RSC Haarlem 2019 - Academic Preparation Kit by EYP The Netherlands

ACADEMIC PREPARATION KIT Haarlem 2019

Regional Selection Conference of EYP the Netherlands

Word of Welcome Dear Participants, It is my pleasure to officially welcome you to Haarlem 2019, one of the Regional Selection Conferences of European Youth Parliament (EYP) of the Netherlands! For many of you, this will be your first experience of EYP and I cannot wait for you to see first-hand just what makes this organisation so special for so many people. Personally speaking, I would probably find it almost impossibly hard to evaluate the depth of the mark that EYP has made on my life, whether by awakening new passions and interests or even influencing career paths. As you yourself will soon find out, each new session brings with itself new transformative experiences, knowledge and awareness on so many issues. The people you will meet will challenge you, make you question your preconceived notions and put faces to countries all over Europe. For others of you, this will not be your first encounter with EYP, but it will be a new challenge, a new role, a new goal that youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve set out to accomplish. For you, we promise that Haarlem will be the ideal and safe space to take those steps into the new directions you want to explore. It takes a leap of faith to actively put yourself outside of your comfort zone and to dare yourself to do more or better than you have done before. But rest assured that you will be in good company, and definitely not alone in taking those leaps. A part of what makes EYP so unique is the multitudes of experiences it has to offer. You might be approaching Haarlem 2019 with a clear vision of what you expect to get from it, but I would encourage you to keep an open mind, be brave and let yourself be surprised. The President of the Session, Nia Chigogidze 2

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ON THE EUROPEAN UNION

AFCO I

COMMITTEE ON CONSTITUTIONAL AFFAIRS I

AFCO II

COMMITTEE ON CONSTITUTIONAL AFFAIRS II

CLIM

COMMITTEE ON CLIMATE CHANGE

DROI

COMMITTEE ON HUMAN RIGHTS

EMPL

COMMITTEE ON EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS

ENVI

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY

LIBE

COMMITTEE ON CIVIL LIBERTIES, JUSTICE AND HOME AFFAIRS

TRAN

COMMITTEE ON TRANSPORT AND TOURISM

INTRODUCTION ON THE EUROPEAN UNION Intitutional framework & Stakeholders When searching for the best solutions for the key questions of your topic, you can choose the right actor for a specific action. There is no strict rule that resolutions must be implemented only through European Union organs. The main stakeholders possible are: the United Nations (global level - 193 states out of approx. 195 in the world), the Council of Europe (European states - 47), European Union (28 members, potentially soon to be 27), individual states, civil society1 and individuals. Several other international organisations exist that might be of relevance to specific topics. Keep in mind that coordinated actions are often needed, and while on the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;smallestâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; scale, actions that individuals can take in their own communities can have a great impact. You are invited to reflect on the scope needed for your action to be feasible: Who is best to implement it? Who will be most successful in doing so? The following pages offer brief descriptions of the main stakeholders, topics covered and powers. The United Nations (UN) The UN is an international organisation comprising 193 member states. It aims to: maintain international peace and security; develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation in solving problems of concern to the entire world2. It has 6 main organs3, among which the following two are the most relevant: The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN, where all members are represented. Its resolutions may not be binding on states, but they are useful in understanding the position of states, and carry significant soft power4. The Security Council has primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. Its decisions are binding on UN member states. It is formed of 15 members, including 10 rotating members and 5 permanent ones (USA, UK, France, Russia and China). The UN system consists of numerous specialized agencies, programmes, funds, as well as subsidiary organs of the main UN organs5. The topic overviews point out the UN entities that have a mandate in a relevant area.

Council of Europe The Council of Europe is an international organisation comprising 47 member states including non-EU states such as Russia. It promotes and protects human rights, democracy, rule of law and European culture through international cooperation in the areas of human rights, democracy and it is not part of the European Union.

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Non-governmental organisations and institutions expressing/advocating for specific causes. promoting the will of citizens.

For a comprehensive overview, see UN, Funds, Programmes, Specialized Agencies and others; UN, The United Nations System

See further UN Charter (1948), article 1. See further, UN, Main organs.

In contrast to the coercive nature of hard power, soft power describes the use of positive attraction and persuasion to achieve foreign policy objectives. Joseph Nyeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s three pillars of soft power are: political values, culture, and foreign policy. chart.

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The general aims of the Council of Europe are to: • Protect human rights, democracy, and the rule of law in all its member states; • Promote awareness and encourage cultural identity and diversity of Europe; • Seek solutions to (social) problems facing European society; • Consolidate democratic stability in Europe; • Promote social cohesion and social rights; and • Promote and develop a European cultural identity with emphasis on education. The Council of Europe: • Is an international organisation; • It is not a part of the European Union; • Does not have legislative power - its member states are cooperating on a voluntary basis.

The European Union The European Union currently has 28 Member States. It is a supranational organisation with the ability to create legislation which all members must obey. It is the primary platform for European cooperation. Knowledge of the specific details of how the EU functions is not directly relevant for most of our topics. Instead, this section will cover the actions the main EU institutions can take. European Council - Setting the strategy Role: Defines the EU’s general political direction and priorities; Members: Heads of state or government from each member state, the president of the European Council and the president of the European Commission; Actions you can ask the European Council to take: • Decide on the direction for the EU and EU foreign policy; • Ask the European Commission to initiate proposals for legislation. European Parliament - The voice of the people Role: Directly elected legislative arm of the EU; Members: 751 directly elected members; Actions you can ask the European Parliament to take: • Amends and adopts the proposed legislative acts; • Supervise other institutions; • Ask the European Commission to propose legislation; • Debate on international agreements. European Commission - Promoting the common interest Role: Executive arm of the EU that proposes laws, policies agreements and promotes the Union’s general interests; it is the political leadership of the Union; Members: College of Commissioners, one from each member state - each commissioner is assigned a specific policy area; Actions you can ask the European Commission to take: • Propose legislation to Parliament and the Council; • Represent the EU internationally; • Negotiate international agreements; • Implement EU policies.

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Council of the European Union - The voice of the member states Role: Deciding on policies and adopting legislation, coordinating actions in member states; Members: Government representatives on a ministerial level from each member state; Actions you can ask the Council of the European Union to take: â&#x20AC;˘ Pass legislation together with the Parliament; â&#x20AC;˘ Coordinate actions in member states; â&#x20AC;˘ Conclude international agreements. Competences of the European Union In some policy areas, the EU has exclusive competence, which means that decisions are taken at EU level. In other policy areas, there is shared competence between the Union and the member states. This means that if legislation is passed at EU level, then these laws have priority. If no legislation is adopted at EU level, then the individual member states may legislate at national level. Note that there is often a nuance in the overlap between these. For example, although fisheries is a shared competence, the conservation of fisheries is an exclusive competence. In all other policy areas, the decisions remain with the member states.

Exclusive Customs Eurozone monetary policy

Shared Internal Market Social policies pertaining to aspects defined in the TFEU Economic, social and territorial cohesion Agriculture and fisheries Environment

Conservation of marine resources Common commercial policy Conclusion of international agreements under certain condiConsumer protection tions Transport Establishment of competition rules for the functioning of the internal market

Trans-European networks Energy Area of freedom and justice Certain public health policies Research, technological development and space Development cooperation and humanitarian aid

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Support, coordinate and supplement Most human health policies Industry Culture Tourism Education and training Civil protection and disaster prevention Administrative cooperation Coordination of economic, employment and social policies

Tips on researching Why research? At an EYP event you have the exciting opportunity to share opinions on interesting topics which are of concern to our generation and the world. It’s not only about discussing, it’s about coming up together with solutions to the key question of your topic. In order to make discussions more interesting, to enable you to fully take part in them, and to make sure your ideas for solving the problem are feasible, you need to have a good understanding of the current state of affairs and what has already been attempted, what has worked and what has not. What to research Start from the Topic Overview. Make sure you understand the concepts and phenomena revolving around your topic. The topic overview should offer concrete leads for you to follow, offering food for thought based on the aim to be achieved and what the situation is, as well as material indicated in the footnotes. How to research - Tips & tricks • Have a system - write down things you want to look into. Do it one at a time. There is so much information, it’s easy to get distracted and lose focus. • ‘There’s nothing new under the sun’ - chances are, whatever you’re wondering about has already been asked, and potentially already answered. If you can’t find what you’re looking for at the first go, it might be worth rephrasing your search terms. • If you can’t find it on Google, try Google Books and Google Scholar. • Make sure to distinguish facts from opinions (even if of experts/academics). • It’s all in the sources - is the information confirmed by other sources? Are they reliable, trusted sources? Have you ever heard of the website before? Do they make wild claims you can’t find elsewhere? What potential bias should be considered (could the source be pushing for a certain side to a story)? Check the (legal) notice at the bottom of the website to find out more about the author/initiator. • Check the date of the source - if it’s from 2002, chances are more things have happened since then. • Keep track - you know that website where you found an idea that you thought was interesting but not essential to the topic? The idea that you realised later on it was actually crucial? We’ve all been there. Write it down - keep track. You can add a bookmark folder for the session where you bookmark websites you come across as interesting. Or you can use a word document where you list the links with a few quick words on what you found there. You’ll thank yourself later. • You’re not alone - your chair is always there for you and happy to assist you throughout your research process. Don’t hesitate to ask what and how and where to research certain things if you feel you are stuck. Share with other delegates what you found and what you’re missing - discussing what you found so far will help you process the information and better identify what else you want to look into.

Understanding legislation Step One - Don’t Panic! Most laws you will find are written in plain, clear, and simple language. You need no prior experience or knowledge to understand them. In fact, most of the Officials learnt to read legislation through EYP, just like you are about to. Step Two - Be Prepared Research the context of the law - and read a summary before you read any actual legislation. You can find good summaries for EU law on the europa.eu website, often either beside the text or in a press release. Try searching on Google “(name of legislation) summary”. You can even find decent summaries on Wikipedia and in legal journals and blogs, but be careful about opinions being presented as facts. For this reason, you should also be careful if using news articles to get your legislation summaries.

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Step Three - Get a Rough Idea This may sound obvious, but read the Table of Contents (this might be a list of Articles or similar, depending on what you’re looking at, but you get the idea). This will give you an idea of the structure, and an overview of what is covered. It is useful to know the outline of what is included and what is not, and you can use this knowledge to make decisions in the final step. Step Four - Get Straight to the Point Before reading anything, think about what you want to learn. You don’t have to read the whole thing, and legislation is rarely read for fun. You are probably looking for something in particular, like a specific detail. You should already think about what kind of answer will satisfy you. Once you know what you’re looking for, use Ctrl + F to literally find what you’re looking for. Step Five - So What Does This Mean? In most cases you can interpret legislation literally - it should mean what it says. If it is not clear what the legislation means, you have to work out the intention behind it, and try to interpret it accordingly. You might consider: • Who does this legislation apply to? • Who would be impacted by this legislation being enforced; or not enforced? • What was the intention behind setting this? • Was this replaced by a more recent piece of legislation? • What is the power of the act: is it legally binding (mandatory) or advisory?

Material made available by the Governing Body based on the academic prep kit for Trondheim International Session. You are more than welcome to make use of this section for any future EYP event, for the purpose of facilitating academic preparation of participants. If you do so, please include this footnote. For any questions, reach out to gb@eyp.org.

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TOPIC OVERVIEWS

COMMITTEE ON CONSTITUTIONAL AFFAIRS I (AFCO I)

Lack of Initiative: No European Citizens Initiative has resulted gin a legislative proposal from the Commission since its inception in 2012. With that in mind, what further measures should be taken to increase direct democracy and citizen participation in decision making within the EU? Chairperson: Sophie Schut (NL)

Key Terms • Representative Democracy: Under this form of democracy, the people elect officials to create and vote on laws, policies, and other matters of government on their behalf1. • Citizen Participation: refers to the public’s involvement in the decision-making process of governmental institutions. Alternative terms include public participation, citizen involvement and public involvement2. • European Citizen Initiative (ECI): An instrument of participatory and direct democracy allowing EU citizens to become involved in the decision making of the EU by forming so called “citizens committees” which can propose legal changes in any area.3 • E-democracy: the use of information and communication technologies to enhance and in some accounts replace representative democracy4.

Relevance Of The Topic A shocking 62 % of Europeans feels as if the European Union (EU) does not understand their needs and 47% feel as if their voice doesn’t count in the EU5. There is low citizens’ trust and confidence in European institutions. Therefore it is necessary to close the gap between the EU and the citizens6. The European 1 “https://www.thoughtco.com/representative-democracy-definition-pros-cons-4589561” Robert Longley, 2019 2 “https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/participation-informing-transforming-local-government/3832” Peter Demediuk and Rolf Solli, 2010 3 “https://ec.europa.eu/citizens-initiative/public/basic-facts” European Commission, 2019 4 “https://ijetae.com/files/Volume4Issue1/IJETAE_0114_109.pdf” IJETEA, 2014 5 “https://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-18-6896_en.htm” European Commission, 2019 6 “https://europeanmovement.eu/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/EMI_16_PolicyPosition_Transparency_17_Final_VIEW.pdf” European Movement, 2016 10

Citizens Initiative (ECI) enables citizens to invite action from the European Commission. It was created to encourage European citizens engagement in the European decision-making.

To launch

an initiative, it takes 7 EU citizens, living in at least 7 different Member States who are old enough to vote. Once an initiative gathers 1 million signatures with minimum thresholds reached in at least 7 countries, the European Commission must decide whether or not to take action. must decide whether or not to take action.

Since the ECI came into existence, more than 70 initiatives have been submitted. However, no legislative proposals have resulted from this and the use has drastically declined after its implementation in 2012. This is due to several flaws of the ECI. First of all, it has a rigid and non-transparent admissibility check. The Commission only registers initiatives if they meet all criteria. Furthermore, the European Commission has weak follow-up provisions for successful ECIs. Secondly, the conditions to collect the signatures are difficult. Thus, the number of invalid signatures is significantly high. Lastly, the process from requesting the initiative to the answer of the Commission can take up to 31 months to which the administrative effort and preparation from the citizens are added7 . 7

â&#x20AC;&#x153;http://iep-berlin.de/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/EBI-STUDIE_EN.pdfâ&#x20AC;? Christian Salm, 2018 11

Due to these reasons, numerous actors have expressed their concerns and have requested an amendment to improve the ECI.

Relevant Actors The European Commission (EC) is an institution of the European Union, responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the EU Treaties and managing the day-to-day business of the EU1. The European Commission considers the proposals of the ECI. The European Member States are part of the founding treaties of the union and is subjected to binding laws within the common legislative and judicial institutions. Member States have to inform citizens on the possibilities to participate in policy-making of the EU. The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) is an EU advisory body comprising representatives of workers' and employers' organisations and other interest groups. It issues opinions on EU issues to the European Commission, the Council of the EU and the European Parliament, thus acting as a bridge between the EU's decision-making institutions and EU citizens. The EESC organises the ECI day every year2. The European Ombudsman investigates complaints about poor administration by EU institutions or other EU bodies. These may be lodged by citizens or residents of EU countries or by EU-based associations or businesses3. Through the European Ombudsman citizens can have influence in the European Union. European Citizen Action Service is an Non-Governmental Organisation empowering citizens and civil society within the European Union to exercise their rights and promoting open and inclusive decisionmaking. ECI committees launch initiatives. They have to consist of at least 7 ECI organisers living in 7 different Member States, who are old enough to vote. They need funding of at least 500 euros per sponsor per year.

Measures in Place The European Citizens’ Initiative is now in revision. In 2018 there has been a pilot project launched; the ECI forum. The purpose of the Forum is to provide information to ECI organisers before, during and after 1 “https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/institutions-bodies/european-commission_en” European Union, 2019 2 “https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/institutions-bodies/european-economic-social-committee_en” European Union, 2019 3 “https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/institutions-bodies/european-ombudsman_en” European Union, 2019 12

launching and implementing an initiative. The information available is also for all other EU citizens, to enable them to learn more about the ECI through best practices. The new regulation codifies the practice of partial registration of initiatives and provides a central online collection system. The regulation gives organisers more flexibility to choose the starting date for the oneyear signature collection period. For initiatives which gather sufficient support, the agreement extends the time limit for the Commission's response from 3 to 6 months. EU Member States are allowed to set the age to support an ECI at 16 if they choose to do so. To strengthen the political impact of successful initiatives, recent changes to Parliament's Rules of Procedure provide that the EP 'shall hold a debate' on such initiatives. The new rules will apply from 1 January 20201. Petitioning the European Parliament is a communication tool between the European parliament and European citizens. It may take the form of a complaint or a request and may relate to issues of public or private interest, thereby may present an individual request, a complaint or observation concerning the application of EU law or an appeal to the European Parliament to adopt a position on a specific matter2. At the EU level, petitions do not usually result in legislative action but serve as an information tool that operates in two directions. At a national level, petitions are primarily understood to serve a legislative function. Another way to influence the European Parliament is through a formal complaint to the ombudsman. The Ombudsman can be described as a mediator between citizens and institutions. The ombudsman can only issue non-binding recommendations. The presence and work of the European ombudsman improves EU democracy insofar as transparency is concerned. It does not, however, impact citizens’ ability to participate in EU decision-making. The European Commission organises public online consultations in which EU citizens can give feed1 “https://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train/theme-union-of-democratic-change/file-jd-review-of-the-european-citizens-initiative-regulation” György Schopflin, 2019 2 “http://www.europarl.europa.eu/at-your-service/en/be-heard/petitions” European Parliament 13

back on concrete proposals. They can express their views on the scope, priorities and added value of EUaction for new initiatives, or evaluations of existing policies and laws. Public consultations do not serve to give citizens any direct control over or involvement in policy-making, rather it is experts that provide knowledge and feedback1. Citizens’ Dialogues are public debates where representatives of the European Commission, the European Parliament, other EU bodies and EU decision-makers such as national, regional and local politicians, discuss with EU citizens. Citizens’ dialogues constitute more of a Commission communication strategy than an in-depth discussion with citizens. E-democracy on national and local level is the use of information and communication technologies to enhance and in some accounts replace representative democracy. Some examples of e-democracy tools in Europe are two Finish e-tools which can be used for consultation in law drafting process and policy preparation called the Otakantaa.fi and the Lausuntopalvelu.fi. Other examples are 30 municipalities in Sweden that provide opportunities to submit e-proposals or e-petitions. One of the most famous examples of e-democracy is Estonia where they started to vote online at all three types of elections (parliamentary, EU Parliament and local). In Estonia there is also an online civic participation portal, allowing citizens to engage directly in legislative and policy-making processes by proposing new pieces of legislation or by amending current legislation. In Germany citizens are able to make an online petition to the German Parliament, the Bundestag and in Slovenia there is an online participatory tool called the “I propose to the government”2.

Conflicts and actions Introduce and elaborate on the key conflicts and problems that the committee will be facing. There is no development of e-democracy tools on European level due to several challenges. E-voting for example would be a time-, effort- and money- saving alternative, however it is hard to make a fraud free system. Online participation also comes with the risk of compromising the protection of personal data and privacy. Another form of e democracy is an online platform but this comes along with the possibility of disinformation to spread. Furthermore, it is difficult to enable the participation of all citizens through e-democracy. Bearing the ECI in mind, it is hard to make all european citizens aware of the available online tools. Another obstacle is 1 "https://www.ceps.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/PI2018_14_SR_2CU%20chapter%20on%20 Pathways%20for%20Citizens%20to%20Engage%20in%20EU%20Policymaking.pdf” Sophia Russack, 2018 2 “http://www.fnf-southeasteurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/eDemocracy_Final_new. pdf” European Liberal Forum, 2017 14

the digital divide. Not all citizens have electronics to their disposal and not all generations know how to use those tools. Again looking at the ECI, it is complicated to let citizens’ know what their input is being used for and if their voice actually changed something. One of the biggest conflicts around citizen participation about the extent of citizens involvement in public decision making. Are citizens capable of making policies and decisions or should the members of local government make all decisions based on their knowledge, isolated from people’s opinion? People participation is considered as an important factor for the success and prosperity of local government3. Some would say citizens don’t have as much knowledge as experts and thus are not competent to make decisions. Furthermore, they are also more sensible to propaganda and fake news, which may influence their opinion. However, critics say as long as it is their own choice, it is a good thing.4

Key Questions 1. How can citizen participation in decision making be increased? 2. How can the ECI be improved? 3. How can e-democracy tools improve direct democracy? 4. To what extent should citizens be involved in public decision making?

Essential reading • A deeper introduction to direct democracy: “8 Principles of Direct Democracy” -Stephan Kyburz and Stefan Schlegel (https://www.cgdev.org/blog/8-principles-direct-democracy ) • Short explanation ECI https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WZW1MLajwUE • Critisism on the ECI and recommendations to improve https://www.democracy-international.org/ european-citizens-initiative-reform • More to improve the ECI https://www.aegee.org/policy-paper-on-european-citizens-initiative/ • Further information on measures in place to participate in European policy making provided by the European Union https://europa.eu/european-union/law/have-your-say_en • Requirements for e-democracy tools by the european union https://europeanmovement.eu/citizens-participation-in-the-digital-age-e-democracy/ • Further introduction on e-democracy in Europe http://www.fnf-southeasteurope.org/wp-content/ uploads/2017/11/eDemocracy_Final_new.pdf

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“https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11135-017-0565-9#Sec13” Sharifah Norazizan, 2017 “https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42438-019-00052-z” Paul R. Carr, 2019 15

Introductory Clauses The European Youth Parliament, A.

Observing that the European Commission will not consider a proposal submitted under the Euro-

pean Citizens’ Initiative unless it has at least 1 million signatures from 7 Member States, B.

Expressing its regret on the lack of sufficient follow-up of successful European Citizens’ initiatives,

Noting with deep regret the European citizens’ lack of information about the possibilities to engage

in European direct democracy, D.

Taking the absence of e-democracy at European level into account,

Aware of the absence of e-democracy in policy making on european level and the difficulties of the

implementation of e-democracy, F.

Bearing in mind the discussions around the extent of citizens involvement in policy making;

COMMITTEE ON CONSTITUTIONAL AFFAIRS II (AFCO II)

Behind closed doors: With only 12,000 out of the estimated 30,000 lobbying organisations operating in Brussels being registered in the EU voluntary Transparency Register, what measures must be taken to ensure that the activities of these groups are transparent at all steps of the policy cycle? Chairperson: Maciej Furmańczyk (PL)

Key Words • Lobbying: the act of influencing the policy-making by third party organisations. Members of NGOs, private companies or think tanks persuade the politicians to take into account the organisations’ interests and standpoint when making a decision1. • Political corruption: criminal activity undertaken by political actors, which involves their abuse of power in order to secure their posts or wealth. It is often associated with exchange of goods for certain position the politician is wished to take in certain issue2. • Transparency: refers to openness and accountability within an institution (government, parliament, NGO, think tank, private company etc.). A lobbying organisation is transparent if it provides open and accessible information about its structure, spending, whom and what interests they represent3. • Lobby register: database to which lobbying organisations sign-up. It is accessible for everyone and ensures that the lobbying organisations disclose information about their activities in the legislative process4. • Whistleblower: a person which exposes illegal and unethical activities of private and public organisations5.

1 "Green Paper: European Transparency Initiative", europa.eu, 2006 2 “Political corruption”, Transparency International Glossary 3 “What is the problem”, Alter-EU.org; “Transparency”, Transparency International Glossary 4 “Commission and European Parliament launch Joint Transparency Register to shed light on all those seeking to influence European policy”, European Commission Press Release, 2011 5 “Whistleblowing”, Transparency International Glossary 17

Difference between corruption and lobbying1.

Relevance Of The Topic We might not be aware of the significant role lobbying plays in contemporary policy-making. However, it is present in national governments and international organisations such as the European Union. Lobbyists represent the interests of various groups of the society by trying to persuade the politicians to take into account the impact legislative proposals might have on these. However, this process often happens behind closed doors, and, thus, leaves scope for unfair discussions between policy-makers and lobbying organisations. Because only these parties know whether the talks were equitable, the main criticism against lobbyism nowadays is the lack of transparency. The public is not sufficiently informed about the stages and outcomes of negotiations between the interest groups. Introducing the transparency can enhance the political progress and state-society relations, not only in terms of trust, but also of the public’s extent of participation in policy-making2. In order to improve the legislative processes in the European Union, we have to ensure that the debates between lobbyists and the EU officials are transparent. By introducing transparency we could hold them accountable in various ways: we would know the actual interests the lobbyists represent, discover potential biases emerging from personal ties with certain politicians, as well as make sure that the budgets are spent wisely and fairly. Increased transparency also has the potential to reduce corruption, which is firmly tied to the concept of non-transparent lobbying. The corrupt tendencies of various actors might have negative effects for their PR, which was visible during the Volkswagen emission scandal3, after which the fairness of lobbying in the EU was questioned4. 1 “Is Lobbying Good or Bad?”, represent.us 2 Participatory democracy - direct and individual participation of citizens in political decisions and policies. Source 3 “Volkswagen emissions scandal: mass lawsuit opens in Germany” The Guardian, 2019 4 “Volkswagen scandal puts EU lobbying under spotlight”, eubusiness.com 18

All in all, lobbying is clearly beneficial for the EU citizens and striving for it should be in their greatest interest. The general idea represented by the organisations advocating lobby transparency in the EU is that the contemporary EU policy on it - the Transparency Register - should be modified. It seems to be an effective plan, however putting it into effect is not as easy as one may think. Currently, there is no mandatory lobby register in the European Union and uniform equivalents of it in the Member States as well. This means that no lobbyist is required by law to register and, subsequently, provide the official bodies with the necessary data about their activity (lobbying motives, funding needed, representatives etc). This is not to say that the lobbying is at impasse and the issue cannot be solved - with the rise of importance of private sector in policymaking, the EU and the Member States constantly regulate lobbying and the existing measures serve as a foundation for further progress towards accountability.

Relevant Actors The responsibility for supervising the lobby register is taken by the European Parliament, the Council of the EU and the European Commision. The first two bodies are co-legislators of the European Union and are able to create new legislation or amend the existing ones. The European Commission is the executive power, which implements or proposes legislation. The transparency in lobbying is not the concern of the institutions of the European Union only. Various lobbying organisations, NGOs, private companies and trading bodies, which represent different groups of the society, can facilitate transparency by registering in the voluntary Transparency Register. The index today lists about 11,830 lobbying organisations with their names, sector they work in (research, trading, law firms etc.), legal status, address, goals and level of interest, people involved in lobbying and costs of it1. As there is no mandatory requirement for them to register, most of these have not done so. Think tanks2 and anti-corruption organisations3 are campaigning to ensure that the interest groups lobbying the EU are transparent. Such organisations are able to gather large data sets which provide the so1 â&#x20AC;&#x153;Organisations in Transparency Registerâ&#x20AC;?, EU Open Data Portal, 2019 2 One of them is Alter-EU, the primary interest of which is to ensure transparent lobbying in the EU. Their mission is available to read here. 3 For example Transparency International, which tackles corruption in politics. They publish a yearly Corruption Perception Index, which depicts the level of corruption in each country in the world. More info here. 19

ciety with clear information about transparency of lobbyists. Their research also addressed how to revise and restructure the European Transparency Register1. Lack of transparency opens up possibilities for potential whistleblowers, who would be happy to leak confidential data disclosed during discussions. The reveal of corrupt actions of some officials would lead to controversies, which would harm their position and authority of being someone in charge of international legislation. The whistleblowers serve as important figures in today’s politics - they gain large support from the society, who would like to know the truth behind “the closed doors”.

Measures in Place The institutions of the EU have taken up the idea with ensuring the transparency within lobbying. The EU Transparency Register contains data of over 11,830 organisations2, whilst the number of lobbying firms that are actually taking part in the lobbying is estimated to be at least 25,0003. The legal grounds of the current register’s existence are based in Article 11 of the Treaty on European Union, which gave way for interest representation in the policy making process4. It was mostly criticised for its voluntary nature, misleading entries and discrepancies between stated costs and the actual amounts spent for lobbying5. Because of that, Members of European Parliament (MEPs) have voted in favour of a legislation which would require them to publish their meetings with lobbyists. In this way, European Parliament made significant progress in becoming as transparent as European Commission. The latter has been publishing its lobbying information since 20146. Lobbying is not only present in the EU institutions, but also in the Member States’ governments. The issue of transparency is also important at national level - if we imagined that every Member State had any means of approach towards the lobby transparency, it would be easier to ensure a uniformity of it in the EU. Austria is one of the Member States which introduced a lobby register, however the entries are not well-detailed, so it is impossible to reach to data on eg. the lobbyists’ spendings7. There is also evidence of similar legislative initiatives in other Member States: for example Germany or France, which both have 1 “Transparency International’s assessment of the proposal for a mandatory EU Transparency Register”, Transparency International, 2017 2 “Organisations in Transparency Register”, EU Open Data Portal, 2019 3 “Lobby Planet: Our guide to the murky world of corporate EU lobbying”, Corporate Europe 4 "Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union". Official Journal of the European Union, 2008 5 “EU lobby register still failing to live up to transparency promise”, Corporate Europe Observatory, 2017 6 “Press release: European Parliament to end secret lobby meetings” Transparency International, 2019 7 ink 20

voluntary registers, but do not have sufficient data to ensure the transparency of all the lobbying firms1. Transparency is ensured not only by lobby registers, but also other projects. For example, in Poland there is a mandatory register for all the members of public administration taking management positions, including but not limited to mayors, school principals or hospital directors. They are legally obliged to state their costs and benefits throughout the year. This information is made public and increased the citizens’ trust in the governmental institutions at national and regional level2.

Lobbying register regulations in the EU3

Conflicts and Actions As European Parliament and European Commission already have some legislation pushing forward the transparency, the actions of other institutions such as Council of the EU are still mysterious to the European citizens. Because it is one of two legislative bodies in the EU, its transparency is very desired by the public. The Council is aware of this fact and its presidency has introduced some measures to tackle this issue, however they still are considered as insufficient4. 8 Member States have declared their support to the idea to increase the level of transparency in the Council of the EU, whereas the rest of them are opposing it.

1 “Transparency across the EU”, Alter-EU 2 Biuletyn Informacji Publicznej 3 “Transparency register: who is lobbying in the EU? (infographic)”, EU affairs, 2018 4 Finnish government, which is presiding the Council in this period, has put forward some measures to ensure greater transparency. They do not, however, address the fact that the preparatory bodies of the Council of the EU hold their meetings in private without any supervision from the media, let alone EU citizens. 21

One of the justifications could be as follows: members of the Council are governmental officials from Member States, who might not want to have their data exposed. Many Member States do not have any national legislation on lobbying transparency, and officials might prioritise national interests over the European values. As a result, lack of proper supervision of lobbying on a national level serves poorly the achievement of control at European level. Some actors who want to be introduced in the lobby do not have sufficient resources. Due to the lack of financial means or connections with important political figures at European level1, they are usually disregarded and outnumbered by more renowned and resourceful lobbyists. Minor institutions/ organisations have difficulties in making their voices heard and influence the policy-making process. In the Member States with some degree of transparency, the lobbying is easier for the beginners in the sector. At the same time, without such regulations in other countries, the policy makers are more likely to give access to the lobbying firms with greater influence and more resources. Recent records show that some organisations in the Transparency Register provide dataaction for new initiatives, or evaluations of existing policies and laws. Public consultations do not serve. Because there is no mechanism to check the accuracy of the figures, the register leaves open the possibility to introduce wrong or outdated information2. Based on this, the discrepant values stated in the ‘budget’ might be spent for gratifications and consequently lead to corruption, which in turn would propel the leakings of confidential data into the media by so-called whistleblowers. The scandals initialised by them very often receive extensive media coverage, in order for the public to get to know the importance of the matters that had been revealed. As a result, the exposed actors lose their support from the public, which would not happen if the transparency was ensured in the first place.

Key Questions 1. If the voluntary measures are not effective, how can we encourage further transparency in the EU institutions? 2. How can we ensure transparency of the European institutions, Member States and lobbying organisations? 3. Can lobby transparency lead to decline of corruption?

1 The phenomenon of EU and government officials moving to lobbying firms and vice versa is also known as revolving door and also is one of major issues, that are prevalent due to the lack of transparency. 2 “EU lobby register still failing to live up to transparency promise”, Corporate Europe Observatory, 2017 22

Essential reading • “Full lobby transparency now! Frequently asked questions” Alter-EU.org • “Bursting the Brussels bubble: Transparency in the EU under fire”, France 24 English, 2018 • “Transparency register: who is lobbying in the EU? (infographic)”, EU affairs, 2018 • “Transparency International’s assessment of the proposal for a mandatory EU Transparency Register”, Transparency International, 2017

Introductory Clauses The European Youth Parliament, A. Recalling Article 11 of the Treaty on European Union which emphasises the importance of participatory democracy, B. Recognising the importance of ensuring a degree of participative democracy in contemporary national and international politics, C. Noting with deep regret that European institutions such as the Council of the European Union have done little progress towards greater transparency, D. Emphasising objections of lobbying organisations to being catalogued in the Transparency Register, E. Taking into account that the Transparency Register is a voluntary initiative in which lobbying organisations can introduce inaccurate data, F. Bearing in mind the detrimental effects of lack of transparency, including but not limited to corruption and lack of accountability;

COMMITTEE ON CLIMATE CHANGE (CLIM)

Softly drowning: By the end of this century, the sea-level is expected to rise 65 centimetres due to global warming, posing as a threat to coastal populations. What measures should be taken to minimise the social, economic and environmental impact of rising sea-levels? Chairperson: Margarida Freitas (PT)

Key Words • Global Warming: a gradual increase in the earth’s average atmospheric temperature caused by gases such as carbon dioxide. Its consequences include modifications of the rainfall patterns, amplification of the coastal erosion1, lengthening of the growing season in some regions, the melting of ice caps and glaciers, and the development of different infectious diseases2. • Mean Sea-Level: the scientific term used to describe the average height of the ocean around the world. This is determined using satellite measurements of less active water to avoid any data inaccuracy caused by waves or wind3. • At-Risk-Areas: coastal areas defined by local authorities as particularly prone to the negative effects of rising tides and extreme weather4. • Extreme Weather: weather event significantly different from the average or usual pattern. Examples include flash flooding, storms, cold spells and heatwaves5.

Relevance Of The Topic For several centuries, living near the ocean has been not only a dream but also a priority for many. Yet, coastal and fluvial regions are directly influenced by climate change. Due to an increase in sea-levels caused by global warming, coastal floods could impact up to 3.65 million European citizens yearly by 2100, compared to the current figure of 102 0006. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Coastal erosion is the displacement of land along the coastline due to waves and rising tides “What is Global Warming”, Earth Observatory NASA, 2010 “Is sea-level rising?”, National Ocean Service US, 2019 “Europe's seas and coasts”, European Environment Agency, 2019 “Extreme Weather: Definition, Effects on the Economy”, The Balance, 2019 “Europe needs coastal adaptation measures to avoid catastrophic flooding by the end of the cen24

Approximately one in three EU citizens lives within 50 km of the coast and the increasing frequency of high water levels and extreme weather can have severe impacts in many locations depending on exposure. Global mean sea-level (GMSL) has been rising with acceleration in the last decades due to global warming effects1. This led to the melting of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheet at an alarming rate, as well as to continued glacier mass loss and ocean thermal expansion2. Reports indicate that the sea-levels have been rising for over a hundred years, however, in recent years, the rise has been faster than anticipated. The Paris Agreement central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels3 and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. The pact also provides a pathway for developed nations to assist developing nations in their climate mitigation and adaptation efforts4. However, despite European climate strategies, we are still behind in terms of greenhouse gas emissions targets5. Process-based models considered in the Intergovernmental

Panel

Climate

Change Report6 project a rise in sea-level over the 21st century that is likely in the range of 0.28–0.61m for a low emissions scenario and 0.52–0.98m for a high emissions scenario. Hence, if we keep our emissions at the same level, the coastal areas in the Member States of the EU will be even more affected by the sea-level rise, as indicated by the following map7: 1 “Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate”, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2019 2 Ocean water expands as it warms, filling larger volumes. The ocean absorbs more than 90 percent of the heat that greenhouse gases trap in Earth’s atmosphere, making thermal expansion a significant contributor to global sea-level rise — about one-third of the total observed. (“Understanding Sea Level”, NASA, 2018) 3 What is a pre-industrial climate and why does it matter?, The Conversation, 2017 4 What is the Paris Agreement?, United Nations Climate Change, 2018 5 EU progress towards its climate change goals (infographic), European Parliament, 2018; EU greenhouse gas emissions down 23% since 1990, still implementation will have to be further accelerated to reach current 2030 targets, European Commission, 2019 6 Fifth Assessment Report - Synthesis Report, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014 7 This map shows the estimated multiplication factor, by which the frequency of flooding events of a given height changes between 2010 and 2100 due to projected regional sea relative level rise under the RCP4.5 scenario. Values larger than 1 indicate an increase in flooding frequency Global and European Sea Level, European Environment Agency, 2017 25

The vulnerability of coastal regions is not solely linked with the relative sea-level rise since the intensity and frequency of extreme weather phenomena have also increased in recent years. According to the European Severe Weather Database over 600 tornadoes have been confirmed in Europe and the Mediterranean region in 2018 as it shows the following figure1:

These consequences of climate change can have adverse social and health effects in Europe, damage several infrastructures, and negatively impact various economic sectors. Flooding affects human health through drowning, heart attacks, injuries, infections, exposure to chemical hazards and mental health consequences. Disruption of services, including health services, safe water, sanitation and transportation ways, plays a major role in vulnerability2. Additionally, climate change is also hurting businesses that are connected to the coast, such as those working with tourism, fisheries and fossil fuels. Lately, several farms in Bangladesh, Vietnam, Egypt and other South Asian coastal countries have been reporting increased salinity levels in their soil and

1 In 2018, 628 tornadoes were reported in Europe. 172 reports were for tornadoes, 372 for waterspouts and 84 reports were not classified. Over 500 tornadoes reported in Europe and the Mediterranean region in 2018, Severe Weather Europe, 2018 2 Climate Change Impacts and Vulnerability in Europe, European Environment Agency, 2016 26

irrigation waters. For many, this has caused damage to their properties and rice production as well as a loss of livelihoods and income1. Although preventative measures and adaptation of infrastructure are expensive, recent figures demonstrate that such measures together with investment in long-term strategies will prove more cost-efficient in the end2.

Relevant Actors The stakeholders connected to this topic are many and diverse, but one thing they all have in common is that they are trying to prevent and manage the negative effects of sea-level rise and extreme weather, on the coastal populations, the environment and the economy. International Governance An important international leader in the fight against climate change is the European Union (EU), with the European Commission3 as its executive institution. The EU is actively working with other countries and regions to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement. The United Nations (UN)4 is formed of several institutions who coordinate their work with national, regional and local governments to address and assist those affected by climate change negative impact. The UN is the organisation with the most authority and powers who can successfully address climate change issues at an international level, and request immediate action from member countries. The UN Office for Disaster Reduction (UNDRR)5 seeks to reduce disaster risk by achieving sustainable development, while the World Health Organisation (WHO)6 is concerned with global public health policy and practices. The publication Flooding: Managing Health Risks in the WHO European Region shows that the WHO has been working on a range of measures to protect populati 1 Food security threatened by sea-level rise, Science Daily, 2017 2 Funding opportunities for disaster risk management within EU cohesion policy, European Commission, 2016 3 his is organised in Directorate-Generals (DGs). The DG on Climate Action is responsible for EU policy on climate action and international climate collaboration, and the DG on European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (DG ECHO) is in charge of the European Disaster Risk Management which helps the European population cope with disasters caused by severe climate discrepancies. Their work includes mapping key risks in Europe, enforcing early warning tools, research, knowledge sharing, and international cooperation Management Plan 2019, Directorate-General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (DG ECHO), 2019 4 The UN is an international organisation which can take action on the issues confronting humanity in the 21st century, such as peace and security, climate change, international collaboration, sustainable development, human rights, disarmament, terrorism, humanitarian and health emergencies, gender equality, governance, food production, and more. It is currently made up of 193 Member States. Overview - United Nations 5 Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction, United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2019 6 About WHO, World Health Organisation, 2019 27

on health care in case of flooding. Beyond prevention and preparedness, the WHO also focuses on response and recovery since, apart from the immediate deaths and injuries, floods and hazards can potentially increase the transmission of some communicable diseases, and the risk of infection of water-borne diseases contracted through direct contact with polluted waters1. National Governance EU and non-EU Member States Governments are the ones that directly decide on the budget to be allocated to areas in need, develop national, regional and local initiatives, and decide to collaborate with international organisations. Although the UN and the EU are developing several measures to reduce GHG emissions and to enhance the adaptation strategies to climate change, each Government has differentiated responsibilities according to their situations and possibilities2. NGOs After a disaster, some Humanitarian Aid Organisations such as the Red Cross, and All Hands and Hearts respond to the immediate effects of an emergency by focusing on disaster relief. The Global Climate Forum comprises institutes, insurance companies3, NGOs and individual researchers who carry out research, and organise projects on climate change and related global challenges. Affected actors The sea-level rise is one of the most severe impacts of climate change, with rising waters threatening coastal regions and, consequently, the people and businesses in the surrounding areas. Already, flooding in low-lying coastal areas is forcing people to migrate to higher ground and threatening basic services such as health assistance and access to potable water. Indonesia has already announced plans to move its capital from the climate-threatened megalopolis of Jakarta4 since it presents one of the fastest rates of rising sea-level in the world and consequently is most at risk, as it shows the map5 above. 1 Flooding and communicable diseases fact sheet, World Health Organisation, 2019 2 Combating Climate Change - Fact Sheets on the European Union, European Parliament, 2019 3 Insurance companies are part of the private sector but also represent an important stakeholder mainly for those who are exposed to sea-level rise and extreme weather in the form of direct claims related to unpredictable weather conditions 4 Indonesia announces site of capital city to replace sinking Jakarta, The Guardian, 2019 5 C40: The Future we don't want - Staying afloat: The Urban Response to Sea-Level Rise, C40 Cities, 28 2019

One of the immediate impacts of the increasing sea-level on the economy is the threat posed to the tourism industry since the frequent flooding and the destruction of beaches and coastal regions are breaking the attraction core of the tourism industry in these areas1. Furthermore, sea-level rise will lead to the loss of land, which is the basis for economic production. Some businesses are under threat of relocation and are also being forced to invest in relevant equipment and resilient infrastructures2.

Measures in Place The legal framework on this topic contains international measures such as treaties and agreements, and national, regional and local initiatives. These include preventative measures and disaster relief systems. The Paris Agreement3 is a landmark international agreement which brought together all nations for the first time in an ambitious effort to combat global warming. This was adopted in 2015 at the United Nations Climate Change Conference (UNCCC) and sets out a global action plan to put the world on track to avoid dangerous climate change by limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. Despite the 2015 Paris Agreement, global carbon emissions increased 1.7 per cent in 2017, a further 2.7 per cent in 2018 and it has been estimated that the rate of increase in 2019 will be among the highest on record. Nevertheless, the EU's nationally determined contribution under the Paris Agreement is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 40 per cent by 2030 compared to 1990, under its wider 2030 climate and energy framework. All key legislation for implementing the 2030 emissions target has already been adopted, including the increased EU's 2030 targets on renewable energy and energy efficiency. Some countries such as Russia, Saudi Arabia, The United States of America, Ukraine and Turkey are falling behind their targets4. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction5 by the UNDRR is also a notable instrument implemented from 2015 to 2030. This represents a voluntary non-binding agreement which recognizes that the State has the primary role to reduce disaster risk while continuing to share this responsibility with the private sector, local and regional governments. While some progress in building resilience and reducing losses and damages has been achieved, a substantial reduction of disaster risk requires perseverance and persistence, with a more explicit focus on people and their health and livelihoods, and regular follow-up6. 1 Effects of Rising Sea Levels, Marine Insight, 2019 2 "Business as usual" could lead to catastrophic global sea-level rise, UN Environment Programme, 2019 3 The Paris Agreement, United Nations on Climate Change, 2015 4 World Climate Change Report Card: These Countries are Meeting Goals, National Geographic, 201 5 Video - The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2016 6 Sendai Framework for Disaster Reduction, UNDRR, 2015 29

In 2013, the European Commission adopted the EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change1, welcomed by the EU Member States. This aims to enhance the preparedness and capacity of all governance levels to improve their coordination and response to the impacts of climate change. Adaptation means anticipating and foreseeing the adverse effects of climate change and taking appropriate action to prevent or minimise the damage they can cause, or taking advantage of opportunities that may arise. It has been shown that well planned, early adaptation action saves resources and lives later. In 2018 an evaluation showed that this strategy has delivered on its goals but it also outlines how Europe is still vulnerable to climate impacts within and outside its borders. At the local and regional level, measures are being adopted successfully in at-risk-areas. For example, the risk posed by rising sea-levels in the Netherlands was addressed by local initiatives such as the Rotterdam Climate Change Adaptation Strategy2 which aims to a) strengthen a robust and efficient system of flood and sea-level rise defences; b) adapt the urban space to combine its three functions: â&#x20AC;&#x153;spongeâ&#x20AC;?, protection and damage control; c) increase city resilience through integrated planning; d) foster the economy by improving the quality of life and increasing biodiversity. The EU Civil Protection Mechanism3 is a joint initiative of the Member States and six Participating States and focuses on civil protection by improving these countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; capacity to prevent and respond to environ-

mental disasters.

Conflicts and Actions Flooding in low-lying coastal areas is already forcing people to migrate to higher ground, and the UN estimates that there could be anywhere between 25 million and one billion environmental migrants by 2050. Climate change is bringing both gradual environmental change, and sudden natural disasters. Although these are likely to result in mass displacement, it is predicted that those affected might want to return to their home. However, the alarming rate of sea-level rise points towards the need for these people to consider long term migration.5 Yet, people are connected to their homes, and economic opportunities are often dependent on both networks and location-restricted resources and for that reason, communities instinctively tend to resist relocation6.Therefore, some national governments prefer to implement easy and fast short-term solutions, these help the community and reduce climate change effects, but do not offer a sustainable framework for 1 EU Adaptation to Climate Change - Climate Action, European Commission, 2018 2 C40 Good Practice Guides: Rotterdam - Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, C40 Cities, 2016 3 EU Civil Protection Mechanism, European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations, 2019 4 Iceland, Norway, Serbia, North Macedonia, Montenegro and Turkey 5 Environmental Migrants: Up to 1 billion by 2050, Foresight, 2019 6 Relocation is moving populations to inland areas where they establish new homes and economic activities 30

action. Many coastal cities are already working on adaptation measures which include building strong and sustainable infrastructures such as seawalls, rethinking transport, and planting vegetation1 to absorb the water. Rotterdam has offered a model to other cities which seek to combat flooding and land loss, with examples of barriers, drainage, and innovative architectural features2. Scientists recommended people to move from at-risk coastal areas but this is not always possible without the support of national authorities and funding. The EU and governments have not adopted such projects, and no clear declarations have been made in this regard3. As for citizens’ view of the problem, some of these proposed solutions risk facing resistance. While infrastructure improvement is very likely undisputed, measures restricting communities from ‘living by the water’ and moving their home might not be welcomed. The consequences of sea-level rise are something that usually occurs in coastal areas, but can, in theory, occur anywhere near large bodies of water such as rivers or large lakes. When disaster hits, it may cause major difficulties for the people living in the affected areas as it reduces their access to health services, clean water, sanitation and transports4. This is something that in particular will affect poorer communities as they already may be in a disadvantaged position in terms of access to these services and support systems before disasters hit. The countries who are suffering the most from climate change and specifically from rising sea-levels are poor or developing countries such as Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam5. Today, city planners, policymakers, scientists, and farmers are reinforcing embankments, innovating home design, rebuilding communities, building shelters, and cultivating salt-tolerant rice seeds, among other actions. However, some of these countries are home to some of the world’s most vulnerable coastal residents, often living in houses made from flimsy construction materials, under governments that have limited ability to provide food, water, and care when disasters strike6. Over the last decade, nearly 700 000 Bangladeshis were displaced on average each year by natural disasters7 but this number can reach 13.3 million by 20508. 1 Investing in the preservation and management of mangrove forests and other natural barriers could help protect infrastructure and lower the costs of hurricane and storm damage (Mangroves could provide a defense against rising sea levels, Earth News,2018) 2 Sea-level rise, facts and information, National Geographic, 2019 3 Climate Change: We need to start moving people away from some coastal areas, warns scientist, The Conversation, 2018 4 Floods and Health, European Environment Agency, 2016 5 Risk of sea-level rise: high stakes for East Asia & Pacific region countries, World Bank, 2018 6 Rising Seas are lapping at the shores of the world's poorest countries, Grist, 2017 7 Bangladesh IDMC, Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, 2018 8 Groundswell: Preparing for Internal Climate Migration, World Bank, 2018 31

The overall objective of the EU Civil Protection Mechanism is to prevent these situations to occur, coordinating the response to disasters in Europe and beyond1. Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Aid Organisations also play a big role in ensuring that assistance meets the needs of those affected. Also, the International Institute for Sustainable Development recently undertook a standardized review for the Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia, providing a baseline picture of national adaptation policy and practice in developing countries. Therefore, a major challenge of reaching a global deal on climate change is to find a way for poorer countries to continue developing under the planetary carbon limits that developed countries have already pushed too far since it involves scaling up finance to deploy clean technologies and to adapt to the effects of climate change2. Climate negotiations have also shown that it is often difficult to reach agreement among countries. This happens mainly because countries are economically, socially and environmentally diverse and their financial capacity to respond to climate change impacts or to act on mitigation differs, as well as the degree to which countries feel responsible for climate change3. Another reason why climate policy negotiations have deviated from an â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;idealâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; negotiation pathway is often related to the fact that investing in GHG emission reductions may well require economic restructuring with accompanying socio-economic costs which make some countries reluctant to implement these measures. Emissions Gap Report 2018 UN Environmental Programme - Key Messages shows that current commitments expressed in the National Determined Contributions4 (NDCs) are inadequate to bridge the emissions gap in 2030 and global greenhouse gas emissions show no signs of peaking. The Report mentions the major shortcomings are coverage and strictness of domestic and fiscal policies and lack of ambition and cooperation on the private sector and sub-national level. Climate change is a global problem which cannot be solved without global cooperation. The European Union is a leader within global climate policy, but its proposals and ambitious plans cannot be implemented if nations such as the US5 are unwilling to engage in global climate diplomacy.

1 EU Civil Protection Mechanism, European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations, 2019 2 Climate Change, Center for Global Development, 2018 3 Role of Countries in Climate Negotiations, Climate Policy Info Hub, 2016 4 NDCs embody efforts by each country to reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change 5 China Rises in U.N. Climate Talks, While U.S. Goes AWOL, Foreign Policy, 2019 32

Key Questions Although the EU has proved to be a leader in the fight against climate change by mostly meeting its emissions targets and adopting sustainable climate strategies, it is difficult to push for similar measures at the international level. As a result, no binding international strategies have been implemented, and countries continue to collaborate voluntarily. 1. What should be done to ensure that the Member States are equally and sufficiently prepared for sudden disaster situations? 2. Is it possible to keep the coastal populations safe only with the traditional hard engineering approaches of coastal protection? 3. Should populations and business situated on high-risk zones be relocated? 4. What further actions should the EU take to mitigate global warming?

Essential Reading • Coping with Rising Sea Levels, World Ocean Review, 2017 • Sea-level rise, facts and information, National Geographic, 2019 • Climate change: we need to start moving people away from some coastal areas, warns scientist, The Conversation, 2018 • Climate Adapt, European Commission and European Environment Agency • C40 Good Practice Guides: Rotterdam - Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and C40: The Future we don't want - Staying afloat: The Urban Response to Sea-Level Rise, C40 Cities, 2016 • Climate Change Effects - Coasts - Environment, European Commission, 2019 • Funding Opportunities for Disaster Risk Management within the EU Cohesion Policy, European Commission, 2019 • Emissions Gap Report 2018 UN Environmental Programme - Key Messages, United Nations Environmental Programme, 2018 • Adaptation to Sea-Level Rise - Video, United Nations, 2014

Introductory Clauses The European Youth Parliament, A.

Profoundly concerned that failure to meet if the Paris Agreementâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s target1s will result in many

coastal areas facing a threat from rising sea-levels, B.

Noting that projections reflect that current nation emission efforts and ambitions imply, that in

case of no change, the world will see global warming of about 3Â°C by 21002, C.

Deeply concerned that some coastal communities are not able to finance the increasing costs con-

nected to climate change, D.

Further noting with deep concern that the countries which are suffering the most from climate

change effects are poor or developing countries, E.

Observing that some European coastal citiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; infrastructures are unable to suitably cope with the

sea-level rise and extreme weather conditions, F.

Deeply alarmed that natural disasters cause major difficulties for the people living in the affected

areas through reduction of access to health services, clean water, sanitation and transport, G.

Bearing in mind that living in coastal areas is considered attractive despite the great risk of exposu-

re to the negative effects of climate change, H.

Recognising that rising sea-levels are negatively impacting various businesses that are connected

to the coast, such as those working with tourism, fisheries and fossil fuels, I.

Fully alarmed that rising sea-levels and extreme weather are increasing the probability for saltwa-

ter intrusion into still water reserves and plantation soils;

1 The Paris Agreement is an international agreement that sets out a global action plan to put the world on track to avoid dangerous climate change by limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels 2 Emissions Gap Report 2018, United Nations Environment Programme, 2018 34

COMMITTEE ON HUMAN RIGHTS (DROI)

Birth Rights: Current disparities between Member State’s legislations regarding surrogacy pose a risk to surrogate mothers and children’s rights. How should the EU protect these groups from legal loopholes and exploitation? Chairperson: Stella Naudts (NL)

Key Word • Surrogacy: a means of reproduction in which a woman endures the pregnancy for another couple with the intention that, at birth, the child and parental responsibility for it will be transferred to another person or persons, and that those person(s) will become the legal parent(s) of the child ; • Intended parents: people seeking surrogacy because they are not able to have children themselves, also called commissioning parents; • Gestational surrogacy: surrogacy in which in vitro fertilisation (IVF) is used to fertilise the egg of the intended mother for the surrogate mother; • Traditional surrogacy: surrogacy in which the surrogate mother uses her own egg to become pregnant, making her the genetic mother; • Commercial surrogacy: surrogacy whereby the surrogate mother is paid for the pregnancy; • Altruistic surrogacy: surrogacy where the surrogate mother is paid nothing for her services;

Relevance Of The Topic Due to high infertility rate in countries such as Norway and Spain, the demand for surrogacy is on the rise. More and more couples (both gay and heterosexual) who cannot have children on their own are opting for surrogacy. Most couples choosing surrogacy come from the UK, Ireland, Italy, France, Germany and Sweden.1 Because there are no existing laws regarding surrogacy that apply to every Member State, problems regarding the differences in individual Member States’ laws are occurring more often. 1

“Where in Europe is surrogacy legal?” Euronews, 2018 35

A recent example is between Spain and Ukraine. Surrogacy in Ukraine is currently the most affordable and legally secure, 1whereas in Spain surrogacy is completely banned. Therefore, Spanish intended parents travelling to Ukraine for a baby is becoming more popular. However, these newborn surrogate children and their intended parents are not allowed back into Spain. To be able to go back home, the only available solution for surrogate children and their parents is to give their children a Ukrainian citizenship.

Lack of regulation by and in the EU causes the industry of surrogacy to be a very unpredictable and dangerous industry. Because of this lack of regulation, exploitation of the surrogate mother and/or child is very much possible and does happen. Until very recently, Member States such as Germany2, the UK3 and France4 are proposing to change their laws regarding surrogacy and IVF, and feminists5 are raising attention to the large and unknown problems of surrogacy in Europe and the EU. 1 2 3 4 2019 5

“Spanish families stranded in Ukraine with their surrogate babies” Euronews, 2018 “Germany debates legalizing egg donations and surrogacy” The Local de, 2019 “Proposed changes to UK surrogacy law would ‘demean pregnancy’”, the Irish Catholic, 2019 “France debates allowing single women and lesbian couples access to IVF” the Washington Post, “Feminists call to abolish surrogacy in Europe” BioEdge, 2019 36

Relevant Actors European institutions: European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, these are co-legislators who condemn surrogacy (in Europe) by calling upon Member States to ban surrogacy. Council of Europe: a human rights organisation which also condemns surrogacy and refuses to implement international guidelines regarding surrogacy and children’s rights. European Court of Justice: they emphasise the right to private and family life (Article 8) regarding children’s rights, and discrimination and maternity leave laws do not apply to intended parents. The EU and ECtHR (European Court of Human Rights) do not specifically regulate surrogacy. Instead, the ECtHR slightly encourages travelling for assisted reproduction processes.1

Measures in Place EU law states that intended mothers who have obtained their baby through surrogacy are not necessarily allowed (paid) maternal leave or anything that resembles this. Article 2 of the Pregnant Workers Directive (92/85/EEC) (PWD) defines three categories of workers who are entitled to a minimum period of maternity leave under national law: - a pregnant worker; - a worker who has recently given birth; and - a worker who is breastfeeding. The PWD does not contain specific rules on maternity leave concerning commissioning mothers under a surrogacy arrangement. The European Court of Justice held that commissioning mothers under a surrogacy arrangement do not have the right to maternity leave under the PWD. Further, employers' refusing mothers such leave did not amount to sex or disability discrimination under EU law. Current European law also states that intended parents are not necessarily entitled to social benefits, meaning intended parents’ social rights have to be decided by individual Member State’s national court according to their own laws. But the big problem is that there are no (or very little) measures in place to regulate surrogacy in the EU Individual Member States’ legislation and laws, which is a big cause of exploitation. The EU and European Parliament do not support surrogacy because the human female body is essentially,

1 “A comparative study on the regime of surrogacy in EU Member States” (page 140) Directorate-General for Internal Policies, 2013 37

used as a commodity’ because of her reproductive functions1. In a resolution for a new policy framework in 2011, the European Parliament “asks Member States to acknowledge the serious problem of surrogacy which constitutes an exploitation of the female body”2. The United Nations of Human Rights has also created a report about the protection and rights of the children and surrogate mothers regarding surrogacy. They have put together a complete list of recommendations3 for the EU and Member States, especially to prevent the sale of children and the exploitation of the surrogate mothers. For example, one of the recommendations is for MS to implement clear and specific legislation that prevent the sale of children in the instance of surrogacy. Another example of a recommendation for the Member States is to monitor and limit the financial aspects of surrogacy agreements and contracts, to help prevent exploitation of the surrogate mother. This whole list of recommendations has been made for Member States of the EU as a guide to help regulate and better the industry of surrogacy. Because they are only recommendations, Member States are not forced to implement or use this list.

Conflicts and Actions On the one hand, critics of surrogacy argue that surrogacy leads to exploitation of the surrogate mother, and commodification of the child. Because the baby is carried by a different woman, who is often paid a large sum of money for her ‘services’, the baby can be seen and used as a commodity, and the woman solely for her reproductive functions. On the other hand, surrogacy is a means of having a baby for those either unable to have a baby due to their sexual orientation or the rising infertility rate. These couples will continue searching for ways to have a child, therefore by banning the surrogacy industry, the EU and its Member States will be encouraging the industry to go underground, which in turn only increases the dangers and problems that surrogacy already pose. Supporters of surrogacy also believe that surrogacy should be encouraged and supported by governments, because surrogacy would be a solution for the rising infertility rate causing problems regarding an equal amount of adults and elders. Surrogacy as a solution for this would result in, among others, a strong pension system, more jobs being covered and the younger generation contributing to the development of the country. Apart from exploitation and commodification, the lack of regulation in the surrogacy industry can also lead to sale of children for abuse and human trafficking. However, by closing down surrogacy markets and

1 number 115: “Report on Human Rights and Democracy and the EU's Policy” Official Journal of the European Union, 2015 2 number 20 and 21: “EU policy framework to fight violence against women” Official Journal of the European Union, 2011 3 “Safeguards for the protection of the rights of children born from surrogacy arrangements” United Nations Human Rights, 2018 (list at the end of the article) 38

industries in places such as India, Nepal and Thailand1, new surrogacy industries can arise in other places such as in Ukraine and Kenya, where the lack of regulation is just as big of a problem as in the former closed industries. International surrogacy entails that a couple goes in search of a surrogate mother in another country. This can lead to legal issues regarding the nationality of the child. Some surrogate children with the nationality of their intended parents, are not allowed out of the country where they have been born. In addition to this, often intended parents suffering from such legal issues can not afford a process or trial in order to justify their own and their child’s rights. Such processes with the European Court of Justice and the European Court of Human Rights are extremely expensive and can take up to a few years to complete. In addition to this, to win such a process would mean that the law regarding the surrogate parents’ and childrens’ rights must be certain. However, due to the lack of regulation, attention and overall laws for surrogacy, the processes take extremely long and are often ineffective. Emotional issues may also include the surrogate mother eventually wanting to keep the child, the surrogate mother having to give up her parental rights after the long carrying and birth, or the child wanting to find her surrogate and possibly biological mother.

Key Questions 1. How should the EU protect surrogate mothers and children from exploitation and legal loopholes? 2. How should the EU minimise the differences between individual Member States’ laws regarding surrogacy? 3. How should the EU increase regulation of the surrogacy market? 4. How should the EU prevent exploitation and commodification of surrogate mothers and children without increasing the dangers and risks of the surrogacy industry?

Essential Reading • “Where in Europe is surrogacy legal?” Euronews, 2018 • “Institutions and Bodies” European Union, 2018 • “Ukraine: a new surrogacy hotspot” BioEdge, 2018 • “Ukraine's baby factories: The human cost of surrogacy” Al Jazeera, 2018

“Nepal Joins India and Thailand in Commercial Surrogacy Ban” ConceiveAbilities, 2016 39

Introductory Clauses The European Youth Parliament, A. Aware of the rise of popularity of surrogacy, B. Noting with regret the lack of regulation regarding the surrogacy industry in the EU resulting in high risk of exploitation, commodification, sale of children and human trafficking, C. Deeply concerned by the risk of exploitation of surrogate mothers, and commodification of the surrogate mother and child12, D. Keeping in mind the discrepancies between Member States’ legislation concerning: 1. the legal status of surrogate children, surrogate mothers and intended parents, 2. the legality of and legal support for surrogate mothers, E. Concerned by difficulties regarding the nationality of the surrogate child, F. Keeping in mind the emerging of new surrogacy markets due to the outlawing of other surrogacy markets, G. Noting with regret the lack of support for new intended parents and surrogate mothers after birth by governments;

1 " New EU policy framework to fight violence against women” (20, 21) Official Journal of the European Union, 2011 2 “Surrogacy outside the Netherlands” Government of the Netherlands 40

COMMITTEE ON EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS (EMPL)

Future of work: The rise of automation brings with itself the threat of rising unemployment. How can the EU Member States adapt their educational system to overcome the potential hazards to traditional professions brought on by new technology? Chairperson: Christian Dimitrov (CH)

Key Terms and Actors • Automation1 is the creation of technology and its application in order to control and monitor the production and delivery of various goods and services. It performs tasks that were previously performed by humans. Automation is being used in a number of areas such as manufacturing, transport, utilities, defense, facilities, operations and lately, information technology. • Digital transformation2 is the process of using digital technologies to create new — or modify existing — business processes, culture, and customer experiences to meet changing business and market requirements. This reimagining of business in the digital age is digital transformation. • ICT (Information and Communication Technology)3 refers to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications. It is similar to Information Technology (IT), but focuses primarily on communication technologies. • Skill gap4 is the difference in the skills required on the job and the actual skills possessed by the employees •

Relevance Of The Topic Ever since the industrial revolution, processes have gradually been automated in order to increase efficiency and profit. When processes, which in the past were executed by people, get automated, jobs get lost. Nevertheless, we also gain new jobs in the development, maintenance and use of these new technologies. Currently, we are situated in the midst of the technological revolution, where many of our widely know 1 2 3 4

Definition - What does Automation mean?, techopedia What is digital transformation, Salesforce ICT, Techterms Skill Gap Definition, mbaskool 41

jobs are gradually being replaced by machines. In the past years, one of the most proximate automations that we have been experiencing are the ones in supermarkets. More and more “self-checkout” machines have been installed across Europe and many other countries. In other words, a staggering number of cashiers are being replaced by “self-checkout” machines. Furthermore it must be noted, that these automation processes are happening across all industries. From the trucking industry, retail industry, manufacturing industry, all the way to the healthcare industry1. While estimates vary, to how many workers could be replaced by automation, it is estimated that between 46-60%2 of all workers could be replaced by 2030. Considering the fact, that the jobs most likely to be replaced require little to no education and are very repetitive, it will be the lower working class that will be most affected by automation. This will create a skill gap, which with the further automation3 of processes will only widen. Herewith, in order to avoid mass unemployment, the question arises how this skill gap can be bridged and how the educational system should be transformed in order to better prepare the youth of today for a digital and modern labour market.

Relevant Actors European commission: The european commission is the legislative body of the EU. It can give legislative initiative to the Member States. Herewith it can give proposals to the Member States for potential action on their educational systems. EU citizens: With the increasing automation in the economy, more and more low-skilled jobs are being automated. It is up to the citizens of the EU to actively seek to enhance their skills (e.g. ICT and STEM) and knowledge, in order to qualify for the jobs of the future. 1 2 3

These are the industries most likely to be taken over by robots, Weforum, 2019 Technology, globalisation and the future of work, IPPR, 2015 Technology, globalisation and the future of work, IPPR, 2015 42

Member states: As it is not within the mandate of the European Commission to implement legislature on the educational systems of the EU Member States, the Member States will be responsible to implement their own measures in accordance with the European Commission. Companies: With the automation of processes and the labour transformation, companies will gradually require more digital skills from their employees. Herewith, a good way for employees to reskill and develop new competences would be by company provided trainings. Online learning platform: An online learning platform is an integrated set of interactive online services that provide trainers, learners, and others involved in education with information, tools and resources to support and enhance education delivery and management. It plays a significant role as it is a tool for skills development accessible to anyone. The United Nations is another major actor, as the 4th SDG focuses on the sustainable Education of all in the whole world. More specifically, the target 4.41 focuses on adequate ICT skill development in educational systems.

Measures in place The EU has undertaken action under the Horizon 2020 programme to support the use of technology and the development of digital competences in education with its “digital education” action plan. digital education action plan, the EU will undertake a series of 11 different actions, which are divided into 3 main categories2: The first category being “Making better use of digital technology for teaching and learning” the EU wants to ensure that schools are sufficiently equipped to accommodate digital education. The second category “Developing digital competences and skills” focuses on the implementation of coding and use of digital skills in secondary and higher education. The third and final category “Improving education through better data analysis and foresight” puts its focus on the evaluation of the digital education while actively monitoring it and using data to further improve it. With these three categories, the EU hopes to be able to better prepare the youth for a digital world. In addition to the Horizon 2020 plan, the EU also set out a strategy for “high quality, inclusive, future-oriented education”. In this strategy, it sets out key areas for development of educational systems in EU Member States for schools and higher education. In relation to the further development of schools, the EU sees room for improvement of the inclusiveness and governance of schools, as well as an improvement of the 1 2

Sustainable Development goal 4.0, United Nations Digital Education Action Plan l Education and Training, European Commision 43

quality of teachers1. Whilst for schools, the EU only suggests general improvements, its development areas set out for the higher education are more targeted towards digitalization and automation. Suggesting that higher education institutions should aim to leave graduates with the skill sets they need for a modern economy2. Besides these 2 EU strategies and action plans, different Universities have taken matters into their own hands, creating designated programs, such as ETHZ3 and MIT4, to better accommodate the needs of a transforming labour market, by giving opportunities for further depthening into specific departments.

Conflicts and Actions Taking into consideration, that in recent years the world has become increasingly more automated and interconnected, the labour market is also experiencing a digital transformation. Nevertheless, with the digital transformation of the labour market, the education system has to be correspondingly adapted and the rising skill gap has to be diminished. Education system The education system is variable in all the countries in the EU. Whilst Finland proves to have one of the best educational systems, countries like Slovakia and Latvia are rather weaker in their education5. In spite of that, just like the transforming labour market, the educational system also needs to be transformed and adapted to a digitized and automated world. Herewith, it is important that ICT, logical thinking and STEM skills be developed in class. Nevertheless, technology (computers, beamers, internet connection), as well as ensuring that the teachers can competently use these technologies themselves comes at an extra cost. It is essential that teachers have completed digital teaching trainings, in order to ensure that they are digitally confident and can thus incorporate use of technology adequately into their classes. In this sense it should be accounted for, that incorporating technology into schools and their curricula is not cheap and while some countries within the EU have the capacity to do so on a national scale, others might not have the same capacities. Besides basic ICT skills, another important step would be including coding into the school curricula. With the increasing digitization of the world, coding becomes an essential skill, as the demand for programmers and coders is rapidly rising. Currently 9 EU countries have included this subject into their primary school curricula and 15 EU countries already have it in their secondary school curricula6. 1 Youth initiative: Commission sets out strategy for high quality, inclusive, future-oriented education, European Commision, 2017 2 Youth initiative: Commission sets out strategy for high quality, inclusive, future-oriented education, European Commision, 2017 3 CAS ETH in Advanced Materials and Processes (CAS ETH AMaP), ETHZ 4 THE FUTURE OF WORK?, European Commission 5 The Study.EU Country Ranking 2018 for International Students, Study.eu, 2018 6 Infographic: Coding at school - How do EU countries compare?, Euractiv, 2015 44

Skill gap The automation of basic processes, is threatening to unemploy a growing amount of low skilled people, whilst at the same time increasing the demand for more high skilled people and thus the skill gap is gradually growing. Furthermore, it must be noted that it is not only low skilled jobs that are being replaced, but that depending on the industry also high skilled jobs are in threat of being automated1. Herewith it becomes essential, that the employees, as well as in general EU citizens have sufficient platforms in order to reskill. In this sense, there are several ways to do this. The first being through online learning platforms. Online learning platforms like skillshare 2pose the perfect opportunity for people to improve their skills or even develop new skills at home, as it is directly accessible on the computer. Another way to develop new skills is through designated trainings. Whilst one can go to training on his own, it is usually hard to find time next to work to attend one. For this reason, employers can send their employees to trainings. Nevertheless, it must be considered that both online learning tools and trainings come at an extra cost, which can make reskilling unattractive and pricy for some people. For an employer it might be easier to higher a better skilled person than to reskill an existing one. If an employer chooses to do this, then the skill gap increases.

Key Questions 1. What key competences will EU citizens be required in a modern digitized economy? 2. How can the educational system of the Member States best prepare the youth for a digitized economy? 3. How can the use of online learning platforms better be promoted amongst EU citizens? 4. What incentives can be created for employers to reskill their current employers rather than replace them with new and better skilled ones?

Essential Reading • THE FUTURE OF WORK?, European Commission • Threats and opportunities from automation and robotisation, European Commission • Technology, globalisation and the future of work, IPPR, 2015 • Digital Education Action Plan l Education and Training, European Commision • POLICY STATEMENT – ADAPTING EUROPEAN EDUCATION SYSTEMS TO MEET SOCIETY’S CHALLENGES IN AN EVER CHANGING WORLD, Lifelong Learning Platform, 2017 • Preparing for Education 4.0, Times Higher Education

1 Research: Automation Affects High-Skill Workers More Often, but Low-Skill Workers More Deeply, Harvard Business Review, 2019 2 Skillshare, Skillshare 45

Introductory Clauses The European Youth Parliament, A. Acknowledging the development areas set out by the action plan on digital education from the Horizon 2020 programme, B. Deeply alarmed by the widening digital skill gap1 in the European Union, C. Alarmed by estimates suggesting 54%2 of the current workforce will need significant reskilling by 2022, D. Deeply conscious of the gradual increase of unemployment in the EU caused by automation, E. Noting with regret that only the educational systems in 15 Member States include coding in their school curricula, F. Bearing in mind the lack of technology used in primary and secondary education, G. Emphasizing on the importance of digitally skilful teachers, H. Regretting that lack of private use of online learning platforms due to their costs by EU citizens;

1 2

These are the industries most likely to be taken over by robots, Weforum, 2019 These are the industries most likely to be taken over by robots, Weforum, 2019 46

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY (ENVI)

Beyond Recycling: Following the ban on single-use plastics in the EU by 2021, some argue that more measures are needed to combat environmental degradation. What steps should be taken to promote alternative waste management methods, especially for municipal waste? Chairperson: Sophie Schubert (DE)

Key Words • Single use plastic: As the term single use plastics suggests, they are meant for one time use and thrown away after. They are also known as disposable plastics and can be anything from plastic bags, straws, bottles to food packaging1. • Environmental degradation: Describes a process in which the earth's environment and natural resources are being weakened and as a result cause a decrease in biodiversity and health of the environment. Human activity intensifies this process, however it can be entirely natural, too2. • Municipal waste: Includes household waste and waste similar to it in form and consistency3. Municipal waste can be but is not limited to food, paper, batteries or bulkier items such as mattresses or even leaves and yard waste. Not included is waste such as industrial waste or municipal sewage waste. • Climate change: Over decades or even longer weather patterns can and do change, resulting in changes in the oceans, land and ice. This can be entirely natural, yet also caused by human4s. Human caused climate change has emerged in recent centuries and impacts the natural process strongly, thus resulting in drastic temperature rises, mass extinctions and unpredictable natural disasters.

Relevance Of The Topic Human-caused climate change has become one of the youth’s biggest fears. Started by Greta Thunberg, Fridays For Future have emerged all around the globe with the motivation to raise awareness on the issue at hand. Following these events and the continuous pressure of scientists and the public, changes have 1 2 3 4

“What is Single Use Plastic” Plastic Free Challenge, Date of Publication unknown “Environmental degradation” General Multilingual Environmental Thesaurus, 2019 “Guidance on municipal waste data collection” Eurostat, 2017 “What is climate change?” Australian Academy of Science 47

been

introduced

governments and are slowly being implemented. One of them will be the ban of single use plastics by 2021. Nevertheless,

this

not

enough to stop climate change or to combat the damage that has already been done to the environment. At this point, approximately 29.4 million hectares of forestland have been cleared in the year 2017 alone1 with numbers rising. The World Health Organisation (WHO) understands that 80%2 of urban residents are exposed to air pollution levels higher than recommended. Whilst it is of key importance to take instances such as travelling and dietary behaviours into consideration, waste management also plays a key role in air and water pollution. It impacts the overall health of the environment, sustainability and the wellbeing of the wider population. Looking at countries such as India3, one can see that if waste management is not taken seriously even diseases affecting human health can be caused. Thoroughly carried out waste management can be a strong force in combating such diseases. Additionally alternative waste management is a means of counteracting the damages of environmental degradation. Of course one cannot undo the leakage of landfills or the pollution of air that has already occured, however one can ensure that for example landfills become less of a wide spread waste disposal option. If not for the environment for whom, other than ourselves, are we going to start making changes?

1 “World is losing vital forests quicker than ever” DW.com, 2018 2 “Air Pollution Issue Globally” World Health Organization, 2018 3 “World Health Day 2018: Inefficient Management Of Waste Is A Cause of Deadly Diseases” Banega Swasth India, 2018 48

Relevant Actors European Commision (EC): has implemented a circular economy package1 which entails reworked legislative proposals on waste in order to further strengthen the EU´s waste management strategy2. Further the EC has the competences to draft and implement legislations therefore making them legally binding for all Member States, meaning they have to then implement the changes made in for example waste management styles. Member States (MS): responsible for implementing directives, regulations and legislations proposed by the European Commision. Often times Member States are the cause for citizens inability to actively participate in waste management as it is the MSs choice to what extent regulations and such will be put in place. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO3): The FAO is highly invested in sustainable development as well as combating environmental degradation.The FAO also provides and links information for individuals and cities on how to successfully reduce waste with a special focus on food waste4. The council of European Municipalities (CEMR)5: Organisation of local and regional municipalities with members from more than 50 national associations representing the needs and wants of more than 100,000 local and regional authorities. Committee of the Regions (CoR)6: an advisory body that represents the needs and interests of local and regional authorities in the European Union. One member of this body is always invited to discussions of the Parliament committee meetings, also prepared by the CoR is an impact assessment which it will present to the European Parliament in regards to issues discussed. Association of Cities and Regions for sustainable Resource management (ACR+):7 an international network of members who share the common wish to promote sustainability within resource and waste management based on the principles of sustainable development, prevention and recovery of waste and encouraging partnerships between public authorities, the private sector and the public.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

“Circular Economy” European Commission, 2019 “Review of Waste Policy and Legislation” European Commission, 2019 “Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)”, FAO “Global Food Waste Management: An Implementation Guide for Cities” FAO, 2018 “The Council of European Municipalities and Regions (CEMR)” CEMR “European Committee of the Regions (CoR)” CoR “Association of Cities and Regions for sustainable Resource management” ACRplus 49

Measures in Place In a collective effort to combat climate change, its past and future damages and to preserve its natural resources the EU has put in place the 7th Environment Action Plan (EAP)1. It is meant to be a guide in the EU's environmental policy making until 2020. Past EAPs have proven to be successful in terms of policy making and recognition of environmental protection2 however not at the level that they need to be. Consequently, Member States have started to implement and research their own technologies and actions plans. At this point it is useful to mention the Green Dot System (GDS)3 invented by Germany and replicated by many. The GDS aims to hold producers accountable for their production cost and impact on the environment. The more packaging is used on a product, the more the producers will be asked to pay for it. As it is not all about the providers of goods and services like the producers themselves or the countries one needs to consider, what can the individual do? With a longing to decrease the use of plastic packaging or any packaging at all, zero waste or packageless shops have been introduced in many major cities. The customer is required to bring their own containers and many zero waste shop owners are very concerned with transportation methods, the locality of supplies and sustainability of products4. The above mentioned are primarily waste management processes that regard packaging and the reduction of such. However, packaging is not the only issue when it comes to managing municipal waste. Plastic bottles are also becoming an increasing concern. Italy has now introduced a system that allows citizens to exchange a certain amount of plastic bottles for a train ride ticket5 in aims to raise awareness on the matter as well as reducing the circulation of plastic bottle waste. With the world continuing to create more waste every year6, new measures and technologies are introduced every day. It is important to think critically if they are useful and which impacts they will have not only in the near future but the long haul.

1 “Environment Action Programme to 2020” European Commission, 2019 2 “Evaluation” European Commission, 2019 3 “The Green Dot System” Ainia Packaging Technical Guide, 2016 4 “ The zero-waste revolution: how a new wave of shops could end excess packaging” The Guardian, 2019 5 “Rome metro offers trash-for-tickets to tackle plastic pollution” Euronews, 2019 6 “An Infographic: What a Waste 2.0” Worldbank Groups, 2019 50

Conflicts and Actions Many reasons can lead to Member States and citizens being uninformed of the importance and impact of waste and waste management. In the following some conflicts surrounding the issue of municipal waste management shall be examined. Conflicts may vary from differences in prioritisation to a lack of knowledge or or even economic capabilities of Member States. Beginning with a lack of knowledge: The level of education changes from Member State to Member State, very much depending on the Member Statesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ability to educate, their school system and again their priorities in teaching. As students are meant to be taught valuable life lessons in school, schools or schooling systems which neglect to do so for example in regards to specifically waste management or climate change or do not see the importance of the issue,will result in students leaving school without having learnt about such issues at all. Surely one can educate themselves outside of school, however, one also cannot expect of all people to have access to other means of education. Once transitioning into adulthood information still needs to be made accessible if there is a wish for continuous education on the matter or any matter. Thus leading to a general lack of access to information as well as a lack of education. However, not every institution or every Member State has the financial means of effectively managing waste. Waste management heavily relies on financial resources, whether it be a private person or a Member State. Processing waste is expensive. Looking Germany's for example,a wealthy country with lots of financial powers as well as influential power and the ability to inform its citizens if there is a wish to do so. Moving to another country, for instance Turkey. Turkey has a high unemployment rate, high inflation and a little GDP. Thus leading to Turkeyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s inability to provide sufficient waste management1 to its citizens, who themselves are not necessarily wealthy and therefore have to rely on their government to provide the goods and services. As a result of such issues a difference in prioritisation of issues can occur. The ability to provide families with enough financial support to put dinner on the table will be regarded as a more crucial necessity than effective waste management. Until Member States have the financial means to address waste management without disregarding its citizens other needs, they will continue to prioritise other issues. Lastly, another factor playing into the prioritisation of issues for many Member States is the lack of incentive given to them to make changes. This often occurs in weaker economies as they see a greater advan1 "Municipal waste management in Turkey" European Environment Agency, 2015. 51

in expanding businesses and markets. Yet, countries such as Singapore1 and Germany have shown that waste management can also be considered a business and a successful one too with Germany's waste management industry generating 2 billion euros in revenue in 2016.2 In addition most waste is toxic3 and oftentimes dumped in landfills which can leak and pollute groundwater. Even though regulations are in place to prevent such leakings, monitoring of landfills leaves room for improvements4. Furthermore newer technologies declared to be eco friendly are not very eco friendly at all or at least not to the extent that it is beneficial to the environment. Even though recycling technologies like gasification5 or pyrolysis6 generate energy by burning waste with little to no oxygen flow, the burning of waste creates emits not only toxic ash into the environment but also highly pollutes the air7. In the end, one can very clearly tell that this issue is rather complex and cannot be easily swept under the rug. In order to find solutions for the conflicts at hand, one must start thinking outside the box.

Key Questions 1. Are there creative approaches to waste management and how effective are they? 2. Are there measures that have proven to work well for the individual citizen? Is there an opportunity to make such measures available for the broad community? 3. Is there a possibility to make waste management a profitable business in order to make it less expensive and create an incentive for Member States to invest in it? 4. To what extent do education and wealth play impact the ability to manage waste efficiently?

Essential Reading • “What is waste disposal” , Rinkesh (unknown): https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/various-waste-disposal-problems-and-solutions.php • “The cost of keeping Singapore squeaky clean”, Tom McDonald (29.10.2018): https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20181025-the-cost-of-keeping-singapore-squeaky-clean

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

“The cost of keeping Singapore squeaky clean” BBC, 2018 “Germany´s waste problem: Recycling is´t enough” dw.com, 2018 “Toxic waste, explained” National Geographic, 2019 “What is solid waste management” Conserve Energy Future, Date of Publication unknown “Gasification” Science Direct, 2015 “Pyrolysis” Brittanica, 2018 “What is Waste Disposal?” Conserve Energy Future, Date of Publication unknown 52

• “How Sweden is turning its waste into gold”, France 24 English (12.01.2018): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=14r7f9khK70 • “15 Things you didn't know about the Waste Management Industry”, Alux.com (09.01.2019): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gf3cTGmvN7s (start at 4:47) • “Plastic waste and the recycling myth” Katharina Wecker (12.01.2018): https://www.dw.com/en/plastic-waste-and-the-recycling-myth/a-45746469 • ”Being wise with waste: the EU’s approach to waste management”: https://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pdf/WASTE%20BROCHURE.pdf

Introductory Clauses The European Youth Parliament, A. Supporting the definition of Municipal Waste of the European Commision1, B. Deeply concerned by the environmental degradation caused by inefficient waste management, C. Realising that Member States have various approaches to waste management differing in: 1. Effectiveness of waste management, 2. Ability to improve waste management, 3. Concern for waste and waste management, D. Noting the lack of knowledge2 amongst citizens in regards to waste and waste management, E. Regretting the lack of environmentally friendly waste management technologies3, F. Alarmed by sparse monitoring of waste disposal technologies currently in place4;

1 Definition of Municipal Waste: “Municipal waste covers household waste and waste similar in nature and composition to household waste.” European Commission/ Eurostat, 2017 2 “Waste education and awareness strategy: towards solid waste management (SWM) program at UKM” Procedia Social and Behavioural Science, 2012 3 “What is Waste Disposal” Conserve Energy Future, Date of Publication unknown 4 “Waste Management in Europe: Main Problems Identified in the EU Petitions and Best Practices (Updated Version)” European Parliament, 2018 54

COMMITTEE ON CIVIL LIBERTIES, JUSTICE AND HOME AFFAIRS (LIBE)

States of Addiction: While drugs remain a complex social and health problem all over the EU, the Member States have tackled the issue with a wide variety of approaches. What stance should the EU take on the discrepancy of drug policies between Member States, in order to reduce drug addiction and trafficking? Chairperson: Claudia Quinn (UK)

Key Words • Decriminalisation: Decriminalisation means that the criminal penalties imposed for drug use are eradicated; citizens may still be fined or face other penalties for drug possession, but cannot be arrested or given a criminal record1. • Legalisation: drug users face no legal penalty at all. • Harm reduction: A strand of drug policy encompassing interventions, programmes, and policies that seek to reduce the health, social, and economic harms of drug use to individuals. It has been associated with the treatment of drug addicts as patients that need help rather than criminals that need punishment2. Policies include, but are not limited to, the provision of drug consumption rooms3, substitution therapy4, and encouraging users to seek treatment instead of issuing criminal charges. • Illicit drug: a drug that acts upon the central nervous system to alter brain function, the production, sale, and possession of which is prohibited5. • Drug trafficking: A global illicit trade involving the cultivation, manufacture, distribution, and sale of prohibited drugs6, especially across borders.

1 ‘The difference between legalisation and decriminalisation,’ The Economist, 2014 2 ‘The EU Drugs Strategy’ House of Lords European Union Committee, 2012 3 Drug consumption facilities are places where illicit drugs can be used under the supervision of trained staff and connect high-risk drug users with addiction treatment and other health and social services. 4 Substitution therapy provides illicit drug users with a prescribed medicine as a replacement drug, which is administered in a supervised clinical setting. 5 ‘A summary of the health harm of drugs,’ UK Department of Health, 2011 6 ‘Drug Trafficking,’ UNODC, 2019 55

Relevance Of The Topic In light of the $1.1 billion worth of cocaine seized by German authorities in August 2019 that marked the single largest haul in German history1, the extent of drug use and trafficking in the EU has been thrust into the public eye. Drug misuse reaches an increasingly large section of EU citizens, with nearly 20% of 15-24 year olds having reported using cannabis in the last year, though the use of more harmful substances such as cocaine is significantly lower. Many academics and analysts are critical of EU-level responses to drug addiction, citing fundamental disparities in Member States’ approaches, particularly when it comes to the decriminalisation or legalisation of cannabis2, which remains a hot topic of debate in Member States. For instance, Luxembourg recently became the first country to fully legalise cannabis3, whilst Sweden maintains strong criminal penalties for drug possession, including cannabis4. Other analysts have also noted shortfalls in the EU’s provision of effective harm reduction and treatment, where we can also see great disparities between Member States’ policies5. Drug trafficking is hugely significant to the supply of drugs in Europe; with just 4% of cannabis being grown here, compared to 54% grown in the Americas6. However, it should also be noted that drug produc-

1 2019 2 3 4 5 6

‘$1.1 billion worth of cocaine disguised as soybeans seized by German authorities,’ CBS News, Portugal’s radical drug policy is working. Why hasn’t the world copied it?, the Guardian, 2017 ‘Meet the first European country to legalise cannabis: Luxembourg,’ Health Europa, 2019 ‘Drug policy in Sweden: a repressive approach that increases harm,’ Transform, 2019 European Drug Report 2019: trends and developments, EMCDDA ‘EU’s response to drugs-Strategy and Action Plan,’ European Commission 56

Fortunately, policy makers at EU level are noting the importance of drug trafficking, which is now one of Europol’s priority crime areas under the 2018-2021 EU Policy cycle. As a result, it appears the quantities of drugs seized at EU borders are peaking1. Nonetheless, new technology is changing the face of Europe’s drug addiction problem. Just as technology such as social media makes everyday life easier for ordinary EU citizens, it has also increased the ease of access to the drug market for consumers and producers; for instance, social media can expand consumer bases, and cryptocurrencies2 allows for increased anonymity in transactions3. In fact, it is estimated that ⅔ of offers on darknet market are drug-related4. All of this means that the availability of drugs, specifically cocaine, is at an all-time high5. Considering these additional challenges that EU policy must accommodate and that the final evaluation of the EU drugs strategy, which began in 2013, is due in 2020, this is an ample opportunity to be discussing Europe’s policies on drug trafficking and addiction.

Relevant Actors Europol is the European Union’s criminal law enforcement agency6. In relation to drugs, Europol maintains networking and cooperation within and across the EU’s knowledge infrastructure7, to form a more coordinated strategy of law enforcement, which is especially important in relation to drugs trafficking. Civil society organisations such as the Open Society Institute or the International Harm Reduction Association either assist in, or even, in certain countries, are the sole providers or harm reduction policies8. They may also help to address some of the root causes for drug addiction, such as trauma, social exclusion, psychological problems (anxiety, depression etc.), and poverty9. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) generally play a role in drug demand reduction. This can come in many forms, such as educating citizens about the dangers of drug use and addiction, the provision of

1 European Drug Report 2019: trends and developments, EMCDDA 2 Cryptocurrencies are virtual currencies that allow for virtually anonymous electronic cash transactions between users. Crucially, they have no central bank or government to manage the system, meaning transactions are hard to trace. 3 European Drug Report 2019: trends and developments, EMCDDA 4 ‘Drugs and the darknet: Perspectives for enforcement, research, and policy’ 5 European Drug Report 2019: trends and developments, EMCDDA 6 ‘About Europol,’ Europol 7 ‘Mid-term assessment of the EU drugs strategy 2013-2020 and final evalutaion of the action plan on drugs 2013-2016,’ RAND Health quarterly, 2018 8 ‘Harm reduction investment in the European Union: Current spending, challenges, and successes,’ Harm Reduction International, 2017 9 ‘Europeal Drug Report: Trends and developments,’ EMCDDA 57

rehabilitation services for addicts, and the provision of counsellors1. For example, the Regenboog Group is an Amsterdam-based NGO that alleviates social problems, including drug addiction, using methods such as providing psychosocial support, drug consumption rooms, and providing clean needles for addicts.2 Member States have competence over health and national law enforcement policies. In the case of health, this is a shared competence with the EU3, which tends to result in Member States having significant control over this policy unless it would be more effective to tackle a given issue at EU level. This has led to a stark diversion between the drug policies of Member States, in terms of harshness; focus, by which is meant whether drugs are seen as a crime or a health issue; and education about drugs. The European institutions, namely the European Commission and the Council of the European Union are integral actors. This is because aspects of drug policy, especially drug trafficking, can be better dealt with at EU level than by national or local government. It is the Commission that will initiate any such legislation on the topic and the Council of the European Union that has competence over foreign policy, so can make agreements between the EU and third countries for dynamic policy. The main technical and policy forum to facilitate the joint efforts of the Commission and Member States is the Council of the European Union’s Horizontal Drugs Group, which meets once a month4. The EU Policy Cycle for organised and serious international crime brings together law enforcement authorities of EU Member States, EU institutions and agencies, third countries, international organisations, and public and private partners to address drug trafficking (among other things) in a coordinated manner5.

Measures in Place The EU cooperates with third countries internationally to deal with drug trafficking. COPOLAD (Cooperation Programme between Latin America, the Carribbean, and the European Union on Drugs Policies) is a regional cooperation programme on drugs policies with Latin America and the Caribbean, the Cocaine Route Programme is active in more than 40 countries in West Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean, the Central Asia Drug Action Programme6. The Internal Security Fund of 1 billion € assists to facilitate third-country cooperation by providing funding for projects relating to drug supply, including cross-border cooperation against drug production and trafficking, but also the development of new approaches to 1 2 3 4 5 6

‘Role of NGOs in Drug Demand Reduction,’ UNODC ‘Sichting De Regenboog Groep,’ ERASMUS, 2015 ‘FAQ on the EU competences and the European Commission powers,’ European Commission Harm Reduction: evidence, impacts, and challenges,’ EMCDDA, 2010 ‘EU’s Response to drugs-strategy and action plan,’ European Commission ‘EU’s Response to drugs-strategy and action plan,’ European Commission 58

understand drug markets and the improvement of drug law enforcement1. To reduce the availability of drugs, the European Blockchain Observatory and Forum helps to identify and provide analysis of emerging issues2 to do with blockchain and cryptocurrency, including those relating to the misuse of blockchain for illicit drug financing. Given the potential of this technology to significantly ease drug transactions, further research into this issue could help towards decreasing the availability of drugs. All Member States have attempted to reduce drug addiction through harm reduction policies, but these policies are integrated to varying levels of success3. For instance, drug users in Portugal can be forced to attend classes aimed at getting them back on the straight and narrow4. Member states, normally at local levels through civil society organisations, also have various health and social approaches to combating drug addiction, such as attempting in various ways to integrate marginalised individuals. The Civil Society Forum on Drugs (CSFD) was created by the European Commission to ensure civil society organisations are connected with the European Commission in policy formulation and implementation5. The levels of drug addiction may also be determined by the legal status of drugs illegal, decriminalised, legal for medical purposes, legal for recreational use) and consequent punishments regarding possession. This particular measure is one that is constantly changing and under debate, with, for instance, Luxembourg being the first European country to fully legalise cannabis in August 20196.

Actions in Place Strategies adopted by Member States to combat drug addiction remain diverse. The first area this can be seen is in harm reduction policies. Though there are harm reduction policies present in all EU countries, these are far from evenly applied, with a ‘funding crisis’ surrounding their implementation in Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Greece, and Hungary7. Further, harm reduction encapsulates an umbrella of policies, ranging from simple rehabilitation to drug consumption rooms. The specific policies in place in each Member State provides a reflection of moral, social, and political attitudes towards drugs, with some countries viewing harm reduction policies as encouraging drug use and hence, addiction. 1 ‘Drug policy initiatives,’ European commission 2 ‘Renewal of European Blockchain Observatory Forum,’ European Commission, 2019 3 ‘Harm reduction investment in the European Union: Current spending, challenges, and successes,’ Harm Reduction International, 2017 4 The difference between legalisation and decriminalisation,’ The Economist, 2014 5 ‘Civil Society Forum on Drugs (CSF), European Commission 6 ‘Luxembourg to be first European country to legalise cannabis,’ The Guardian, 2019 7 ‘Harm reduction investment in the European Union: Current spending, challenges, and successes,’ Harm Reduction International, 2017 59

The latter debate relates to the legal status of drugs. Whilst Portugal has decriminalised all drugs (instead issuing warnings, small fines, or requiring users to attend support services), Luxembourg legalised cannabis, and Sweden maintains its strong penalties for drug possession1. Though there has been a general liberalisation of national drug laws, with countries such as the Czech Republic and Latvia switching to civil sanctions for drug use in most cases, disparities remain. Indeed, Denmark has recently tightened its laws on cannabis use2. On the one hand, arguments in favour of decriminalisation (and legalisation also) cite that the shift from the treatment of drugs as a health issue, rather than a criminal one, is successful in reducing drug use is because it has resulted in people being more willing to come forward and seek treatment3. Considering 79% of offences over drug law in the European Union were related to use or possession4, and the significant resources that go into cannabis control with over half of possession or use offences in 2017 being related to cannabis5, important benefits for decriminalisation and legalisation can be seen. The question remains though; if we are in favour of decriminalisation, should we decriminalise all drugs? Further, even if we decriminalise drugs, this does virtually nothing to undermine the criminal drug industry6. Drug trafficking would remain an issue to be solved separately. An advantage of legalisation over the alternatives is that it ensures the quality of drugs being consumed, because drugs would be liable to regulations. Legalisation would also do away with the trafficking of illicit drugs, the associated criminal networks, and illegal black market7. However, legalisation could increase drug addiction, with analysts citing the high availability and consumption of alcohol and tobacco due to their legality. Additionally, some, such as Pope Francis, see the legalisation of drugs as ‘surrendering’ to the problem of drugs, which fails to solve the social and health causes and problems surrounding drug use8. However, Sweden, following harsh policies of zero tolerance for drug possession, has lower rates of cannabis use than the EU average9. The clearest argument in favour of harsh policies for drug possession is that it 1 ‘Luxembourg to be the first european country to legalise cannabis,’ The Guardian, 2019 2 ‘Harm Reduction and Decriminalisation, and their effects on public health,’ UK Parliament European Union Committee, 2012 3 ‘What happens if you decriminalise drugs?,’ The Telegraph, 2014 4 ‘European Drug Report: Trends and developments,’ EMCDDA, 2019 5 ‘European Drug Report: Trends and developments,’ EMCDDA, 2019 6 ‘The difference between legalisation and decriminalisation,’ The Economist, 2014 7 ‘Decriminalisation or legalisation: injecting evidence in the drug law reform debate,’ National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre 8 ‘The pros and cons of legalising drugs,’ The Week, 2019 9 ‘Sweden: Country Drug Report,’ EMCDDA, 2019 60

will reduce demand for, and hence the supply of, drugs. That said, arresting users tends to give those caught up in the criminal justice system due to drugs less of a chance of escaping addiction afterward1s. Additionally, the reasons for Sweden’s successful drugs policy cannot wholly be attributed to these harsh legal penalties; the government implements a strong information campaign in schools on the negative effects of drug, alcohol, and tobacco use, and there is a focus on harm reduction policies such as substitution treatment and needle exchanges2. The discrepancies between Member States’ policies to tackle drug addiction, both in terms of their quality and their focus (such as a health and social care or policing approach) are barriers to a cohesive European drugs strategy. At the heart of discrepancies in terms of Member States’ focus is the legal status of drugs, which implies a country’s policy direction and informs connecting policies; for instance, if drugs are legalised, this implies that drug possession is not a criminal issue and that, in policy, less of a focus needs to be put on illegal drug trafficking. Though Member States seem to agree on the importance of a European-wide strategy to target drug trafficking3, there remains a need to improve further. Increasingly large police drug seizures4 do show both more effective policing, but also that more drugs are reaching the EU in the first place.

Kew Questions 1. What should be the legal status of drug use in the EU? (e.g. legalised, decriminalised, criminalised) 2. Which harm reduction policies should EU Member States be focusing on in order to reduce drug addiction? 3. How can the EU improve its cooperation with third countries and between Member States to prevent drug trafficking? 4. How should we reduce the availability of drugs in the European Union? 5. How should we address the root causes of drug addiction?

1 ‘The pros and cons of legalising drugs,’ The Week, 2019 2 ‘As drug laws loosen elsewhere, Sweden keeps a popular, zero-tolerance approach,’ World Politics Review, 2018 3 ‘Drug Trafficking,’ Europol, 2019 4 European Drug Report 2019: trends and developments 61

Essential Reading • A Time Magazine article, providing more information about Portugal’ s drug policy https://time.com/longform/portugal-drug-use-decriminalization/ • Information from the EMCDDA about harm reduction policies. Pages 61-63 provide information about national harm reduction policies; pages 239-240 and 242-243 provide harm reduction policies for cannabis use; page 316-317 and 322 to 323 provide information on drug consumption rooms, and pages 382-387 and 391 provide information about harm reduction in prisons http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/555/EMCDDA-monograph10-harm_reduction_ final_205049.pdf • Information from the Open Society Foundation about harm reduction and harm reduction policies https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/explainers/what-harm-reduction • An EMCDDA report about a health and social care approach to drug addiction. Look at Chapter 1, Section 1.5, ‘Main types of responses available' http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/6343/TI_PUBPDF_TD0117699ENN_PDFWEB_20171009153649.pdf

Introductory Clauses The European Youth Parliament, A. Noting the prevalence of drug use in the European Union, with nearly 20% of 15-24 year olds having used Cannabis in the previous year1, B. Acknowledging the increasing drug seizure rates; with almost twice the amount of cocaine seized in 2017 as in 20162, C. Observing the ability of those involved in the criminal drug market to abuse technology including, but not limited to, cryptocurrencies, to operate with greater ease, anonymity, and to enable bigger markets3, D. Bearing in mind the successes of harm reduction policies such as substitution therapy and drug consumption rooms4, E. Aware of disparities in Member States’ harm reduction policies, with Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Greece, and Hungary experiencing a ‘funding crisis5, F. Considering the disparities between the legal status of drugs in Member States, G. Taking note of the various causes for drug addiction, including but not limited to, trauma, social exclusion, psychological problems, and poverty6;

1 European Drug Report 2019: trends and developments 2 ‘Cocaine trafficking reaching record highs, says EU drug agency,’ EURACTIV, 2019 3 ‘EU response to drugs- Strategy and action plan,’ European Commission 4 Harm reduction is a strand of drug policy encompassing interventions, programmes, and policies that seek to reduce the health, social, and economic harms of drug use to individuals. It has been associated with the treatment of drug addicts as patients that need help rather than criminals that need punishment. Policies include, but are not limited to, the provision of drug consumption rooms (facilities where illicit drugs can be used under the supervision of trained staff and connect high-risk drug users with addiction treatment and other health and social services), substitution therapy (providing illicit drug users prescription replacement drugs, administered in supervised clinical setting), and encouraging users to seek treatment instead of issuing criminal charges. 5 ‘Harm reduction investment in the European Union: Current spending, challenges, and successes,’ Harm Reduction International, 2017 6 ‘European Drug Report: Trends and developments,’ EMCDDA, 2019 63

COMMITTEE ON TRANSPORT AND TOURISM (TRAN)

Out of control: Mass tourism in European cities is contributing to the rise of illegal behaviour, driving natives into relocation and putting historically valuable monuments at risk of damage. How can the EU best support such cities and encourage sustainable and respectful use of the right to travel freely? Chairperson: Andy Morris (UK)

Key Words •

Overtourism: overtourism describes the situation in which the impact of tourism, at certain times and in certain locations, exceeds physical, ecological, social, economic, psychological, and/or political capacity threshold1s.

• UNWTO: United Nations World Tourism Organisation. A branch of the UN that is responsible for the promotion of responsible and sustainable tourism worldwide. It is the largest international organisation in the field of tourism. • Policy-Cycle: The policy-cycle theory states that policies develop through the following stages: agenda-setting, policy formulation, decision making, implementation and evaluation. • Overcrowding: While overcrowding is a well-known phenomenon primarily associated with negative experiences emerging from the presence of too many tourists at certain places and times, overtourism is a much broader and more complex phenomenon that is far more relevant for our topic. • Airbnb: An online marketplace for arranging or offering lodging, primarily homestays, or tourism experiences. The company does not own any of the real estate listings, nor does it host events; it acts as a broker, receiving commissions from each booking2.

Relevance Of The Topic “Overtourism” is a newly coined term and one which has only recently become a topic of academic and political debate. However, the issues which it conveys, and their effects on local communities and environments, have been discussed and debated for decades. As increasingly affordable, cheap and convenient 1 2018 2

Research for TRAN Committee, Policy department for structural and cohesion policies, Airbnb Service fees, Airbnb Inc, 2019 64

forms of travel and accommodation flood the market, the issue of overtourism is a rapidly evolving conundrum. Over the past six decades, the tourism industry has become one of the most important sources of economic growth. It can provide important socio-economic development due to its contribution to employment, infrastructural development and export revenue. According to UNWTO1, international tourism in Europe reached an incredible 671 million in 2017 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a remarkable 8% increase compared to the previous year. On the surface, this appears to be a positive process. More tourism should, in theory, lead to the kind of positive socio-economic development referenced above. However, the most popular tourist destinations in Europe have now reached a breaking point. The negative consequences of this rapid growth can fall into three broad categories: Environmental, Economic and Socio-cultural impacts. Environmental impacts are the result of increased usage of resources, infrastructure, facilities and/or touristic sites. The effects vary from pollution and damage to congestion and overcrowding.The most common occurrences of these environmental effects are usually of a sudden or temporary nature. For example, the visit of a large cruise ship to a smaller town. This is often the case in the Greek island of Santorini, in which a small population of 15,000 have been forced to accommodate between 2,000 and 18,000 daily cruise ship visitors during the busiest months of the year. Economic impacts are also caused by increased consumer demand (e.g. for goods, services, infrastructure and real estate). Often non-locals will purchase city housing and transform it into tourist attractions such as Airbnbâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, coffee shops etc. This drives up the house prices for residents by making permanent accommodation less readily available. An example of Socio-Cultural impacts is the marginalisation of the resident population due to the different values and behaviour of tourists. Additionally, many residents of these popular tourist destinations

2017 International Tourism Results, UNWTO, 2018 65

feel as though they have been robbed of their cultural identity and react negatively towards these tourists whom they believe to diminish the authenticity of their city.

Relevant Actors ETC (European Travel Commission): An international organisation responsible for promoting Europe as a tourist destination. Its members are the tourism departments of 33 members, including EU Members States amongst other European nations. It is not part of the European Commission nor an institute of the European Union. The ETC decided to run an official survey 1of its members to determine which cities were found to be overcrowded and which issues of overtourism were experienced in each city. The ETC has the competence to make requests to tourism boards on a European level. European Commission: One of the legislative bodies of the EU. Although they cannot directly pass legislation on tourism, they can cooperate with and influence Member States, due to the fact that tourism is classified as an issue of “supporting competence2” They published the EU’s “Tourism Policy” in 20073 – could this be adapted and modernised to suit the needs of overtourism? Member States: As the EU cannot directly legislate in the area of tourism, it will fall to Member States to implement any solutions you wish to propose. This is potentially not a bad thing as each European city faces its own unique challenges in relation to overcrowding. Private Businesses: The problem of overtourism is partially dow n to the ever increasingly cheap nature of travel and accommodation. Accommodation companies such as Airbnb make it so cheap to stay in busy cities and thus drive up the price for locals. Destination Marketing Organisations (DMOs): A collective term for localised tourism boards (governmental organisations responsible for monitoring every aspect of tourism in their town/city/country). These organisations are highly influential in tackling the issue. Many of the DMOs in major European cities have already begun to implement a wide range of different strategies, it will be crucial to coordinate with these local organisations when building a resolution. Local Residents: In May 2018, local residents from many southern European cities banded together to 1 See above Source 1 2 Supporting competences (Article 6 of the TFEU): the EU can only intervene to support, coordinate or complement the action of EU countries. Legally binding EU acts must not require the harmonisation of EU countries’ laws or regulations. 3 Agenda for a sustainable and competitive European tourism, European Commission, 2007 66

form the Network of Southern European Cities against Touristification1 (SET Network).Groups such as this have already began to take matters into their own hands, and have held rallies, published manifestos and started hugely influential petitions etc. Clearly unrest surrounding increased tourism is growing.

Measures in Place Due to the aforementioned cultural, structural and societal differences between different major European cities, most of the present developments in his area have come from actions introduced by DMO’s in specific areas. An example of a DMO utilising a regionalised strategy comes from Amsterdam2, where they have utilised their predominately younger, millennial tourist base to introduce an internet and social-media tourist management campaign. The city has created an application that can send push notifications to users warning them of long queues and suggesting alternatives. Visitors can even download an artificial intelligence–powered service that suggests off-the-beaten-path destinations based on their social-media profiles. These management systems are working in conjunction with an attempt to diversify the tourist destinations in the Netherlands more generally by promoting other cities and towns. In 2007 the European Commission introduced the EU’s tourism policy (a purely advisory publication due to the competence which tourism falls into). Although this was not introduced to combat mass tourism, there are several of its clauses which are directly relevant to the issue, such as: The commitment to plan tourism in the long-term, the pledge to involve all stakeholders in the decisions made surrounding tourism and the agreement to “Set and respect limits”. The extent to which Member States have followed this policy would appear to be questionable at first glance. In 2018, the TRAN committee requested an emergency report entitled “Overtourism: impact and possible policy responses” written by many of the EU’s top researchers. This 260-page document – published in October 2018 – is the first real acknowledgement by the EU, that “overtourism” is a pressing and complex issue that is worthy of consideration, research and action. In the course of the research for this report, over 41 individual case-studies were published, with each one highlighting the issues of mass tourism in a major European city or tourist destination. This report was greatly successful in identifying the key indicators of overtourism and offered a series of important suggestions about how to improve the quality of the data surrounding overtourism. Unfortunately, this report has yet to be acted upon by the EU.

1 2

Anti-Tourism movement rising around Euopean cities, Tourism Review, 2018 Mass-tourism is ruining historic cities, apolitical, 2018 67

Conflicts and Actions As is always the case with a relatively newly defined and explored issue; legislators are never entirely sure when they possess enough information on the issue to warrant real action. One of the main problems with the issue of mass tourism is that it is incredibly hard to define when a city/town has reached a state of overtourism. This problem is accentuated by the fact that many of the socio-cultural problems associated with overtourism are incredibly hard to quantify. For example, other than active protests, it is almost impossible to determine whether or not a local population has grown tired of tourists descending on their cities. As you can never measure the emotions of a populace, the closest thing we currently have to quantifying this, is charting the number of negative mentions of overtourism and overcrowding on social media – a source that is highly questionable in terms of methodology. In the recommendations section of the report requested by the TRAN committee, a checklist that could determine whether or not a city is suffering from overtourism was recommended. The checklist is footnoted below. Inevitably when an issue requires some form of government intervention, the interests of companies are debated and discussed. Airbnb has such a huge amount of influence on this topic that a heat map of Airbnb beds available has even been suggested as a useful source in measuring overtourism. See image1: This conflict between these companies that are continually looking to expand and governments looking to curb the growth of overtourism is an ongoing one. Airbnb were scrutinised properly for the first time in Barcelona, where they have been forced to share data about owners and to remove listings for unlicensed apartments. 1

• Is your destination less than 30 km from an airport? • Is your destination less than 15 km from a cruise port? • Is your destination less than 20 km from a World Heritage Site? • Do you use a volume growth-oriented (e.g. tourist arrival numbers, bed-nights) set of indicators to evaluate the success of your destination, excluding opportunities for optimisation (e.g. spending per day, liveability for residents)? • Is you marketing strategy focused on medium and long-haul, rather than closer markets? - Are resident sentiments ignored in destination development? • Do you ignore social media (for both residents and visitors) discussing overcrowding, negatively discussing tourists and other indicators for overtourism? • Are Airbnb and similar sharing-economy accommodation unregulated nor monitored? 68

There is also a significant internal conflict of interests taking place within each nation affected by overtourism. This conflict stems from each nations inherent desire to continually increase the number of tourists visiting their country every year. This can often be to the serious detriment of the economy, culture and environment of specific towns/cities within these nations. An example of this is Greece. Due to their weak economy, they are desperate to increase the number of tourists that visit each year. The Greek island of Santorini plays a role in this, turning over 1 billion euros per year in tourism revenue1; however, the island itself is suffering for this revenue and many residents have been forced to experience water and energy shortages due to the overcrowding of the island.

Key Questions 1. Do you feel as though the current methods of measuring mass tourism - such as the checklist above are effective? Or should they be adapted and/or added to? 2. What additions/alterations are necessary to modernise the 2007 EU tourism policy so that it can help to deal with the issue of overtourism? Is the fault with the policy itself, or the Member States lack of adherence? 3. Do you think that technology and social-media based solutions - such as those used in Amsterdam are applicable to all major destinations? Or is this approach one that should be unique to Amsterdam? 4. How can the EU best regulate multinational, largely online based businesses such as Airbnb, that have such an impact on this issue? 5. Please find one example of a tourist destination that has been affected by mass-tourism and include any measures that they have implemented. 6. The real question for yourselves as potential legislators in this field comes down to three options. Trust this checklist and begin to put it into effect by evaluating major European cities, attempt to modify and alter this checklist until it is exhaustive and fully equipped to evaluate the issue, or begin to act immediately as the situation has reached a level of necessity that requires immediate action.

Essential Readings â&#x20AC;˘ Mass tourism is ruining historic cities. Only government can stop it. - A reliable, albeit opinionated piece, documenting a number of possible solutions to the issue of Overtourism. https://apolitical.co/solution_article/mass-tourism-is-ruining-historic-cities-only-government-can-stopit/ â&#x20AC;˘ Sinking city: how Venice is managing Europe's worst tourism crisis. - A case study documenting the the issue of overtourism in Venice. This will provide an opportunity to hone in on the smaller-scale impacts

See above source 1 69

https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/apr/30/sinking-city-how-venice-is-managing-europes-worst-tourism-crisis • Europe Made Billions from Tourists. Now It’s Turning Them Away. - A piece highlighting the change in attitudes towards tourists and tourism in general, that has been experienced in many European cities. https://time.com/5349533/europe-against-tourists/ • ‘Overtourism’? Understanding and Managing Urban Tourism Growth beyond Perceptions - A presentation delivered for the ETC conference on managing sustainable tourim growth in Europe, February 2019. https://etc-corporate.org/uploads/2019/02/06022019_Michel_Julian_ETCKrakow.pdf • Agenda for a sustainable and competitive European tourism. - The document from which the European Commission’s “Tourism Policy” is derived. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2007:0621:FIN:EN:PDF - Pages 5-6

Introductory Clauses The European Youth Parliament, A. Recognising the potential dangers to World Heritage Sites and other important historical monuments as a result of continual overcrowding in these areas, B. Conscious of the concerns of local citizens about the decline in the authenticity and culture of their cities as a result of mass tourism, C. Noting with deep concern the existence of conflict between the benefits of mass tourism for the economy of a nation as a whole, and the damaging economic effects of overtourism for the local residents of these tourist areas, D. Aware of the environmental dangers of overtourism, E. Affirming the importance of developing a reliable and convenient means of identifying which cities/ towns are suffering from overtourism, F. Acknowledging that nations have an inherent desire to increase the number of tourists visiting their country, G. Observing the potential of social-media based solutions to prevent overcrowding in specifically busy tourist areas of cities/towns, H. Alarmed by the current lack of any ongoing investigation into solutions that have already been proposed and implemented by Member States;