tower) The rectangular Wagsauter Tower is the northernmost point of the outer ring of fortifications. Its perhaps named after the family Wahsueter, which was mentioned e.g. with "Ulricus Wahsueter" in the year 1259. But the tower is said to been built around 1450. After it was destroyed during the siege of Überlingen in 1644 it was rebuilt and strengthened by an earthwork, called the "Wagsauter Schanz", in 1674. In the late 18th century the tower was dilapidted. It was rebuilt in the 1950s. 237
Other remarkable historical buildings in Überlingen Zeughaus (Arsenal and Armoury): The Zeughaus is a 15th century lakeside stepgables gothic building and served as a municipal arsenal and armoury up to the 19th century. It was restored and partly rebuilt in 2003 and is nowadays used as a restaurant (fg 32).
erly people's home. Town Hall: The Town Hall was built during the 14th and 15th centuries. It is a stone masonry building with Gothic and Renaissance parts. Its Penny Tower (15th century) is one of Überlingen's landmarks (fg 34). The famous City Council Hall is decorated with a cycle of limewood figures carved by the sculptor Jakob Russ till 1494. The carved frieze shows 41 statuettes representing the hierarchy of the imperial estates, from princes to peasants, arranged into groups of four, the so-called "Imperial quaternions. Today the Council Hall ist still used as the meeting point of the City Council.
St. Nicholas Minster (1350-1586): The Minster, dedicated to St Nichoals, is the largest late Gothic building in the region of Lake Costance, the most venerable building in the town and the city's most important landmark and an emblem of Überlingen (fg 33). The church is a five-naved basilica. Its magnificent high altar was carved out of wood by Überlingen's famous sculptor Jörg Zürn and hisbrothers (1613/1616).
City Archive: The former Town Chancellery, a Renaissance edifice, was built in 1600 as an extension to the Town Hall is used as the city's archive today.
The Franciscan Priory: The Franciscan church was built in the 14th and 15th centuries in the Gothic style, and in the early 18th century converted into a Baroque church. The other buildings of the monastery are used as an eld-
Greth (Corn Exchange): The former municipal corn and trade exchange was given its classicist form in 1788 by Franz Anton Bagnato. After complete restoration 1998, the building contains today a market hal, the
Conclusion Since 1977 parts of the fortifications were restored. In the year 2005 the German Foundation for Heritage Protection (Deutsche Stiftung Denkmalschutz) payed 140.000 Euro for the securing of masonry at the Gallertor (Galler Gate), also called Blatterntor. The most of this amount was given to the foundation by the German lottery "GlücksSpirale"9. To protect Überlingen's fortifications the Bürgersinn, a society of public utility, published a calendar with historical photoes in 2005. The money the society got from selling those calendars was used for the restoration of the city wall. Further works are necessary to do, especially securing masonry of the enceinte and St John's Battery. From many walls and bulwarks damaging plants as ivy should be cut off. Some sections of the enceinte and of the moats are endangered by erosion. A "town with a southern atmosphere, anchored in the Middle Ages, a community nestling in the security of the past, drawing living strength from tradition - that is Überlingen". This is Überlingen's understatement, as one can read in one of the city's tourist brochures. The idea of making more in-depth knowledge and especially consciousness of the importance of the fortress-town of Überlingen and its historical buildings to tourists as well as to local people came into being in the
year 2007. In 2008 I took the initiative and evolved a project of an Adventure Pathway around Überlingen's enceinte, which was not realised yet. In preparation I had to conduct intensive studies which yielded a huge volume of comprehensive information not only for specialists but also for the public. This in turn provided the basis for a first guide book, published in 2010, and a detailed publication about the fortifications, which shall be published in 2012.
municipal Tourist Office, restaurants and various shops. Notes / References 1 Cf. G. Richter, Bodenseeraum mit Hegau und 1 1 1 1 Bregenzer Wald. Landschaft, Geschichte, Volkstum, Kultur, Kunst (Bibliothek Deutsche Landeskunde, Abt. Südwestdeutschland). Heroldsberg 1977, p. 277 (quotation after: „Großes Lesebuch für die Reichsstadt [...]", 1790). 2 About Überlingen (selection of publications in alphabetical order): M. Brunner/M. Harder-Merkelbach (Ed.), 1100 Jahre Kunst und Architektur in Überlingen (850-1950), Petersberg 2005. - M. Harder-Merkelbach: Bauboom in Überlingen 1460-1510, in Brunner/Harder-Merkelbach 2005, p. 161-170. - F. Harzendorf, Überlinger Einwohnerbuch 1444-1800, Vol. 2: Die patrizischen und verwandten Geschlechter des 15.-18. Jahrhunderts, 1955. - U. Knapp, Architektur und Skulptur in Überlingen bis zum Ausgang des Mittelalters, in Brunner/Harder-Merkelbach 2005, p. 37-74. - A. Langenkamp, "Malerisch und ehrwürdig steht Ueberlingen, ein Bilderbuch aus alter Zeit." Künstler in Überlingen 1800-1950, in Brunner/HarderMerkelbach 2005, p. 209-224. - M. Losse, Überlingen am Bodensee. Kulturgeschichte und Architektur, Petersberg 2010. - A. Semler, Überlingen: Bilder aus der Geschichte einer kleinen Reichsstadt, Singen 1949. - F. X. C. Staiger, Die Stadt Überlingen am Bodensee sonst und jetzt mit ihrem Bade und ihrer nächsten Umgebung, Überlingen 1859. - E. Stübel, Überlingen: Einst freie Reichstadt, heute moderne Kur- u. Bäderstadt am Bodensee, Konstanz 1957. - W. Telle, Aus der Geschichte Überlingens. Mit einem Anhang, zusammengestellt von Alfons Semler, Überlingen 1928. 3 In the medieval Holy Roman Empire, a free imperial city or town (German: Freie Reichsstadt) was a city formally ruled by the emperor, but in late medieval times
a lot of the strong and wealthy cities were genuinely self-ruling territories within the Empire. They controlled their own trade and business and permitted just little interference from outside, but as vassals of the Emperors, they had to pay them taxes and had to supply troops for their military campaigns. Free Cities had independent representation in the Holy Roman Empire's Reichstag. 4 Cf. M. Losse, The fortifications of Hohentwiel/Hegau (Germany) from 915 to 1800: History, Restoration, Re-use, Tourism, Natural Protection, in Europa Nostra Scientific Bulletin, No. 59 (2005): The re-use of large European military complexes in the list of redundancies / La Réutilisation des Grandes Forteresses Européennes Desafectées. Edited by Professor Arch. Gianni Perbellini, Den Haag 2005, p. 135-140. 5 About Überlingen's fortifications especially: W. Telle 1928. Cf. also M. Losse (Ed.), Burgen, Schlösser, Adelssitze und Befestigungen am Bodensee, Vol. 1: M. Losse/U. Frank/R. Schrage/I. Koch, Überlingen, der nördliche Bodensee von Sipplingen bis Friedrichshafen und der angrenzende Linzgau mit Salem und Heiligenberg, Petersberg 2011. 6 Some examples: Ravensburg (district: Ravensburg): city's fortifications; Biberach an der Riß (district: Biberach): city's fortifications; Mühlhausen-Ehingen (district: Konstanz): Mägdeberg Castle, flanking tower protecting the main gate; Bodman-Ludwigshafen (districht: Konstanz): Alt-Bodman Castle, Keep; Stein am Rhein (Switzerland): Hohenklingen Castle, keep, upper storey was converted into a battery. 7 W. Telle 1928, p. 34. 8 W. Telle 1928. 9 Monumente (magazine of the foundation Deutsche 239 Stiftung Denkmalschutz), 9/10-2007.
La ville allemande d'Überlingen, située sur la rive nord-ouest du Lac de Constance, appelée Überlinger See (lac d' Überlinger), est une des villes les plus pittoresques dans l'ancien comté de Linzgau et de tout le Lac de Constance. La fortification du bas Moyen Age, qui comprend 7 portes, 18 tours et remparts et un fossé, grand et parfois très profond, est en partie bien conservée et domine la silhouette incomparable de cette ville avec la Mairie du XIV-XV siècle avec sa " Penny Tower " et la Cathédrale du XV-XVI siècle, le prieuré franciscain, le Château de l'Ordre Hospitalier (appelé „JohanniterSchloß ") et le palais de la fin du XV siècle de la famille Reichlin-Meldegg avec son mur crénelé, qui occupe la plus haute place dans la vieille ville. Le symbole de la ville gothique et de la Renaissance est la cathédrale de St Nicolas. La promenade du lac de la ville est dominée par le grand édifice du Greth, l'ancienne Halle aux blés. De nos jours la vieille ville avec ses rues et ruelles escarpées est entourée par des bâtiments modernes mais également par des grands gratte-ciel devenus maisons résidentielles. Et il y a des projets qui prévoient la transformation du fossé de la forteresse en un boulevard extérieur.
TOMÁŠ DURDÍK
BECOV CASTLE PROJECT - WAY TO MIDDLE AGES
The presentation and educational exploitation of castles and chateaus in the Czech Republic is currently assuming various, oftentimes conceptually highly elaborated forms. Top formats are represented by complex projects. Coincidentally, two projects with the same title, Way to Middle Ages, have appeared recently. The first one is aimed at conserving, opening for the public and presenting the remains of a major royal castle Kamýk nad Vltavou1 (fg. 1). The other one, which represents the best among current projects of this type and is the topic of this text, deals with a preserved castle and chateau in Becov nad Teplou. The complex of the state-owned castle and chateau Becov2 (fg. 2, 4) enjoys the highest status of legal protection in the Czech Republic. It was listed as a national cultural monument in 1995 and it is administered by The National 1. Kamýk nad Vltavou castle, district of Príbram. Graphic presentation of the aims of the project Way to Middle Ages
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2. Becov nad Teplou castle, district of Karlovy Vary. Position of the castle on map of district of Karlovy Vary. 3. Becov nad Teplou castle, district of Karlovy Vary. The Romanesque St. Maur's Reliquary. Photo Photoarchive of National institute for monument care Karlovy Vary. 4. Becov nad Teplou castle, district of Karlovy Vary. Aerial view of the castle. Photo Gloriet in autumn 2005.
Institute for Heritage Preservation. It is a vast, authentic and architecturally very valuable complex of historical buildings and structures, representing both gradual development of a feudal seat and individual architectural styles (Fig. 4). Nowadays, only about one third of the entire complex is open to the public. It is the so called Lower Chateau with two sightseeing circuits, including the standard tour with classical chateau interiors, and a tour presenting the Romanesque St. Maur's Reliquary, the second most valuable relic documenting the goldsmith's art in the Czech Republic (fg. 3). As concerns the exteriors, only the first courtyard and the renewed chateau gardens with terraces are open. Becov nad Teplou castle was, in all likely hood, founded in the early 14th century by the family of Lords of Osek, who owned it, together with the land for almost two centuries. The most significant development of the castle3 occurred in the late 15th century and in the first half of the 16th century, when the castle belonged to the family of Pluh of Rabštejn. The Gothic castle is situated in the highest point, on a rock. In a Renaissance reconstruction, it was enriched by stone portals and mural paintings. Below the castle, there is a chateau coming from the 18th century, which has a Renaissance core. The two-part layout of the castle consists of a bailey, out of which only its shape is known today, and the castle core, which occupies the rocky ridge of the promontory. The entrance to the castle was guarded by a rounded bergfrit-type tower. On the opposite side of the courtyard, a rectangular residential donjon was erected, into which the Chapel of the Virgin Mary's Visit was later probably built. After the mid 14th century, a large, massive donjon embraced by an outer ward was inserted in the Southwest corner of the core. The building development of the castle proper was finished by the construction of an early Renaissance tract, connecting both the square keeps. The castle court is lined with another former palace and stables in the space between the bergfrit and the castle core. The impetus to start the preparation of the educational concept for the medieval castle in Becov was the effort to make a thorough, good-quality presentation of unique spaces, so far inaccessible, at the time of the preparation of the recon-
struction and, at the same time, to find a suitable and original presentation form for the entire complex. These propositions resulted in the plan to present the national cultural monument in Becov by means of specialized educational programs. The so called Upper Castle (fgs. 5, 6) became a natural centre and goal of these activities. This project, carefully worked out by T. WizovskĂ˝, O. Cink and P. Sokol, primarily aims at creating the guided adventure of architectural history. The visitors should participate in a miniature course of architectural history in an environment of an exceptionally well preserved medieval castle as part of a small tour and enjoy illustrative demonstrations of reading about relationships so far invisible to them. The project team assumes that after such an unconventional tour, the visitors, equipped with new knowledge, will experience a new way of perception. Then, they can apply it not only within the complex of the stateowned castle and chateau of Becov, the urban historical reserve, as well as in the historical town of Becov nad Teplou (fg. 7), but also in any other environment with historical heritage and traces of the past. Through the project execution, its authors expect to find an unorthodox identity of the monument, make it more attractive and competitive, to increase the quality of understanding historical topics and related scientific disciplines, to expand the offer of services and, last but not least, to gain a permanent range of clients of tourist trade. The fundamental propositions of the project were formulated based on the principle of deliberate familiarization with similar educational and interactive activities completed in the area of history and culture. At the same time, cooperation with professional, cultural and pedagogical institutions of various orientations was established. The aim was to gain more experience and impetuses and eliminate the repetition of potential errors that occurred in presentations already completed both in the Czech Republic and in Europe. Within the first stage, experience from the practice of projects carried out in the Czech Republic was gathered for the Becov scheme; for example, the chateaus Vrchotovy Janovice and JĂĄnskĂ˝ Vrch. As part of the second stage, the project
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5. Becov nad Teplou castle, district of Karlovy Vary. Upper castle. Photo Photoarchive of National institute for monument care Karlovy Vary. 6. Becov nad Teplou castle, district of Karlovy Vary.
Both donjons of upper castle. Photo T. Wizowský. 7. Becov nad Teplou castle, district of Karlovy Vary. Orthographical drawing of the view of the castle and town.
authors visited selected destinations abroad in Latvia, Lithuania, Germany, France and Great Britain. The most inspiring sites included castles Bauska, Lavia, and Guttenberg, Germany, the educational centre of the castle BrieComte-Robert, France, a "new construction" of the medieval castle Guédelon, France, the educational centre of the town of Meaux, France, and an archaeological open-air museum Araiši, Latvia. Thanks to partners abroad, the project team completed a study stay in Great Britain focused on the operation of educational centres of the London Tower and monuments administered by English Heritage: the family residence Apsley House, the chateau of Eltham and the abbey and battlefield of Battle Abbey. During the project duration, a number of major professionals from a variety of institutions who are participating in individual outputs got involved. They include, for example, Pedagogical Faculty, Charles University in Prague, Pedagogical Faculty, West Bohemian University in Pilsen, Philosophical Faculty, University of Jan Evangelista Purkyne, Ústí nad Labem, The National Institute for Heritage Preservation, the Studio for Renovation and Conservation of Historical Monuments Girsa AT, Ltd., the Studio of Historical Architecture, and the West Bohemian Institute for Heritage Protection. Partners from abroad include, e.g. the REMPART association, the Institute for National Heritage, the Training Centre at the castle of Brie-Comte-Robert, English Heritage, and Historic Royal Palaces. Project's Background The purpose of the project is to identify, as early as in the stage of preparation of the building reconstruction, an innovative method of presentation with an educational aspect, corresponding to the significance and specificity of the monument (particularly the Upper Castle). The condition of the formulated
method of the presentation should be emphasis on the maximum preservation of authenticity and the expression value of the newly opened premises. The project is aimed to create an ideal model of operation of a historical monument by developing two areas: the educational role of the monument and the development of a two-sided and full relationship of the monument and the society. A major part of the project concentrates on the development of a positive relation to cultural heritage. The target group will be trained in heritage preservation, art and culture by means of a uniquely preserved building complex and specific partial activities. The presentation of the monument is aimed to mediate deeper knowledge of visitors through various interactive and unconventional methods. The project anticipates adjustment of the presentation of the monument to individual levels of school (primary and secondary schools, post-secondary professional schools and universities, as well as tertiary university) as well as professional (professional institutions and offices, civic associations, civil beneficial societies, etc.) education. The development of systematic cooperation with schools and professional organizations at all levels is one of the project's priorities. The main challenge is looking for methods how to integrate organically a significant and valuable monument into the educational system and create a new way of collaboration between heritage and educational, as well as professional institutions. Set Goals and Interim Outcomes I. deepening of the knowledge of the monument - additional surveys and expert opinions have been initiated; so far a complex, epigraphic survey of epigraphic relics4 (fg. 8) in the castle interiors has been completed; archaeology, an expert opinion on restoration; the initial stage of archival research focused on the iconography (fg. 9) of the historical complex has been finished; in cooperation with the project's partners, the "Concept of Securing of Structural Restoration and Historical Presentation of the Castle"5 has been formulated; last but not least, emphasis is laid on precise performance of rescue archaeological investigations6.
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It is an unfortunate fact that, for financial reasons, a complex research of the archival materials is still missing. For commissioning the research, a simple project has been worked out, including a time schedule and a plan of estimated costs. The project counts with the exploitation of so far uninvestigated foreign archives. II. design of a system of creating maximum awareness of on-going activities specialized web pages of the project and the castle www.castlebecov.eu have been produced; the complex has been made accessible by means of virtual sightseeing tours of the interiors and exteriors of the castle and the chateau on www.zamek-becov.cz. An information leaflet containing fundamental propositions of the project has been published. The professional community is informed about the project in publications (e.g. in the Heritage News Journal) and lectures (for example, at conferences and seminars in Trebon, CeskĂ˝
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Krumlov, Nectiny, Prague, etc.). III. experimental sightseeing tours - since the project's start, various methods of the presentation of the castle have been developed and tested, and the gained theoretical knowledge has been verified in practice (fg. 6). Therefore, professional and interest groups are selected and provided the exceptional opportunity to see the castle complex, including its interiors, within the project's framework, and study not only the splendid values of the monument, but also its historical development, its presentation and heritage preservation. The castle is shown to these visitors in untraditional tours in small groups both for safety reasons and for better preservation of the authentic atmosphere, and also for a better interaction with the guide. The emphasis is laid on the architectural and historical development of the monument in relation to its history, exceptionally well-preserved building structures and the related construction technologies, everyday life in the castle, and study of the values of this outstanding historical monument. A basic manual has been composed (an itinerary) to accompany the experimentally conceived way of presentation for the tours purposes. This material will be gradually developed and updated based on the knowledge gained from various target groups; later, it will become a starting point for the design of thematic didactic programs. The presentation, led by a professional guide, provides space for subsequent discussion and information collection by means of a questionnaire, which will serve as feedback (including assessment of inspirational inputs, responses and topics - see the text below). To understand the basic trends of the monument's reflection and opinions concerning its presentation method, and also for the needs of a later development of the research plan, the project team has compiled a questionnaire from which relevant information and knowledge is extracted. The results have been evaluated separately for the general public with a close relation to history and separately for the professional community, represented, above all, by students and scientists of historical branches in particular. IV. development of technical and operating background of educational activities - the project's outcomes will include, beside a theoretically defined model of educational activities, clear definition of technical means and aids which will
8. Becov nad Teplou castle, district of Karlovy Vary. Part of investigated and evaluated epigraphic materials. Photo Photoarchive of National institute for monument care Karlovy Vary.
9. Becov nad Teplou castle, district of Karlovy Vary. Castle on engraving by A. Pucherna from the year 1808. Photo Photoarchive of National institute for monument care Karlovy Vary.
10. Becov nad Teplou castle, district of Karlovy Vary. Axonometric reconstruction of the castle in the late gothic building period after J. Anderle.
facilitate later viability of the project. The means will be tested in practice in experimental tours within individual segments of this project. Gradual development of a 3-D model of the castle (fg. 10) as a necessary tool of alternative presentation falls within the practical outcomes of the project so far. Altogether five phases from the oldest till the current one are planned. Viewing this relatively high number of models necessary for the project, the financial demands may be considerable. Therefore, the design of the models will take place over a long term. The use of digital technology for virtual representation with attractive animation capabilities is an alternative under consideration. Structured worksheets facilitating better-quality experience of the sightseeing tour and subsequent processing of the knowledge gathered will be another aid. This tool for tour participants is now being prepared. The worksheet will also contain space for personal notes, record of questions for later discussion, etc. The authors assume that particularly educational institutions will work with this material. The building of the Upper Castle is awaiting a sensitive reconstruction. The castle presentation should, therefore, contain an outline of field premises of some professional disciplines (archaeology, restoration, epigraphy, dendrochronology, etc.). Conclusion The castle and chateau in Becov is undoubtedly an ideal environment for learning which offers a wide specter of educational opportunities. The design of educational programmes will primarily emphasize the following: training by art and programs on history. Training by art develops visual literacy, knowledge and understanding of art; in that, it will ensue from the architecture, as well as movable items of the monument. Projects on training by art will be designed as accompanying programs to the permanent exposition, including the worksheets for the trainees and the methodological material for the teachers. Programs on historical themes will be made as projects on "animated history" which will make use of historical monuments as sites documenting history. This text was written as part of the grant project of the Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic CR DB06P01OPP004 entitled Czech Castles - the saving of Resources.
Notes 1. Overview of literature concerning Kamýk nad Vltavou castle Durdík 1999; 2002; 2005; 2008. 2. Overview of literature concerning Becov castle Durdík 1999; 2002; 2005; 2008. Results of last researches for instance Anderle - Kyncl 2002; Anderle 2007; 2008; Foster 2007; Kamenická - Foster 2008;
Kyncl - Anderle 2002; Wasková - Široký 2007; Wasková - Wizowský 2007. 3. To the building history of the castle for instance Menclová 1976; Anderle -Kyncl 2002; Anderle 2007. 4. Wasková - Široký 2007. 5. Wasková - Wizowský 2007. 6. For instance Foster 2007; Kamenická - Foster 2008.
Bibliography Anderle, J. - Kyncl, J. 2002: Vývoj horního hradu v Becove nad Teplou - Die Burg in Becov nad Teplou. Prúzkumy památek IX/2, 75 - 108. Anderle, J. 2007: Tzv. Pluhovské domy v jádru hradu Becova nad Teplou - Die so genannten Pflugschen Häuser im Kern der Burg Becov nad Teplou. Pruzkumy památek XIV/I, 3 - 25.
Anderle, J. 2008: Usporádání bytu v nekterých velkých hradech doby Karla IV. Svorník 6 Konzeption der Wohnbereiche einiger großen Burgen in der Zeit Karls IV., 13 - 32. Durdík, T. 1999: Ilustrovaná encyklopedie ceských hradu. Praha. Durdík, T. 2002: Ilustrovaná encyklopedie ceských hradu. Dodatky. Praha. Durdík, T. 2005: Ilustrovaná encyklopedie ceských hradu. Dodatky 2. Praha. Durdík, T. 2008: Ilustrovaná encyklopedie ceských hradu. Dodatky 3. Praha. Foster, L. 2007: Exkurz: Becov nad Teplou - archeologické sondy v tzv. Pluhovských domech Archäologische Sonden in den sog. Pflugschen Häusern. Prúzkumy památek XIV/I, 26 - 34. Kamenická, E. - Foster, L. 2008: Archeologie Becova. Hláska XIX, 33 - 34. Kyncl, J. - Anderle, J. 2002: Hrad Becov nad Teplou - zajímavý zdroj materiálu pro datovací standardy borovice a smrku. Zprávy památkové péce 62, 5/príloha, 7 - 8. Menclová, D. 1976: Ceské hrady, 1, 2. 2. edition. Praha. Wasková, M. - Široký, R. 2007: Becov nad Teplou, horní hrad. Epigrafika a její prínos pro poznání stavebního vývoje - Becov nad Teplou, Oberburg. Die Epigraphik und ihr Beitrag zum Kennenlernen der Bauentwicklung der Anlage. Dejiny staveb 2007, 85 - 97. Wasková, M. - Wizowský, T. 2007: Cesta k poznání, zachování i vyu ití kulturnehistorického potenciálu horního hradu v Becove nad Teplou - Der Weg zur Auslotung, Erhaltung und Nutzung des kulturhistorischen Potentials der Oberburg in Becov nad Teplou - Way to Understanding, Preserving and Using the Cutural and Historical Potential of the upper Castle in Becov upon Teplá. Zprávy památkové péce 67, 403 - 404. Tomáš Durdík : Le projet du château de Becov - Voyage dans le Moyen Age
ans la République tchèque, la présentation et emploi éducatif des châteaux-forts et manoirs prend les formes les plus diverses, et, surtout dans le temps présent, très bien conçues du point de vue de leur conception. Le niveau le plus haut est représenté par les projets complexes. Le hasard l´a voulu que récemment, deux parmi eux ont pris le même nom - Voyage dans le Moyen Age. Des deux projets, le premier est consacré à la conservation, accessibilité, et présentation de la ruine d´un château-fort royal important de Kamýk-nad-Vltavou. Le deuxième, qui représente un achèvement de la plus haute qualité parmi les projets de ce genre, prend en considération le Château-fort d´état, ou plutôt le manoir, de Becov-nad-Teplou, bien conservé. Le château de Becov s´est formé par un processus de bâtissement assez compliqué. La forteresse originale du début du 14ème siècle, transformé en style gothique tardif, prit graduellement les formes d´un manoir de l´époque de Renaissance, puis de Baroque. L´impulse pour création de la conception éducative du château médiéval de Becov était fourni par l´effort de préparer une forme de présentation de haute qualité des espaces uniques du bâtiment, pas encore accessibles, déjà dans la phase de la préparation du renouvellement bâtisseur, et, en même temps, de trouver une forme relevante et originelle de présentation du tout l´aréal. Le château et manoir de Becov offre sans doute une multitude d´occasions éducatives. La création des programmes éducatifs prendra soin especiallement des aspects suivants: éducation par art, et programmes en relation avec l´histoire. L éducation par art développe les capacités de perceptivité visuelle, étant fondé sur le corps architectonique, ainsi que sur le fonds du mobiliaire, du monument ancien. Les projets d´éducation par art prendront la forme des programmes accompagnants l´exposition permanente, y compris les feuilles de travail pour les élèves et matériaux méthodiques pour les instituteurs. Les programmes d´instruction historique seront mis en scène en forme des projets de „histoire vivante", donnant emploi au monument ancien comme un lieu parlant du passéIllustrations
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HERMANN FABINI
THE MEDIEVAL TOWN OF SIGHISOARA, HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE URBAN MANAGEMENT TODAY
Located in the centre of Romania, on the T창rnava Mare River, in the Mures County, 120 km north-west of Brasov and 92 km Northeast of Sibiu, Sighisoara is a town that has a population of 32.570 inhabitants. The town was founded by German colonists, the so-called Transylvanian Saxons, in the second half of the 12th century. The first mention of it under the name of Castrum Sex dates back to the year 1280; in 1298 it comes under the name Schespurch, in 1337 with the Hungarian name of Seguswar, and in 1435 under the name of Sighisoara. On buildings and seals, the town's coat of arms shows a gate tower with three small crenellated towers, a crowned lion being in front of the gate. A mercy letter is mentioned in the document from 1298, issued by Pope Boniface VIII for the Sighisoara preaching brothers. The letter shows that a Dominican monastery existed in town in those days. Geographically, the town is situated at an altitude of 380 m on the bank of the T창rnava River, on a hill with partly steep slopes where the T창rnava Mare River meets the Saes brook. The fortress spreads over an area of about 6,7 hectares on this central hill that has a terrace at about 40 m above the river level and another 40 m up to its peak. The fortress is surrounded by an enclosure wall 920 m
1. The map of the town.
2. The so-called "Burg", the fortified hill in the middle of the town. 3. The Schoolstreet, in the background the Hillchurch (Bergkirche). 4.- View from the fortified hill, the Citadel, in East-direction, with new buildings constructed after 1989. 5.- View from the main place to the Clocktower (Stundenturm).
long, strengthened with 17 towers and defending bastions. They were named after the guilds that had their arms there and defended the towers in case of a siege. We are talking about smiths, coopers, shoemakers, tailors, butchers, leather and tin workers and other trades. On the hill top there is the "Hill Church". The church we see today was finished in the second half of the 15th century. In the church there is a crypt with a semicircular choir, dating from the 13th century and originally deriving from a Romanesque church. The bell tower might have been of a donjon type, placed separately on the hill top. It is not placed on the axis of the monument, and its side walls are not parallel to those of the church. In a second phase, the church became a Gothic basilica, later transformed into a hall-church. Set on a platform east of the Hill Church, the fortress small square has indeed almost a square shape with sides of about 40 m. This small square can be reached from a ramp located in the northern part of the fortress. A short street in the southern part of the fortress leads to another urban space dominated by the Clock Tower. This tower has sides of 8.65 m and 3.15 m, walls 2 m thick and a height of 64 m. Until 1575 the tower was the house of the town hall. In 1676 a devastating fire destroyed a great part of the houses in the fortress, the Clock Tower being among the ruined ones. Already in 1677 three Austrian craftsmen rebuilt the roof in its present shape, with wall walk, Baroque spires and lacquered tiles. The southern entrance to the Clock Tower is fortified
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6. The Vicarstreet (Pfarrg채sschen). 7. The Jumpstreet (Schanzgasse) with buildings from different periods. 8.- View from the Citadel to the North-West.
9. Isometric view of the Hillchurch (Bergkirche), with foritfications. Drawing by arch. Kurt Leonhardt. 10. The upper end of the Scolarstairs (Sch체lertreppe)
with some sort of a barbican. A very impressive tower is the zinc founders' tower. It has a square plan that becomes a pentagon as one ascends and that turns into a polygon with eight irregular sides at the level of the loop-holes and murder holes wall walk. On the ground floor, the tower has a barrel vault and at the fourth floor with murder holes, there is a ribbed vault. Close to the Hill Church there was the jewellers' tower and a bastion which was demolished. In the northern part, in front of a gate, there is a butchers' bastion, which has in plan almost the shape of a circle. The tailors' tower is a gate tower with two vaulted entrances, with a plan similar to the Clock Tower in size and disposition. In the eastern corner of the fortress, there is the shoemakers' tower with an irregular hexagonal plan. The monastery church is located in the southern part of the fortress and is not aligned in an east-west direction. The church axis is directed towards the fortress square and towards the northern gate of the fortress. The church roof was rebuilt after the fire in 1676, a bell on the small tower of the church also dating from then. The church itself has the shape of a hall church, but the interior has preponderant Baroque elements. The very elongated choir is characteristic of monastery churches. Nothing is preserved from the monastery building which was added in the eastern part, except for the ambulatory in the eastern part of the church. In the lower town there were also some elements of fortification consisting of enclosure walls and gates. Other buildings include churches, chapels, commercial structures and houses, dating from the 15th - 18th centuries. The period between 1870 -1910, an era of economic growth, has left much architectural evidence in Classicist style and in Jugendstil and eclectic forms, in the fortress as well as in the lower town. The administrative buildings, the banks, the commercial buildings, hotels and restaurants prevail as re-use functionsOne interesting structure is the staircase that goes up to the Hill Church and the Haltrich High School. It is a wooden building dating from the 18th century in its present form. It is the so-called "Pupils' Stair". The fact that a lot of original building fabric is preserved, especially in the fortress, is characteristic of the town of Sighisoara. A substantial intervention was the County House, an administrative building erected in1884 in the place of the Dominican monastery for the new established county of Sighisoara. Here
we can mention also some Neo-Gothic buildings dating from 1890-1910. In the lower town that period has also left its mark. In 1999 Sighisoara was included on the UNESCO World Heritage List, being the only medieval town in Romania on this list. During the Communist period, there were some attempts to demolish parts of the historical areas in the lower town. Thus, fragments of this eastern part of the town were demolished, and socialist buildings were meant to be built instead. These empty areas have been recently rebuilt, trying to keep an adequate height level in order to affect the historical town outlook as little as possible. It has to be mentioned that modernist architecture of relatively large volume and doubtful quality are in contradiction to the historical built environment. Between 2000 and 2003 there was an initiative to develop a huge "Dracula Park" resembling the Disneyland parks. In 1431-6 the Wallachian voivod Vlad Dracul (Vlad the Devil) took refuge in Sighisoara to escape the aggression of the Turks and of some pretenders to the Wallachian throne. Bram Stoker's fantasy character, Dracula, derived some features from Vlad Tepes, Vlad Dracul's son, famous for his cruel reign. Prince Charles's intervention, a UNESCO report and some organizations stood up against the falsification of history and the excessive commercialisation of this town, and managed to stop the Dracula park project. Concerning the management of the historical heritage in Sighisoara, it has to be mentioned that the communist era left many deficiencies. In the field of historical monuments, the professionalism of those involved is a concern. It can be easily noticed that it has become a very profitable business for some companies considering themselves professionally qualified in this field. The main dangers are the massive interventions in the original fabric by applying existing laws and technological norms of civil and industrial buildings and of road construction. For example, they have to excavate 60 to 80 cm for a road, replacing old material with new. This affects not only the archaeological site but also the old basement of the houses, substantially increasing the costs. The historical context is also damaged by the use of heavy equipment. Works on the monuments are often too massive, with the aim of strengthening them "forever". Irreversible works in concrete are carried out on monuments that are in no danger of collapse for the following 20-30 years. Unfortunately, the financial aspect has a really important share in this: the bigger the intervention, the higher the amount of money paid to the project and the building team. Sometimes this substantial sum cannot be delivered in time, leading to an extremely long delay. For the moment, in Sighisoara there is no conservation and restoration concept,
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according value to the historical site. Today, cars can enter the fortress for quite a high rate, but that doesn't stop the urban space being filled up with vehicles. Another doubtful aspect is that many buildings have been redesigned as restaurants, pensions and lodgings. Thus, the housing function of many buildings was removed, resulting in an overall functional structure that is now very even. In the present situation, there are those in the local administration who consider that administrative work in the area would be simplified by removing the town from the UNESCO list. The historical centre of Sighisoara becomes a tough endeavour in relation to the power and direction of Romanian society. In the middle of a process of changing the structure from a centralized, statist one towards a free society with a market economy, we have to ensure a proper management for a medieval town of international value.
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Située au centre de la Roumanie, sur la rivière Târnava Mare, Sighisoara fut fondée par les colons allemands dans la seconde moitié du XII siècle. Sur les bâtiments et les sceaux, les écussons de la ville représentent une tour de la porte avec trois petites tours crénelées et, devant la porte, un lion couronné. La ville est située à une altitude de 380 m sur la rive du fleuve Târnava, sur une colline dont les flancs sont en partie escarpés. La forteresse s'étend sur une surface d'environ 6,7 hectares sur une colline centrale qui a une terrasse à environ 40 m au-dessus du niveau du fleuve et encore 40 m jusqu'à son sommet. La forteresse est entourée par un mur de clôture de 920 m de long, elle est fortifiée par 17 tours et par des bastions de défense. Sur le sommet de la colline il y a l'" Église de la colline ". La tour de la cloche aurait pu être un type du donjon, placé séparément sur le sommet de la colline. Dans une seconde phase, l'église était une basilique gothique, transformée ensuite en une église ? En 1999 Sighisoara a été inclue dans la Liste du Patrimoine Mondial de l'UNESCO, en tant que unique ville médiévale en Roumanie.
IEVA OSE
THE MEDIEVAL CASTLE AS MUSEUM IN LATVIA: SUCCESSES AND PROBLEMS OF UTILISATION
Latvia, on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, occupies the greater part of the territory that in the 13th to mid-16th century belonged to the confederation of states known as Livonia. This included the state of the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order, the Archbishopric of Riga and the Bishopric of Couronia. During a period of three centuries, the order, the bishop and their vassals built slightly over 100 masonry castles in the territory of present-day Latvia, the majority of which survive in the 21st century as ruins. Interest in medieval castles as historical and architectural monuments developed in society in this region about two hundred years ago. Artists and amateurs drew the castle ruins as elements in a romantic landscape, leaving us with a record of these historical structures as they appeared at that time. When several railway lines were built in the second half of the 19th century, the castle ruins near them became tourist spots, visited by growing numbers of travellers and photographers. However, research developed slowly, as did measures to protect the castle ruins and adapt them for contemporary use. Already in the 19th century, the local antiquarians began to collect written historical sources, drew plans of the better-preserved castle ruins and carried out small-scale excavation at certain locations. Based on this research, in 1922 the Baltic German castle researcher Karl von Lรถwis of Menar published the first general work - the Lexicon of Castles of Ancient Livonia. Published twenty years later in German was the dissertation of art historian Armin Tuulse on the medieval castles of Latvia and Estonia. These two works became the main ready reference sources for those involved in monuments preservation and for everyone interested in this subject and remained so until 2004, when a new encyclopaedic publication appeared on the medieval castles of Latvia. Established in the 1920s and 30s, during the first period of the Republic of Latvia, was the Board of Monuments, which placed several of the better-preserved medieval castle ruins under state protection and organised the consolidation of particularly dangerous parts of the ruins on some sites. Larger-scale work commenced in the second half of the 20th century, under the Soviet occupation, when it was decided that several castle ruins should be transformed into tourist sites. On the one hand, the ideology of the time emphasised the importance of the cultural heritage, and the authorities placed a large proportion of the better-preserved castle ruins under formal state protection. On the other hand, the medieval castles were regarded as the heritage of the German knights,
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1. The ruins of Turaida Castle at the beginning of the 20th century.
2. The main tower of Turaida Castle after reconstruction of the top floor (author's photo). 3. Cross-section of the main tower of Turaida Castle and proposed reconstruction (drawing by architect Gunars Jansons). 4. The ruins of the West Tower of Turaida castle, adapted for firearms (photo: Andris Caune, 1960).
on account of which the work of inventorying and studying these sites comprehensively, and publishing the results, was hindered in various ways. Nevertheless several medieval castle ruins, such as Bauska and Turaida, were incorporated into regional museums, and the energetic museum directors were able to bring about restoration of the ruins and their adaptation to the contemporary needs of tourism. After the restoration of Latvia's independence, the medieval castles of Krustpils and Ventspils were also transformed into museums. The example of Turaida has been chosen in order to characterise the main successes and problems connected with the utilisation of a medieval castle as a museum. The small town of Sigulda is located about 50 km north-east of the Latvian capital Riga, by the picturesque glacial valley of the River Gauja. In medieval times the Gauja marked the boundary between the lands of the order and the bishop, and so three castles - Sigulda, Turaida and Krimulda - were built here, only a few kilometres apart. The order began to build Sigulda Castle on the left bank of the Gauja in the early 13th century, subsequently altering and extending it. It was seriously damaged in the early 17th century during the Polish-Swedish War, remained in use for some time after this, and was abandoned during the Great Northern War at the beginning of the 18th century. Since Sigulda had already been a favourite tourist destination since the late 19th century, conservation of the castle ruins was undertaken in the 1960s-80s. An outdoor stage was built in the castle yard as a venue for summer concerts and for an annual international opera festival. The second castle is Krimulda, on the right bank of the Gauja, a few kilometres away from the limits of the town of Sigulda. The Riga Dom Chapter began building the castle in the mid-13th century. This castle, which had an economic role, namely as a centre for collecting dues, was destroyed in the wars of the 17th century. A few centuries later, only small fragments of the walls remained standing. On the order of local landowner Count Lieven, the ruins were enhanced with a new wall and two Neogothic windows for the visit of Russian Tsar Alexander in 1862, thus creating an artificial ruin or folly. Nowadays the ruins of Krimulda Castle are in a forest park next to the sanatorium established in the former manor house. The third castle near Sigulda, also on the right bank of the Gauja, is Turaida. This was a castle of the Bishop, and later Archbishop, of Riga. Construction
began in 1214, and during four centuries the castle was extended and altered several times. It was inhabited until a fire broke out in 1776, after which the burnt-out buildings were abandoned and partly demolished. In the castle yard, the wooden manor house of Turaida was built in the 19th century, and the new outbuildings of the manor were built a few hundreds of metres from the ruins of the medieval castle. From the late 19th century onwards, because of the picturesque setting and the proximity of the railway, the ruins of Turaida Castle became a favourite tourist site. This is reflected in the many dozens of photographs (fig. 1) and postcards from that time, and in the repeated publication of tourist guidebooks. In 1936, a viewing platform for tourists was created on the Main Tower of Turaida Castle, and in the second half of the 20th century the territory of the castle was adapted to serve the needs of tourism. The development of Turaida Castle as a museum was stimulated by the nature conservation measures instituted in the surrounding area. In 1973, Gauja National Park was established, covering more than 90 000 hectares. Its purpose is to preserve the geological and biological diversity of the Gauja Valley, as well as the historically developed cultural landscape, with its architectural and archaeological sites. Since there is a prohibition against development within the park that significantly alters the structure of the landscape, new buildings can only be built on existing foundations. Accordingly, the area around the Turaida Castle ruins has not been built up in the final quarter of the 20th century, and the museum has gradually been able to obtain the former territory of the manor centre. Thus, the historic cultural landscape in the environs of the medieval castle has not been significantly altered. At the same time, the castle ruins themselves have seen major changes. Visible above ground in the early 1970s was the Main Tower - the keep of the castle, at the edge of the courtyard, and the former residential block of the castle, incorporated into the castle wall. By the late 1950s, both structures had been roofed over and adapted to serve the needs of a museum, namely as a viewing tower and exhibition rooms (fig. 2, 3). Also rising to a height of three storeys were the ruins of the Half-Round Tower on the western side (fig. 4, 6), while the rest of the ruins, like the slopes of the hill, were overgrown with shrubs and trees. In those days, Turaida was a small regional museum with few visitors, because there was little to see in the castle ruins themselves, and the surrounding infrastructure was not particularly developed. The rapid development of the
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museum began in the 1970s, when the energetic historian Anna Jurkane became director. In order to ensure preservation of the ruins and give the visitors a clearer impression of the former castle, it was decided that a large part of this complex of fortifications would be excavated, so as to reveal its layout, and that certain structures would be rebuilt. Thus, in the period from 1974 up to 1999, archaeologist Janis Graudonis excavated a large part of the castle ruins. In parallel with excavation work, conservation of the uncovered walls was undertaken by architect and restorer Gunars Jansons, along with restoration and reconstruction of the best-preserved structures. There was a logical basis for this approach to restoration. Turaida Castle had been built of brick, using natural stone only for the foundations. Because Latvia has a wet, cold climate, brick walls cannot remain intact for any length of time after the abandonment of a building and collapse of the roof. Both the fired clay brick and the lime mortar become saturated in the autumn rains and freeze in the winter cold, thaw in the spring and heat up in the sun, resulting in cracks that cause the surface to gradually crumble away. With the repetition of the freeze-thaw cycle in the structures of Turaida Castle during 5. Plan of Turaida Castle, showing structures revealed in the course of archaeological excavation. Marked in black is the first building phase (reconstruction by architect Gunars Jansons). 6. Cross-section of the West Tower and proposed
reconstruction (drawing by architect Gunars Jansons). 7. General view of Turaida Castle from the west, as it was in the 16th century (reconstruction by architect Gunars Jansons).
the two centuries of abandonment, not only had the upper horizontal surfaces of the thick walls been weathered away considerably, but the vertical surfaces had been damaged as well in places. When conservation of the above-ground structures preserved slightly above the level of the foundations commenced, the damaged bricks were removed and replaced with new ones. Unfortunately, the form of the bricks and the quality of the cement mortar available in the 1970s and 80s differed markedly from the medieval building materials. However, no alternative restoration materials were available at the time. Thus, the conserved walls have retained their form, but, where masonry has been added, the surfaces have lost their medieval appearance. The architect decided that those structures of the castle that still had most of their original form preserved above ground level should be subject to restoration and reconstruction, i.e. the walls should be rebuilt to their original height. This approach was chosen in order not to distort the proportions of those structures whose upper storey had collapsed and which were to be roofed over. The architect considered that a building rebuilt to its former height would give visitors a better idea of the former appearance of the castle. In the USSR in the 1970s this was a recognised practice in the restoration of architectural monuments: an architect would design elements to complete the preserved parts of the original structure, in accordance with historical accounts and images, or analogous examples seen elsewhere, so as to show the monument as it could have appeared in the past. Kuuressaare Castle in Estonia, Trakai Castle in Lithuania and many other architectural monuments were restored in a similar way to Turaida in Latvia. Before setting to work on the design, architect G. Jansons prepared graphic reconstructions of the castle, showing how its appearance may have changed over the centuries. He devoted particular attention to the final building phase, since this phase was reflected in the ruins, and there was a preserved report from the Polish inspection of 1590, describing the castle with all its structures and rooms (fig. 5, 7). The conserved foundations of Turaida Castle reflect the layout of the structure as it was in the late 16th century, and the four structures restored in full and roofed over provide space for the museum exhibitions. In the final phase of its existence, the fortress at Turaida had a small South Outer Bailey and a long, narrow North Outer Bailey. These enclosed the core of the castle, with its extensive inner courtyard that had blocks housing the living quarters and household facilities arranged along the perimeter. The castle had seven towers. The oldest is the Keep, the highest structure of the castle, on the north side of the inner courtyard. The only remains of an early rectangular gate tower and the two circular cannon towers of the outer gate are the excavated structures. The rebuilt structures include the half-round West Tower, adapted for firearms, and the two-storey residential tower by the South Gate. The low cannon tower by the inner gate has not yet been restored, but it has well-preserved ground floor walls with embrasures. The four better-preserved castle structures, restored in the 1970s-90s, are now accessible to visitors. The oldest structure of the castle is the Keep, with stone foundations and brick walls from the 13th century. The tower is 13.4 m in diameter, with a height of about 27 m. In 1959 the upper storey, the floors of the storeys below it and the roof were renewed. The original entrance was placed high up, but now a ground floor entrance has been provided for visitors. Visitors to the tower can see the interiors, which include the spiral staircase preserved within the wall, loopholes
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8. Reconstructed buildings on the west side of Turaida Castle (author's photo).
9. The courtyard of Turaida Castle, viewed from the main tower (author's photo).
and a domed vault on one storey. From the top floor there is a grand view across the castle courtyard and the Gauja Valley (fig. 8). The tower also houses a permanent exhibition about its history and restoration, and a shop selling copies of ancient ornaments. In addition to the Keep, in the 13th-14th century there were a few more buildings in the inner courtyard, the lower-floor walls of which have been uncovered in excavation. The only fully rebuilt structure is the rectangular tower by the South Gate, of which the ground floor with its groin vault was partially preserved. The upper floor has been built anew, in accordance with historical drawings and descriptions. The castle building materials are exhibited in this tower and the hypocaust heating system is displayed. On the rebuilt first floor is a permanent exhibition on the Archbishops of Riga. Following the introduction of firearms, in the late 15th or 16th century, Turaida Castle was provided with several new towers. The half-round West Tower is about 15 m high. The basement, the vaulted ground floor and three more storeys were preserved. The wall walk and top storey, along with the roof, have been rebuilt. A permanent exhibition with mannequins of prisoners and guards has been created in the lower storeys of the tower, with a display of artefacts recovered in the course of excavation in the upper storeys. Next to the Half-Round Tower is the West Block, attached to the castle wall in the 15th century (fig. 9). After the fire, when the castle was no longer inhabited, until the early 20th century, this building was used as a grain store. The rebuilt structure has a cellar and three storeys, where permanent exhibitions on Turaida Castle and the history of the district have been arranged. In the 1970s Turaida Castle housed a small local museum, which has been transformed during the past 40 years into an extensive, important cultural centre. The inner courtyard is used for open-air concerts and children's games, as well as archery contests and military re-enactments. Visitors are also attracted by specially organised events, such as the late-night excursions through the castle on European Museum Night. In order to offer the visitors an unusual view of the fortress, namely from the outside, where in medieval times there were steep slopes, a path around the castle has been created along the foot of the wall, and the main features, i.e. the towers and buttress piers, have been signposted with information in Latvian and English. However, although the medieval castle of Turaida is the main attraction of the museum, it is not its only element. The museum obtained the first building outside the castle itself in the 1960s,
when it was given charge of the nearby 18th century wooden church, which the congregation had been forced to abandon under the Soviet regime. Later, the museum also took over other buildings of the former manor that had been abandoned by the residents. Accordingly, in 1988 the Turaida Museum Reserve was established. After the gradual restoration of the manor and improvement of the grounds, in 1994 Turaida Museum Reserve was declared a Specially Protected Cultural Monument. Nowadays, in addition to the medieval castle, visitors to the museum at Turaida can also see the buildings of the manor, dating from the 18th and 19th century, which are still being renovated and prepared for exhibition. The building that was once the New House of the Manor Manager now houses the museum administration and conference hall. The former gardener's house has an exhibition on the Gauja Livs - the indigenous inhabitants who lived in this area before the introduction of Christianity and construction of the masonry castle. Visitors can also visit the bath-house, parching-house, forge, fish cellar, coach-house and other buildings. An important building is the wooden church built in 1750, where services are held once again, as are as concerts. Popular already in 19th century literature was the tale about a girl who grew up at Turaida Castle in the early 17th century, during the Polish-Swedish War, and gave up her life for love. She is said to be buried in Turaida Cemetery, next to the church. Nowadays the grave of the 'Rose of Turaida' is a favourite spot for newly-weds to visit. Another important element of Turaida Museum Reserve is the Folksong Park with its Dainu Hill. In 1985, to mark the 150th anniversary of the birth of Krišjanis Barons, the collector of Latvian folksong, sculptor Indulis Ranka erected the first granite sculpture in Turaida. Nowadays, 26 of his sculptures on themes from Latvian folksong are displayed on the hills around Turaida Castle. The park, with the walls and towers of Turaida Castle in the background, has become a venue for annual open-air concerts and folklore festivals. A variety of events take place here. Thus, for example, in 2006, when the previous President of Latvia and eminent folklore researcher Vaira Vike Freiberga left office, an event called 'Flowers of the sun for the President' was held here. Hundreds of thousands of flowers were brought in postal service vans from all over Latvia in a single night, to be arranged in the form of a multicoloured sun of flowers. In this way, with flowers and song, the people of Latvia thanked Vaira Vike Freiberga for her contribution to the country during the eight years of her presidency. Nowadays, Turaida Museum Reserve covers an area of 42 ha, with 27 historical buildings that have a total area of 707 m2. Eighty thousand historical artefacts are held in the collections. Turaida has become one of the most-visited museums in the Baltic. During the past decade, visitor numbers have almost doubled: in 1999 there were 127 thousand visitors, and in 2008 more than 245 thousand. Turaida regularly serves as a conference venue. In 2005, Turaida Museum Reserve, together with the Institute of Latvian History at the University of Latvia, held the "Castella Maris Baltici 8" conference, bringing together castle researchers from the Baltic Sea region. The history of Turaida Castle and the museum attractions, as well as the regular events, are described in the website www.turaida-muzejs.lv. The State Inspectorate for Heritage Protection has listed Turaida Castle as an architectural and archaeological monument. The inspectorate supervises digging work and architectural alterations carried out on this site. However, the development of Turaida Castle as a museum is marked not only by successes, but also by formidable problems. These relate to the process of restoring the ruins, stabilisation of the slopes of the hill
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on which the castle stands, and continued excavation of the castle. In order to provide lighting and heating in the rebuilt castle, it was necessary to build an electrical substation. For this purpose, a new several-storey block was built in 1980 on the excavated foundations of a tower of the North Bailey. Unfortunately, with its straight walls and horizontal roof, this structure is rather unsightly. The poor-quality building materials of the 1970s and 80s are causing problems: in the 20-30 years after restoration, they have begun to crumble in places, so repeated restoration work should be considered. A serious problem is stabilisation of the slopes of the hill. After a major slump in the winter of 2002, measures have been taken to consolidate the west slope, drains have been laid in the courtyard, and the walls are regularly inspected. In order to reduce vibration, the road built in the ravine next to the castle has been closed to heavy vehicles. However, because of the geological conditions, namely that the castle foundations sit on sandstone, the possibility of repeated slumping of the hill-slopes below Turaida Castle at some time in the future cannot be excluded. Another problem is the scientific study of the large quantity of medieval building materials and artefacts recovered during almost thirty years of excavation, because the director of the excavation did not manage to undertake a study of the archaeological material during his lifetime. In the future, these problems will have to be resolved as part of the management of Turaida Museum Reserve. Notes 1 Löwis of Menar, K. v. Burgenlexikon für AltLivland (Riga: Verlag der Aktiengesellschaft Walters und Rapa, 1922). 2 Tuulse, A. Die Burgen in Estland und Lettland, (Dorpat: Dorpater Estnischer Verlag, 1942). 3 Caune A., Ose I. Latvijas 12. gadsimta beigu - 17. gadsimta vacu pilu leksikons (Riga: Latvijas vestures instituta apgads, 2004). (Latvijas viduslaiku pilis, IV). 4 Vitola, T., Siguldas pilsdrupu konservacijas un restauracijas darbi, in: Petijumi par ordenpilim Latvija (Riga: Latvijas vestures instituta apgads, 2002): 215255. (Latvijas viduslaiku pilis, III). 5 Löwis of Menar, K. v., Bienemann jun., F., Die Burgen der Livländischen Schweiz Segewold, Treyden, Kremon und Wenden. Zugleich ein Führer durch das Aathal (Riga 1895). 6 Jurkane A., Turaidas pils - muzejrezervata sastavdala musdienas, Petijumi par Rigas arhibiskapa pilim (Riga: Latvijas vestures instituta apgads, 1999): 47-58. (Latvijas viduslaiku pilis, I). 7 Graudonis J., Turaidas pils, [Turaida] 2003. Bibliography ALUVE K., Eesti keskaegsed linnused (Tallinn: Valgus, 1993). CAUNE A., OSE I. Latvijas 12. gadsimta beigu - 17. gadsimta vacu pilu leksikons (Riga: Latvijas vestures instituta apgads, 2004). (Latvijas viduslaiku pilis, IV). CAUNE, A., OSE, I. (ed.), Castella Maris Baltici 8. The proceedings of a Symposium held in Turaida,
8 Jansons G., Turaidas pils arhitektura 13.-17. gadsimts (Riga: Latvijas vestures instituta apgads, 2007). 9 Aluve K., Eesti keskaegsed linnused (Tallinn: Valgus, 1993). 10 Filipaviciene G. Retrospection of Trakai fortification system in the 14th-15th centuries, in: Kuncievicius A. (ed.), Castella Maris Baltici 6 (Vilnius: Savastis, 2000): 83-92. 11 Jansons G., Turaidas pils nocietinajumu attistiba 13.-17. gs.: Pils arhitekturas rekonstrukcijas meginajums, in: Petijumi par Rigas arhibiskapa pilim (Riga: Latvijas vestures instituta apgads, 1999): 112-146. (Latvijas viduslaiku pilis, I). 12 Turaidas pils 1582. un 1590. gada reviziju protokoli, Petijumi par Rigas arhibiskapa pilim (Riga: Latvijas vestures instituta apgads, 1999): 152-172. (Latvijas viduslaiku pilis, I). 13 Caune, A., Ose, I. (ed.), Castella Maris Baltici 8. The proceedings of a Symposium held in Turaida, Latvia, on 5-9 September 2005 (Riga: Institute of the History of Latvia Publishers, 2007). 14 Ose, I., Burg und ihr Bauplatz im mittelalterlichen Lettland, in: Castrum Bene 9 (Praha 2006): 339-350. Latvia, on 5-9 September 2005 (Riga: Institute of the History of Latvia Publishers, 2007). FILIPAVICIENE G. Retrospection of Trakai fortification system in the 14th-15th centuries, in: Kuncievicius A. (ed.), Castella Maris Baltici 6 (Vilnius: Savastis, 2000): 83-92. GRAUDONIS J., Turaidas pils ([Turaida] 2003). JANSONS, G., Turaidas pils arhitektura 13.-17. gadsimts (Riga: Latvijas vestures instituta apgads, 2007).
JANSONS, G., Turaidas pils nocietinajumu attistiba 13.-17. gs. Pils arhitekturas rekonstrukcijas meginajums, in: Petijumi par Rigas arhibiskapa pilim (Riga: Latvijas vestures instituta apgads, 1999): 112-146. (Latvijas viduslaiku pilis, I). JURKANE, A., Turaidas pils - muzejrezervata sastavdala musdienas, Petijumi par Rigas arhibiskapa pilim (Riga: Latvijas vestures instituta apgads, 1999): 47-58. (Latvijas viduslaiku pilis, I). LÖWIS OF MENAR, K. v. Burgenlexikon für AltLivland (Riga: Verlag der Aktiengesellschaft Walters und Rapa, 1922). LÖWIS OF MENAR, K. v., BIENEMANN JUN., F. Die Burgen der Livländischen Schweiz Segewold,
Treyden, Kremon und Wenden. Zugleich ein Führer durch das Aathal (Riga 1895). OSE, I. Burg und ihr Bauplatz im mittelalterlichen Lettland, in: Castrum Bene 9 (Praha 2006): 339-350. Turaidas pils 1582. un 1590. gada reviziju protokoli, Petijumi par Rigas arhibiskapa pilim, (Riga 1999): 152172. (Latvijas viduslaiku pilis, I). TUULSE, A. Die Burgen in Estland und Lettland, (Dorpat: Dorpater Estnischer Verlag, 1942). VITOLA, T. Siguldas pilsdrupu konservacijas un restauracijas darbi, in: Petijumi par ordenpilim Latvija (Riga: Latvijas vestures instituta apgads, 2002): 215-255. (Latvijas viduslaiku pilis, III).
La Lettonie, située sur la rive orientale de la Mer Baltique, occupe la plus grande partie du territoire qui du XIII jusqu'à la moitié du XVI siècle a appartenu à la confédération d'états connu comme Livonie. Cela a inclus l'état de la Livonie teutonique, l'Archevêché de Riga et l'Évêché de Courlande. Pendant une période de trois siècles, l'ordre, l'évêque et leurs vassaux construisirent un peu plus de 100 châteaux dans le territoire de l'actuelle Lettonie, la plupart desquels, actuellement, au XXI siècle, sont des ruines. On a choisi l'exemple de Turaida pour caractériser les succès principaux et les problèmes liés avec l'utilisation d'un château médiéval en tant que musée. La construction de Château de Turaida a commencé en 1214, et pendant quatre siècles le château a été agrandi et modifié plusieurs fois. Il a été habité jusqu'en 1776, quand un incendie l'a détruit et les bâtiments furent abandonnés et en partie démolis. À partir de la fin du XIX siècle, les ruines du Château de Turaida sont devenues un site touristique parmi les préférées à cause des alentours pittoresques et de la proximité de la voie ferrée. Dans la seconde moitié du XX siècle la zone du château a été adaptée au musée local. Dans la période de 1974 jusqu'à 1999 l'archéologue Janis Graudonis a mis à jour une grande partie des ruines du château. En parallèle avec le fouilles, l'architecte et restaurateur Gunars Jansons a entrepris la conservation des murs découverts. On décida que les structures du château qui avaient encore leur forme originale au-dessus du rezde-chaussée devaient être soumises à la restauration et à la reconstruction, c'est-à-dire que les murs auraient dû être reconstruits à leur hauteur originale. Les fondations conservées du Château de Turaida reflètent la disposition de la structure telle qu'elle était à la fin du XVI siècle, et les quatre structures complètement restaurées, couvertes grâce à un toit, fournissez l'espace pour les expositions du musée. De nos jours, les visiteurs du musée de Turaida peuvent voir non seulement le château médiéval mais aussi les bâtiments du manoir, qui datent du XVIII et XIX siècle, et qui ont été rénovés et préparés pour les expositions. Actuellement, la Réserve du Musée de Turaida comprend une surface de 42 ha, avec 27 bâtiments historiques qui ont une surface totale de 707 m2. Quatre-vingts mille objets historiques sont exposés dans les collections. Turaida est devenu un des musées le plus visités dans le Baltique. Cependant, le développement du Château de Turaida en tant que musée est marqué non seulement par le succès, mais aussi par des énormes problèmes, causés par le processus de restauration des ruines, la stabilisation des pentes de la colline sur laquelle se trouve le château, et les fouilles ininterrompues du château. Dans l'avenir, ces problèmes devront être résolus comme partie de la gestion de la Réserve du Musée de Turaida.
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