Fish, Coast and Communities
Innhold Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1 The Norwegian Coast – Nature’s Offerings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Nils Kolle
A distinctive coastline The skjærgård The fiords – sea arms reaching inland The oceans beyond Ocean and tidal currents The Barents Sea ecosystem The Norwegian Sea The North Sea and the Skagerrak Coastal dwellers and the sea
2 Sea Hunters and Early Fishermen, up to 1300 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Alf Ragnar Nielssen
The pioneers The great change – from Arctic environment to forestland A seafaring and fishing people The Bronze Age (3800–2500 BP) The Iron Age (2500–1000 BP) The Vikings and their ships Trade development in the Iron Age Expansion in the North Atlantic The transition from the Viking Age to medieval society The development of trading ports and towns – a coastal phenomenon The development of commercial cod fisheries The rise of permanent fishing villages after 1250 AD Herring – the second commercial species Further development of the foreign fish trade Salmon fisheries Sealing, whaling and fowling The volume of the stockfish export
3 Social Crisis, But Progress in the Fisheries, 1300–1600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Alf Ragnar Nielssen
The consequences of the Black Death (1349–50) and the following plagues New settlement patterns following the plagues The coastal farms pulled through Urban communities in the wake of the Black Death Weakening connections with the Western Islands Higher stockfish prices and expansion in the north The beginning of the jektefart between Bergen and the north The character of the large fishing villages Recruitment and immigration Traces of wealth in the fishery districts Religious art in the fishery districts
4 Flourishing Fisheries Replaced by Stagnation, 1600–1720 . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Alf Ragnar Nielssen
Extending cod fisheries in the North Atlantic The running of the Norwegian cod fisheries The fishing villages Bailiff Schønnebøl’s description of the fisheries in 1591 Stockfish exports in the 1500s Upsurge in the herring fisheries Commercialisation of the southwestern lobster fisheries The Dutch age and timber trade in southern Norway Domestic boat types Conflict with Sweden over the northern coastal areas in the 16th and 17th centuries Main aspects of the development of the cod fisheries after 1600 Handling acute crises Climate change and the fisheries (the Little Ice Age) The burgher trade and innovation in the fisheries
5 The Great Expansion in Export Fisheries, 1720–1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Atle Døssland
Domestic consumption Fluctuating fish migration in the 1700s More operational cod fisheries Merchants and farmers stake all on herring Change in demand and active marketing Attempts to improve the export products Clipfish, the new export product From passive to active trade The Napoleonic Wars put a stop to fish exports The new great clipfish expansion A more structured Pomor trade An extraordinary herring period The basis for the expansion
6 Fisheries Vitalise the Coastal Communities, 1750–1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Atle Døssland
High mortality in the coastal communities Stabilised mortality rates The strong coastal growth of the 19th century New fishery towns Social division on the coast Landowners attempt to secure the catches Fishermanowned boats and equipment Increased production of equipment outside the household The fisheries, a livelihood not only for fishermen A distinctive coastal religiosity?
7 Between Tradition and Modernity, 1880–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Nils Kolle
Efforts to promote the Norwegian fisheries Lessons from abroad The emergence of deep-sea fishing The boat reform New gear and methods in the herring fisheries The combustion engine – a revolution in the coastal fisheries The depression years – preventing further transition The outcome of the crisis: Strong fishermen’s organisations The war brings an end to overproduction and depressed prices
8 An Industry in Transition, 1945–1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Nils Kolle
Coastal cod fisheries Distant-water fisheries The growth of trawling A revolution in the herring fisheries Utilising new resources in the North Sea Growth in the reduction industry New products: Frozen fish fillets Export of fish and fish products Coastal communities in transition
9 Disputing Maritime Domains, 1910–2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Nils Kolle and Pål Christensen
The Anglo-Norwegian fishery dispute Fishery limit is extended from four to twelve miles The introduction of 200-mile exclusive economic zones A controversial marine protected area around Svalbard A fishery zone around Jan Mayen The Loophole – new problems for Norway Disputes with Russia over boundaries in the Barents Sea
10 Under a New Management Regime, 1970–2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Pål Christensen
Previous marine research and international fisheries management The collapse of the herring Quotas and Olympic fishery The Regulation Council and the Participation Act Licensing regulation of the ring-seine fisheries Overnight closing of the inshore cod fishery The vessel quota system and the trawl ladder A new resource regime From subsidies to market Restructuring of the seafood industry Technological implications of new resource management Structural policies and fleet development
11 Fish Farming – a New Coastal Industry, 1970-2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Pål Christensen
Background Age of the pioneers The breakthrough The birth of an industry Strong growth and sounding alarms Crisis, liberalisation and FOS liquidation An industrial revolution in salmon farming Aquaculture on the stock exchange Grand visions – major challenges
12 The New Coastal Society After 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Pål Christensen
Oil in the North Sea? The Ekofisk find – Norway becomes an oil nation Petroleum boosts coastal trade and industry Oil and fish – conservation and safety Petroleum expansion towards the north Disputes over Lofoten, Vesterålen and Senja A coastal transport revolution Reduced employment and increased efficiency in the fisheries New coastal industries and more centralised settlements
Conclusion: A Maritime Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Nils Kolle
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Official documents Periodicals
Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
8 | ďťż
Preface In 2014, a five-volume work entitled Norges fiskeri- og kysthistorie was published. The first four volumes address the history of Norwegian fisheries from ancient until present times. The last volume portrays a new coastal industry which has developed and flourished in Norway during the last fifty years: fish farming. This is the first consolidated history of fisheries to be written in Norway. But it is not solely an account of the role and importance of the fisheries in Norwegian societal development. It has also become a story of the coast and the coastal communities, of the culture and way of life of the people who inhabited these areas. The story spans several thousands of years, along a 3000-km coastline where a number of marine species and resources have been harvested for domestic as well as commercial purposes. There have been countless local and regional adjustments, which have varied significantly over time. At the same time, it has been important to view these Norwegian developments against a broader European and North-Atlantic backdrop, in order to determine the distinguishing traits of the domestic adaptations. The work is the result of a formidable collective effort where many have contributed, both academically and financially: universities, colleges, museums, banks and a number of institutions within the fisheries and aquaculture sectors, including Norges Fiskarlag (the Norwegian Fishermen’s Association) and Nærings- og Fiskeridepartementet (the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Fisheries). The Department of Archaeology, History, Cultural Studies and Religion at the University of Bergen has been responsible for the daily academic and administrative management of the project, with Nils Kolle serving as project manager and general editor. Senior management has been attended to by a steering committee with representatives from central partners, led by Leiv Grønnevet. Each single volume has had an editor from one of the collaborating academic institutions. A total of 22 historians and two archaeologists have contributed to the work. The English-language abridged version, Fish, Coast and Communities. A History of Norway, has been an integrated part of the project’s plans ever since the beginning. It seeks not only to renarrate the contents of the main work in condensed form, but also to focus on comparative perspectives. In what ways does Norway differ from other coastal nations around the North Sea and in the North Atlantic area? What are the distinguishing features of the Norwegian developments? The volume was authored by four of the editors of the main work: Alf Ragnar Nielssen from Nord University in Bodø (Volume I, up to 1720), Atle Døssland from Volda
University College (Volume II, 1720–1880), Nils Kolle from the University of Bergen (Volume III, 1880–1970) and Pål Christensen from the Arctic University in Tromsø (Volume IV, 1970–2014). Leiv Grønnevet also took part in the work on the English-language volume. Illustration materials were coordinated by Aslak Kristiansen, picture editor of the main work. Elisa Kolle was responsible for the English-language rendition. In conclusion, we would like to take this opportunity to express our warm and sincere gratitude to everyone who has contributed to the realisation of this abridged version of Norges fiskeri- og kysthistorie.
Bergen,….2017 Nils Kolle Project manager and editor
10 | Preface
Leiv Grønnevet Chairman of the Steering Commitee
12 | 
1 The Norwegian Coast – Nature’s Offerings Nils Kolle “Nothing is so boundless as the sea, nothing so patient. On its broad back it bears, like a good-natured elephant, the tiny manikins which tread the earth; and in its vast cool depths it has place for all mortal woes.” These are the opening lines of Alexander Kielland’s novel Garman & Worse, which in many ways is a story of the relationship between mankind and the sea. After describing the surf rolling in over the beach and breaking with a hollow sound, he asks what significance the sea has for the people who live alongside it. They do not say much themselves. They live their lives with faces turned seaward: “…the sea is their companion, their adviser, their friend and their enemy, their inheritance and their churchyard. The relation therefore remains a silent one, and the look which gazes over the sea changes with its varying aspect, now comforting, now half fearful and defiant”. In many ways we pose the same questions in this book. What has the sea signified for people along the Norwegian coast? How has it affected their days, their way of life and their mindset? Does being born and bred by the sea, making a living from it and spending a lifetime on it have an impact on people? The novelist has no doubts about this: take a man of the coast and move him inland, even to the loveliest valley, give him the finest food and the softest bedding, and still he will “clamber from hill to hill, until far off his eye catches something blue he knows, and with swelling heart he gazes towards the little azure streak that shines far away, until it grows into a blue glittering horizon”. But what is the nature of this attraction? What are the features of life on the coast? The answer is complex and does not offer itself up easily. We will, however, attempt to explore it in this book.
A distinctive coastline The origin of the name Norveg or Norway is probably connected to the country’s long and characteristic coastline. In the famous chronicle of Ottar, a 7th-century dignitary, one can read that he lived further north than any other Norwegian, probably somewhere in Troms. From there he sailed southwards along the coast, to the market town Skiringssal, which was located in Vestfold in the south. Ottar called the land Nordveg, the North Way. This tells us that the country is perceived to be identical with the coast, or the coastal fairway, from the southernmost parts
1 The Norwegian Coast – Nature’s Offerings | 13
Foto: Blomquist kunsthandel. AS.
Ifølge siste offisielle måling skal denne linja være i overkant av 100 000 km, en
Beach scene from Jæren (Rogaland). Oil on canvas by Nicolai Ulfsten 1884.
and upwards as far north as was settled by Norwegians. It is likely that Ottar did 16 | Nils Kolle not include the Sami people who lived in the northernmost parts of the country in his definition of Norwegians. Some scholars maintain that the first area to be named Norveg must have been the sea route past the royal seat at Avaldsnes on Karmøy in Rogaland, up through the Karmsund strait and onwards along the west coast (Vestlandet). As a country’s name it might, in other words, have been
Ottar on his travels along the Norwegian coast. Drawing by Karl Erik Harr.
14 | Nils Kolle
used at first to denote the old western kingdom, spreading to the east and north distanse bringer oss rundt ekvator to og en halv gang. Norge er uten samat a later som stage. menligning i Europacoastline som harcompared mest kyst.with Landet segcountries. over mer Norwaydet hasland a distinctive otherstrekker European enn tifirst breddegrader. The thing to strike one is its sheer length. On his journey Ottar sailed many, annet miles, karakteristisk trekk er kystens betydning somof bosted og ferdselsmanyEt nautical a vast distance equal to half the coastline Western Europe. åre. Langt opp mot vår tid the foregikk detborder mesteinavthe den innenlandske transporten, The shortest distance from Russian north to the Swedish border både folk is ogthe gods, medtobåt, opp og– ned langs kysten, inn og ut fjordene.ifDet in theavsouth easiest measure around 3000 kilometres. However, we var fra the båten en observerte inntrykk. innenfor follow actual undulatinglandskapet, lines of the dannet coast itseg is a sitt more complexLandet calculation; we tapte go seground raskt og ble utydelig. Hovedtyngden av befolkningen bodde langs disse must thousands of coves and inlets, bays and fiords. If we include the ferdselsveiene. of Slik er detand ogsåskerries, i dag. Det flertallet bor iquite nærheten av sjøen. circumference islands thestore distance becomes monumental. Bare i dalstrøkene på Østlandet og Sørlandet fins enmeasures innlandsbefolkning noe According to the latest official surveys the coastline over 100 000avkilostørrelse. På Vestlandet, fra Lindesnes og nordover til Trøndelag bor så Norway å si hele metres, a distance that would take us around the Equator several times. befolkningen i umiddelbar nærhet til European sjøen, enten ute i skjærgården, på strandhas a longer coastline than any other country; it stretches over more flatene innover langs fjordene og oppover dalbunnene. Dette gjelder i stor than teneller degrees of latitude. grad Another også trønderne, riktig nok med et lite befolkningsinnslag i innlandet. Videre characteristic is the significance of the coastline for settlement and nordover bor de aller ved sjøen. transport. Almost up tofleste our time, nearly all domestic transport took place by ships Folkekonsentrasjonen ved er ikke uventet. Sjøen representerer et and boats sailing up and down thekysten coast, and in and out of the fiords that cut deep mangfold av muligheter, både og ressursmessig. Det majority lille vi har av into the mainland. The land was transportobserved from aboard boats. The of the dyrkbar jordlived i Norge, det meste sjøen, enten uteinved ellersouth som population alongligger thesefor coasts. Only nær in the large valleys thekysten east and et smalt innover langs fjordene oppover i dalbunnene. Bare Østlandet, til and partsbelte of Trøndelag was there an og inland population of any significance. Even dels også Sørlandet og Trøndelag, har tilgang på matjord i noe omfang innover
1 The Norwegian Coast –– Nature’s Offerings 1 Norskekysten en naturens gave || 15 17
The island of Træna in Nordland. Oil canvasi Nordland, by Knud Baade ØenonTrænen olje på lerret, 1838. TheBaade hills of1838. TrænaFjellene were på av Knud aTræna, well-known landmark onsom rager særlig Trænstaven the 338Helgeland meter overcoast. havet,There er et kjent are a numberpå ofHelgelandskysten. characteristic landemerke mountains andfor rock Landemerker, detformations meste karakalong thefjellformasjoner, coast that became teristiske fins det important and Hådyret, mange av seamarks langs vår kyst: navigation aidsHestmannen, for seafarers. VågaSiggjo, Alden, They included inforsea kallen,were Svolværgeita å nevne charts at ansæregne early stage, and noen. Slike landtoninger are in old sailing for var mentioned viktige navigeringspunkt directions. de sjøfarende; de ble tidlig tegnet inn på sjøkart og er omtalt i gamle seilbeskrivelser. Landemerkene fikk på en måte eget liv, det ble knyttet sagn og fortellinger til dem, og for ferdafolk langs leia må de ha vært et kjært syn. «Ja, dei gode gamle nutane», skriver Ivar Aasen, «dei gjera hugen glad.» Brukt med tillatelse fra Nasjonalmuseet for kunst, arkitektur og design. Foto: Nasjonalgalleriet.
today most people live within close distance of the sea, either on the islands, along the seashore or the sides of the fiords. This concentration of settlement on the coast has several causes. The sea represents a myriad of opportunities, in terms of both transport and resources. What little we have of arable land in Norway can for the most part be found near the sea, either by the shore or as narrow belts along the fiord valleys. Inland fertile topsoil in significant quantities can only be found in the eastern valleys and in Trøndelag. Most of the extensive mountain range of the Scandinavian peninsula lies in Norway. Mountainous masses and plateaus dominate much of the inland area, rendering it unfit for human settlement and obstructing traffic and travel. These peculiarities are easily highlighted by casting an eye on the flat lowlands of coastal countries further south in Europe, such as Denmark, Holland and maybe most strikingly in Ireland. The land is surrounded by the sea, with few islands to soften the coastline, a flat, bountiful island on which it is easy to move around and where the most fertile soil is found in the Midlands. Despite the sea being ever present all around the coast, fisheries have had only marginal importance. The living was made from the land.
The skjærgård The importance of the coast for settlement and transport is no doubt closely connected to what is possibly the main characteristic of the Norwegian coastline – the skjærgård, a broad belt of large and small islands and skerries stretching along most of the country. Some stretches, such as Jæren (Rogaland) and parts of eastern Finnmark in the north, have no skjærgård. In other places it might be sparse, with the islands few and far between, as it is along parts of the Skagerrak coast in the south. Most of
Øygarden northeast of Bergen is a typical example of the Norwegian skjærgård. This archipelago consists of 552 large and small islands and skerries, stretching from Sotra in the south to Feie in the north, forming a low-lying, grey wall towards the North Sea. On the inside (to the right in the picture) lies the Hjeltefiord, a sheltered fairway to Bergen from the north. Photo: Fjellanger Widerøe AS.
16 | Nils Kolle
1 The Norwegian Coast – Nature’s Offerings | 17
the mainland, however, is sheltered by an archipelago, a wide band of isles, in some places broad and solid. The skjærgård was formed by the glaciers that covered the land during repeated ice ages, spreading and receding again and again. Massive forces were at work slashing and sculpting the coastline into straits, coves and bays, shaping reefs and peninsulas. The topography of the coast was given its shape, above and below water. Later, land masses rose as a result of post-glacial rebound, further moulding the landscape. The result as we see it today consists of thousands of islands, islets and skerries, forming a stone wall between the mainland and the open sea. Indeed, the Norwegian word skjærgård literally means a fence or barrier of skerries. It enables us to travel on sheltered waters along most of the coast. The mainland is only exposed to open waters on a few short stretches. This sets Norway apart from almost all other European coastlines, which are mostly open with ocean swells breaking directly onto land, either wide sandy beaches or tall, steep cliffs. The skjærgård not only shelters sailors, it has also provided us with many protected habitats and innumerable safe harbours, prepared by the hand of nature. The first people settled well into life on the outer islands, having plentiful access to shellfish, fish and sea mammals, whereas further inland the glacier made passage difficult. The skjærgård coast creates an abundance of protected and prolific waters, in the form of sounds and currents, coves and bays. There is great opportunity for fisheries through simple and inexpensive technology, small boats and hand equipment. Using the skjærgård as a foothold, it is also safe to venture out into more exposed waters, easily slipping back into shelter if the weather turns. In other words, the threshold for harvesting the marine resources along the Norwegian coast is quite low, in comparison with the more open and exposed shorelines further south.
The fiords – sea arms reaching inland In some places the skjærgård opens up and leads into wide, majestic fiord basins. These often transmute into short or long fiord arms that can reach deep into the inland mountain massif. The longest one, the Sognefiord, cuts 200 kilometres into the mainland. The valleys and fiords along the coast are enormous U-shaped gorges excavated by the ice that covered Norway during several ice ages, in the same process that shaped the skjærgård. When the ice receded after the last ice age, water flowed in and filled the deep, outer parts of these gorges. On some stretches of the coast the ice created a tightly serrated landscape where the sea seeps in almost everywhere. In everyday language fiords are not referred to as part of the coastline. The term coast refers to the skjærgård, including the larger islands, as well as a belt along the shoreline further in. We talk of fiord settlements and coastal settlements separately, not only topographically but also economically and culturally. Here we will place less importance on this division; the fiord settlements are also of interest, insofar as their inhabitants made use of the sea in their daily toil to make a living.
18 | Nils Kolle
This is particularly inkjempemessige northern Norway; the people whogravd lived along the og fjordene oppoverapparent kysten er u-formede grøfter, ut av isen fiords fishermen. Butlandet, also ini the south, especially theskjærgården. west coast, som i were flere avid omganger dekket samme prosess somalong formet the people of the fiords depended on the sea in their daily lives. As a means of Etter hvert som isen smeltet og dro seg tilbake på slutten av siste istid, rant sjøen travelling, wasogequally for people along fiords and those on inn og fyltethe densea ytre dypesteimportant delen av disse grøftene. På the enkelte kyststrekninger the coast. Some fiords were rich in fish, demersal fish as well as pelagic fish like skapte isen et sterkt opprevet landskap hvor sjøen kryper inn nær sagt overalt. herring, and det mackerel – resources that both travelling fishermen andsom residents Altsprat i alt fins nærmere 1200 navngitte fjorder i Norge, et antall knapt eagerly exploited. People of the fiords would also regularly take part in the major noe annet land kan oppvise. Endelsen -fjord blir imidlertid brukt i mange sammenseasonal fisheries along the coast. men Alongogså the om fiords it iseller common toåpne find henger, ikke barefurther om de out egentlige fjordene, mer mindre rivers with wild salmon or trout stock that the locals would make use of. Salmon havstykker, som Vestfjorden, og om passasjen mellom to øyer eller mellom en øy traps along theIsteep fiord sides bear testimony this.enIndel fact,avmedieval legislation og fastlandet. vår sammenheng regnes dettetosom skjærgården, mens stated that the coast extended as far inland as the wild salmon would run. betegnelsen fjord blir reservert de «ekte» fjordene – havarmene innover i landet. Indirectly, of the fiords played major role inogdeveloping the Grovt sett the kanpeople fjordene grupperes i to: aterskelfjorder åpne fjorder. fisheries. Most of the forestry resources along the coast are found precisely in the Sognefjorden er en typisk terskelfjord, der isen har lagt etter seg svære mengder midto inner and her plenty of rainfall create of morene, stein,fiord grus areas. og jordSteep ute i hillsides munningen; er det bare 300 metera number dypt, mens streams and rivers, and from the 1500s onwards, water-powered sawmills became fjordbunnen stuper til 1200 meter noen kilometer lenger inne. I noen fjorder er common. The sawmill industry paved waysaltfattige for other brakkvannslaget related industriesøverst, such terskelen så grunn at den når opp i detthe lette,
1 The Norwegian Coast – Nature’s Offerings | 19 1 Norskekysten – en naturens gave | 21
Årvågsfjordenin påNordmøre Nordmøreiser Årvågsfjorden et eksempel dewest-facing vestvendte an example ofpåthe fjordene i Midt-Norge. fiords along this part of Langt the i vest ender i åpent havthe der coast. They de open up into vi finner de viktigste sea to thenoen west,avwhere some of gyteområdene for den norske the most important breeding vårgytende silda. I gode sildeår grounds for spring-spawning ble det can på ettersommeren herring be found. Duringog høsten fisket store good herring years,mengder huge småsild og i disseand numbers of feitsild both young fjordene. mature herring were caught Foto: Astri Norman. in these fiords. Photo: Astri Norman.
as barrel making and boat- and shipbuilding. The people of the fiords collected bark for tanning fishing nets and seines; they delivered firewood and timber as well as producing various wooden utensils used in the fisheries. For a long period of time a lively trade was carried on between the coast and fiord areas, in which goods derived from agriculture and forestry were exchanged for fish and fishery-derived products. All in all it is impossible to provide a complete picture of the fisheries and coastal culture without taking the fiord settlements into consideration.
The oceans beyond In order to fully understand the Norwegian coast we must also look out to sea, examining the oceanic areas that surround us. There are four of them. To the south lies the Skagerrak, which flows into the North Sea, a marginal sea that stretches from Lindesnes at the southern tip of Norway to Stad on the west coast. After that follows the Norwegian Sea, a deep ocean that adjoins to the Greenland Sea to the west and is limited by the North Cape-Spitsbergen demarcation line to the north. East of this line lies the Barents Sea, a marginal sea limited by Novaya Zemlya to the east and Franz Josef Land and Svalbard to the north. The significance of these
The ocean bed and tidal conditions in the Norwegian Sea. Map: Institute of Marine Research.
20 | Nils Kolle
oceans for nature and culture along the coast is fundamental. Let us first explore the ocean floor and its submerged landscape. The underwater continuation of the mainland landscape, the continental shelf, is shaped by ice in combination with other geological processes. This shelf is actually a gigantic landfill of stone, gravel and other sediments, transported from the mainland by glaciers and dumped into the ocean – in some cases as far out as 200 kilometres from the shore. The continental shelf consists of wide, flat areas, but it also has deeper pits and depressions, for instance at the outlets of the major fiords; they continue like marine valleys for a distance beyond the coast. The Norwegian Trench was also excavated by the ice. This is a massive groove in the ocean floor that traces the coastline from the outer Oslo Fiord, around Jæren and up towards Stad. The Trench is 3–400 metres deep, somewhat more outside Arendal in the south where it plummets down to 700 metres, quite an abyss compared with the ocean floor elsewhere in the Skagerrak and the North Sea, which is rarely deeper than 100–150 metres. North of Stad and further into the Norwegian Sea, we can see a very different seascape. The floor descends rapidly from the shore and outwards for a few kilometres, down to 200–300 metres, before levelling out to wide coastal banks. Further out the continental slope plunges to a considerable depth, an irregular
1 The Norwegian Coast – Nature’s Offerings | 21
Fishing banks along the Norwegian coast and in adjacent waters. Map: Norwegian Meteorological Institute.
decline with steep precipices as well as gradual falls lacerated by deep ravines and hollows, at times ravaged by underwater avalanches. The gentler decline further down towards the deep sea, the continental rise, does not run parallel to the Norwegian coast, but curves and winds its way north. Outside Møre on the northwest coast it lies quite close to the shore, about 70 kilometres out. Along the Trøndelag and Nordland coast it lies considerably further out. Outside Vesterålen it veers closer toward land again. Further north it turns out to sea once more, before stretching up toward Svalbard. The Barents Sea to the east is a shallow shelf sea rarely reaching a depth of more than 2–300 metres. These shallow areas off the coast have played, and still play, an important role for the fisheries. There are rich resources here, particularly of demersal fish such as cod, haddock, halibut, ling and cusk. This is particularly true of the continental rise but also along shallower parts of the continental shelf, between the marine valleys and in places with substantial glacial deposits. Areas like these are called fishery banks. They are given their own names and the fishermen often know them like the back of their hands. The story of how the banks were discovered and made use of, the depths fathomed and charted is a fascinating one, an important part of the coastal history. All in all, the underwater seascape is of major importance for marine adaption. Wide coastal banks rich in fish are a huge asset to the populations that have access to them.
Ocean and tidal currents The Norwegian word for ocean, hav, is derived from the Norse haf, meaning that which rises. This might refer to the swell of the ocean, or to the way the ocean seems to rise towards the horizon. Perhaps the name is linked to the tidal flow, the eternal rhythm of the rise and fall of the water. Tidal flow is primarily caused by the gravitational forces of the moon and Earth, but is also affected by other circumstances, such as the weather and underwater topography. On the west coast of Norway (Vestlandet) the variation between high and low tide is normally around one metre, somewhat less in the south, whereas in the north it is between two and three metres. Further south and southwest in Europe the difference may be a lot more significant. A lesser tidal difference makes it easier to moor a boat and provides better harbour conditions in comparison with areas where there is a larger variation. In such places substantial harbour constructions are necessary, sometimes using docks to ensure that the waters within the harbour are not affected by the tide. As water is easily moveable, the tidal flow creates currents. Water runs through narrow straits and openings into coves, bays and fiords. If the passage is narrow enough the current can become quite strong. There are several such maelstroms in Norway. The Moskenstraum in outer Lofoten is ranked as the fiercest one. Large masses of water circulate over the shallow Røst Bank before flowing into the deeper Vestfiord, causing the speed of the current to increase dramatically. The Moskenstraum has always been able to stir the imagination, and several fictional depictions of it exist, stories of vessels that are trapped in the maelstrom and sucked
22 | Nils Kolle
into the deep forever. The story written by Norwegian poet and priest Petter Dass is literally hair-raising: it is especially bad when the wind is at odds with the current. The water is whipped into huge waves, tall as mountain tops. “If anyone dared traverse at such times, he never would leave with his life intact but must leap unto the bottom.” In folk tales there is a belief in an “ocean throat”, a hole or abyss that the sea plunges into when it is ebbing. This notion might have sprung from the sight of these violent currents, or possibly large whirlpools out at sea. However, the dominating currents along the Norwegian coast are not the tidal ones, but two northerly streams: the Norwegian Atlantic Drift and the Norwegian Coastal Stream. The former, often thought of as the Gulf Stream, is in fact only a branch of the massive Atlantic current that is initiated in the warm waters off West Africa. It is driven west by the trade winds, swings by the Mexican Gulf picking up a higher temperature, and then flows like a colossal river up along the American east coast. Outside Newfoundland it meets the cold Labrador Current and is forced outwards, into the North Atlantic and on towards the European coastline. And here it separates into several strains that mostly float into the Norwegian Sea. The branch that flows between Shetland and the Faroes before following the coast of Norway northwards goes, as mentioned, by the name the Norwegian Atlantic Drift. The huge amount of warm, saline water that flows into the Norwegian Sea and along the coast is of profound importance to life both in the sea and on land. It prevents ice from forming, and contributes to the mild and damp coastal climate.
1 The Norwegian Coast – Nature’s Offerings | 23
Skatestraumen at the entrance of Nordfjord (in Sogn og Fjordane) is a good example of the many tidal currents along the coast. These currents were often rich in fish, and from an early stage people chose to settle nearby. A number of Stone Age settlements have been discovered along Skatestraumen. Photo: Knut Andreas Bergsvik.
Coastal scene from the peninsula of Kjerringøy in Nordland. This is the narrowest part of Norway. The population is concentrated along the seafront. Behind are immense mountain massifs not suitable for settlement. The national border between Norway and Sweden follows the line between the highest peaks, running from south to north. Photo: Ernst Furuhatt.
In fact, the temperature here is five or six degrees higher than in other places on the same latitude not blessed with such a heating system. For instance, it is possible to farm the land in Finnmark at 70 degrees north, thanks to the heat deposited by these colossal water masses. Elsewhere on this latitude one mostly finds desolate Arctic landscapes, very thinly populated. The Norwegian Coastal Stream, on the other hand, springs from the Baltic Sea. This large inland sea has a continuous water supply from streams and rivers, and surplus water flows through Ă˜resund and the Belts. The stream follows the Swedish Bohuslen coast north, and turns west along the Skagerrak coast before flowing up by the Norwegian west coast. The speed with which it flows increases here, among other things because of additional water running out from streams and fiords along the coast. From Stad onwards it meets the Atlantic Drift, and the two flow northwards parallel to one another. They mingle and blend to some extent, particularly over the shallow coastal banks where the current runs strong, shaped by the seabed’s topography. This process brings nutrients into the higher waters, stimulating the growth of algae and plankton which, in turn, lay the foundation for rich fish stock. This stirring-up of nutrients from deep waters along the continental rise is the main reason why such masses of fish gather.
24 | Nils Kolle
The main stream continues north past the coast and along the slope west of Svalbard. One branch enters the Barents Sea and comes across colder currents from the north. The encounter between the warm Atlantic and the colder Arctic waters creates a front, the polar front, which is more distinct in the west and more diffuse in the east. This front moves from year to year, depending on the bulk of water in the Atlantic Drift, among other factors. The southern boundary of the Arctic ice cap is normally determined by the polar front. All along the front there is a large disruption or stirring of the waters, which again brings nutrients to the top ensuring abundant algae growth during the spring and summer. Zooplankton are drawn from north and south, and the polar front is of major importance for marine life and growth in this sea.
The Barents Sea ecosystem Ocean floor topography, currents, temperature and salinity are important general conditions for the marine ecosystems. They give these systems their distinctive characteristics and define plant and animal life. Two fish species, capelin and cod, dominate the ecosystem of the Barents Sea. Herring is another species of note, but it actually belongs to the ecosystem of the Norwegian Sea. Several different stocks of capelin exist throughout the Northern Cap. One particularly prolific stock is found in the Barents Sea. The polar front areas in the northwest are the main feeding grounds for mature capelin. When the fish are three to five years old, they migrate to the southern coasts in the late winter in order to spawn. Migration patterns and spawning grounds vary from year to year depending on several factors, an important one being water temperature. Spawning normally takes place on the Finnmark coast, although some years the capelin move further east to spawn, to the Russian side of the border. For a long time, capelin was of little interest to Norwegian fishermen. Some was used for bait during the Lofoten fishery and the spring cod fishery in Finnmark, and a little was used as fertiliser. The main value of the capelin was as feed and a “guide” for other species, particularly the cod. Only after the Second World War has the capelin stock been utilised commercially, mainly as fish meal and oil. The other key fish species in the ecosystem of the Barents Sea is the cod. Cod
1 The Norwegian Coast – Nature’s Offerings | 25
The distribution of ArctoNorwegian cod. Map: Institute of Marine Research.