European Geographer 12 - Mountains by europeangeographer

12th issue â&#x20AC;˘ August 2014 Magazine of the European Geography Association for students and young geographers

Mountains

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Editorial Rachel Abela, Tobias Michl Alpine Hazards and Critical Infrastructures: Vulnerability Assessments Reviewed Johanna Brandstätter

Vulnerability Assessment in Mountainous Regions

Barbara Schwendtner, Byron Quan Luna

Between the City and the Mountains. The Need for Supra-local Spatial Planning in Madrid Claudia Yubero

Climate Change Implications on Selected Glaciers in Bavaria Thomas Kaiser

August 2014

Alaska - A Very Geographical Excursion

The Silent Colonisation of Tenerife

Tobias Michl

Kristine Krumberga

Mapping of Vegetation at the Top of Germany

Brian Langley, Michael Tsigaridas

On the Trail – Education in the Učka Nature Park in Croatia

Summer School on Geomorphology in Khibiny Mountains, Kola Penninsula

Facilitators in Non-Formal Education FINE

Julija Metić

Jakub Ondruch

Christoph Götz, Marie-Luise Seubert

Editorial

GEOtalk

Mountains

EGEAscope

Magazine of the European Geography Association for students and young geographers

Editorial Rachel Abela and Tobias Michl Chief Editors 2012/2013

Dear Geographers, Welcome to the 12th issue of the European Geographer - Mountains! As you might realise, this issue is different from the ones before it. Not only do we have a fresh layout design, but we also changed the overall structure of the magazine. EGEA is an evolving community of young geographers all around Europe,

people who are active, full of ideas, always excited for ways in which to broaden their experience and their minds. But EGEAns are not only concerned about experiencing but also about reaching out to their fellows, communicating and sharing. It is in this spirit that the European Geographer editorial team is always on the lookout for ways how to better serve the mission of EGEA and its people. The new design layout aims to increase the aesthetic appeal of this magazine. It’s not wise to judge a book by its cover, but beauty is eye-catching. The new structure on the other hand accommodates a larger diversity of articles increasing the ways in

which EGEAns can contribute to this magazine. Not only so, but the new concept of the “GEOtalk” section also invites more discussion about the essence of what we study, new opinions, new ideas and new ways of exploring what we already know. Therefore, while our selected scientific articles centre around studies in mountainous regions, our GEOtalk and EGEAscope articles diversify the pool of reading material. This issue would not have been possible without the help of the editorial team and all the authors. We hope that you are happy with the result of our efforts, and more than that, we hope that you are looking forward to being part of this magazine!

Colophon The EGEA Magazine is a publication of the European Geography Association for Geography students and young geographers. The EGEA Magazine is published at least once per year. The magazine is produced for the EGEA community, EGEA partners and everyone who is interested in geography, Europe and EGEA.

Editors of the 12th issue

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Tobias Michl (Chief Editor), Rachel Abela (Chief Editor), Johanna Brandstätter, Colette Caruana, Rebecca Degaetano, Amanda Finger, Urban Furlan, Jakub Ondruch, Annika Palomäki, Catrin Promper, Claudia Rock, Alexander Steinfeldt

Lucian Rosu

Graphic Design Marek Kapusta

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Layout Tamara Gauci

Contributing authors Christoph Götz, Marie-Luise Seubert, Tobias Michl, Kristine Krumberga, Brian Langley, Michael Tsigaridas, Julija Metić, Jakub Ondruch, Johanna Brandstätter, Barbara Schwendtner, Byron Quan Luna, Claudia Yubero, Thomas Kaiser, Rachel Abela

All authors are completely responsible for the content of their articles, their figures and the references made by them.

The editors would like to thank Philipp Stojakowits, Oliver Korch, Karl-Friedrich Wetzel, for reviewing the articles of the Scientific Articles Cecile Kerssemakers – EGEA BoE Secretariat Director 13/14

EGEA is supported by ESRI EUROGEO Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University European Commission This publication reflects the views only of the author and the European Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

Alpine Hazards and Critical Infrastructures: Vulnerability Assessments Reviewed Examples from Südtirol (Alto Adige), Italy Johanna Brandstätter EGEA Salzburg/Wien, University of Salzburg Keywords: vulnerability assessments, alpine hazard, critical infrastructure, South Tyrol

Abstract Alpine hazards such as debris flows, landslides, and floods, endanger humans and their material assets all over the world. Critical infrastructures such as; the electric power grid, transportation and distribution networks, water systems, telecommunication, and information systems, also called lifelines, are essential for the recovery of societies that have been affected by a natural hazard. Hence, it is indispensable to know the potential damage alpine natural hazards have on these lifelines. The South Tyrol is a region where anthropogenic interests are confronted by strong natural processes. A high level of safety for humans and their assets is crucial: each single event increases financial loss. In order to assess the potential risk for critical infrastructures, photographs of past events in The South Tyrol were analysed, different methods of estimating the amount of damage which had occurred were discussed, and the current state of the art of vulnerability assessment was delimited. Difficulties of the various approaches were identified and problems estimating the amount of infrastructure damage were addressed in the cases where only photographs were used as a means of documentation. The results suggest that more research in vulnerability assessment is needed. Furthermore, documentation procedures must be intensified so as to enable a more viable estimation of damage costs.

Introduction Natural hazards have always threatened alpine communities, causing them to suffer from a loss of life and agricultural land, as well as

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

damage to infrastructure and buildings (Papathoma-Köhle et al., 2010). Statistics show that there has been an exponential increase in the number of reported disasters within the last hundred years. This is closely tied to an increase in total damage, which includes both the insured losses and the people affected. Hence, disaster reduction has become the focus of attention. Indeed it has even become an important point on the global agenda (Van Westen & Georgiadou, 2001). In particular, critical infrastructures such as the electric power grid, transportation and distribution networks, and water systems, need to be adequately constructed in order to withstand the forces of natural calamities as they are essential for a society which is recovering from a disaster (Hastak et al., 2008). Through high profile media coverage, the public has become more sensitive in its perception of natural disasters. As a result of this, the people who are at risk from natural hazards demand better prevention measures for their belongings and their lives. In the alpine countries of Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, and France, such preventative measures are already obligatory and ratified in national laws. However, the legislation differs, focusing on the special needs of each individual country (Stötter et al., 1997). Italy is lagging behind, having only established similar laws in 1998. The Italian legislation made it obligatory for the province to implement plans which plot the hazard levels on maps (Stötter and Zischg, 2008).

Study Area The study area of the South Tyrol, also called the autonomous province of Bozen-Südtirol (Bolzano-Alto Adige), is part of the Alps, as it is located in the Northeast of Italy. It covers an area of 7,400 km², making it the largest province of Italy (Mayer, 2010). It is inhabited by only 460,000 people (Hydrologisches Amt, 2004), giving it a low population density of 66 persons/ km². This population is concentrated in the major valleys along the main

rivers (Mayer, 2010). The valleys are of special interest because they are densely populated due to their high potential as economic, residential, and recreational areas (Stötter et al., 1997). The main transportation lines, which are used for most of the transalpine trade, can be found in these valleys as well (Glade and Rhörs, 2010). Hence, a lot of conflict exists between the anthropogenic interests and the natural processes (Stötter et al., 1997). Geologically, the Alps are young mountains with high relief energy. This causes periodic and episodic mass movement events in addition to other natural hazards (Stötter et al., 1997). In the South Tyrol there were 155 natural hazard events, of which 95 were debris flows and 29 were floods in 2009 alone (Macconi and Formaggioni, 2009).

Methodology The main method used in this study was a literature research and review in order to identify the current state of the art of risk assessment and analysis. Furthermore, a review of the established legislation of the study area helped to identify flaws in the laws and how they could be changed in the future. The articles found in the literature research were also used to compare the different studies which attempted to estimate the repair costs of the damaged critical infrastructure. Additionally, the problems which occur when damages are only documented with photographs are assessed. To this end, photographs of the last 80 years which show potential damage to critical infrastructure were selected and analysed (Brandstätter, 2011).

State of the Art Risk assessment, in general, requires three main aspects: evaluation of the hazard, evaluation of the elements at risk, and the evaluation of the vulnerability. The first of the three analyses, the hazard itself, gives information about the probability and intensity of measurable physical parameters

exceeding predefined thresholds. The second are independent from the hazard itself as they are the elements which are at risk themselves. Data of the costs of buildings are estimated as well as their occupation rates, giving their level of exposure. The third and final aspect is the most difficult to estimate as it is the vulnerability of a society and its material assets. Vulnerability levels differ greatly depending on the hazard (Douglas, 2007). Furthermore, vulnerability assessment can be separated into two procedures, each requiring different methods. The first, estimates the vulnerability of life, while the second one focuses on the vulnerability of property (Fuchs et al., 2007). New legislation was established in the South Tyrol in 1998, stating that risk based assessments have to be considered in the province's spatial planning. This created a framework for the implementation of these on a regional and local level. The base of the legislation is a court order named “Decreto Legge (D.L.) Il giugno 1998, n. 180”. This order makes maps showing the catchment areas the basis for: identifying the hydrological risk, for the designation of risk areas for decision-making and for the implementation of preventative measures for these risk areas. The court order no. 267 of the 3rd August of the same year, turned this order into a national law and the “Decreto del Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri” (Decree of the President of the Council of Ministers; D.P.C.M.) issued on the 19th September 1998 outlined the rules as they had to be implemed. Moreover, the D.P.C.M. also made it necessary for each province to create risk-zone-plans. These national laws, and a regional planning act, build the main standards towards the drawing up of maps and plans showing areas at risk and the classification of specific risks (Stötter and Zischg, 2008). In the South Tyrol there has been a systematic documentation of natural hazards since the law was established in 1998. The main aim of this documentation is so as to be able to carry out organised and standardised investigations of hydrological events, as well as debris flows, landslides, rock falls and avalanches. It focuses on the improvement of used methods and procedures and works with new instruments (Macconi and Formaggioni, 2009).

Results A vast majority of studies focus on hazard assessment zoning, hazard modelling, hazard monitoring and risk management (Papathoma-Köhle

et al., 2010), whereas the most commonly used method is the mapping of hazard zones to display the elements at risk in low, medium or high danger. Nevertheless, the limitation of this widely used method is that they only provide qualitative guidance as to the level of risk due to one particular hazard. Additionally, the method cannot be adapted to give quantitative estimates of direct economic losses (Douglas, 2007). Within the German speaking alpine area scientists have attempted to implement standardised methods for risk analysis. Throughout the whole region, data which is needed for the calculation of vulnerability of objects is gathered in order to estimate costs (Zischg and Köberl, 2010). Hazard related damage to infrastructure and lifelines is usually governed by many local factors, such as population density or exposure (Dutta et al., 2003). Furthermore, the only damages to infrastructure that can be potentially estimated are tangible costs (Kaswalder, 2009). Intangible costs such as construction downtime or increased storage costs resulting from damaged technical infrastructure of factory buildings cannot be estimated, because there are many uncertainties (Blöchl and Braun, 2005). In addition, the damages can be classified into

and a lot of resources to reconstruct (Sterlacchini et al., 2007). Besides that, additional costs can evolve due to accumulated debris and mud which has to be cleared away. The chambers of electrical power lines, telephone cables, the channel, and the drinking water supply may have to be cleaned, and some of the controls and instruments may have to be changed (Stoll, 2004). Hence, the estimation of costs is quite uncertain. Consequently, there is no well-established methodology available for the estimation of losses of infrastructure (Dutta et al., 2003). However, some studies claim that some of the estimations are accurate as they are done by expert witnesses and scientists who deal with the estimation of costs professionally (Sterlacchini et al., 2007). The different approaches acquire available statistical data, including land and real estate prices, as well as infrastructure prices and home content values (Blöchl and Braun, 2005). Four studies which quantitatively estimate the costs of damages to roads and railways were found. A summary of them is given in Table 1. Additionally, Table 2 shows an overview of the costs of power lines. In addition to this, the analysis of the photographic documentation fur-

Table 1: Overview of costs of damages of roads and railways due to natural hazards (Brandstätter, 2011, p.27)

three categories: aesthetic, functional, and structural damage. Each of these requires different care and reconstruction. Aesthetic damage can be repaired in no time, as the affected element is not an integral part of its functionality. With the second type the functionality is already compromised, thus fixing the damage may take time and resources. The third type, structural damages, describes elements at risk which are severely or completely damaged and it takes time

ther emphasised the problems with the estimation of costs of damaged infrastructure. With the documentation of events from the last 80 years, only a handful actually show critical infrastructure or lifelines, and what is more, not all of them seem to be damaged. Damages often cannot be seen as there is still a lot of debris or muddy water left, so it would even be possible that no damages occurred at all. This shows how limited the informa-

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

made. Furthermore, it is not visible if the lifelines are actually damaged as the water and debris still cover them. Only tangible damages can be identified as they are the only ones which are visible on the outside.

Table 2: Overview of costs of damages of power lines due to natural hazards (Brandstätter, 2011, p.29)

tion derived from photographs can be (Brandstätter, 2011).

Discussion The available literature shows that, to date, it has not been specified what constitutes loss or damage and if it matters to whom the losses or damages occur (Alwang et al., 2001). Furthermore, most of the scientific research is concerned with earthquakes and storms, only few studies within risk assessment deal with floods, avalanches, debris flows, and mass movements in general, and even fewer with alpine hazards specifically (Hollenstein et al., 2002). Damages associated with floods are closely related to many local factors (Dutta et al., 2003) as well as those of mass movements. Additionally, the hazards and their movements are difficult to characterise, because of their diversity, complexity, and the resulting vulnerability. This leads to uncertainties in the calculation of their process dynamics, which in turn generally leads to rather primitive vulnerability-models based solely on historical data (Hollenstein et al., 2002). Studies researching the vulnerability of damaged objects are a rarity (Hollenstein et al., 2002), resulting in no well-established methodology available for loss-estimation of infrastructure (Dutta et al., 2003). The few studies which have been conducted use different definitions, categories, and units for their estimations, making it complicated to compare them. Moreover, some of the estimations do not mirror the actual situation to a satisfying degree as the evaluation of damage potentials are often based on rather subjective estimations rather than on widely-accepted standardised approaches (Fuchs et al., 2008). Nevertheless, some of them are also conducted by expert witnesses (Sterlacchini et al., 2007; Fuchs et al., 2008). The main problem which occurs is that the costs are dependent on the length of supply lines of the area of roads, parks, and bridges. Often this European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

data is missing in the documentation because most of the time these estimations are difficult to calculate. Additionally, underground supply lines need special effort for reinstallation (Stoll, 2004). Even with expert judgement, vulnerability assessments, for example, are a subjective studies (Sterlacchini et al., 2007). As shown in Table 1 and Table 2 there are different approaches and classifications for damages in each study that is conducted. Grünthal et al. (2006) include damages to roads within the 'economic sector' category, thus differentiating between public services and infrastructure, and traffic and communication. Sterlacchini et al. (2007) identify the costs of debris excavation, removal, and its transportation and storage, but do not differentiate between different road types. Stoll (2004) gives costs for different road types, but does not consider the additional costs such as Sterlacchini et al. (2007). Zischg and Köberl (2010) have a similar approach to Stoll (2004) but identify more road types. Only Zischg and Köberl (2010) and Grünthal et al. (2006) consider railways. All four studies use different units to measure the costs. Grünthal et al. (2006) and Stoll (2004) use square metres for their estimations, hence they do not have to differentiate between the different road types. Similar problems can be identified with power lines. Once again, different categories and sub-categories lead to the use of different units, and hence, different estimations of costs (Brandstätter, 2011). The analysed photographic documentation showed how difficult it is to base such estimations on photographs only. The affected areas react differently to the violation and without additional information it is nearly impossible to give an accurate estimation of the costs. There is often no clue given as to how high the debris has accumulated, or how long the segment of an affected infrastructure is. Hence, only some vague estimation can be

Additionally, most of the photographs only showed a small extent of the situation because the whole affected area would not have fit onto one photograph. Aerial photographs would have been more appropriate because they give a better overview. However they also give less detail which makes the estimations more inaccurate. I can be therefore concluded that both aerial photographs and photographs of the details are necessary to conduct such estimations (Brandstätter, 2011).

Future Projections Humans will never be able to completely control all of the processes in the physical and social environment; hence, unwanted effects will always occur (Felgentreff, 2008). However, natural hazard and natural analysis research will lead to complex future research fields (Elverfeldt et al., 2008). This can be seen in the still relatively new field of research that is vulnerability assessment, which will eventually bring together a variety of scientists from various disciplines. This will be necessary in order to fill in the gaps and identify all the flaws of existing studies so that the future needs for vulnerability assessments of alpine hazards can be articulated. Furthermore, this can also serve as a helpful tool for effective emergency and disaster management (Papathoma-Köhle et al., 2010). Future research needs to respond to integrated vulnerability and risk assessment using quantitative, qualitative, traditional, and participatory methods at different scales. This means that different assessment methodologies have to be combined, or used simultaneously, in order to be able to provide more comprehensive information. Additionally, it will become necessary that the different terms, with various definitions from different scientific communities, become harmonised, so that a common language for describing the major components of vulnerability can be established (Birkmann, 2006). Another future obligation will be that the models and calculations account for the effects of climate change, since these are already showing (Van Westen and Georgiadou, 2001). Under changing climate conditions it is likely that infrastructure failures will increase because weather patterns will shift and extreme weather conditions will become more common and

regionally more intense (Alud et al., 2007). It is a fact that remote sensing will see an increasing role in research, becoming essential for many different aspects of assessment (Van Westen and Georgiadou, 2001). Remote sensing is already used to gather detailed information about slope deformation; however these models have to be further developed to be able to predict slope behaviour and be able to better delineate hazard and risk zones in valleys and corridors (Geertsema et al., 2008). Additionally, remote sensing data can be used for hazard modelling which could make it possible to produce near real-time imagery in prediction and monitoring. High resolution images could also be used to foresee damages (Van Westen and Georgiadou, 2001).

Conclusion It was shown that identifying the elements at risk and their characteristics are methods which are already relatively well developed, however the assessment of vulnerability is still rather primitive (IUGS, 1997). Evidence for this is the fact that no well-established methodology for loss estimation to infrastructure is available (Dutta et al., 2003). Furthermore, the comparison of loss estimations shown in Table 1 and Table 2 lead to the same conclusion (Brandstätter, 2011). This makes it inevitable that in the future interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches will be imperative for more comprehensive and effective vulnerability and risk reduction strategies (Birkmann, 2006).

References Auld H., MacIver D. & Klaassen J., 2007. Adaption Options for Infrastructure under Changing Climate Conditions. [pdf] Available at: <http://pyr.hazards. ca/Docs/images/Adaptation_Options_ for_Infrastructure-1568988254.pdf> [Accessed 9 February 2011]. Alwang J., Siegel P. B. & Jørgensen S. L., 2001. Vulnerability: A View From Different Disciplines. Social Protection Discussion Paper Series No 0115. Birkmann, J., 2006. Conclusion and recommendations. In: Birkmann, J. (Ed.), 2006. Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards. Towards Disaster Resilient Societies. Tokyo, New York, Paris. pp.432- 447. Blöchl, A. & Braun, B., 2005. Economic assessment of landslide risks in the Swabian Alb, Germany- research frame work and first results of homeowners' and experts' surveys. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 5. pp. 38936.

Brandstätter, J., 2011. A Literature Review on Vulnerability Assessments of Alpine Hazards for Critical Infrastructure – Examples from Südtirol (Alto Adige). Bachelorsthesis, University of Vienna. Douglas J., 2007. Physical vulnerability modelling in natural hazard risk assessment. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 7. pp. 283- 288. Dutta, D., Herath, S. & Musiake, K., 2003. A mathematical model for flood loss estimation. Journal of Hydrology, 277. pp. 24- 49. Elverfeldt van, K., Glade, T. & Dikau, R., 2008. Naturwissenschaftliche Gefahrenund Risikoanalyse. In: Felgentreff, C. & Glade, T. (ed.), 2008. Naturrisiken und Sozialkatastrophen. Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 31- 46. Fuchs, S., Heiss, K. & Hübl, J., 2007. Towards an empirical vulnerability function for use in debris flow risk assessment. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 7. pp. 495- 506. Fuchs, S., Keitna, R., Scheidl, C. & Hübl, J, 2008. The Application of the Risk Concept to Debris Flow Hazards. Geomechanik und Tunnelbau 1, Heft 2, Berlin. Felgentreff, C. & Glade, T. (ed.), 2008. Naturrisiken und Sozialkatastrophen. Berlin, Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag. Geertsema M., Schwab J. W., BlaisStevens A. & Sakals M. E., 2008. Landslides impacting linear infrastructure in west central British Columbia. Natural Hazards 48. pp. 59- 72. Glade, T. & Röhrs, M., 2010. Südtirol. In: Bell, R., Mayer, J., Pohl, J., Greiving, S. & Glade, T. , 2010. Integrative Frühwarnsysteme für gravitative Massenbewegungen (ILEWS). Monitoring, Modellierung, Implementierung. Essen. pp. 39- 40. Grünthal, G., Thieken, A. H., Schwarz, J., Radtke, K. S., Smolka, A. & Merz, B., 2006. Comparative Risk Assessment for the City of Colone - Storms, Floods, Earthquakes. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 38. pp. 21- 44. Hastak M., Dietz E., Oh H. E. & Desh Mukh, 2008. Midwest Flood Impact Analysis on Critical Infrastructure. Associated Industries, and Communities. Proceedings of 2009 NSF Engineering Research and Innovation Conference. Honululu. Hollenstein K., Bieri O., Stückelberger J. & Ethz Forstliches Ingenieurwesen, 2002. Modellierung der Vulnerabilität von Schadenobjekten gegenüber Naturgefahrenprozessen. Zürich: BUWAL / Eidgenössische Forstdirektion Schutzwald und Naturgefahren. Hydrologisches Amt, 2004. Wassernutzungsplan für die Autonome Provinz Bozen. Teil 1. [pdf] Available at: <http:// www.provinz.bz.it/wasser-energie/ download/WNP_erster_teil.pdf> [Accessed 22 December 2010].

Ingenieurwesen, 2002. Modellierung der Vulnerability von Schadenobjekten gegenüber Naturgefahrenprozessen. Zürich: BUWAL / Eidgenössische Forstdirektion Schutzwald und Naturgefahren. pp. 3-12. Kaswalder C., 2009. Schätzungsstudie. Zur Berechnung des Schadenspotentials bei Hochwasserereignissen durch die Rienz im Abschnitt Buneck- St. Lorenzen. Bozen. Macconi, P. & Formaggioni, O., 2009. ED 30 Report 2008. Abschlussbericht der Ereignisdokumentation 2008. Bozen. Mayer, J., 2010.Gesellschaftlicher Kontext. In: Bell, R., Mayer, J., Pohl, J., Greiving, S. & Glade, T., 2010. Integrative Frühwarnsysteme für gravitative Massenbewegungen (ILEWS). Monitoring, Modellierung, Implemenierung. Essen . pp. 44- 45. Papathoma-Köhle, M., Kappes, M., Keiler, M. & Glade, T., 2010. Physical vulnerability assessment for alpine hazards: state of the art and future needs. Natural Hazards 58, 2, pp. 645-680. Sterlacchini, S., Frigerio, S., Giacomelli, P. & Brambilla, M., 2007. Landslide risk analysis: a multidisciplinary methodological approach. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 7. pp. 657675. Stoll C., 2004. Flussraum Agenda Alpenraum. Schätzung des Schadenspotentials bei Hochwasserereignissen durch die Ahr bei Uttenheim und St. Georgen und durch die Rienz im Bereich Bruneck bis St. Lorenzen. Bruneck. Stötter, J., Belitz, K., Frisch, U., Geist, T., Maier, M. & Maukisch, M., 1997. Konzeptvorschlag zum Umgang mit Naturgefahren in der Gefahrenzonenplanung. Herausforderung an Praxis und Wissenschaft zur interdisziplinären Zusammenarbeit. Innsburcker Jahresbericht 1997/98. Stötter, J. & Zischg, A., 2008. Alpines Risikomanagement- theoretische Ansätze, erste Umsetzungen. In: Felgentreff, C. & Glade, T. (ed.), 2008. Naturrisiken und Sozialkatastrophen. Berlin, Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag. pp. 297- 310. Van Westen, C. J. & Georgiadou, Y., 2001. Spatial data requirements and infrastructure for geological risk assessment.[pdf] Available at: <http:// www.itc.nl/library/Papers_2001/vanwesten_georgiadou_spatial_2001.pdf> [Accessed 31 January 2011]. Zischg, A. & Köberl, I., 2010. Erhebung des Schadenspotentials in den Ortschaften Mareit, Gossensass, Kematen, Sterzing.- Projekt Interreg IV A. ItalienÖsterreich. IREK- Integrales Raumentwicklungskonzept für ausgewählte Lebensräume des Wipptals.

IUGS, 1997. Quantitative risk assessment for slopes and landslides - The state of the art. In: Hollenstein, K., Bieri, O., Stückelberger, J. & Ethz Forstliches European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

Vulnerability Assessment in Mountainous Regions Barbara Schwendtner EGEA Wien, Geodata AS, Norway

Byron Quan Luna DNV, Norway Keywords: vulnerability, vulnerability curve, Alps, elements at risk

Abstract Alpine hazards frequently harm alpine settlements, their population, its infrastructure and the surrounding natural environment. Recent studies show that climate change and its effect have increased the frequency of the occurrence of natural hazards, leading to unfavourable conditions for a disaster or catastrophe to occur. For this reason, the objective of this study is a temporal assessment of the vulnerability of the exposed elements at risk, as it is a growing area of interest for diverse stakeholders, researchers and local communities. This study presents an overview of the concept of vulnerability and gives insight into research topics that has been applied to mountainous regions, setting the emphasis on the alpine environment. In addition, different methodologies and applications mainly for physical vulnerability are presented; focusing on the use of remote sensing, GIS (Geographical Information Systems) applications and risk management strategies.

Introduction In consequence of changes in our natural environment, alpine villages change over time with respect to their susceptibility to natural hazards. In most instances, this susceptibility is of a dichotomous nature as it includes both the vulnerability of the physical buildings, as well as that of socioeconomic indicators. Consequently, spatial and temporal modifications have a direct influence on hazard management where zonification maps or mitigation structures have or will influence the settlements’ future spatial development. The present study gives a brief introduction to the term vulnerability, its definition and perspectives in the field of research and application. Moreover, it describes a proposed methodology

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

called “Applied Vulnerability Analysis”, using a spatial criteria assessment. This is an approach that analyses different types of mapped information, and the relationships between the temporal processes and the available spatial data. One of the main advantages of this approach is the interactive update and the possibility of mapping alternative scenarios for a forward prediction of possible risks. However, the necessity of further comparable studies is stressed and the need to calculate potential loss is highlighted.

Vulnerability The field of vulnerability research is still relatively young and has received increased attention since the 1980s, especially in the field of geography (Fuchs, 2009; Papathoma-Köhle et al., 2011a). Notwithstanding, there are many widely different definitions and yet no generally accepted one. However, a certain tendency towards a consistent definition can be observed. These large differences are exacerbated by several factors: the fact that the stage of research is still at a very early stage (Fuchs et al., 2007; Papathoma-Köhle et al., 2011a), and also the application of many other disciplines, both in the natural as well as the social sciences (including economics, risk management and development engineering, just to name a few). The UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, 2005) defined the term vulnerability as follows: “The conditions determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards.” Thus, the term is broadly defined and is in relation to particular factors. Liu et al. (2002:181) defined the term as “the potential total maximum losses due to a potential damaging phenomenon for a specified area and during a reference period.” Fuchs et al. (2007:495) kept it short by saying that: “(...) vulnerability is defined as the expected degree of loss for an element at risk as a consequence of a certain event.” In a quantitative risk assessment, vulnerability is commonly expressed as the degree of loss or damage to a given element within the area affected by the hazard. It is a conditional probability, given that a hazard with a certain magnitude occurs and the

element at risk is exposed. Vulnerability is a representation of the expected level of damage and is quantified on a scale of 0 (no loss or damage) to 1 (total loss or damage). Thus, vulnerability assessment requires an understanding of the interaction between the hazard event and the exposed elements (Quan Luna et al., 2011). This interaction can be expressed by damage or vulnerability curves that must consider intrinsic factors such as the building material, the construction technique, maintenance, adaptative protection measures, type of use and structural aging (Akbas et al., 2009; Fuchs, 2008).

Vulnerability and Risk Risk is a manifestation of pre-existing conditions within the social, economic, physical and environmental setting of a society. Infrastructure, services and organisations, from the simplest to the most complex and diverse systems, are prone to be affected by a triggering event which could be associated with a natural phenomenon. Risk is preceded by at least two predispositions: the possibility that the triggering event takes place, usually called a hazard at this potential state; and a preexisting vulnerability. Therefore, risk can be expressed in the following equation (Eq.1) (UNDRO, 1979 in Glade, 2003): R=H*E*V Where R is the risk, referring to the expected number of lives lost, persons injured, damage to property or disruption of economic activity due to a particular event; H is the natural hazard, defined as the probability of occurrence of a potentially damaging event within a specified time and a given area; E is the elements at risk, including population, buildings and engineering structures, infrastructure areas and lines, public service utilities and economic activities; and V is the vulnerability, relating to the (potential) results from event occurrence expressed with qualitative, semi-quantitative or quantitative methods in terms of loss, disadvantage or gain, damage, injury or loss of life. Van Westen (2009) describes the context of vulnerability as follows: "The interaction of the elements at risk and a hazard is what defines the exposure and the vulnerability of the elements at risk."

Perspectives and influencing factors of vulnerability "Vulnerability changes constantly, reflecting prevailing social, economic, cultural and political circumstances." (Sairinen, 2009: p. 142). In general, vulnerability can be classified into four major groups: the physical, economical, ecological, and social vulnerability (Schwendtner et al. 2013). An event has influence on all dimensions, albeit in different characteristics (Liu et al., 2003; Papathoma-Kรถhle et al., 2011a; Sterlacchini et al., 2007). The physical vulnerability determines the consequences of an event and refers to buildings or infrastructure (Quan Luna et al., 2011). The economical vulnerability is usually expressed by the gross domestic product. Ecological vulnerability summarises natural resources such as agriculture, forestry or protected areas. The social vulnerability focuses on demographic indicators such as age and population structure. A quantification is usually performed by the determination of the population density, resulting in an estimation of the number of people being potentially at risk (Liu et al., 2003; Bell et al., 2004). On a global scale it should be noted that the personal vulnerability is mostly related to the general development of a country (Peduzzi et al., 2009). The social vulnerability gives a positive contribution to the understanding of the human-environment, the impacts of human activities and the effects of a natural occurrence on the people. Secondary research areas of vulnerability dimensions are: cultural vulnerability, which investigates the consequences of hazards on cultural assets both of human and natural origin; and institutional and political vulnerability, which focuses on the inclusion of interest groups and preventive measures. In this context, possible applications range from adaptation and mitigation strategies to restoration of the original state (Fuchs, 2009). The majority of the studies devoted to vulnerability and natural hazards focus on physical vulnerability, followed by the consideration of the population. A lesser amount also includes ecological or economical vulnerability. The application of multi-dimensional approaches is also limited. (Papathoma-Kรถhle et al., 2011a) The need to develop indicators to evaluate vulnerabilities and risk is a must and requires a strategy to invest funds to maximize the results related to risk reduction. Vulnerability needs to be understood in a wide context which spans many sectors, components and levels. From a dynamic point of view, vulnerability continuously changes with time. Changes are related to those

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factors which are generated through social processes and can augment, reduce, or maintain the vulnerability in that state. Issues such as class, gender, ethnicity, poverty and power relations, among others, lead to an unequal exposure to risk.

at the regional level. Compared to other fields of research (e.g. earthquake and climate science), fairly few vulnerability assessments are available for mountainous hazards such as avalanches or debris flows. (Hollenstein, 2005 in: Papathoma-Kรถhle et al., 2011a).

In terms of vulnerability factors:

The selection of an appropriate methodology is, at the present state of vulnerability research, still differentiated and has to be evaluated for each case. When assessing physical vulnerability, regardless of the scale, data availability plays a significant role. For the results to be of further use, the selection of meaningful parameters and indicators, a GIS-based approach, and presentation of the results (e.g. vulnerability curves or maps) is necessary. However,

- "Stress" as a factor which can affect capacities of people and communities to cope with risks. Stresses impact social networks, livelihoods and human security and is generated through social and political security. - Factors which may allow vulnerability to be reduced encompass improved coping capacities, such as enhanced access to resources, alternate but more

Figure 1: Vulnerability curve calculated from the Selvetta debris flow event in 2008 in comparison with proposed vulnerability functions by Akbas et al. (2009) and Fuchs et al. (2007). (in: Quan Luna et al., 2011) productive ways of life, measures which reduce the level of poverty, and improvements in livelihoods. - Factors which maintain vulnerability can be associated with the inertia of the political, financial and social systems. - Another factor which can be mentioned is the constant inequitable distribution of productive resources.

Methodologies Generally speaking, the amount of available data is still the driving factor of the quality of vulnerability analysis. Most vulnerability analyses are carried out on a local level and only a small percentage, such as social vulnerability analyses, are processed

the transferability of the methodology is also of high importance. The first assessment of vulnerability for landslides was done in form of tables. Thereby, the authors focus on the degree of loss, the damage intensity, and the type of damage or magnitude (Glade, 2003). The complexities of tables are limited, as only two or three factors can be included and set against each other. In some cases, the process type was completely neglected, or the process intensity was not included, which set limitations to their interpretation. Nonetheless, they gave clear information, about the location of people (open space, vehicle or building types) or the intensity of the resulting damage (low to high) (Phoon et al., 2004).

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A new methodological approach was taken by developing vulnerability curves to set the degree of loss against another defining vulnerability factor. A vulnerability curve represents the relationship between the expected or actual damage and the intensity (Papathoma-Köhle et al., 2011b). The usage of the process intensity is independent of the return periods and gives information of the expected damage (Fuchs et al., 2007, Michael-Leiba et al., 2003, Papathoma-Köhle et al., 2011b). Figure 1 presents a vulnerability curve, which shows a comparison of one generated for a debris flow event in Selvetta (South Tyrol, 2008) with existing vulnerability curves from other study areas. The majority of the respective buildings were hardly affected, as the debris flow intensity was less than 0.5 m, indicating a vulnerability of less than 0.1. As the flow height increased, the material was intruding buildings, causing greater amounts of damage, which resulted in increased vulnerabilities (between 0.55 and 0.7). The elements at risk which were affected by heights of up to four meters were completely destroyed, which resulted in a vulnerability of 1. Moreover, frequency-fatality (F-N) curves were developed, setting the cumulative number of fatalities against the frequency of events (Eidsvig, 2009). Here, logarithmic scales are used and are based on reported incidents. However, one has to be careful when interpreting the results, as some countries or regions only report bigger and severe events which cause a distorted image. Nonetheless, the F-N curve gives a quick overview of the population prone to a specific hazard type (Eidsvig, 2009). The most recent approaches propagate the use of fragility curves. Fragility curves used in a vulnerability model show the probability of exceeding a certain damage level. The number of damage levels depends on the level of detail of the research. Eidsvig et al. (2012), give the following example: the probability that a house is hit by a debris flow depending on the intensity is categorised as light, considerable, or severe damage. The categories need to be previously defined and ranged according to the vulnerability scale between 0 and 1. In general, fragility curves present the probability of exceeding different damage states which provide a probability distribution of damage. So far, the fragility functions are primarily used for physical vulnerability and relate the intensity with the damage (Kalsnes, 2011). Moreover, the same author proposes four types of classification for fragility curves: empirical, engineering judgmental, analytical, and hybrid. Each of them

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has advantages and disadvantages, especially with regards to uncertainty. Vulnerability or damage index is also widely used to determine the overall damage based on a threshold value. Here, various damage states can be identified, ranging from non-structural damage to extensive and total collapse, which refers to the cause of the impact and the resistance capacities of the element.

Applied Vulnerability Analysis In this section, an insight into existing vulnerability analyses will be given. They merely deal with physical vulnerability towards natural mass moving geomorphological hazards in the alpine space. Most studies detect the affected buildings after an event, generate or use an existing event documentation and use a state-of-the art method (vulnerability tables, curves or fragility curves) (Bell et al, 2004; Keiler et al, 2004; Quan Luna et al., 2011; Sterlacchini et al., 2007; etc.). The results are useful to detect areas that need more attention and are a powerful tool for decision makers in order to set risk

management strategies. The reconstruction of an event is important for the event documentation but also regarding the planning process (mitigation structures, and hazard and risk management in general). Moreover, the results can be reused for further studies as they give an overview of “what can happen” (Keiler et al., 2004; Schwendtner at al., submitted). As a first example, Barbolini et al. (2006) dealt with avalanche events in Austria, which occurred in 1988 and during the severe winter of 1999, causing damage to property and loss of lives. The avalanches were regressively-calculated by simulating the events and assessing the maximum impact pressure. The process characteristics were applied for typical alpine style buildings. The authors considered the shielding effects from other buildings, as the first rows are hit by the avalanche front directly and protect other buildings behind them. Same accounts for debris flows, which is why this effect is usually included in modelling software. The derived vulnerability curve was then compared to a similar event from France.

Figure 2: Modelling results of the Selvetta debris flow (left). Comparison between the real and modelled debris flow out extent (right): accumulation height and impact pressure of the FLO-2D run out model are shown. (Quan Luna et al., 2011)

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Sterlacchini et al. (2007) dealt with the occurrence probability and the vulnerability of the elements at risk, where the social and economic features of the research area were analysed. The authors focused on the indirect damage, which is still difficult to assess but an important indicator for cost analysis. The study aimed to identify a landslide event, its potential physical effects on the elements at risk and its estimation regarding prospective social and economic consequences. Based on previously mapped debris flow cones and an event inventory, critical zones were identified and intensity-frequency hazard levels were defined. The authors assessed a detailed analysis of the vulnerable elements, including geometric features (size, volume, etc.) and descriptive attributes (traffic flows, persons per household, etc.) referring to infrastructure and buildings. The used methodology resulted in a vulnerability scenario with an estimation of the intensity height in meters and possible effects on the physical features, separated into aesthetic, functional, and structural damage (e.g. aesthetic: water lines and penstocks covered by debris material, damage to road signs; functional: damage to inner walls and pipes). As no buildings are located in the source

show both the actual but also the resulting modelled extent of the respective event (Figure 2). Moreover, not only was the damage intensity expressed in meters derived, but also the impact pressure and velocity. A similar approach has been carried out by Papathoma-Köhle et al. (2011), where a debris flow event, which took place in 1987 in South Tyrol, caused damage to buildings. Based on detailed event documentation, the debris height of the elements at risk were determined, the damage compensation known, and the building values calculated. Therefore, a damage ratio of the values and the actual damage was derived and a vulnerability curve created. The results of this study were followed up and extended by Schwendtner et al. (2013) where the complete event was reconstructed. As the initial debris flow accumulations for each house were known due to an event documentation right Figure 4: Reconstructed debris flow intensity after the flow, an interpolation in meters of the Martell event in 1987 and dewas calculated, giving a realistic gree of loss on a range of 0 to 1 (0 – no damapicture of the debris flow spread ge, 1 – total damage/reconstruction needed) in 1987. Some of the results of the (Schwendtner et al. 2013). analysis can be seen in figures 3 and 4, where both the debris area of the landslide, no structural intensity is shown, combined damages were expected. Moreover, risk with the overall loss per building and zones were identified, the derived degree of loss. Both results indicating low to high show a clear correlation with the hirisk areas. For the cost gher intensity classes and the resulassessment, two scenating losses. The most affected buildings rios were considered: can be seen in the debris flow direction the first during autumn from south to north, alongside the season, resulting in an actual river channel. The degree of loss extension of the closing indicates the degree of destruction of time of hotels into the an element at risk. winter season, and the second one during the summer season in July or August. Besides direct costs for restoration of In the early years of vulnerability resebuildings and infrastruc- arch, the studies were mainly focused tural lines, indirect costs on defining the terms, finding a unishow an increase of the versally valid equation, expanding the transportation costs for research network and delimiting the goods, resettlement costs factors for vulnerability. Nowadays, and costs resulting from the research is more focused on the apthe closure of the touriplications of vulnerability assessments stic infrastructure. in specific research areas, while a con-

Discussion

Figure 3: Reconstructed debris flow intensity in meters of the Martell event in 1987 and overall monetary loss per building in Euro (Schwendtner et al., 2013).

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Quan Luna et al. (2011) reconstructed a severe debris flow event in Northern Italy, by using a dynamic run-out model. Based on the derived data (flow height, velocity, and impact pressure) and the real damage prices, vulnerability curves for flow height (Figure 1), impact pressures, and kinematic viscosity have been derived. The results

current progression in the theoretical approach of the different methodologies is happening. In addition, the application of parameter uncertainty and model uncertainty is current practice in vulnerability assessments. Recently, several detailed studies were carried out in order to assess vulnerability in mountainous regions. Unfortunately, not all studies are comparable as they focus on the local building structures and inconsistent damage measurements. Studies from Iceland, the Pyrénées or Australia (Bell et al, 2004;

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Michael-Leiba et al., 2004) focus on the local building structures and damage values whilst alpine studies usually recalculate the extent of the vulnerability from a previous event by detecting the harmed elements that were at risk. Nonetheless, all of these studies have one thing in common: they are extremely valuable to recalculate the extent from a previous event and detecting the harmed elements at risk. This can be very useful when calculating damage values, the degree of loss and for validating different vulnerability curves. Past studies can provide useful information of the consequences an event had on the elements at risk. Therefore, estimations for future events can be made by calculating the potential loss.

Conclusion An increase in population and built-in settlements results in a demanding pressure upon the surrounding environment. Therefore, it is of high importance to carry out analyses regarding the possible damage that hazards can inflict (Quan Luna et al., 2011). Various stakeholders are in need of local and regional detailed vulnerability analyses for improved decision making. For this reason one of the main objectives of this study was to assess, apply, and suggest strategies to reduce the vulnerability of the elements at risk. The results obtained can be used directly by public administrators responsible for planning, insurance companies, real estate managers, local authorities and emergency services. Correspondence related to this article may be directed to schwendtnerbarbara@gmail.com

References

ches. In Ammann, W.J., Dannemann, S., Vulliet, L. (ed.): RISK21 - Coping with Risks due to Natural Hazards in the 21st Century. Taylor & Francis Bell, R. and Glade, T., 2004: Quantitative risk analysis for landslides - Examples from Bíldudalur, NW-Iceland. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 4. 117-131 Eidsvig, U.M.K., 2009: Vulnerability and Risk Assessment for Geohazards. Vulnerability quantification for landslides and tsunamis. ICG Report 2006-2-14, NGI Report 20061032-14 FEMA, 2007: Multi-hazard loss estimation methodology. HAZUS-MH MR3. Department of Homeland Security, Federal Emergency Management Agency, USA Fuchs, S., Heiss, K. and Hübl, J., 2007: Towards an empirical vulnerability function for use in debris flow risk assessment. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 7. 495-506 Fuchs, S., 2008: Vulnerability to torrent processes. WIT Transactions on Information and Communication Technologies 39. 289-298 Fuchs, S., 2009: Susceptibility versus resilience to mountain hazards in Austria - Paradigms of vulnerability revisited. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 9. 337-352 Glade, T., 2003: Vulnerability assessment in landslide risk analysis. Vulnerabilitätsbewertung in der Naturrisikoanalyse gravitativer Massenbewegungen 134. 123-146 Kalsnes B. 2011: Vulnerability models developed in EC projects. NGI/ICG Keiler, M., 2004: Development of the damage potential resulting from avalanche risk in the period 1950-2000, case study Galtür. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 4. 249-256 Liu, X. and Lei, J., 2003: A method for assessing regional debris flow risk: An application in Zhaotong of Yunnan province (SW China). Geomorphology 52. 181-191

Akbas, S. O., Blahut, J. and Sterlacchini, S., 2009: Critical assessment of existing physical vulnerability estimation approaches for debris flows. In: J.P. Malet, A. Remaitre and T. Bogaard (2009): Landslide processes: from geomorphologic mapping to dynamic modeling, Strasburg

Michael-Leiba, M., Baynes, F., Scott, G. and Granger, K., 2003: Regional landslide risk to the Cairns community. Natural Hazards 30. 233-249

Barbolini, M., Cappabianca, F., Frigo B. and Sailer R., 2006: The vulnerability of buildings affected by powder avalan-

Papathoma-Köhle, M., Kappes, M., Keiler, M. and Glade, T., 2011a: Physical vulnerability assessment for alpine ha-

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zards: State of the art and future needs. Natural Hazards 58. 645-680 Papathoma-Köhle, M., M. Keiler, R. Totschnig and Glade, T., 2011b: Improvement of vulnerability curves using data from extreme events: a debris flow event in South Tyrol. Natural Hazards submitted. Peduzzi, P., Dao, H., Herold, C. and Mouton, F., 2009: Assessing global exposure and vulnerability towards natural hazards: The Disaster Risk Index. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 9. 1149-1159 Phoon K.-K., Lacasse S., Düzgün S. and Nadim F., 2004: Risk and vulnerability analysis for geohazards. Vulnerability in Relation to Risk Management of Natural Hazards. ICG Report 2004-2-3, NGI Report 20031091-3 Quan Luna, B., Blahut, J., Van Westen, C. J., Sterlacchini, S., Van Asch, T. W. J. and Akbas, S. O., 2011: The application of numerical debris flow modelling for the generation of physical vulnerability curves. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 11. 2047-2060 Sairinen, R., 2009: Social Impact Assessment for Environmental Disaster Management. In: Urbano Fra Paleo (ed.): Building Safer Communities. Risk Governance, Spatial Planning and Responses to Natural Hazards. IOS Press. Schwendtner, B., Papathoma-Köhle, M., and Glade, T., 2013: Risk evolution: how can changes in the built environment influence the potential loss of natural hazards?, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2195-2207, doi:10.5194/ nhess-13-2195-2013, . Sterlacchini, S., Frigerio, S., Giacomelli, P. and Brambilla, M., 2007: Landslide risk analysis: A multi-disciplinary methodological approach. Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 7. 657-675 UNISDR, 2005: Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. UNISDR UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, World Conference on Disaster Reduction, 18-22 January 2005, Hyogo/Japan Van Westen, C., 2009: Multi-hazard risk assessement. United Nations University - ITC School on Disaster Geoinformation Management

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Between the city and the mountains. The need for supra-local Spatial Planning in Madrid. Exercising spatial planning for the Manzanares-Soto-Miraflores-Guadalix open space subsystem

Claudia Yubero EGEA Madrid, Universidad Complutense de Madrid Keywords: Spatial planning, open space subsystem, territorial order, territorial model, zoning, landscape, ecological connectivity

Abstract The study area is located in the northwestern edge of the Madrid metropolitan area which has particular territorial functions and dynamics. On the one hand, over 50% of the study area is protected by the Regional Park of Cuenca Alta del Manzanares, a fundamental piece of the Community of Madrid’s environmental axis. On the other hand, the study area is an extension of the characteristic built-up wedge of the metropolitan Northwest, which has experienced an exponential population growth in the past years. This requires public actions aimed at organising and limiting urban growth dynamics in order to preserve the Sierra environmental values.

dynamics. On the one hand, over 50% of the area is protected by the Regional Park of Cuenca Alta del Manzanares which is linked to the environmental axis deployed from Northwest to Southeast across the region. This area also includes the Southeastern Regional Park and Monte El Pardo. On the other hand, the area has experienced a high population growth in the past 20 years, reaching a growth rate of almost 260% according to the statistics of the CAM (Banco de datos municipales Almudena, 2010). One of the most outstanding phenomena in the area is the high proportion of secondary residences, which, according to the population and housing census of 2001, reaches 56% of all residences, thus causing high mobility rates. Moreover, territorial policy is despised by the CAM government. Therefore, all kinds of public actions aimed at organising and limiting urban growth dynamics, in order to preserve the Sierra environmental values, are very important and required urgently. This paper aims at presenting a spatial planning exercise applied at a supralocal scale, under a systemic perspective, in order to achieve sustainable development goals.

It is argued that the territorial policy developed in the Madrid region is deficient. This paper presents a methodological application exercise of spatial planning to overcome this deficiency focusing on the open space subsystem. The patch-corridor-matrix model is applied to the territorial model proposed and it is presented along with zoning cartography.

Exercising spatial planning is of recognised importance at the European level. Spatial planning has been actively and concretely promoted by the European Union since the Potsdam’s European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) was published in 1999. Thus, the ESDP was taken into consideration and its sustainable development objectives are pursued in this exercise.

Introduction

This paper includes three sections. First, the importance of spatial planning at the European level is underlined and its development in Spain, and specifically in the CAM, is reviewed. Second, the theoretical and practical concepts and methods discussed in geography for accomplishing a spatial planning exercise are highlighted, emphasising their utility. Third, the results of the spatial planning exercise, applied to the open space subsystem of the study area, are presented.

As summarised by Rafael Mata Olmo (2008, p.156), “large areas of land between cities and protected spaces are undergoing the most intense territorial changes, while they remain the landscape experience of the population’s daily life”. Facing this challenge, the spatial planning policy is seen as a solution to guiding sustainable development and territorial cohesion in these particular areas. The study area is an example of Rafael Mata Olmo’s words. It is composed of four municipalities in the Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid (CAM - Autonomous Community of Madrid) which are located in the Northwestern edge of the Madrid metropolitan area. This location is characterised by particular functions and

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Spatial planning: a consolidated activity? Major European Boost The European level is recognised as one of the few in which institutional, administrative and political development levels are sufficient to democratically carry out a policy of spatial planning (Zoido Naranjo, 1998). The European Territorial Charter established in 1983 is the basis of the common definition for spatial planning: "Regional/spatial planning gives geographical expression to the economic, social, cultural and ecological policies of society. It is at the same time a scientific discipline, an administrative technique and a policy developed as an interdisciplinary and comprehensive approach directed towards a balanced regional development and the physical organisation of space according to an overall strategy." (Council of Europe, 1983, p. 13). However, it is the ESDP that consolidates the strategic framework of the EU spatial planning policy. Signed by Ministers responsible for spatial planning, this document officially recognises the importance of spatial planning as an instrument to prevent an increase in the regional disparities whilst effectively promoting sustainable development. The ESDP draws attention to the importance of the "territorial focus” and the need for the coordination of sectoral policies that have spatial impacts at a European, national, regional and local scale. It also provides the strategic framework that defines the political options agreed upon by Member States to guide management of the European territory (European Commission, 1999). The ESDP (European Commission, 1999, Art. 3) seeks to ensure: • economic and social cohesion • conservation and management of natural resources and the cultural heritage • more balanced competitiveness Spatial planning in EU policy divides the territory into three subsystems, which will be reviewed in detail in the second section of this article. These subsystems have corresponding policy guidelines (European Commission, 1999, p.19):

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Table 1: Subsystems and corresponding guidelines defined by the European Commission (1999) Today, many other documents insist on adopting this focus in order to achieve “territorial cohesion”. The most relevant documents are the Territorial Agenda of Leipzig (2007), the Green Paper on Territorial Cohesion (2008) and the Territorial Agenda 2020 (2011). Many other strategies and instruments concerning sectoral and territorial policies have also been established during the last decade (Esparcia Pérez and Escribano Pizarro, 2012). The spatial planning policy does not have a binding status since the EU has no competence in this area. However, it has had a major impact, as evidenced by the documents already referred to and as it is referenced in national and regional spatial planning legislation, such as in Spain (Montiel Molina, 2010). In a way, the ESDP has achieved a paradoxical efficiency since it has been integrated into domestic law with ease.

Uneven Spatial Planning in Spain: The case of Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid After the advent of democracy in 1975, the new decentralised organisation of the State gave regional governments the opportunity to adopt a territorial focus on their spatial planning and development policies. The poor systemisation of spatial planning as a public policy; the unresolved competency conflict; the strong pressure of the national economic policy as well as local urban policie; and, the lack of agreement mechanisms, are the main reasons for an ineffective and disjointed spatial planning policy in Spain (Parejo, cited by Bénabent, 2006, p. 217). In fact, spatial planning policy has only recently been boosted. The first spatial planning programs date back to the 1990s, and even today they do not cover the entire territory. Furthermore, it was only in 2001 that all regions provided spatial planning legislation that promotes the creation of such programs. We are thus in a period of experimentation without any preconceived patterns of procedures (Bénabent, 2006). This panorama depicts

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incomplete and uncoordinated spatial planning at a national scale. Although Madrid is the second community, after Catalonia, to agree upon a law on spatial planning (Ley 10/84 de Ordenación Territorial de la Comunidad de Madrid), the Region has failed to acquire subsequent instruments (Valenzuela, 2010). Having become obsolete, the law was revised and reformulated resulting in the current Ley 9/1995 de Política Territorial, Suelo y Urbanismo. It includes the creation of a Regional Program of Spatial Strategy which has never been concluded. What has been developed up to the current date, are two documents called "Bases" (Bases Preparatorias and Bases) for the preparation of the Program. They were made under two different governments; the Partido Socialista Obrero Español (left-wing political party) prepared the first Bases Preparatorias, whereas the Partido Popular (right-wing political party) is responsible for the second one. The first one increased the CAM authority to urbanise. Despite the fact that it fosters urbanisation rather than the protection of land resources, it is the only written document so far which has a truly territorial focus. The document goes into the utmost level of detail, but was not adopted due to the change of government. The second document is a clear "step back" from a territorial aspect as it marks an astonishingly incongruous and overly simplified vision in all areas. It has been discussed by numerous scientific critics (Valenzuela, 2010; Bénabent, 2004; FUNDICOT, 1997). Current Ley del Suelo 6/1998 and subsequent Ley del Suelo de la CAM 9/2001, have since then, legitimised a period of great land speculation thus discouraging any will for a supra-local, integrative, and territorial focus (Valenzuela, 2010). The only instrument that has been implemented is the Sierra of Guadarrama’s Plan of Natural Resources Management (PORN), adopted in 2009 (Decreto 96/2009). The conflicting dimension of spatial planning in the CAM cripples its accurate development. Spatial planning as a public action is limited by the clash of interests stemming from the urban sector. Local authorities competent in urban

planning are reluctant to support a supra-local territorial policy because they perceive their decision-making freedom to be threatened. Thus, spatial planning has been, and still is, an unfinished policy. It has a margin of ineffectiveness that undermines its legitimacy (Montiel Molina, 2010). However, the CAM requires spatial planning from both regional and sub-regional perspectives as it still experiences strong urban pressures, territorial disparities between rural and urban areas, and has high environmental values. The political consensus at the European level and the current economic crisis provide added evidence of this necessity.

Territorial systems: a holistic approach. Concepts and methods in Geography. Some contributions of Geography The European Territorial Charter specifies that spatial planning “is at the same time a scientific discipline, an administrative technique and a policy developed as an interdisciplinary and comprehensive approach” (Council of Europe, 1983, p.13). As a scientific discipline, spatial planning needs to take contributions from different sciences into consideration, thus its multidisciplinary character is recognised. The role of geography is relevant and recognised as a great contributor (Zoido Naranjo 1998). In fact, geography and spatial planning share the same object of study: territory. Geography contributes with a special focus on its definition, but also a wide range of concepts and methods to approach its inherent complexity. First, according to Florencio Zoido Naranjo (1998), territory is a geographical space that is attributed to, lived in and composed of a human group. The space becomes one of the most fundamental parts of the group’s common projects. It is a support, a basic resource, a homeland, an appropriated landscape in personal and collective memory, and the space that needs to be administered and managed for the population. Second, Geography deals accurately and rigorously with scales. A common methodological error in many spatial planning instruments is the consideration of space as an isolated enclave without contextualisation within other scales. A territorial vision requires overcoming this reductionist position. Third, the contributions of geography have explicit practical applications

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when it comes to establishing zoning cartography (in order to set limits and allocate land uses). This exercise requires a continued implementation of complex criteria, for which extensive knowledge is required regarding the geographic space and the ability to integrate all the information. For this reason, it is necessary to consider the internal territorial coherence and the ability to "fragment" the geographical territorial units distinguished by their intrinsic characteristics. Following that, geographers can proceed to an accurate analysis in order to apply zoning. According to the same author (1998), geography, as a scientific support, helps attribute precise limits of the territorial units through: • Descriptive geographical analysis to define the internal consistency and type of occupation. • Integrated analysis: the map overlay as a methodology to define complex areas.

The territorial system and its subsystems Territory is a system that has a complex set of material and cultural elements which are related to and interdependent upon one another, yet together they constitute one organic whole (Folch, 2004). Such a systemic treatment given to territory in geography is a key element in spatial planning. The "territorial system" is also the methodological concept that allows spatial planners to operate effectively so as to keep the territorial integrity and unity necessary to conceive this “reality”. Territorial systems meet all static objects and dynamic processes, whether natural or artificial, which operate in the territory. These elements provide structure and functionality specific to a given territory (Gómez Orea, 1993). According to Domingo Gómez Orea (1993), the territorial system is a social construct made up of population and their representations of space, the activities the population develops (related to home, work, mobility) and the physical environment as a supporting matrix for all functions and dynamics. This definition of the territorial system must have spatial expression to be fully operational in spatial planning, and for that, three subsystems are attributed: • The open space subsystem (contains natural resources: subsoil, air, water, energy resources, fauna and flora). • The settlements subsystem (the spatial configuration of human settlements). • The infrastructure subsystem (all relational infrastructures).

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It is interesting to note that the population and activities variables are considered as part of the settlements’ subsystem. However, the population, to whom the spatial planning is addressed, is not a subsystem by itself but is part of all subsystems. It has no spatial expression per se but it is spatially relevant through behaviour and activities developed in the territory: from the implementation of legal frameworks and public policies with territorial impact, to daily mobility work, tourism etc. The legal basis has spatial expression in the three subsystems as well, so its analysis is intrinsic to each and must be carried out simultaneously.

The open space subsystem There has been a growing concern on the importance of the environmental dimension in spatial planning since the Charter came into effect. One of its main objectives was to achieve a “responsible management of natural resources and protection of the environment by promoting strategies to minimise conflicts between the growing demand for natural resources and the need to conserve them”. (Council of Europe, 1983, p.14). Only a few years later, during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the environmental dimension of development was brought forward and the objectives of conservation and natural management have become the basis of sustainability. The ESDP incorporates the open space subsystem as an essential component of the territorial model and devotes four strategies and 20 Policy Options to it. The open space subsystem is an identified land category according to the Spanish legislation (Ley de Suelo, 9/2001): “suelo rústico no urbanizable” (nonbuilt-up rustic land). This category is comprised of protected natural areas but also agricultural land uses and any other non-built-up areas. Hence, it promotes the protection and enhancement of biodiversity and habitats outside protected natural areas, the prevention and mitigation of natural hazards, as well as the management, and enhancement of the landscape (Montiel Molina, 2010). In an open space subsystem, this non-built-up land is often put into the “suelo rustico no urbanizable de protección” (rural land protected from building) category which is used in regional spatial planning, so as to give it some form of legal protection. This category has various subcategories used for the purpose of protection, such as: landscape, heritage and forestry, amongst others (Ley de Suelo 9/2001 Art.13 and 16). When adopting a systemic perspective, spatial planning draws attention to the contributions of landscape ecology. Concepts such as the environmental matrix and ecological connectivity are assimilated into the conservation laws (Ley

42/2007). These contributions definitely improve planning reductionism, which has resulted in disconnected protected areas. Spatial planning must define these components at a subregional scale so as to improve the territorial configuration and thus ensure the preservation of the environmental matrix and its underlying ecological processes. This does not mean a change in areas already under protection, but during the zoning stage “rural land protected from building” can be declared in specific places that ensure territorial and ecological cohesion of the open space network system.

Strategic Spatial Planning Methodology The two key concepts that must be covered at the various stages of the planning process are “territorial order” and “territorial model”. It is of major importance to understand and survey the entire area so as to identify regional imbalances (territorial order) and create a territorial scenario to correct them (territorial model) (Zoido Naranjo cited by Montiel Molina, 2010). The exercise of spatial planning is structured around three successive phases (Gómez Orea, 1993): i. Territorial analysis: study of the structure and functioning of a territorial system through territorial order. This phase will proceed to identify the most significant territorial units. ii. Territorial diagnosis: interpretation of the structure and functioning of the territorial order geared towards identifying problems and collecting all elements that can support a model of sustainable development for the future. At this stage a SWOT analysis is applied. iii. Strategic Framework: Proposal of a future territorial model with a zoning cartography and how to reach it by the designation of strategies and measures.

Spatial planning for the Manzanares-Soto-Miraflores-Guadalix open space subsystem As evidenced above, there is a deficit in spatial planning in the Madrid region due to the growing, sprawling and arbitrary urbanisation which is supported by the government. Although the metropolitan area of Madrid justifiably needs its own sub-regional plan, this falls outside of the scope of this article. The development of sub-regional plans is justified in order to preserve the environmental values of the Sierra and its surroundings.

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Manzanares del Real, Soto del Real, Miraflores de la Sierra, and Guadalix de la Sierra, shown in Figure 1 were chosen as study areas because they provide the necessary administrative boundaries for supra-local management.

La Pedriza: landmark of the Sierra environmental values. The Northwestern sector of the study area is the richest in environmental value. Reaching a height of up to 2428m, the Chain of Cuerda Larga defines the Northern boundary of the area. The Cuerda Larga is part of the middle Sierra de Guadarrama which belongs to the Central System of the Iberian Peninsula. This area includes the Pedriza which, covering 3200ha, is one of the largest granite reliefs of Europe. Since the late nineteenth century, when the “turn to nature” was en vogue throughout Europe, alpinists of the Institución Libre de Enseñanza highlighted the Pedriza’s natural value. Professors of the Institución, such as Francisco Giner de los Ríos and Bernaldo de Quirós, contributed to the scientific knowledge of the Sierra and especially the Pedriza. In fact, the first refuge in the region was built in 1920 by the Real Sociedad de Peñalara. Thanks to the alpinists and scientists, who had recognised the environmental and cultural values of the Sierra, the Pedriza was placed under protection in 1930, along with other enclaves of the Sierra de Guadarrama, such as the glaciar cirque of Peñalara, 2000m. In 1985, 50 years later, the Regional Park of the Cuenca Alta del Manzanares including the Pedriza was created (Martínez de Pisón, 2009). The Pedriza is the area with the highest concentration of visitors in the park (Consejería de Medioambiente y Desarrollo Regional, 1997). The ecological importance of the Sierra lies in having unique fauna and flora, undergoing active modelling processes, and being the water source for the city. Geomorphologically, the massif is considered as an archetypal example of a granite relief (see Figure 2) and has been the subject of a number of studies and publications (Consejería de Medioambiente y De rollo Regional, 1997). In addition, the Regional Park is protected from a regional perspective, along with the Southeast Regional Park of Ma-

drid (lower courses of Jarama and Manzanares rivers), and El Monte el Pardo at the Northwest boundary of Madrid’s municipality. The Regional Park is a fundamental piece of the CAM environmental axis which stretches from the Northwest to the Southeast: a diagonal corridor of high ecological and heritage value.

Open space subsystem Analysis and diagnosis The study area can be easily deFigure 2: La Pedriza Source: Author’s own scribed by two main relief units: the Central System Sierras and the San Pedro, stream valley (east), and the Tajo river basin. The municipalities of hill of Monte Cabeza Illescas (southwest). Manzanares, Soto, Miraflores and GuaWater, as a crucial factor for the definidalix occupy the Central System Sierras, tion and assessment of landscape in a the southern slope of the mountain as Mediterranean climate, has served to shown in Figure 3. The area occupies differentiate the Valdesaelices stream nearly 300 km2 and is located at the valley , but also the Guadalix and Mirastart of the piedmont ramp that connects flores valleys (northeast). Due to their the peaks to the sedimentary basin of uniqueness, the reservoirs Pedrezuela the River Tajo. However, these two relief and Manzanares (east and west respecunits do not contain enough informatively), are yet another unit –. The oak tion to accomplish a spatial planning and ash woodland dehesas (north and exercise. east), are very characteristic landscapes of the entire Community area and are Landscape is a key concept in spatial therefore considered as an individualised planning driven by the EU since the type. Dehesas are a form of sustainable European Landscape Convention was cultivation with low energy demand and signed in Florence in 2000. The Convennutrient inputs and represent tradition urges to integrate landscape into tional agriculture based on a thorough spatial planning policies and identify understanding of the Mediterranean ecoand qualify them (Council of Europe, system dynamics. In this sense, dehesas 2000). Landscape is regarded as a culhold important natural, aesthetic, cultural and environmental expression, as tural and productive values. (Consejería a factor of quality of life, as heritage, and de Medioambiente y Desarrollo Regional, as an economic resource. Supra-local 1997) and are therefore the best example planning instruments are responsible of a cultural landscape in the area, along for establishing the landscape units to with the small areas of dry land crops identify valuable landscapes worthy of (fields and fenced fields) (Gómez Mendoprotection. za, 1999). Concerning the Central System Sierras four types of landscape can be In order to establish the landscape units, distinguished: Cuerda Larga summits, environmental units and a settlement conifer slopes, hardwood slopes, and the map were superimposed. Units were unique Pedriza. The principal species drawn by overlapping several layers with found in the area are Faxinus angustfoGIS. For illustrative purposes the pairs of lia (Narrow-leafed Ash), and Quercus ilex overlapping layers and/or maps used are (Mediterranean Oak). shown in Figure 4 (bottom-up reading). During the landscape evaluation we took Considering the landscape units estabthe evaluation methodology used by lished at the regional scale by Josefina the Bureau of Land Managment of the Gómez Mendoza (1999) and considering U.S. Interior Department into account visual criteria, 12 landscape units were (De Marcos, 2009). The most valuable obtained (see Figure 5). landscape types are associated with the most outstanding natural features, as well as, with little human impact. This The Manzanares-Soto-Miraflores-Guais because the criteria used by the BLM dalix landscape is framed in two large benefit the "natural" landscapes and do units of the CAM: the northern Sierra not take cultural dimensions into acand the piedmont plain. The flatness of count. In the evaluation the results were the surface of the ramp is interrupted by qualitatively rectified so as to include foothills, most notably by the Cerro de

Figure 3: View of the study area from Cerro de San Pedro

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Source: Author’s own

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Figure 5: Landscape units the cultural criteria of interest. Units like the Pedriza, the hills, the valleys, the dehesas and the fenced fields appeared to have significant value. However, the scale, size and consistency of environmental units are most suitable for land use regulation. The 22 environmental units were established on the basis of following variables: biotic and abiotic elements, buildings or infrastructure, legal protection, if existing, and evolutionary dynamics. They were evaluated in terms of their landscape values so as to identify target units for protection (see Figure 6) and were assigned the category “rural land protected from building”. This category comprised: the oak woodland dehesas next to Valdesaelices valley, the Valdesaelices valley itself, the oak woodland in Cerro de San Pedro and fields and fenced fields.

Settlement subsystems having direct impact in open space subsystem The location of the study area in the capital’s metropolitan edge and the environmental corridor NW-SE determines a strong demand for the space. The area is assumed to be: Valuable space for its natural environment and landscape in the Madrid regional context that attracts many leisure activities.

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Source: Authors’own.

Important space for secondary homes, with the highest proportion (65%) found in the Miraflores de la Sierra municipality. Moreover, since 1990 the resident population has been increasing slowly but steadily and in many cases the secondary homes have been converted to permanent residences. Growing space of permanent residence determined by the emergence of new dynamic centres in the Northwest of the metropolitan area. In recent decades there has been an internal redistribution in favour of Soto del Real, with a growth rate of over 370% from 1986 to 2008 (period of maximum growth for this metropolitan edge area). Los Rancajales is a good example of isolated housing (see again Figure 3).

The state of the environment within the integrated diagnosis Finally, in order to identify major problems and thus be able to address them with effective strategies, a generic, integrated SWOT analysis was conducted to make a state of the environment diagnosis. The analysis took into consideration open space, settlements and infrastructure subsystems. Of specific importance to the study are the strengths and threats of the area which were then translated into the strategy development.

It was noted that the natural environment is the subsystem with major strengths: • It is a source of natural (ecological) and cultural heritage (existence of indigenous livestock breeds, dehesas landscape...). • It includes forests with protective functions. • Its protection confirms its values on a larger scale (over 50% of the area). • Consolidated activities linked to rural tourism and hiking. However, it has to face major threats: • Urban speculation after the conversion of rural areas into areas suitable for building • Transition areas that work as corridors between urban and natural protected areas are being threatened by speculation and destroyed. • Loss of traditional agricultural activities is leading to landscape degradation These issues were the main elements which guided the "Protection and development of the natural and cultural heritage" strategy concerning environmental issues.

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Spatial Planning towards the Protection and Development of the Natural and Cultural Heritage For the purpose of ensuring consistency in this sensitive area we suggest four objectives. The first objective has a direct zoning implication whereas the three others are expressed in managerial terms. Objective 1: Preservation of a territorial natural matrix Measure: To implement a system of ecological connectivity run with a patch/ corridor/matrix model. In accordance with the ESPD and Natura 2000 objectives, we suggest the implementation of an ecological network that would: • preserve the pre-park area, • connect with isolated pieces of natural protected areas such as public domain inside the area (paths, rivers…), • connect to the environmental axis of the CAM, • harmonise the EU network of protected areas to the regional spatial planning policy. Carl Troll established the discipline of landscape ecology and suggested the Patch-corridor-matrix as the main methodology underpinning ecological networks. This model has three components: Patches, Corridors and Matrixes (Clark, 2006). Furthermore, as “an optimum landscape has large patches of natural vegetation, supplemented with small patches scattered throughout the matrix” (Forman, 1995, p.136), we chose small patches that are connected to the large patch represented by the natural protected space and corridors interconnecting these units. Patches were chosen so as to preserve a variety of different landscapes and lose their island appearance by interlinking them with other areas. The territorial model suggested for this open space subsystem is depicted in Figure 7. The units chosen for protection under the “rural land protected from building” category are: • Valdesaelices stream valley for its limestone nature which gives rise to exceptional soil, vegetation and landscape in an otherwise granite dominated area. It will be considered as a linear patch, thus, a corridor. • The oak woodland dehesas (next to Valdesaelices and in Cerro de San Pedro), since it is a valuable ecosystem considered as natural heritage whose landscape features the risk of abandonment • The fields will be protected but the European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

activity in the northeast fields will be ensured. These units are designated to be connected with the already protected patches and corridors: • The Regional Park represents the biggest patch in the area. It has its own zoning cartography established by its policy instrument (PORN) and which this paper’s zoning cartography proposal does not modify. • Reservoirs will also be considered as patches. They are already protected as wetland ecosystems (Resolución de 10 de Junio de 2006 por la Secretaría General para el Territorio y la Biodiversidad). • Roads where sheep herders drove their flocks are protected in Spain, as in Britain (Ley 8/1998). • Rivers are protected natural corridors. Finally, fenced fields will be protected to ensure the landscape values of the Regional Park surroundings.

Measures: Create an agricultural school in Miraflores. One of its objectives will be to show landscape construction using agricultural and traditional practices which are now in decline. Host activities that are carried out at the hostel Giner (The Pedriza) by implementing a classroom that will deal with geology, wildlife and geomorphology aspects in situ. Promote a restoration and rehabilitation programme for both urban and rural architectural heritage within the Restoration School of Manzanares Objetive 4: Development of a sustainable tourism. The concept of "sustainable tourism" is defined as an economic activity that generates income, but at the same time enhances the environmental and cultural values of the area.

The zoning cartography proposed is divided into three protection figures. Each one including the above mentioned units as follows:

Measure: Base the development of tourism in the area on rehabilitation, restoration, and enhancement of the existing heritage resources whose use is minimal or non-existent. Thus, tourism will not be a new urban land consuming activity.

• Natural protected areas which is officially protected land.

Conclusion

• Regional Park • Reservoirs • Vías Pecuarias • Rivers • Rural land protected from building, be • cause it has a high natural and ecological connectivity value. • Valdesaelices river • Oak woodland dehesas • Rural land protected from building, due to agricultural value. • Fields • Rural land protected from building due to landscape value. • Fenced fields Objective 2: Encourage the protection of cultural heritage Measure: To create a catalogue of historical and cultural heritage resources found in the study area in order to protect and rationally manage those not already preserved. Objective 3: To raise awareness of the value of resources and the landscape to the local population and visitors.

Although the ESDP has been a step forward in spatial planning at the European level, there are still countries such as Spain, where the development of spatial planning is very uneven across regions. The CAM has not yet defined its main spatial planning instrument, the Regional Plan and this means that it does not have a strategic framework for territorial development. Hence, sectoral policies and interests prevail over spatial planning. The case of the CAM is exemplary of how spatial planning is not yet a priority. At this particular point of political impasse, the oldest instruments of natural protection are the only ones that address regional imbalances in the CAM and do not protect against widespread, irrational resource use. The current strategy is reactive rather than taking a proactive approach of land resource rationalisation with an integrated view of regional development. The metropolitan periphery must face new challenges: not only as a defensive belt of the Sierra to the growing sprawling of the city, but also as a true territorial project. This requires strengthening the territorial governance in Madrid so as to include public participation where all sectoral interests with a territorial impact are represented, as well as joint preparation of the main supra-local instruments of public action. This is an ambitious project of a territory that should institutionalise two separate, managed and structured entities: that

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Figure 4: Units: overlapping methodology in GIS. Source: Author’s own

Figure 1: Manzanares-Soto-Miraflores-Guadalix study area Source: Authors’ own

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Figure 6: Environmental units Source: Authors’ own.

Figure 7: Open space subsystem mode

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Source: Authors’ own.

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of the metropolitan area and that of the metropolitan edge. Furthermore, this exercise of the practical application of concepts and methods from geography has resulted in a profound reflection on the delimitation of space. The area of study is required to balance delicately between being large enough to be defined as a complementary territory whilst being small enough to be considered as a homogenous area. However the area needs to be further broken down into more manageable parts. The use of quantitative and qualitative methods enables us to adopt the final “workable” units. A limitation of the qualitative methods utilised is the lack of public participation in the planning exercise presented. This undermines its feasibility, even if the supporting legal framework is exceedingly thorough. Therefore, the exercise presented is not practical as it is developed within top-down policies and ignores the role of key actors or stakeholders and their agreement upon a strategic plan, which is essential for the definition and implementation of a project of this scale. Nevertheless, spatial planning presents an opportunity for geographers to apply their knowledge and valuable tools for the integration and coordination of technical information, as well as to contribute to a multidisciplinary scientific project of major impact on population and environment.

Acknowledgements This article is based on the results of the 5th year Final Project developed during the academic year 2009/2010 entitled “Plan subregional de Ordenación del Territorio. Ámbito territorial Manzanares-Soto-Miraflores-Guadalix” by Yubero Bernabé, C., Martín Fernández, A., Camarena Barcenilla and M., Solís Valiente M.J. For further information please contact the author at claudiayubero@ucm.es. I sincerely and warmly thank Alexandra Martín Fernández, María Jesús Solís Valiente, Marta Camarena and Pablo Yubero Bernabé for all their input and support.

References Benabent Fernández, M., 2006. La ordenación del territorio en España. Sevilla: Universidad de Sevilla. Clark, W., 2010. Principles of Landscape Ecology. Nature Education Knowledge, 3(10):34. [online] Available at 00 [Accessed 15 March 2013] Banco de datos municipales Almudena. Statistical Institute of Comunidad de Madrid. Available at: http://www.madrid. org/desvan/Inicio.icm?enlace=almudena [Accessed 10 January 2010] Censo de Población y Vivienda de 2001. National Statistical Institute . Available at: http://www.ine.es [Accessed 10 January 2010]

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Consejería de Medioambiente y Desarrollo Regional, 1997. Plan Rector de Uso y Gestión del Parque Regional de la Cuenca Alta del Manzanares. Comunidad de Madrid. [online] Available at http:// www.madrid.org/cs/Satellite?blobcol=urldata&blobheader=application/ pdf&blobheadername1=Content-Disposi tion&blobheadervalue1=filename%3Dm gr_cit_13710_prcam_prug.pdf&blobkey=id&blobtable=MungoBlobs&blobwhere=1310982573189&ssbinary=true [Accessed 01 March 2013]

Valenzuela Rubio, M., 2010 La planificación territorial de la región metropolitana de Madrid. Una asignatura pendiente. Cuadernos Geográficos, Vol 47 n2, p 95-129 Zoido Naranjo, F., 1998. Geografía y ordenación del territorio Íber, Didáctica de las ciencias sociales. Geografía e Historia, Barcelona: nº 16, Nuevas fronteras de los contenidos geográficos, p. 19-31. Spanish Legislation References

Council of Europe, 2000. European Landscape Convention. [online] Available at http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/176.htm [Accessed 17 February 2013]

Comunidad de Madrid Ley de Ordenación del Territorio 10/1984 de 30 de mayo, de Ordenación Territorial de la Comunidad de Madrid. B.O.C.M. nº 143 de 16 de Junio de 1984. Alcobendas: Imprenta de la Comunidad de Madrid, p1-8.

Council of Europe, 1983. European regional/spatial planning Charter. [online] Available at http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/ cultureheritage/heritage/cemat/versioncharte/default_EN.asp [Accessed 17 February 2013]

Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid Ley 9/1995, de 28 de marzo, de medidas de política territorial, suelo y urbanismo. B.O.C.M. nº86 de 11 de Abril de 1995. Alcobendas: Imprenta de la Comunidad de Madrid, p4-35.

De Marcos García, F.J, 2009. 106208.231 Geografía Física Aplicada. Universidad Complutense de Madrid, unpublished.

Comunidad de Madrid Ley 8/1998, de 15 de julio, de Vías Pecuarias de la Comunidad de Madrid. B.O.C.M. nº147 de 23 de Junio de 1998. Alcobendas: Imprenta de la Comunidad de Madrid. p.3-15.

Esparcia Pérez J. y Escribano Pizarro J. 2012. La dimensión territorial en la programación comunitaria y el nuevo marco de políticas públicas: desarrollo rural territorial reforma de la PAC y nuevo LEADER. Anales de Geografía, vol. 32, n2, p.227-252 European Commission, 1999. Estrategia Espacial Europea: Hacia un desarrollo equilibrado y sostenible del territorio de la UE. [online] Available at http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docoffic/official/reports/pdf/sum_es.pdf [Accessed 17 February 2013] Folch, R., 2004. El territorio como sistema: conceptos y herramientas de ordenación. Barcelona: Diputación de Barcelona. Forman, R., 1995. Some general principles of landscape ecology. Landscape ecology, vol.10:3, p133-143. Fundicot, 1997. Bases del Plan Regional de Estrategia Territorial de la Comunidad de Madrid: Análisis y valoración. [pdf] Available at http://territoriales. files.wordpress.com/2010/07/fundicot-analiza-bases-pret.pdf [Accessed 01 January 2009]. Gómez Mendoza, J., (1999). Los paisajes de Madrid: naturaleza y medio rural. Madrid: Alianza.

Comunidad de Madrid, Decreto 96/2009, de 18 de noviembre, del Consejo de Gobierno, por el que se aprueba la ordenación de los recursos naturales de la Sierra de Guadarrama en el ámbito territorial de la Comunidad de Madrid. B.O.C.M. nº 11 de Jueves 14 de Enero de 2010. Alcobendas: Imprenta de la Comunidad de Madrid, p4-p131. Comunidad de Madrid Ley 9/2001, de 17 de julio, del Suelo de la Comunidad de Madrid. B.O.C.M. nº 177 de 27 de Julio de 2001. Alcobendas: Imprenta de la Comunidad de Madrid, p.5-66. Gobierno de España Ley 6/1998 sobre régimen del suelo y valoraciones. B.O.E. nº89 de 14 de abril de 1998. Madrid, p12296-12304. Gobierno de España Ley 42/200, de 13 de diciembre, del Patrimonio Natural y de la Biodiversidad. B.O.E. nº299 de 14 de Diciembre de 2007. Madrid, p51275-51327. Ministerio de Medioambiente Resolución de 10 de Junio de 2006 de la Secretaría General para el Territorio y la Biodiversidad, por la que se declaran las Zonas Sensibles en las Cuencas Hidrográficas Intercomunitarias. B.O.E. nº179 de 28 de Julio de 2006. Madrid, p28467-28474.

Gómez Orea, D., 1993. Análisis y diagnóstico del sistema territorial. Cuadernos de Aguilar. [pdf] Available at: http:// dl.dip-caceres.es/ [Accessed 01 January 2009]. Martínez de Pisón, E., 2009. Un plan de ordenación para la sierra de Guadarrama. Boletín de la AGE, 51, p.65-92. Mata Olmo, R., 2008. El paisaje, patrimonio y recurso para el desarrollo territorial sostenible. Conocimiento y acción pública. ARBOR Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura, CLXXXIV 729, p.155-172. Montiel Molina, M.C., 2010. 106212.235 Ordenación del Territorio. Universidad Complutense de Madrid, unpublished.

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

Implications of changing climate on Zugspitze glaciers in southern Germany Thomas Kaiser EGEA Munich, Technische Universität München

Keywords: Glacier retreat, climate change, temperature increase

Abstract As the debate on global warming frequently refers to the importance of glaciers as climate indicators or water storage, this paper reviews glaciers in Germany based on the example of those around Zugspitze area in the region of Garmisch-Partenkirchen in southern Germany. The evolution of glacier surface area, and the change in average glacier surface height, will be connected to temperature as a key variable for the change of regional climatic conditions that is measured by the German meteorological service at the Zugspitze weather station. In addition, the influence of the NAO Index variability, and changes in temperature extremes, are reflected upon in this regard.

Introduction Considering the variety of parameters used in monitoring and projecting of climatic conditions, air temperature is the nearest to our perception of 'climate' (EEA, 2008, p.42).The average global temperature in the last 100 years has increased by 0.7 ± 0.2°C (IPCC, 2007a, p.30). Temperatures in Europe from 1901 to 2005 have risen above average (1.0°C) (EEA, 2008, p.42) with highest trends observed in central and north-eastern Europe and in the mountains (EEA, 2009, p.22). Thus, the greater alpine region reveals a 20th century temperature increase of 1.2°C (Auer et al., 2007, p.3). The most evident effect of this accelerated warming in high mountain environments is the decline and retreat of glaciers (Hagg et al., 2012, p.121). The debate on global warming thus frequently refers to the importance of

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glaciers as key indicators of climate change. 5,150 glaciers in the Alps currently cover around 2,900 km², representing a share of approximately 1.5% of the total alpine area (EEA, 2009, p.31). Alpine glacier research is generally focused on relatively large glaciers (e.g. Aletschgletscher, Unteraargletscher, Morteratschgletscher, Hintereisferner, Vernagtferner). However, small glaciers with an extent of less than 1 km², representing around 90% of all alpine glaciers, respond much more quickly to climate change, and represent moreover a significant portion of the alpine ice reserves (Hagg, 2006, p.24). The strength of the reaction can be explained by their low vertical extension, often being entirely above or below the climatic snowline, and therefore show significant mass gains or losses (Hagg, 2006, p.25). Also small glaciers show faster mass conversions than large ones. If more ice is transported downwards from higher altitudes the glacier tongue reacts with an advancement, and a retreat in the opposite situation (Weber, 2003, p.1). The reaction time to climatic signals can be many years for large alpine glaciers, thus, even neighbouring glaciers of different sizes can show contrary behaviour. This emphasizes the advantages of the observation of small mountain glaciers that respond rapidly and synchronously to climate change (Hagg, 2006, p.25). Glaciers are recognised as key indicators for climate change, because their mass changes represent the direct and unfiltered response to changes in the local climate (Hagg et al., 2012, p.122). In south-eastern Germany there are still five prime examples of small glaciers with individual conditions of existence (Figure 1). These are Höllentalferner, Nördlicher Schneeferner, and Südlicher Schneeferner in the Wettersteingebirge just below Zugspitze peak (2,962m a.s.l.), and Watzmanngletscher and Blaueis, which are located in the Berchtesgaden Alps (Hagg et al., 2012, p.122). Thus the question arises how and to what extent are changing temperature conditions affecting the glacier surface extent and the glacier surface height of the small glaciers at Zugspitze? The Zugspitze glaciers are the northernmost glaciers in the Alps reaching down to an altitude of 2,203 m a.s.l., while the glaciers of the central Alps reach up to well over 3,000 m a.s.l.. It is

only due to the generally large frequency of precipitation in the northern alpine region that glaciers can still exist here (Fritschle, 2006, p.18).The Bavarian glaciers are especially useful for the purpose of long-term monitoring because they have been measured, at irregular intervals, since 1889 (Hagg, 2006, p.24).

Background on surveying The first theodolite measurements were carried out from 1885-1887, in the Berchtesgaden Alps, resulting in a 1:50,000 map (Hagg et al., 2012, p.122). In the Wettersteingebirge, the earliest useable map was created by Sebastian Finsterwalder in 1892 (Finsterwalder, 1896), a pioneer in the surveying of the glaciers and a member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences, who was commissioned by the Royal Bavarian topographical bureau (Hagg, 2006, p.26). The map covering Nördlicher and Südlicher Schneeferner at the scale 1:5,000 was also surveyed by photogrammetry. The glacier extent during the first half of the 20th century, however, is only documented by some photographs (see www.bayerischegletscher.de). A new survey in 1949 (Finsterwalder, 1951) covered all glaciers except for Watzmanngletscher from this first inventory. From the 1960s onwards, the glaciers were surveyed regularly and at least once per decade by the Commission for Glaciology (KfG) of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities in collaboration with the Institute for Photogrammetry and Cartography (IPK) of the Technical University in Munich (Hagg et al., 2012, p.123). Thus, there is an excellent data base for the Bavarian glaciers, which makes it possible to investigate the variability of small alpine glaciers in detail (Mayer, 2012, p33). Based on these repeated surveys, changes in glacier area, volume and thickness have been published for the period 1892-2007 (Finsterwalder and Rentsch, 1973; Finsterwalder, 1993; Hagg et al., 2008; www.bayerischegletscher.de). Zugspitze weather station (2,962 m a.s.l.) provides a very valuable and rare high altitude dataset, measured at a distance of 0.5-2.4 km from the three glaciers. It is operated by the German Meteorological Service (DWD) and has been running continuously since 1901 (Hagg et al., 2012, p.124).

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Delineation of Zugspitze Glaciers After the completion of the last survey period in 2007 and 2009 by the Commission for Geodesy and Glaciology of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences the areas and volumes for Bavarian glaciers were as follows in Table 1: In terms of size Nördlicher Schneeferner and Höllentalferner (Figure 2) are by far the largest glaciers in Bavaria. However, Nördlicher Schneeferner includes – despite comparable surface area (ha) – almost twice as much ice as the Höllentalferner.

The predominantly negative mass balance of alpine glaciers in the last 25 years is one of the clearest signals that the temperature at the surface has increased significantly (Seitz and Foppa, 2007, p.54). In recent years alpine glaciers have lost 20-30% of their remaining ice (EEA, 2009, p.69). Figure 4 shows the trend of decrease of the glacier surface extent on the glaciers at Zugspitze from 1949 to 2010. Due to the fact that they formed a

continuous melting of the Nördlicher Schneeferner. Höllentalferner receives more accumulation than Nördlicher Schneeferner due to its location and its north-eastern orientation. Because of this situation, and further considering current temperature trends, Höllentalferner will probably remain the last of the glaciers in Germany. During this timeline there was only a brief period around 1980 in which the glaciers registered a slight advance in

Being on the east side of, and only visible from the summit of Zugspitze, Höllentalferner is a cirque glacier. It owes its existence to its location in the narrow, steep Höllental-basin, where it receives additional mass gain through avalanches and is largely protected from direct sunlight (Weber, 2003, p.3). The sheltered location and the high frequency of precipitation contribute to the fact that at the end of 2013 the second largest glacier located in the Bavarian Alps – about 300 m lower than Nördlicher Schneeferner – still exists (Figure 2). The Höllentalferner is the only glacier that still has a real glacier tongue and snow gain in the upper area (StMUG, 2012, p.18). Nördlicher Schneeferner (Figure 2) and Südlicher Schneeferner are the remnants of a former 300-hectar glacier (Plattachferner) that covered large parts of the Zugspitzplatt – a karst plateau located at the side of the Schneefernerkopf (Weber, 2003, p.3). Nördlicher Schneeferner (Figure 3), as a plateau type glacier, is the largest and highestlying glacier in Bavaria. Formed after the separation of the eastern part of the Plattachferner it now occupies a cirque basin below Schneefernerkopf. Due to its location, east of the ridge between Zugspitze and Schneefernerkopf, it receives high rainfalls, which were the original cause of the formation of the glacier. In contrast to all other glaciers, it has a distinctive tongue and a relatively stable accumulation area (StMUG, 2012, p.16). Figure 3: The second plateau type glacier, Südlicher Schneeferner, was the largest glacier in Bavaria shortly after the collapse of the Plattachferner. Since the topography of the surface is not as favourable as that of Nördlicher Schneeferner (i.e. no pronounced basin position), it presents with much less ice thickness (Weber, 2003, p.3).

Results Glacier surface extent 3 24

Figure 1: Location of the galcier peaks (from west to east: Zugspitze, Watzmann, Hochkalter) in the Bavarian Alps Sources: Esri, DeLorme, NAVTEQ, TomTom, Intermap, increment P Corp., GEBCO, USGS, FAO, NPS, NRCAN, GeoBase, IGN, Kadaster NL, Ordnance Survey, Esri Japan, METI, Esri China (Hong Kong), swisstopo, and the GIS User Community, 2013.

plateau type glacier with little vertical extent during the little ice age, the glaciers Nördlicher and Südlicher Schneeferner have experienced the strongest areal retreat, thus being strongly affected by the rise of the equilibrium line (Hagg et al., 2012, p.129). Today, the area of both sub-areas together have shrunk to only 45-50 hectares; that is therefore less than 20% of the original size (Weber, 2003, p.3). Südlicher Schneeferner is especially susceptible to a complete meltdown as in recent years no more left over snow was observed at the end of the summer period. It has lost much of its surface in the last five years, and there are no more existing zones in which winter snow endures over summer (StMUG, 2012, p.15). Therefore, it is also expected that this glacier will melt down in the next 10 to 15 years with little, if any, enduring ice (StMUG, 2012, p.25). The Nördlicher Schneeferner and Höllentalferner glaciers demonstrate better conditions for a longer endurance, which is partly due to the much larger ice volume of the glaciers as well as to their location. However, the relatively open exposure towards the east favours

Bavaria and also in the rest of the Alps (Mayer, 2012, p.34). In order to elaborate the evolution of glacier surface area a closer look will be given to near ground temperatures. Long-term trend analyses can be performed with available time series at the Zugspitze peak which go back to the early 20th century. The variation in annual average temperature from 1901 until 2011 at the Zugspitze weather station from the long-term average (1961-1990) serves as an example of increasing temperatures (Figure 5). The red line showing a ten-year running mean depicts wellknown features of sub-recent climate history. In most recent periods, specifically since 1980, temperature increase is emphasised, showing an average difference of +1.0°C in the area of the Zugspitze station. However, the general warming trend was interrupted in the 1960s-1970s where glacier advances were reported throughout the Alps (Hagg et al. 2012, 127). As annual mean temperatures are convenient for representing long-term variations they are less eligible for

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

Table 1: Surface area of glaciers at Zugspitze peak (2010) Source: StMUG, 2012, 15 / Hagg et al., 2012, p.131 stating the positive performance of glacier surface areas around 1980. The temperatures at Zugspitze exhibit a short period of cooling of around 0.8°C in the years 1950-1975, predominantly during the summer months from April to September (Figure 6). This led to a commonly observed glacier advance in the Alps around 1980. After 1975, however, even the average air temperatures in summer show increased heating (StMUG, 2012, p.10). The linear regression shows the decadal average warming of summer temperatures of 0.09°C (y = 0.009x-19.22) and 0.07°C (y = 0.007-23.71) at winter temperatures. On closer examination, during the more recent period 1980-2011 trend analyses result in summer temperatures rising around 0.47°C (0.047x1.09) per decade and winter temperatures 0.18°C (y = 0.019-8.57) for the same timeframe, showing a significantly stronger warming.

Weather patterns The temperature increase in the winter months also matches with the growing frequency of altered weather patterns (EEA, 2008, p.39). Atmos-

pheric circulation is an important driver of the temporal and regional climatic variances. Of importance to the European climate is the prevailing western circulation at mid latitudes that directs the oceanic air masses inland over the continent. Stronger western advection brings milder and wetter weather and stronger winds, especially in winter (IPCC 2007b). Weaker and blocked western circulation generally causes colder and drier winters and hotter and drier summers. Fluctuations in the behaviour of this circulation pattern are one of the main sources of variability in the European climate. The intensity of the western circulation in the European region is expressed by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index (Figure 7). NAO is the large-scale fluctuation in atmospheric pressure in the Atlantic Ocean between the high-pressure system near the Azores and the low pressure system near Iceland and is characterised by seasonal, inter‑annual and inter‑decadal variations (Hurrel and Deser, 2009, p.29). The NAO appears to have been considerably more variable from year to year in the late 18th and early

19th centuries than in the 20th century. More recently, there was a large increase in the NAO index, between 1970 and 1990, followed by a decrease back to previous averages from 2005 (EEA, 2008, p.39). In summer, Hurrell et al. (2001, 2002) identified significant inter-annual to multi-decadal fluctuations in the NAO pattern, and the trend towards persistent anticyclonic flow over northern Europe, which have contributed to anomalously warm and dry conditions in recent decades (IPCC, 2007b).

Temperature extremes For a comprehensive elaboration of the influence of temperature changes on glacier melt, a closer look not only at

Figure 3: Nördlicher Schneeferner west of Zugspitze Peak below Schneefernerkopf; Photograph taken in August 2013, courtesy of Tobias Michl changes in average temperature values but also on the development of temperature extremes is required (Figure 8). Besides the increase in warmer days, a decrease of cold and frost extremes is predicted (EEA, 2008, p.47). A decrease in cold days in upland areas is visible here at the Zugspitze. Besides the decreasing number of ice days, a clear increase concerning frost-free days; days with a minimum temperature above 0°C, is also detectable at the station. Evidently, the absolute maximum of the measurement series can be seen in the exceptionally hot summer of 2003. The linear trend of regression over the entire time series illustrates an increase of 2.02 (y=0.202x-336.7) frost-free days per decade. However, in the period 1980-2011 there is an observed significant (p = 0.007) trend increase (y = 0.707x-1343.4) with 7.07 days per decade, showing the increase of warmth and thus the rise of the equilibrium line explaining the further meltdown of glaciers.

Average glacier surface height Figure 2: Close-up view of location of the glaciers around Zugspitze peak. Source: based on www.openstreetmap.org

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

The response of glaciers to changing climatic conditions does not simply manifest in the change in the extent of surface area, but also in the thickness

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ing protection against sunlight and in addition supplying avalanche snow, Höllentalferner, will most likely be the last remaining glacier in Bavaria. The question of representativeness always arises when analysing few cases. The greater alpine region reveals a 20th century temperature increase which is very close to the value measured at Zugspitze weather station. Further, the review focuses on linking air temperature as a key variable and loss of glacier surface extent as well as loss of glacier surface height, which is not likely to fully explain the on-going changes. However, other factors such as precipitation are not considered due to the fact that a study conducted by Hagg et al. (2012) does not identify significant trends in precipitation patterns in the Zugspitze area. Figure 4: Evolution of the glacier surface from 1949 to 2010 in the GarmischPartenkirchen Region Source: based on data from Gesellschaft für okölogische Folgen e.V., 2012 of the ice body i.e. in changes of the average surface height (Figure 9). When gaining mass, the height increases, while it decreases with a decrease in mass. At higher average summer temperatures this results in a lower thickness of the ice bodies of all three glaciers in the study area (StMUG, 2012, p.23). Figure 9: All glaciers show a reinforced continuous lowering of their surface during the entire monitoring time in comparison to the 1980s, and illustrate maximum values in the period 19992009 (updated from Hagg et al., 2008, p.37). The cumulated mean losses over the total surface areas since 1949 vary between 17 m and 24 m, whereas the Höllentalferner which is in a sheltered basin shows lower values. The southfacing Nördlicher Schneeferner melted the most (Mayer, 2012, p.34). At Südlicher Schneeferner the mass losses from 1990-2009 were relatively moderate compared to the other glaciers. This can be explained by the area to volume ratio of this glacier. The many hollows and sinks in the rough terrain around the glacier quickly filled with firn reinforcing the area at 53%, but quickly disappeared again in the 1980s. Since 2006, the glacier area has been restricted to the depressions of the upper cirques and both melt rates and areal retreat are again comparable to the other glaciers’ (Hagg et al., 2012, p.134). This is one reason why the determination of the amount of change in height has more meaning in glacier science than the pure observation of surface modification (StMUG, 2012, p.23).

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Discussion and Conclusion The analysis of glacier performance and corresponding meteorological data shows that Bavarian glaciers at the Zugspitze peak are at a critical stage. They could only survive to this day because of their location in predominantly sheltered areas with unusually high accumulation (i.e. precipitation as snow or avalanche entry). All glaciers in Bavaria reported reinforced negative mass balances in the past 30 years. It can therefore be assumed that the melting will further increase according to measured mean temperatures throughout the entire 20th century and the expected future increase thereof, as well as by altered weather patterns. One key finding is that the warming is significantly stronger in more recent periods and can be further attributed to increased summer temperatures that are strongly affecting the glacier collecting basin. Especially the stronger increase during this season contributes highly to the further melting of glaciers as seen in the 1980s as lower summer temperatures caused an advance of glaciers in the Alps. This is supported by the analysis of frost-free days, showing a clear trend towards a reduction in days per year with frost, further affecting melting of glaciers and depicting the increasing frequency of days where the climatic snowline rises to altitudes higher than the vertical glacier extents. At constant climatic evolution, and considering temperature trends, glacier surface area and respectively glacier surface height, these glaciers will almost disappear completely in the near future. Due to its high rock framing, provid-

Thus, if small glaciers continue to shrink, it is a clear sign that the atmosphere is further heating up and the snowline is ascending. The Commission for Glaciology (Weber, 2003, p. 9) states that if this warming continues at the same pace as in the last 20 years, at least the Eastern Alps will be completely free of ice in 70 to 100 years and essentially look like the Zugspitze now. In this respect, the knowledge of the development of temperature trends and its implications on glacier melt in the last decades is of special interest. Solely the hot summer in 2003 resulted in a loss of 10% of the total mass of glaciers in the Alps (EEA, 2009, p.69).

References Finsterwalder, R.; Rentsch, H., 1973. Das Verhalten der bayerischen Gletscher in den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten. Erläuterungen zu den Gletscherstandskarten für die Jahre 1949(50)-19591970(71). Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie,No.9, Heft 1/2, pp.59-72. Finsterwalder, R., 1993. Die Veränderungen der bayerischen Gletscher im letzten Jahrzehnt (1980-1990). Mitt. Geogr. Ges. München, No.77, pp. 5-13. Finsterwalder, R., 1951. Die Gletscher der Bayerischen Alpen. Jahrbuch des Deutschen Alpenvereins 1951, Überbrückungsband der Alpenvereinszeitschrift 1943-1951, pp.60-66. Finsterwalder, S., 1896. Bericht über die Gletscher des Deutschen Reichs 1895. Veröffentlicht von der Commission Internationale des Glaciers. Les Variations périodiques des glaciers, Premiere Rapport 1895/2, pp. 129-147. Arbeitskreis KLIWA - Landesanstalt für Umweltschutz Baden-Württemberg, Bayerisches Landesamt für Wasserwirtschaft, Deutscher Wetterdienst, 2000. Langzeitverhalten der Lufttem-

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peratur in Baden-Württemberg und Bayern. Kliwa-Berichte Heft 5. Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Umwelt und Gesundheit, 2012. Bayerische Gletscher im Klimawandel – Ein Statusbericht. München. European Environmental Organisation, 2008.Impacts of Europe's changing climate – 2008 indicator-based assessment.EEA Report No. 04/2008. European Environmental Organisation, 2009. Regional climate change and adaptation - The alps facing the challenge of changing water resources. EEA Report No. 08/2009. Fritschle, J., 2006. Gletscherrückgänge in den Alpen in jüngerer Zeit. Mainz. [pdf] Available at: <http://www.staff. uni-mainz.de/hjfuchs/Wallis-Homepage/referate/05%20Gletscherrueckgang%20in%20den%20Alpen%20in%20 juengster%20Zeit%20-%20Julia%20 Fritschle.pdf> [Accessed 08 August 2013].

Figure 9: Average glacier surface height in meters of the three glaciers located at Zugspitze peak from 1949-2010 Source: based on data from Gesellschaft für okölogische Folgen e.V., 2012

Gesellschaft für okölogische Folgen e.V., 2012. Das Gletscherarchiv. [online] Available at: <http://www.gletscherarchiv. de/> [Accessed 08 August 2013].

Hurrel, J., Deser, C., 2009. North Atlantic climate variability: The role of the North Atlantic Oscillation. Journal of Marine Systems, 78 (2009), pp.28-41.

Hagg, W., 2006. Gletscherarchiv - Bayerische Gletscher. AKADEMIEAKTUELL, 01/2006, pp.24-28.

IPCC, 2007a.Climate Change 2007: Synthesis report.

Hagg, W., Mayer, C., Steglich, C., 2008. Glacier changes in the Bavarian Alps from 1989/90 to 2006/07. ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR GLETSCHERKUNDE UND GLAZIALGEOLOGIE, 42/1(2008), pp.37-46. Hagg, W., Mayer, C., Mayr, E., Heilig, A., 2012. Climate andglacier fluctuations in the bavarian alps in the past 120 years. Erdkunde, Vol.66. No.2, pp.121-142.

IPCC, 2007b.Climate Change 2007: Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis. [online] Available at: <http://www.ipcc. ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ ch3s3-6-4.html> [Accessed 25 August 2013].

Klima-Beobachtungssystem (GCOS Schweiz). Zürich. Weber, M., 2003. Gletscherschwund und Klimawandel and der Zugspitze und am Vernagtferner (Ötztaler Alpen).[pdf] Available at: <http://www.glaziologie. de/download/InfoGletscher.pdf> [Accessed 26 August 2013].

Mayer, C., 2012. Das „Ewige Eis“ auf dem Rückzug. AKDEMIEAKTUELL, 04/2012, pp.30-33. Seiz, G., Foppa, N., 2007. Nationales

Figure 8: Days with minimum temperature > 0°C at Zugspitze weather station from 1901-2011 Source: based on data from DWD 2012

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Figure 5: Temperature at the Zugspitze weather station from 1901 to 2011 with annual mean deviation from the average of 1961-1990 Source: based on data from DWD 2012

Figure 6: Annual summer and winter temperatures at the Zugspitze weather station from 1901 to 2011 Source: based on data from DWD 2012

Figure 7: Mean winter (Decemberâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;February) NAO Index 1864-2007 Source: based on data from Hurrell, James & National Center for Atmospheric Research Staff (Eds). Last modified 27 June 2013.

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European Geographer 12th issue â&#x20AC;˘ Mountains

Alaska

A very geographical excursion Tobias Michl EGEA Augsburg, University of Augsburg michl.tobias@gmail.com

Keywords: Alaska, Anchorage, Denali, Fairbanks, Valdez, coal, gold, oil, resources

Frankfurt Airport, summer 2010: We boarded our plane to visit the northwestern part of the North American continent. Alaska, the last frontier of the United States, was the destination of our two weeks of excursion. 21 geography students from the University of Augsburg had been preparing this excursion for almost one year. The result of this work was an excursion where students had arranged discussion rounds, seminars, lectures, city tours and many other things, as well as a

hand, people are dependant on nature as the natural resources are exploited to earn a living and to survive. On the other hand, human influences change the environment, as we experienced in many different cases during the excursion. Here we can see that it truly was a geographical excursion: we did not focus only on physical or human geography as both are of equal importance, when we want to understand what happens in the spaces we look at.

We experienced all this on a trip of about 1700 km, starting in Anchorage. As Alaska’s largest city Anchorage has a population of 291,826 - 41.1% of all Alaskans (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). The northernmost tip of our route (Figure 1), Fort Knox Gold Mine, was 42 km north of Fairbanks, the main city of central Alaska, whereas our southernmost point was the city of Seward on the Kenai Peninsula. Most parts of the trip were on the standard touristic routes through Alaska, mainly because

Figure 1: Excursion Route Source: Hilpert and Wörner, 2010, p.10 (translated); cartography by Georg Strob

Figure 2: Photo stop on the windy Richardson Highway Source: Author’s own

these are more or less the only roads that were accessible with the four campers that we lived in during the excursion (Figure 2). Staying on campgrounds every night, we had to take care of our own food supply. This was accomplished by a kitchen team and our provisions officer. In fact, every student was given some special task so as to ensure a smooth, effective and harmonious excursion.

Every day focused on a different field of geography and most activities were related to it then. Our two days in Anchorage were characterised by urban and economic geography. This city is not only the economic centre of a state that covers 17,8% of the United States area, but is also very important for the so-called “lower 48”, the other states of the U.S. (without Hawaii). Despite its remote location compared to the rest of the country, Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport (Figure 3) is the 4th busiest cargo airport in the world (Alaska Department of Transportation & Public Facilities, 2011) and an important hub for the connection between Eastern Asia and North America.

But not all necessary goods are imported via airports and ports. In the valleys of Matanuska and Susitna River, in the area of the small city of Palmer, field crops are farmed for the local, regional

330 page excursion guidebook (Hilpert and Wörner, 2010).

Officially, it was an excursion about social and economic geography. But we also had seminars on rocks, soil geography and glaciers. The interrelatedness of humanity and nature is very visible in Alaska. On the one

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

Figure 3: Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport Source: Author’s own

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and statewide market. The first steps to establish larger forms of agriculture were taken in the 1930s which is also the founding time of Palmer. The “New Deal” by President Roosevelt convinced 201 Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin families to move to Alaska and start producing food to reduce the state’s dependence on imports (Naske and Slotnick, 1987). This is still important today, shown by the fact that the number of farmers markets in Alaska rose by 46% within one year (USDA, 2011) and the brand “Alaska Grown” is visible in most supermarkets.

After three days in civilisation, it was definitely time to leave it behind and go out to experience what you usually think of when you hear “Alaska”: nature and wilderness. Two days of canoeing in the Alaskan bush lay ahead of us (Figure 4). This was the first test of how good our group fitted together, as we were very much dependant on each other when paddling and carrying the canoes between the lakes. Fortunately it worked very well, so much so that there was still enough energy left for the discussion rounds, the fieldwork and the cartography practice we had to accomplish. Despite the fear of bears possibly approaching our camp in the night and the great physical efforts that had to be taken, this trip was still relaxing and very good for the psychology of the group. After this adventure, we went back to exploring the main basis of the Alaskan economy: the use and exploitation of natural resources and tourism. One of the most important destinations for tourists is the well known Denali National Park and Preserve with 400,000 visitors per year (National Park Service, 2011). Not

far from this park, we could explore Usibelli Coal mine, the only coal mine currently operated in Alaska, which provides the fuel for 6 power plants and exports coal to South Korea and Chile (UCM, 2013). The stark contrast differences between the nature of the National Park and this open pit mine was rather striking. A few days later, we visited the Fort Knox gold mine (Figure 5), which again showed us the importance of mining for Alaska. It was interesting to realise how there are different perceptions on the reshaping of nature by open pit mining. Bill, the press officer of UCM, told us that after they finish getting the coal out of the mine, the company puta a lot of effort into recreating a new environment that is as close to nature as possible. On the other hand, our guide at Fort Knox stated that “when we are finished here, it looks better than before”.

At the end of the 19th century, the big gold rushes in Alaska and Canada brought thousands of explorers, businesspeople and soldiers of fortune to the barely known remote areas. About 80 years later, in 1968, a second rush started, changing the state even more. Large oil fields were found in the North Slope Borough and since 1977 the Trans-Alaska-Pipeline-System transports crude oil to the tanker terminal in Valdez (Naske and Slotnick, 1987). These different ways of taking advantage of Alaska’s blessing with natural resources are the backbone of the wealth of the state. On the last day, we could even try to earn a little bit of this wealth for ourselves as we were given the chance to pan for gold in the historic Crow Creek Mine in Girdwood – a mine which is over 100 years old.

Figure 4: Canoeing in the Nancy Lake State Recreation Area Source: Author’s own

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Figure 5: Fort Knox gold mine Source: Author’s own By the middle of the excursion, we reached Fairbanks, of which our guide at Anchorage had said “it’s like Moscow but without charm”. Visiting Fairbanks Police Department and talking with officers there, mapping safe and unsafe areas in the city and seeing drunk Alaskan Natives being kicked out of a public park by a private security company showed us that some of the aspects of the old gold boom town are still visible today. Later that day, we had a tour (and also dinner) at Alaska’s northernmost brewery, the Silver Gulch brewery. We could experience some frontier spirit there, as the owner was a self-educated brewer who learned how to make beer in bathtubs before building up his company. In some of the beers, a slight taste of bathtub was still recognisable. Before we went to the Howling-Dog-Saloon across the street to catch some real saloon atmosphere, the owner of the neighbouring estate approached us. He had come in his truck all the way from Fairbanks as he had heard rumours that a group of Germans was around and he told us he would establish a brewery on his property, just for the sake of getting the label “northernmost brewery of Alaska”.

Following this it was time to go south again. The Richardson Highway from Fairbanks to Valdez follows river valleys like the one of the Tanana River and is also partly accompanied by the Alaska Pipeline. It offers spectacular views of the mountains and glaciers of the Alaska Range, the Wrangell-Saint Elias Mountains and other ranges. The city of Valdez provides an example of how heavily the social and economic development in Alaska is interwoven with the natural circumstances. In 1964 the “Good Friday Earthquake”, which had a magnitude of 9.2 and was the second largest earthquake ever recorded (Alaska Earthquake Information Center, 2002), struck the city so badly that it was literally washed away by landslides and a tsunami and had to be rebuilt in another spot. Apparently it was the perfect place to play a self-created card game which taught us about the biggest natural disasters.

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

Figure 6: Alaska pipeline Author’s own

Source:

Valdez encountered an economic boom in the 1970s when the pipeline and the tanker terminals were built, but after the construction had finished the population dramatically decreased again (Asselin and Parkins, 2009). An environmental catastrophe occurred in 1989 when the oil tanker “Exxon Valdez” crashed into a reef and 35,000 tons of crude oil were spilled on 2000 km of coastline (Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council, 2013). Today, tourism has also become an important source of income for Valdez.

We used the infrastructure provided and took a ferry from the Alaska Marine Highway System across the Prince William Sound to Whittier. On this truly amazing trip, we could observe the fjords, glaciers and icebergs, the seals, otters and other animals as well as many fishing boats, which are an important part of Alaska’s economy. The last part of the excursion was spent on the Kenai Peninsula, visiting the famous Portage Glacier, the Exit Glacier and the city of Seward; a city

Figure 7: Port of Seward

comprising of 2,693 inhabitants (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Our guide in Seward (Figure 7), told us about one of the crucial problems that a state like Alaska has due to its low population density. The Hospital of Seward does not have a maternity room so that all expectant mothers have to stay in Anchorage for several weeks, 200 km and a 2.5 hour drive away. As this was also our last day on the trip before the flight back home, we had dinner at a Pizza place in Anchorage. Even in the big city, we experienced one more time that Alaskans are a special kind of people. The drinks menu offered the cocktail “Love on the Mudflats”, indicating that it was “more dangerous than sex on the beach”.

What did we take home from this excursion? Of course we experienced the geography of the state of Alaska beyond its touristic limits. In a practical sense, we learnt that geography is an integrated science. The trip showed us various ways in which we can apply the theory that we had previously obtained in physical and human geography lectures during our studies. We applied field methods and learnt about critical thinking in discussions. In short: we did what geographers do.

References Alaska Department of Transportation & Public Facilities, 2011. Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport. Available at: <http://dot.alaska.gov/anc/> [Accessed 1 February 2013].

alaska.edu/quakes/Alaska_1964_earthquake.html> [Accessed 2 February 2013]. Asselin, J., Parkins, J.R., 2009. Comparative Case Study as Social Impact Assessment: Possibilities and Limitations for Anticipating Social Change in the Far North. Social Indicators Research, 94, pp.483–497 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council, 2013. Oil Spill Facts. Available at: <http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/facts/> [Accessed 2 February 2013]. Hilpert, M., Wörner, D., 2010. Alaska. Eine sozialgeographische Exkursion. Augsburg: Institut für Geographie, Universität Augsburg. Naske, C.-M., Slotnick, H. E., 1987. Alaska. A History of the 49th State. 2nd ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. National Park Service, 2011. NPS Annual Recreation Visits Report. Available at: <https://irma.nps.gov/Stats/SSRSReports/System Wide Reports/5 Year Annual Report By Park?RptYear=2011> [Accessed 1 February 2013]. UCM, 2013: Usibelli Coal mine. CleaneEnergy Brighter Future. Available at <http://www.usibelli.com/> [Accessed 1 February 2013]. U.S. Census Bureau, 2010. American Fact finder. Available at: <http://factfinder2. census.gov/> [Accessed 31 January 2013]. USDA, 2011. More than 1,000 New Farmers Markets Recorded Across Country as USDA Directory Reveals 17 Percent Growth. Available at: <http://www. usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdamedia fb?contentid=2011/08/0338.xml&printab le=true&contentidonly=true> [Accessed 1 February 2013]

Alaska Earthquake Information Center, 2002. The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964. Available at: <http://www.aeic.

Source: Author’s own

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The Silent Colonisation of Tenerife Kristine Krumberga EGEA Riga, University of Latvia

Keywords: sensescapes, production of space, europeanisation, Tenerife This article reflects only the personal observations and impressions of the author.

A look is deceptive. From the bottom the top looks closer. What is in front of the eyes hides what exists behind. We cannot just be observers; we are and must also be a part of the scene to understand what it is about. Hiking up the volcano is easy – at least in the beginning while the feet are fresh and the path meanders slowly. There is time to enjoy the landscape, to capture it in photos, to pass by older walkers. Wavy hills offer more noticeable scenery changes and diverse perspectives around each curve. As the slope starts, the elevation rises more sharply, the pace gets slower and the stops are more frequent. This has nothing to do with the view – indeed, the panorama gets wider but the landscape stays the same. The lee-side of rocks is a home for a sound of silence, and as long as you hold your breath to quieten your crazy heartbeat, you occasionally hear how the wind

suddenly rustles the shrubs, whispers for a while and buzzingly disappears. As the end comes closer, the character of the surroundings change - black massive lava blocks enclose the way, cold, biting wind scratches the face, legs start to hurt, get heavier, hurry, and the only thought – to catch the last cable car back down. The end is joyous and the experience - unforgettable. Changing from the petrified silence of the volcanic landscape to the warm ocean breezes, welcoming sandy beaches and a late afternoon tangle of walking streets, reveals where an unusual breed of old European birds of passage go. These are mainly British and German colonies, flags on advertisement leaflets and brochures scattered on pavements show the appearance of Scandinavians as well. A white-skinned body mosaic occupies Tenerife's coast in order to tan just like the black browed albatrosses occupy the Falklands so as to breed. Main streets are full of feeding places with menus screaming: “Cheap English breakfast”, “German beer and football tonight” or even “fully English-owned restaurant”. It works – they are full of people, while some taverns offering to serve Canarian food are empty. Most of the arrivals do not need anything of the Canarian spirit. What they come for is sunny weather, nice beaches, and spectacular mountain views. This is just another island.

What the tourists look for are more pleasant natural conditions but the same social environment which is known to them and embodies a sense of safety. The term colonisation mainly refers to migration, for example, to settler colonies, trading posts, and plantations, while colonialism deals with the previous as well as the ruling of new territories' existing people (Wikipedia, 2013a). The form of the expression of power has changed over time, becoming more hidden and entangled but always remaining present. Local people and immigrants either work as maids and cleaners in hotels so as to satisfy the newcomers’ need for relaxation, entertainment and exoticness, or as workers in banana plantations and greenhouses to feed international markets. The gap between the service industry and the industry of servants is as narrow as Barranco del Infierno (in English: Hell's Gorge - a ravine located in the south of the island of Tenerife). Banana plantations offer guided tours to “visit and experience a true Canarian tradition” (Tenerife Information Centre, n.d.): “Native pine forests on the island were cleared to make way for the cultivation of sugarcane in the 1520s; in succeeding centuries, the island's economy was centred on the cultivation of other commodities such as wine and cochineal for making dyes, as well as bananas. Tenerife grows more bananas than other Canary Islands. More of 90% of the total is destined for the international market.” (Wikipedia, 2013b) So how authentic is this Canarian tradition of banana planting? Obviously, it is not like that by origin and if it has become like that by its long-time practicing, then why has this tradition been sustained if not for colonial and post-colonial needs. In Tenerife’s case on the one hand, colonisation can be referred to as a process of temporary settling of vacationers, on the other – as the invisible ties which construct and maintain a dependency on the holidaymakers.

Figure 1: View from the slope of Teide Volcano Source: Author’s own.

Hiking across a coastal park is easy – a beaten path guides the way to the lighthouse which shows the way and is the destination itself. The muteness of the flat, scrubby land soon is replaced

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European Geographer 12th issue •Mountains

Acknowledgment To my travel companion, for being together with me during our temporary colonisation of Tenerife.

References Tenerife Information Centre, n.d. Aloe Park - a working banana plantation, open to the public. [online] Available at: <http://www.tenerife-information-centre.com/jardines-de-atlantico. html> [Accessed 9 February 2013]

Figure 2: Banana plantations on the Tenerife northern coast. Source: Author’s own. by waves swashing against the rocky, ridged cliffs. The Earth has expanded its stomach and the horizon seems like a hill with water flowing upwards. In the end, the value of Tenerife does hide in its nature – sun, ocean and the

volcano, but they are put on sale. The most valuable things in the world are or should be for free but if you cannot own something, at least you can temporarily buy the feeling of possessing it.

Wikipedia, 2013a. Tenerife. [online] Available at: <http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Tenerife> [Accessed 9 February 2013]. Wikipedia, 2013b. Colonization. [online] Available at: < http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Colonization> [Accessed 9 February 2013]ad. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA106, pp. 16139-16144.

Mapping of vegetation at the top of Germany Brian Langley and Michael Tsigaridas EGEA Augsburg, University of

German-Austrian border (Figure1). The range houses some of Germany’s highest peaks and is formed of highly calcareous limestone, with the CaCO3 content ranging in the high 90 percentile. One of Germany’s few glaciers, the

Schneeferner, is located on the plateau beneath Zugspitze peak. The Schneeferner is one of the few glaciers in the Alps with slight mass gains, due to the relentless work by the cable car operator during the winter skiing season.

Augsburg

Keywords: Vegetation, Zugspitze, UFS, Fieldwork

Zugspitze, the highest mountain in Germany at 2962 metres, is a very popular tourist destination, both in summer and in winter, and is easily accessible by cable car. In August 2012, a group consisting of ten students and two researchers from the Institute of Geography at the University of Augsburg joined the crowd to take a trip up the mountain. Unlike most other visitors to the area, this group had serious business on their mind. They were there to gather data in order to create a map of the local vegetation as part of a seminar. Zugspitze is part of the Wetterstein range located about 90 km south of Munich and stretches along the

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

Figure 1: View over the Zugspitzplatt Source: Author’s own

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The Schneefernerhaus used to be the terminus of the Zugspitze cog railway and a luxury resort for the booming ski tourism sector in the first half of the 20th century, however it lost its importance after the terminus was relocated and shut down in the 1980s. The Bavarian state government purchased the building for a symbolic price and in the 1990s the decision was taken to open up Germany’s only alpine environment research facility in this building. The cog railway tunnel still exists today and is used to transport equipment up from the valley. The perks of the luxury hotel may not be available any more, but the research environment can be considered of five star standard. In the 2000s, the University of Augsburg became a consortial partner of this alpine research facility, which has opened up research capabilities in alpine surroundings. Today, lot of researchers permanently work at the facility. The University of Augsburg shares the building with a number of other universities, one of the Max Planck Institutes, the German Weather Service and several other prestigious institutions. The Department of Geography in Augsburg focuses on research in several fields at the Schneefernerhaus, which include hydrological studies, climatological downscaling and vegetation surveying. The driving force behind this seminar was to collect data mainly on the vegetation cover but also some soil profiles from the Zugspitze plateau. The goal of Oliver Korch (Dipl.-Geogr.), a researcher at the Institute of Geography, is to use this compiled data to create a map of said areas as part of his PhD thesis. For further information and recent publications refer to his website: http:// www.geo.uni-augsburg.de/lehrstueh-

le/phygeo/personal/korch/publikationen/ All students had little experience in the field, so identifying species was often tough. To map the area of the Zugspitz plateau, the Braun-Blanquet method was introduced at the beginning of our course, along with the most common species found in the area. Once the participants were more or less able to recognise these, the practical part of the seminar began. Representative sample areas were identified within the entire survey area, with special attention being paid to light and wind conditions. After choosing a good sample area in the field, which was about 2×2 metres in size, each corner was marked with spray paint, for future tracking and potential updates. The coordinates and a description of the surroundings were recorded in the Braun-Blanquet table to classify the sample area. Each detected plant species was recorded and their number was estimated according to a scale which ranges from a single specimen to the majority of ground coverage. While most common species were easy to classify due to their ubiquity, tougher calls had to be referred to a higher authority, either one of the supervisors or an identification book (Figure 2). At the beginning, a single sample area took over one hour to complete while a few days later, after a certain working routine was established, that time was reduced to under 30 minutes. To cover a larger area the group eventually split into two, each accompanied by a researcher to ensure the integrity of the results. Ground level climate conditions significantly influence the vegetation cover, so in addition to vegetation map-

ping, climatological data can provide insights into the spread and growth of vegetation on the Zugspitzplatt. Data loggers were and still are positioned at selected locations directly on the ground in order to record the local microclimate at the surveyed area. To prevent inaccuracies, the sensors are protected against direct and indirect radiation by a Stevenson Screen. Analysing the data from the loggers in the field is possible by connecting them to a laptop via a USB interface. While these sensors are in no way comparable to a full-scale weather station, they do give a general impression of the microclimatic conditions important to the vegetation. During the stay our group completed about 20 records, which might sound impressive at first, but only represents a tiny fraction of the necessary amount of samples for the project. This fairly intensive programme ensured that all members of the party went to bed truly exhausted after spending a long day out in the field surveying the vegetation. The trip was not only physically demanding, it also enabled the students to transfer their theoretical knowledge from the classroom to a more practical application out in the field. Aside from applying previously studied methods, new practical skills were introduced to the students, such as the Braun-Blanquet method for vegetation surveying. One might ask: How do these results contribute to the broader picture, aside from fostering knowledge about alpine environments within students? At the moment the vegetation analysis results contribute to a vegetation cover map compiled by the University of Augsburg as part of a PhD thesis. This map can enable long-term monitoring of the vegetation cover at Zugspitze plateau under the influence of global climate change, which is predicted to push the alpine timber line and therefore also the altitudinal zones of the Alps into higher regions. The highly specialised and fragile species that are found at the highest locations are most threatened by the influx of new species from lower echelons and are most likely to be forced into extinction. Using the data surveyed in this field exercise, threatened species can be identified and conservation efforts can be made. Taking all this into account the authors can definitely recommend taking part in such a seminar or an excursion into alpine realms, should your university offer it.

Figure 2: Identifying and recording species of flora Source: Author’s own

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European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

On the Trail – Education in the Učka nature park in Croatia Julija Metić EGEA Zagreb, University of Zagreb Keywords: mountain massif, nature park, educational trail, canyon, flora, fauna, railroad, tourism

Introduction Učka, a homogeneous mountain range located on the Istria peninsula, represents a distinct landscape of value and symbolic power for the whole region. The ridges and steep sides border on the lower area of Ćićarija in the north and the Plomin bay. The highest peak of the mountain range, Vojak, has an altitude of 1401 meters and a view of the beautiful islands in the Kvarner Gulf. The Canyon is the most representative geomorphological locality of the park; a natural phenomenon which was shaped over 140 million years by the forces of nature: earthquakes, wind, sun and water. Učka Nature Park is situated in West Croatia and on the eastern part of Istria. The mountain Bukovo in the south and Planika mark the boundaries of the nature park. Its total area is 160 km2. 60% lies on the Učka massif, 40% on the Ćićarija (Grgurev, 2010). The nature park can take advantage of its geographical position on Istria and near Kvarner Gulf, one of the most prosperous touristic regions of Croatia. This is the major factor for a very positive development of tourism in the park. Other important factors are proper management, studies and cooperation on all levels; regional, national and international so that the current number of park visitors could be raised.

Geomorphology The morphological formations of the two massifs, Učka and Ćićarija, coincide with the main geological structures. They are the result of tectonic disturbances and morphogenetic processes whose intensity changed spatially and temporally depending on sea-level fluctuations and climate change during the Neogene and the Quaternary. In the management plan we find that the formation of current relief features date back to the Pale-

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

ocene epoch and are characterised by the pronounced subduction of the Adriatic platform beneath the Dinaric carbonate platform. Consequently, we can find strata in Istria and Kvarner lithospherically beneath the Dinaric carbonate platform. Accordingly there are three regional structural units in the Kvarner Bay: The Dinaric in the north-east, the Adriaticum in the centre, and the Istria in the west and in the south-west. The Učka mountain ridge and the mountain range Ćićarija are, in general, within the geodynamic units of the Adriaticum.

Significant geomorphological sites Because of its many cliffs and vertical rock spires, Vranjska or Vela Draga represents a remarkable geomorphological uniqueness and attraction to visitors; it is the most important geomorphological natural monument in the Učka nature park due to its management plan. Other significant geomorphological sites are cliffs and peaks (Plas, Vojak, Suhi Vrh), rocky slopes Sisol and pane Provetrenica. Krvava Rock is famous for its significant oak wood, areas near the village of Breast are known for their special flora and fauna. The waterfall stream Banin and the waterfall near Lovranska Draga are attractive during heavy rains (shown in Figure 1) as are caves and pits which are home to various bat colonies (Grgurev, 2010).

Other significant factors The isolated Mediterranean mountains Učka and Ćićarija are characterised by different altitudinal belts of forest vegetation. The most striking feature is the emergence of beech forests in some areas above 600 meters. Učka has a very old and rich tradition in botanical and floristic exploration. Nature lovers and explorers are able to enjoy the rich flora such as the endemic Učka/ Tommasini bell-flower (Campanula tommasiniana). The peculiar character of the Učka fauna lies in the fact that this mountain is a border area between Continental and Mediterranean species, and is thus, according to the biodiversity richness, considered to be a “hot spot” area. This is also an area of distinctive fauna – Učka is one of the rare places where one can still find the Eurasian griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus)

– the most representative bird species in this area. Moreover, it is a home to the Golden eagle (Aquila Chrysaetos), the chamois, as well as different species of butterflies and insects. It is estimated that we are familiar with only 40% of the total number of species that live in the park (Grgurev, 2010). These are some of the main reasons why Učka is designated as a nature park. Throughout its history, the pedestals and slopes of Učka have been inhabited. This is evidenced by numerous archaeological sites, as well as the remains of the fortresses and still existing medieval towns which can be seen in Figure 2. Human activity and the skilful management of natural resources has resulted in pastures and agricultural land, characterised by numerous dry-stone walls, traditional shepherd's huts and field shelters, which are still visible today and make up the area's authentic cultural and historical heritage. These landscapes that were reshaped by human activities have become important biological habitats. Over time, a new ecosystem was formed around these habitats, which is different in nature from the natural forest ecosystem. Neglecting traditional activities resulted in a loss of the equilibrium and unfavourable changes to the natural landscape. Therefore, preserving local traditional culture is an indispensable part of protecting the area's natural environment and valuable landscape.

Educational trail and Vela Draga Canyon Due to the interesting sites in the Učka nature park, educational trails have been created to present the most inte-

Figure 1: One of many hidden waterfalls Source: Archive of the Public Institution "Nature Park Ucka", 2010

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reserve” and since 1968 as a “geomorphological natural monument” of the Učka nature park (Grgurev, 2010).

Figure 2: Remains of medieval settlements Source: Archive of the Public Institution "Nature Park Ucka", 2010 resting parts. The educational trail Vela Draga is 2km long takes people to a well-tended vantage point from where walkers can see some impressive parts of the Vela Draga Canyon. Along the whole trail there are educational boards in four languages with interesting facts about the formation of Učka, and the Vela Draga, and their extraordinary geomorphological value. The texts on the boards are written in easy-to-understand scientific language. This trail also informs visitors about alpinism and rock climbing - sports that have been pursued in Vela Draga since 1931, when the legendary alpinist Emilio Comici first climbed the Large Tower in the canyon. Over time, Vela Draga has become a famous climbing area where many Croatian and European alpinists and rock climbers gained valuable experience (Public Institution Učka Nature Park, 2013).

Figure 3: After the uplift of Učka, approximately 30 million years ago, the limestone in Vela Draga was exposed to atmospheric processes causing karstification, melting, abrasion and erosion. These processes have been continuously forming the canyon ever since. Karstification gets even more intensive underground, with water accumulation into strong currents that erode the rock and widen the cracks, transforming them into cave passages.

Railroad The Raša-Lupoglav railroad goes through the canyon of Vela Draga, but it was closed for public use in 2009 and today it only serves for freight in the nearby mining of Vranja. The negative aspects associated with mining and railroads (except noise) are still not taken into consideration. However, the railroad itself should not be perceived as a negative element, because with good management it can be turned into an advantage. For example, it can serve for tourist transportation, sightseeing tours and excursions. Former practices demonstrate that a big interest in this kind of tourist service exists, especially due to the high number of Italian tourists during the short period when the railroad operated.

Formation of the Vela Draga Since 1963 the Vela Draga has been legally protected as a “natural area

Tourist activities Depending on what your interests and possibilities are, Učka nature park offers many activities. The official internet pages offers those of adventurous spirit trails for adventure races, hiking, mountain-biking, as well as areas for rock climbing, hang gliding, paragliding, caving, and recreational horse-riding (see Figure 4). The area also offers traditional gastronomy and cultural events. Due to its geographical position, closeness of the sea, and the structure of its relief, higher parts of the park have a moderate warm climate characterised by high rainfall and warm summers (the so-called "beech climate" according to Köppen climate classification), while the lower parts such as Opatija and the narrow coastal strip have a moderate warm climate without dry periods and with hot summers (the "camellia climate").

Figure 4: Paragliding over Učka Source: Archive of the Public Institution "Nature Park Ucka", 2010

Conclusion The Učka Mountains have many unexplored areas and possibilities; it is a very interesting and unique place which needs to be preserved in harmony with nature. Every visitor should respect it and enjoy its unlimited beauty. It can be agreed that every protected area is special in its own way, but in my personal experience, once you visit Učka you will feel a certain magic that will attract you back to its trails again.

References Grgurev M.,2010: Učka Nature Park Management Plan. Lovran. Public Institution Učka Nature Park Public Institution Učka Nature Park, 2013. Official internet page of Nature park Učka. [online] Available at: http:// www.pp-ucka.hr/ [Accessed 1 August 2013] Figure 3: Canyon Vela Draga Source: Archive of the Public Institution "Nature Park Ucka", 2010

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European Geographer 12th issue •Mountains

Summer school on Geomorphology in Khibiny mountains, Kola Penninsula Jakub Ondruch

left clear evidence in the landscape such as scarps, gorges or tectonic fissures dividing the massif into blocks.

EGEA Brno, Masaryk University

Figure 2: Our fieldtrip included several one-day excursions starting and ending at the base and two five-days camping excursions further away from Kirovsk. Nevertheless, the daily routine was similar no matter where we were accommodated. In the morning

Last summer, I had the chance to attend a field practice of Lomonosov Moscow State University, together with their students and a group of geographers from Westchester University in Philadelphia, USA. My participation was arranged thanks to the work of the Scientific Committee under the Geography Field Trip project. In the following paragraphs I would like to share my experience and try to inspire your geographical dreams. Between the 18th June and 12th July 2012, our group explored the environment of the Khibiny mountains, located in the heart of the Kola peninsula. The university base in which we were accommodated, lies on the outskirts of Kirovsk, an industrial mining town with an interesting though unpleasant history through the course of the 20th century. The location could not have been better for us thanks to spectacular mountains surrounding us from all directions. Figure 1: The Khibiny massif forms the largest alkaline plutonic intrusion (Figure 1) occupying the area of 1327 sq. km (Ivanyuk et al., 2012) and forms a ring-shaped structure divided into two, approximately equal, parts by a rink like structure called the Central Arch (Beeskow, 2006). About 70 % of the area is composed of various subtypes of nepheline syenites (Ivanyuk et al., 2012). In general, over 550 different minerals are found here and out of those, more than 80 were discovered here for the first time (IGC, The Nordic Countries, 2008). Khibiny is also famous for providing the World´s largest apatite deposits (Yakovenchuk et al., 1999). Due to the important economic use of minerals, Khibiny has been undergoing extensive mining. The Khibiny massif possesses a dome like-shape. Its morphology is characterised by flat summit surfaces, reaching an altitude of up to 1200 metres above sea level, dissected mostly by deep glacial valleys with cirques at their heads (Hatterstrand et al., 2008). The Massif was formed between 410390 MA BP (e.g. Dunning et al. 2012) and has undergone numerous tectonic and neotectonic events since then. This has

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

building and are requested to employ new knowledge in the field. Khibiny enabled me to observe processes which are uncommon in the Czech Republic, as well as processes acting under different environmental conditions. Being a fluvial geomorphologist, I automatically give a special focus to river systems. So much so, that at the beginning I was lost and unable to unravel the processes of river development and flo-

Figure 2: Excursion to Kukisvumchorr, Khibiny mountains. An example of daily work where stops with notes are depicted by labelled points. Source: Author’s own we packed our equipment and left for a whole day. On our way we stopped at all sites which deserved the attention of geomorphologists (see Figure 2). We performed morphological mapping mainly by employing crossectional profiles and plan form sketches. We were requested to be as thorough as possible. After a simple description of the site, we usually held a discussion about all processes governing paleo- as well as current morphological dynamics of the site. We then constructed geomorphological map (Figure 1) of the chosen location based on our field work and supported by own photographs and GoogleEarth maps. My aim here is not to describe every stone we met or every cirque we mapped. Instead, I would like to meditate upon the benefits that the summer school brought. First of all, as a geomorphologist, I had to appreciate the fact that the environment enabled me to actually feel our science. Students are given lots of information while attending lectures; Everything looks so easy in illustrative examples. The issue starts as soon as students leave the

odplain evolution. Eventually, as time passed by and I learned to understand the local environmental specifics, my imagination reappeared and rivers were making me happy again. Of equal important was the fact that I belonged to group of geographers from Russia and the United States. Members of the group had various geomorphological and geological interests which more or less related to the knowledge about the particular field. Such a group had the potential to discuss the topic from a range of aspects that, in turn, could help me to form my own approach. Leaving the scientific element aside for a while, I spent three weeks with a group of American students who willingly decided to attend the summer school. This fact was apparent everywhere. We shared the enthusiasm and passion for geomorphology and thus we were steering each other forward onto our own scientific path.

Acknowledgements I would like to thank Sveta Samsonova and the Department of Geomorphology and Paleogeography of the Moscow

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Figure 3: Khibiny mountains in photos: A- Tectonic gorge in the scarp dipping towards the

Imandra lake, B- Cirques of Takhtarvumchorr ridge, C- Kirov quarry, D- Scientific base of Moscow State University. Source: Author’s own. State University for providing me with the opportunity to take part in the summer school. My thanks is also due to all participants who made the stay unforgettable.

References Azamastsev, A., Yakovenchuk, V., Pakhomovsky, Y., Ivanyuk, G. (2008). The Khibina and Lovozero alkaline massifs:

Geology and unique mineralization, 33 IGC, The Nordic Countries. [online]. Cited [03/25/2013]. Available at: <http:// www.iugs.org/33igc/fileshare/filArkivRoot/coco/FieldGuides/No_47_Excursion_guidebook1.pdf> Beeskow, B., Treloar, P.J., Rankin, A.H., Vennemann, T.W., Spangenberg, J. (2006). A reassessment of models for hydrocarbon generation in the Khibiny

nepheline syenite complex, Kola Peninsula, Russia, Lithos, 91, 1–4, 1-18 pp.

Hättestrand, C., Kolka, V., Johansen, N. (2007). Cirque inﬁlls in the Khibiny Mountains, Kola Peninsula, Russia-palaeoglaciological interpretations and modern analogues in East Antarctica. Journal of Quaternary Science, 23, 165174 pp. Yakovenchuk, V.N., Ivanyuk, G.J., Pahomovsky, Ya.A., Men'shikov, Yu.P. (1999). Minerals of the Khibiny Massif. Zemlya, Moscow, 326 pp.

Figure 1: Geological map of the Khibiny massif generalized from the map of MGRE PGO "Sevzapgeologiya" (V.P.Pavlov) (in: Arzamastsev et al., 2008).

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European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

Facilitators in Non-Formal Education - FINE More than just a training course Christoph Götz EGEA Erlangen,

Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg;

Marie-Luise Seubert EGEA Munich,

Ludwig-Maximlians-Universität

München

Keywords: Non-formal education, Facilitation, Soft skills, Training, FINE, Training course

Facilitation and non-formal education are two words, two concepts that are, by all means, not the easiest to explain. You have never heard of them? Don’t worry! It was like that for most of the participants of the FINE (Facilitators in Non-Formal Education) event in Munich taking place from 8th to 14th of October 2012. These participants experienced firsthand what these terms mean, and by reading this article so will you. We do not only want to familiarise you with the event, but also with its background: we want to give you a clearer picture of what training, facilitation, and non-formal education are all about.

What is the FINE event? The FINE event is designed as a training new trainers experience. It is about igniting a passion in the participants to act as facilitators after the event and spread their knowledge. Besides that, FINE is also about giving the participants confidence when interacting and dealing with groups and their dynamics. As Anete Kārklina, one of the participants, puts it: “[FINE] teaches us that it is possible to do things differently – in a much more interesting, more attractive, more valuable way”. It was back in 2009 when the idea for this event first came up. Some time

European Geographer 12th issue • Mountains

Group picture of the FINE Participants Source: Jenda Langr, 2012 passed until FINE happened in October 2012 and twenty-four participants from twelve countries gathered in Munich. They enjoyed seven days of training in a truly unique intercultural environment. Figure 1: During the training course the participants were exposed to different learning types and special features of intercultural learning. Furthermore, they experienced different stages of a group in various team building exercises and improved their communication and presentation skills during practical sessions. A big focus was put on learning, experiencing and actually conducting methods like ‘the carousel’, a ‘world café’, the ‘press conference ’, mind maps, ‘brainstorming’ and others on their own. Last but not least, on the final day it was all about designing your very own training programme. The participants set their own aims, planned their schedules, prepared how to debrief and evaluate their training on their own. But the first two concepts that the participants of FINE were introduced to were non-formal education and facilitation. And as promised in the first paragraph, we shall explain what those two keywords mean.

What is Facilitation? The term “facilitation”, sadly, is not defined in a clear cut manner. Thus we will start with the word itself and its meaning. Facilitation has its origin in the Latin word “facilis” which means easy. Used as a verb facilitating means: making something possible. But what exactly is made possible? A facilitator is the person who can make group processes possible. S/he creates an atmosphere where those processes can take place and supports the group in reaching their aims. “Facilitation is concerned with encouraging open dialogue among individuals with different perspectives so that diverse assumptions and options may be explored.”(Hogan 2002, p. 10).The way in which this can be achieved thereby differs from situation to situation. A facilitator is therefore the person that has to take care of the participating group rather than the content the group is dealing with. But a facilitator does not lead the group in a traditional way, as in giving the directions like a manager. A facilitator relies on his or her emotional connection to the group and the process s/he facilitates

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Figure 2: Facilitation at work during FINE 2012 Source: Christoph Götz, 2012

and has to establish a bond of mutual trust with the people involved in the process. In this way, a facilitator can help the group to effectively reach their goal. This can only happen if the facilitator clearly sees what is going on at the emotional level and makes sure that nothing is interfering with the set tasks (Klatt, 1998, p.36). Besides the emotional well-being of the group, a facilitator has to make sure that the participants are able to reach their goals. Therefore, s/he has to provide them with the necessary tools. This is often done by using methods of experiential learning and non-formal education concepts. These concepts help a facilitator to not to get involved in the process but to be able to steer the process and give the participants the chance to reach their goals actively and independently, yet with his/her support. You can find a facilitator at meetings, discussions between antagonising parties, workshops, soft skill trainings etc. You will recognise a good facilitator as someone who remains neutral, fosters mutual respect and trust among the participants, enables a creative environment and keeps the focus on the goals that are to be achieved.

example, historic events. The knowledge transfer is achieved in a formal environment usually in a very structured way. An expert provides the learners with facts during a lesson or lecture. In this way, a big audience can be addressed as it requires only one expert who has the knowledge to pass it on to more people. Therefore you find this educational style at universities, schools and other institutions. Unfortunately, it is not the most active educational process as the learner is a recipient of the information. Formal education processes end with an official certificate which states what the person participating in the learning process has learnt about. Non-formal education is a more interactive learning process. Through this approach the learner experiences new things firsthand. The process is guided, for example by a facilitator, giving the participants the possibility to learn on their own. In this style of education the focus is put on letting the learner

practice and/or develop new abilities during the learning process. The methods of how this learning by experience can be achieved are very learner-centred and require voluntary and active participation. Non-formal education is provided in training programmes or workshops outside of the traditional education system, where formal education is to be found. You can take part in a non-formal learning process during events organised by students’ associations or other organised events that aim at helping the participants’ individual development. This concept is also, along with the other two, acknowledged by the European Union and officially seen as a vital part of lifelong learning (Europa, 2007). The lifelong learning process describes that learning is something we do throughout our lives, as there is always something new to be learnt. Last but not least there is informal education. It is the learning process that happens every day all the time. This concept describes the lifelong learning where you acquire skills outside of any planned learning experience. It refers to the learning we all do on our own. Whether it is about practical skills that we learn from our parents or something we learn on our own, informal education is every learning process that is not actively pursued with trained guidance. All the three parts of education are equally important as they all address different areas of learning. Learning facts alone falls short; therefore it is important to train abilities and competences by non-formal and informal processes as well. That way an overall education can be provided (OECD, nd.).

What is non-formal learning? Non-formal learning is one of three ways in which education and learning can be provided. The other two are formal and informal learning. Those different concepts all have their own purpose and have different aims and are thus distinct ways by which to provide the learner with a chance to learn something new. Formal education/learning is most often practiced when facts have to be memorised and the knowledge transfer is about factual knowledge, as, for

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Figure 3: Non-formal education with active participants Source: André Ber-

ger 2012

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What can you do after FINE? After having read about facilitation, education concepts, and the FINE event you may wonder what the participants are doing with their newly gained skills. So far, many active people have started to spread their knowledge and gone very different and exciting ways because the “event […] causes new ideas and you wish to make them reality” (Anita Selicka, participant). One of our participants organised a wonderful team building excursion for students to get more experienced and new students together. Others are giving scientific workshops using facilitation methods to motivate their participants. Social gatherings for students have been organised by the FINE participants, and some are giving training sessions to give others the opportunity to experience learning in a non-formal way. As you can see the FINE event was only the beginning for them or as one of our participants put it: “[FINE is] A perfect kick to make you want more“(Aleksandra Winkler, participant).

If you also want more watch out for the booklet “Guidelines for Facilitators” published by the trainers and organisers (EGEA Bayern, 2013). It can be found in the download section on www.egea.eu. There you will find more details about the world of non-formal education and facilitation.

slation. Recognition of non-formal and informal learning (in the field of youth). Online available at: http://europa.eu/ legislation_summaries/education_training_youth/lifelong_learning/c11096_ en.htm (Accessed 14 March 2013)

Acknowledgements

Hogan, C., 2002. Understanding Facilitation. Theory and Principles. London: Kogan Page Limited.

This project has been financed with support of the European Union through the Youth in Action programme. The content of the project does not necessarily express the point of view of the European Union or the national agency JUGEND für Europa and they assume no liability. Furthermore we want to thank Vlad Dumitrescu and Catalina Ionita that both shaped and created the FINE event. They did not only create the idea but together delivered the training sessions during the event and excelled at facilitating FINE 2012.

References Europa, 2007. Summaries of EU Legi-

EGEA Bayern e. V. ed, 2013. Guidelines for Facilitators. Erlangen.

Klatt, B., 1999. The Ultimate Training Workshop Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Leading Successful Workshops and Training Programs. New York: McGraw-Hill. OECD, nd. Higher education and adult learning. Recognition of Non-formal and Informal Learning – Home. Online available at: http://www.oecd.org/edu/ skills-beyond-school/recognitionofnon-formalandinformallearning-home.htm (Accessed 16 March 2013) European Commission, 2011. Youth in Action 2007-2013. Online Available at: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/youth/programme/about_youth_en.php (Accessed 14 March 2013)

About the Youth in Action Programme "Youth in Action is the Programme the European Union has set up for young people. It aims to inspire a sense of active European citizenship, solidarity and tolerance among young Europeans and to involve them in shaping the Union's future. It promotes mobility within and beyond the EU's borders, non-formal learning and intercultural dialogue, and encourages the inclusion of all young people, regardless of their educational, social and cultural background: Youth in Action is a Programme for all.” (European Commission, 2011). The FINE project addresses the topics of non-formal learning and intercultural dialogue and has been funded by the German National Agency under Action 4 Youth Support Systems. You can find out more about Youth in Action, about the objectives, about how to apply etc. on the site of the European Commission: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/youth/index_en.php

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