THE PACIFIC WAR ' REVISITED ----Editedby---GUNTER BISCHOF and ROBERT L. DUPONT
The Pacific War Revisited
The Pacific War Revisited EDITED BY GUNTER BISCHOF AND ROBERT L. DUPONT
LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Baton Rouge and London
Copyright Š 1997 by Eisenhower Center for American Studies All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First Printing 0605 04030201 00999897 543 2 1 Designer: Michele Myatt Quinn Typeface: Trump Mediaeval Typesetter: Impressions Book and Journal Services, Inc. Printer and binder: Thomson-Shore, Inc. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: The Pacific War revisited / edited by Gunter Bischof and Robert 1. Dupont. p. cm. -(Eisenhower Center studies on war and peace) Rev. papers originally delivered during the annual spring conference held in 1991 at the Eisenhower Center at the University of New Orleansi papers given by two authors are not included. Copyright: Eisenhower Center for Leadersip Studies. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8071-2156-8 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. World War, 1939-1945-Campaigns-Pacific Area - Congresses. 1. Bischof, Gunter, 1953- . II. Dupont, Robert 1., 1946III. Eisenhower Center (University of New Orleans) IV. Series. D767.P334 1997 97-5178 940.54'26-dc21 CIP The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources. §
Dedicated to Forrest Pogue and Richard Holtz, two of the founding fathers of the Eisenhower Center
Contents
Acknowledgments
xi
D. CLAYTON JAMES Introduction: Rethinking the Pacific War
1
1. POLITICS, STRATEGY, AND LOGISTICS
MICHAEL SCHALLER General Douglas MacArthur and the Politics of the Pacific War
17
RONALD H. SPECTOR The Pacific War and the Fourth Dimension of Strategy 41 DANIEL K. BLEWETT Fuel and U.S. Naval Operations in the Pacific, 1942
57
KENNETH J. HAGAN American Submarine Warfare in the Pacific, 1941-1945: Guerre de course Triumphant 81
x
Contents
Photo Selection: American Posters and Cartoons of World War II 101
II. POWS AND NURSES GREGORY J. W. URWIN The Defenders of Wake Island and Their Two Wars, 1941-1945 III KATHLEEN WARNES Nurses Under Fire: Healing and Heroism in the South Pacific 138
III. RACISM AND THE BOMB HERMAN S. WOLK General Arnold, the Atomic Bomb, and the Surrender of Japan 163 STEPHEN E. AMBROSE / BRIAN LORING VILLA Racism, the Atomic Bomb, and the Transformation of Japanese-American Relations 179
Selected Bibliography
199
Notes on Contributors
207
Index 211
Acknowledgments
In 1991, with the fiftieth anniversary of Pearl Harbor approaching the Eisenhower Center at the University of New Orleans devoted its annual spring conference to the Pacific war. Given the tremendous interest, during that anniversary year, in the conflict between the United States and Japan, we did not want to retread a landscape of well-worn strategic and political issues and debates, but to explore less-traveled terrain. Hence the focus in this volume on relatively unfamiliar topics such as naval logistics, the submarine campaign, and the impact of racial thinking on grand strategy. Similarly, the heroics of nurses and the misery of POWs-things frequently forgotten in the larger context-are treated here. Of course, no discussion of the Pacific war would be complete without revisiting the issue of the strategic bombing of Japan, and especially the dropping of the atomic bombs. Even today the question of Hiroshima and Nagasaki remains central to the memory of the war. The essays by Wolk and Ambrose/Villa in this volume should therefore be complemented by the excellent symposium "Hiroshima in History and Memory," in Diplomatic History (Spring 1995); an update on the controversial Enola Gay exhibit at the Smithsonian Institution is provided by the forum "History and the Public: What Can We Handle?" in the Tournai of American History (December 1995). Although first delivered as papers at the 1991 conference, the essays have been substantially revised for publication here. Like most collaborative books, this one has been slow in coming. We would like to thank the contributors for their admirable patience
xii
Acknowledgments
and generous availability in the final editing stages. D . Clayton James deserves special gratitude for agreeing to write the introductory essay with its fine survey of the literature. Arthur Davis and Jerry Strahan gave papers at the conference that are not published here. General David Jones and George Gay shared their personal experiences in, respectively, the Doolittle raid and the battle of Midway. Marvin Perrett and W. A. Phelps discussed the operations of New Orleans' own Higgins Boat Yard and the performance of Higgins landing craft during the war. Professors Raymond G. O'Connor and Arnold Hirsch graciously chaired sessions. We thank them all for their contributions. Many other people helped to make the conference a memorable success. Eisenhower Center board members Arthur Davis, Ollie Brown, Richard Holtz, Mary Mohs, Jack Dunlap, Samuel Krauss, and Richard Stephens generously provided financial support. Stephen E. Ambrose, director of the Eisenhower Center, helped conceptualize the conference. The Center's staff, led by Kathi Jones's graceful and infectious enthusiasm, never flagged in working out the conference details and management. Carolyn Smith, Marissa Ahmed, Maria Romain, Scott Peebles, and Jerri Bland assisted her ably. Anne O'Heren Jakob and her devoted staff at UNO Conference Services provided for a smooth running of the conference and took care of the out-of-town visitors. Dean Robert Dupont of Metropolitan College and Vice-Chancellor Gordon Mueller were instrumental with the logistics. History professor Joseph Logsdon, one of the great intellectual and moral forces on the UNO campus, as always acted as quiet mentor. In the final stages of readying the manuscripts, Jodi Mamone and Kathi Jones coordinated the project at the Eisenhower Center while I was on leave from UNO, teaching at the University of Munich. Christiane Deska, a wonderful person in Munich's American Studies Department, and the department's chairman, Berndt Ostendorf, encouraged my work on the project in spite of heavy teaching demands . Gunther Breaux and Shawn Savage, two UNO history graduate students affiliated with the Eisenhower Center, were instrumental in helping with the bibliography. Beryl Gauthier of Metro College was extremely generous with her time and computing skills in finishing the manuscripts for copy-
Acknowledgments
xiii
editing. Sherry Sanders in the History Department helped out as well. At LSU Press, Margaret Dalrymple and John Easterly shepherded the volume to publication; Gerry Anders did his usual superb job as copy editor. Linda Webster prepared the index with her accustomed dispatch. A very generous and discerning anonymous reviewer deserves great credit for making this collection of essays more coherent. My wife, Melanie Boulet, never failed to encourage me when everything seemed to militate against progress on this volume. In a very real sense she helped to keep this project alive, even while handling her own demanding work as a middle-school teacher in the New Orleans public schools and as the never-tiring mother of three little children. This book is dedicated to two of the guiding spirits present at the creation of the Eisenhower Center. Forrest Pogue was a founding board member and graced our conferences many times as a keynote speaker. He also acted as a kind mentor to me in my career as a budding historian. Dick Holtz never missed a meeting in New Orleans. His generosity to the Eisenhower Center over the years was extraordinary and absolutely crucial to keeping our programs going. We are deeply saddened by the deaths of these irreplaceable friends.
Giinter Bischof
Index
AAF. See Army Air Forces, U.S. Acheson, Dean, 55 Admiralty Islands, 95 Air Force, U.S., 177. See'also Army Air Forces, U.S. Aircraft carriers, fuel for, 70-75 Alabama (Confederate ship), 85-86,95 Allen, Edmund T., 165 Alperovitz, Gar, 9n24, 14, 186-89 America First, 27,30 American GIs: doubts regarding, early in WWII, 43-44, 51; as symbol for courage, 43. See also POWs American Red Cross. See Red Cross American Revolutionary War, 83-84 Anami, Korechika, 188 Arizona (ship), 140 Army, U.S., relationship with navy, 68-69 Army Air Forces, U.S. (AAF): B-29 strategic bombing campaign against Japan, 13, 163-78; and plans for blockade and aerial bombardment of Japan, 53-54; and B-29 development program, 164-66; XX Air Force, 168-69; and bombing of Tokyo, 171, 176, 184, 193; and bombing of Germany, 190 Army-Navy Petroleum Board, 68-69 Army Nurse Corps, 138, 154, 156-59 Arnold, Henry H. "Hap": and B-29 strategic bombing campaign against Ja-
pan, 13, 163-78, 184, 192-94; on weather and military operations, 72; at Potsdam Conference, 164, 174; and B-29 development program, 164-66; position against atomic bombs, 164, 174-75, 192-93, 192n20; as commander of XX Air Force, 168; photograph of, 170; and atomic bomb development, 171-73 Asplan (navy nurse), 157 Atomic bomb: against Hiroshima, 9, 82, 172, 175, 184, 186, 198; against Nagasaki, 9, 82, 175, 181, 184, 198; and Truman, 9, 164, 172-74, 175, 177,192-94; writings on, 9,186-90; and transformation of JapaneseAmerican relations, 13-14,179-82, 194-98; and U.S. wartime attitudes toward Japanese, 55, 174n19; submarine as alternative to, 82; and end of World War II, 135; Arnold's position against, 164, 174 75, 178; military opinions about, 164, 174-75, 192-93, 192n20; and Arnold, 17173; development of, 171-73; Enola Gay used to drop, 172; plans for dropping, 172-74; skepticism about effectiveness of, 172; successful test of, 174; and Japanese surrender without shame, 175, 181; Truman's decision to drop bomb, 175, 177, 192-94; moral atmosphere of deci-
212
Index
sion to drop, 182-92; and racism, 189-90; and saving Japanese lives by ending war, 194 Atomic Diplomacy (Alperovitz), 18687 Atrocities in World War II, 49-50, 182-83 Australia, 22, 24, 42, 61-62, 147, 14951, 158 Ayers, Eben, 17 B-17 bomber, 164 B-24 bomber, 164 B-29 bomber: in strategic bombing campaign against Japan, 13, 163-78, 192-94; development program for, 164-66; accidents involving, 16566; in Operation Matterhorn, 165 Bainter, Fay, 156 Bataan Death March, 123, 148, 182 Bataan Peninsula, 123, 144-48, 155-56 Battleships, 70, 86-87, 98 Beach, Edward 1., 92-93 Beard, Charles A., 7 Bendix, William, 115 Benevolence (ship), 157 Bergen, Edgar, 133 Bernatitus, Ann Agnes, 144, 151 Bernstein, Barton J., 54, 174, 174n19 Bismarck (ship), 75 Bloch, Claude, 66-67 Blondell, Joan, 156 Boeing Company, 164 Bombers. See specific aircraft Bonhomme Richard (ship), 83 Bora Bora, 62 Bowling, Roland A., 99n36 Bowsher, Walter A., 133 Brinkerhoff, Robert, 87 British navy, 83-85, 86, 88, 90 Britton, Barbara, 155 Brown, Robert McCulloch, 132 Bullhead (submarine), 98 Buna, battle of, 28, 29 Butow, Robert J. c., 8n18 Byrnes, James E, 55, 174, 190, 191
Cairo Conference, 168 Camp Grant, 156 Camp O'Donnell, 123 Camp Stoneman, 156-57 Canberra (ship), 158 Carey, MacDonald, 115 Carney, Robert B., 47 Casablanca Conference, 166-67 Cates, Tressa, 142, 144-45, 154, 155 Chesapeake (ship), 84 China, 9, 11, 26, 34, 38, 42, 97, 163, 166-68, 182, 187, 192 Churchill, Winston S., 1,29,30,51,55, 66, 111, 183 Civil War, 85-86 Clausen, Henry c., 8, 8n18 Clemens, Diane S., 8 Colbert, Claudette, 155 Cole (ship), 99-100n36 Community Facilities Act, 138 Compton-Hall, Richard, 88, 89, 90 Congress (ship), 84 Connally, Tom, 40 Constitution (ship), 84 Cooper, Isabel, 31 Coral Sea, battle of, 28, 73-74, 77, 78, 80 Coronet Operation, 173, 193 Corregidor, 144, 147, 148-51, 155-56 Cry Havoc (film), 155-56 D-Day, 183 Davison, Maude, 154 Decatur, Stephen, 84 Destroyers, 71-72, 72n55, 77n69 Devereux, James P. S., 128-31, 136 Dewey, George, 87 Dewey, Thomas, 32, 33 Diamond, Father, 158 Diller, LeGrande A., 31 Diseases, 34, 152 Donlevy, Brian, 115 Dower, John, 7, 12, 50, 180 Dresden bombing, 190 Dulles, John Foster, 17
Index Eastern Solomons, battle of, 78 Eccles, Henry E., 58, 75-76 Egle, Eduoard, 126 Eichelberger, Robert, 27, 28,32,37,39 Eisenhower, Dwight D.: and MacArthur, 22, 24, 25, 27, 29, 38; and atomic bomb, 174, 192; and German surrender, 198 Emergency Health Aid Sanitation Bill, 138 Engel, Dorothea Baley, 145-46, 149 Enola Gay, 172 Enterprise Iship), 71, 74, 75, 77n68 Essex Iship), 84 Falk, Stanley, 28 Films, 44-46, 115, 155-56 Fiske, Clarence, 59 Fletcher, Frank Jack, 77-78, 77nn6869 Formosa, 34, 36, 38 Forrestal, James v., 54, 173, 190 Frank, Richard B., 53 Franklin, Benjamin, 83 French navy, 86, 88 Fuel: supply and consumption of fuel in Pacific War, 12,57 -80; and Japanese seizure of Netherlands East Indies oilfields, 59-60nll; and oil supplies, 62-64, 62n21, 63nn23-24; and Army-Navy Petroleum Board, 68-69; for aircraft carriers, 70-75; weather and fuel consumption by aircraft carriers, 72-75, 75n63, 77; psychological impact of shortage of, on U.S. Navy, 75-80; Fletcher's refueling operations, 77-78, 77nn6869 George III, King, 83 Georgetown University, 60n13 German navy, 86, 88-90, 98 German U-boats, 88-90, 93 Germany and Germans: antagonism of Americans toward, 44; depiction of as soldiers in Hollywood war-
213
time films, 44-45; and racism in German-American war, 44-46, 4849, 179, 179-80nl; American soldiers' view of, 46, 48-49; invasion of Poland by, 164; Allied invasion of, 173; U.S. reconciliation with, after World War II, 179-80; atrocities committed by, 183; bombing of, 183, 190; Roosevelt's view of, 195; surrender of, 196-98 Gilbert Islands operation, 73 Giles, Barney M., 170 Goddard, Paulette, 155 Goodpaster, Andrew, 184-85 Grew, Joseph Clark, 54, 190, 193, 19496 Griffin Iship)' 96 Groves, Leslie R., 171-72 Guadalcanal campaign, 53, 77n69 Guam, 112 Guerre de course Icommerce raiding): definition of, 81n1, 82; in World War II, 81-82, 93-100; history of, 82-88; in American Revolutionary War, 83-84; in quasi-war against France in 1798, p. 84; in War of 1812, pp. 84-85; in Civil War, 85-86; rejection of, 86-93, 97 -98 Halsey, William Frederick, Jr., 47, 60n14, 75n63, 77n68, 78n72 Hansell, Haywood S. "Possum," Jr., 169 Harman, Leonard, 166 Harsch, Joseph C., 31 Hart, B. H. Liddell, 189-90 Hart, Thomas c., 19, 24, 91, 93 Hatchitt, Eunice, 146, 150 Hearst, William Randolph, 23 Herken, Gregg, 9 Hirohito, Emperor, 54, 135, 178, 18788, 187n12, 190-91, 195, 196 Hiroshima bombing, 9, 82, 172, 175, 184, 186, 198 Hitler, Adolf, 29, 182, 183, 197 Hokkaido, 135 Holcomb, Thomas, 114
214
Index
Holmes, Charles A., 125-26 Homma (Japanese general), 144-45, 151 Hong Kong, 112 Honshu invasion plan, 173, 175, 193 Hoover, Herbert, 33, 37 Hope (ship), 158 Hopkins, Harry, 38, 55 Hornet (ship), 71 Howard, Sir Michael, 41, 56 Howard, Ray, 23 Hull, Cordell, 166, 191 Hull, Isaac, 84 Iceland,65 Ickes, Harold, 21, 25, 31, 32, 36, 40 ICRC. See International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) India, 168 Intelligence, naval, 80 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 126, 127. See also Red Cross Iriye, Akira, 7 Italian surrender, 50 Italians, 45 James, Jimmy, 125 Japan: defense perimeter of, 3; "exterminationist rhetoric" against, 12, 50; racism against Japanese, 12, 44-56, 174n19, 179, 180, 191; depiction of Japanese in Hollywood wartime films, 45-46; American soldiers' view of Japanese soldiers, 46-50; Japanese POWs, 46, 47, 121, 182; atrocities committed against Japanese by American soldiers, 4950, 182; surrender of, 54-55, 135, 167, 177, 188-98; atrocities against Chinese, 182; military occupation of, 185, 198; and suicide as expiation for failure, 188, 189, 195; military in, 194, 195; imperial institution in, 195, 196. See also Hirohito, Emperor; Pacific War
Japanese navy, 64n27, 66, 81,95,97,98, 99, 112, 118 Jellicoe, Sir John, 89 Jones, John Paul, 83 Jutland, battle of, 90-91 Kahn, David, 8n18 Kearsarge (ship), 85 Kenney, George C., 32,167-68 Kilner Board, 164 Kimmel, Husband E., 7,63, 72n55, 77, 115 King, Edward, 148 King, Ernest J., 10,53, 61, 173, 174 Klipfontein (ship), 158 Knox, Frank, 66 Korean War, 17 Kuter, Lawrence, 168 Kwiatkowski, Sophia A., 156-59 Kyushu invasion plan, 173, 193 Labor Federal Security Appropriation Act, 138 La Follette, Robert, 30 Lake, Veronica, 155 Lally, Grace, 139-42 Layton, Edwin T., 8, 8n18 Leahy, William D., 34, 37, 172, 173, 174 Lehrbas, Lloyd A., 31 LeMay, Curtis E., 168-71, 173, 174, 177 Lexington (sliip), 71, 75, 77 Leyte Gulf, battle of, 78n72 Lincoln, George, 190 Logistics: supply and consumption of fuel in Pacific War, 12, 57 -80; definition of, 58; negative outlook toward,58-59 Logistics Research Project, 60n13 Luce, Clare Boothe, 20-21, 32 Luce, Henry, 23 MacArthur, Douglas: on lack of unity of command in Pacific War, 2; size of theater command of, 23; political strength of, in U .S., 11-12, 17-18, 23-40; plan of, for retaking the Phil-
Index ippines, 12, 25-28; and Roosevelt, 12,24-25,29,30,32,34,36-40; in Korean War, 17; presidential aspirations of, 17 18,24,25,29,31-34,40; and Truman, 17l8, 36, 39-40; as military adviser in Philippines, 1819; White's interview with, 18; overconfidence of, in military matters, 19-21, 24-25, 28, 39; Luce's interview with, 20-21; photographs of, 20,23,35, 197; and criticism of Roosevelt over Pacific War policy, 21; and Japanese offensive in Southeast Asia, 21-22, 123, 144, 145, 149-50; Australian headquarters of, 22, 24, 147,149-50; Eisenhower's criticism of, 22, 24-25, 29; Quezon's illegal gift to, 22, 25, 32; aw'ards for, 24, 25; assessment of military leadership of, 28 - 29; and fighting in New Guinea, 28, 29; Wilkinson on, 30; affair with Isabel Cooper, 31; divorce of, 31; and Allied invasion of the Philippines in 1944, pp. 38, 39; as supreme occupation commander in Japan, 39-40; "I shall return" promise of, 42, 147; and atrocities against Japanese soldiers, 49; and plans for blockade and aerial bombardment of Japan, 54; and Kyushu invasion plan, 173; and atomic bomb, 193; and Japanese surrender, 197 MacArthur for President clubs, 32, 33 McCain, John, 78n72 McCloy, John J., 25, 32 McCormick, Robert, 23, 30, 31 MacIsaac, David, 97 McNutt, Paul v., SO Mahan, Alfred T., 60, 86-87, 88, 92-93, 99 Malaya, 112 Malleck, Donald R., 130, 131 Manchuria, 192 Marianas, 95, 168, 172 Marines: defense of Wake Island by, 112-19, 132n47; as POWs, 119-37; creed of, against surrender, 137
215
Marshall, George c.: and MacArthur, 19, 22, 24, 25, 27,32; and atrocities against Japanese soldiers, 49; on American impatience with progress of World War II, SO-51; and plans for blockade and aerial bombardment of Japan, 54; and bombing of Japan, 163, 165, 169, 184; and Kyushu invasion, 173, 174; and atomic bomb, 174,193; and Honshu invasion, 175; and Japanese surrender, 190 Matterhorn Operation, 165, 168 Mead, Margaret, 43 Mealer, Ann, 149, 151, 152, 152n41 Medical care. See Nurses Michener, James, A., 43 Midway, battle of, 28, 53, 80 Miller, Albert L., 33-34 Miller, Edward S., SO, 90-91 Missouri (ship), 197, 198 Morgenthau, Henry, 166 Morisako (Japanese prison guard), 13334 Morison, Samuel Eliot, 77n69 Motley, Ruby, 148, 152 Movies. See Films Murphy,Frank,24-25 Nagasaki bombing, 9,82, 175, 181, 184, 198 Naval Academy, U.S., 100 Naval intelligence, 80 Naval War College, 59, 61, 73, 86, 91 Nave, Eric, 8n18 Navy, British, 83-85, 86, 88, 90 Navy, French,86,88 Navy, German, 86, 88-90, 98 Navy, Japanese, 64n27, 66, 81, 95, 97, 98, 99, 112, 118 Navy Nurse Corps, 139-42, 144, 154 Navy, U.S.: fuel supply/consumption of in Pacific War, 12, 57-80; victories of at Coral Sea and Midway, 28; plan of for invasion of Formosa, 34, 36, 38; and plans for blockade and aerial bombardment of Japan, 53-54; lim-
216
Index
itations of, 57-58,64-65,68-69, 78; and logistical considerations, 58-60; Logistics Research Project of, 60n13; and shortage of bases in the PaCific, 60-62; and shortage of tankers, 64-68; conversion of merchant ships for, 65; organization of, 68; relationship of with army, 6869; personnel problems of, 69, 69n51; aircraft carriers and fuel needs, 70-75; battleships, 70, 8687,98; carrier task forces, 70-72; destroyers, 71-72, 72n55; psychological impact of fuel problems on, 7580; and Fletcher's refueling operations, 77-78, 77nn68-69; and cracking of Japanese codes, 80, 95; in late eighteenth century, 83-84; in War of 1812, pp. 84-85; in Civil War, 85-86; in late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, 86-88; in Spanish-American War, 87; in World War I, 87, 97-98; and planning between World War I and World War II, 90-93. See also Submarine warfare Neches (ship), 66, 77 Nelson, Horatio, 86 Neosho (ship), 76, 77-78 Netherlands East Indies, 59-60nll, 62, 67 New Guinea, 28, 29, 42, 95, 158 New Zealand, 42, 61-62 Newsletter of the World War Two Studies Association, 10 Nimitz, Chester W.: 2, 34-36, 53, 62n21, 80, 91, 173; photograph of, 35 Nitta Maru (ship), 124, 124n25 Norstad, Lauris, 170-71, 177 North African campaign, 27, 29, 38, 51 Nowlin, Jesse E., 131-32 Nurses: in Pacific War, 13, 138-60; education of, 138-39; legislation on, 138; statistics on, 138-39, 160; at Pearl Harbor during attack, 139-40, 142; military honors for, 139, 150;
on navy hospital ship Solace, 13942, 143; Christmas on the Solace, 141; enemy attacks on, 141-42; on Bataan and Corregidor, 142, 144-56; in Philippines, 142, 144-56, 15859; in prison camps, 145, 152-55; in field hospitals, 146-47; and bombing of Bataan field hospitals, 147; in Australia, 150-51; after surrender of Philippines, 151-55; photographs of, 153, 157, 159; Hollywood films on, 155-56; U.S . liberation of, in Philippines, 155; typical nursing experience of in South Pacific, 156-59 Nursing schools, 138 O'Connell, Robert 1., 82-83, 87 O'Donnell, Emmett, Jr., 170 Oil supplies, 62-64, 62n21, 63nn2324,69. See also Fuel Okinawa campaign, 184-85, 190 Olympic Operation, 173, 193 Operation Coronet, 173, 193 Operation Matterhorn, 165, 168 Operation Olympic, 173, 193 Operation Watchtower, 53, 75 Otera, Satoshi, 127 Owen, Charles H ., 60 Pacific War: distinctive features of, 14; distances involved in, 23, 60-61; lack of unity of command in, 2; and diseases, 34, 152; and weather conditions, 3, 72-75, 75n63, 77; writings on, 4-11; percentage of American deployment of men and materiel to, 10; scholarly subjects needing investigation, 10-11; problems facing scholars on, 11; fuel and U.S. Naval operations in, 12,57-80; MacArthur's plan for retaking the Philippines, 12, 25-28; and racism against Japanese, 12,44-56, 174n19, 179, 180, 191; social and psychological dimensions of, 12, 41-56; U.S.
Index submarine warfare in, 12, 93-100; Wake Island defenders, 12-13, 112-37; B-29 strategic bombing offensive against Japan, 13, 163-78, 192-93; nurses in, 13, 138-60; Japanese offensive in southeast Asia, 21-22, 25,112,123,142, 144-48, 151; Allied invasion of the Philippines in 1944, pp. 38, 39, 155; atrocities committed in, 49-50, 182; and Americans' impatience with progress of war, 50-54; Guadalcanal campaign, 53; Japanese surrender, 54-55, 135, 167, 177, 18898; Wake Island, battle of, 112-19, 132, 132n47; Bataan, 144-48, 15556; Corregidor, 144, 148-51, 15556; bombing of Ja.pan, 163, 165, 166-67, 169, 171, 184. See also Atomic bombs; POWs; Submarine warfare; and specific battles Padfield, Peter, 90 Pan American Airways employees (Wake Island), 118 Paramount Pictures, 115 Paterson, Joseph M., 31 Patterson, Cissie, 31 Pearl Harbor: attack on, 78, 25, 44, 63-64, 63n25, 93,111-12,139-40, 142; fiftieth anniversary of attack on, 10; as navy base, 61; storage tanks and fuel supplies at, 62-63, 63n24; and "Remember Wake!" as battle cry, 114; nursing care following attack on, 139-40, 142 Pearson, Richard, 83 Pearson, Drew, 31, 32 Persian Gulf War, 65 Petroleum industry. See Fuel; Oil supplies Philippine Clipper (airliner), 118 Philippine Sea, battle of, 74 Philippines: MacArthur's plan for retaking, 12, 25-28, 34, 36-38; MacArthur as military adviser to, 1819; Roosevelt's interest in strengthening defense capabilities of, before
217
World War II, 19; Japanese offensive against, 21-22, 25, 112, 123, 142, 144-48, 151; proposal for independence of, 22; Allied invasion and liberation of, in 1944-1945, pp. 38, 39, 155; Allied POWs from battle of, 123; hospitals in, 142, 144-49, 151-52; nurses in, 142, 144-56, 158-59 Plan Orange, 50, 52-53, 91 Plate, William 0 ., 128 Poland,164 Porter, David, 84 Potsdam Conference, 54, 55, 164, 174, 190,192-93 Potsdam Declaration, 55, 190 Potter, E. B., 84-85 POWs: Wake Island defenders as, 1213,112,115,119-37; Axis forces as, 46; Japanese as, 46, 47, 121, 182; Japanese treatment of and contempt for, 119-20, 182; death rate of, in prison camps, 120, 123, 131, 134, 148, 182; statistics on, 120, 182; photographs of, 121, 129, 153; advantages and treatment of Wake Island POWs, 122-27; and Bataan Death March, 123, 148, 182; in Philippines, 123, 148, 152, 154-55; Wake Islanders' first weeks in captivity, 123-24; in Shanghai War Prisoners Camp, 124-34, 125n26; trip to Shanghai War Prisoners Camp, 124, 124n25; Christmas dinner for Wake Island POWs, 125-26; guards in Japanese prison camps, 126-27; survival strategies and morale of Wake Island POWs, 128-35; buddy system for, 131-32; and humor, 133-34; transfer of Wake Island POWs to Japan, 134-35; nurses in prison camps, 145, 152-55; U.S . liberation of, in Philippines, 155; in German camps, 182 Prange, Gordon W., 8 President (ship), 84 Preston, Robert, 115
218
Index
Prisoners of war. See POWs Privateering, 84-85 Propaganda, lIS, 180, 191 Quadrant Conference, 167 Quezon, Manuel, 18,22,25,32, 148 Racism: against Japanese, 12, 44-56, 174n19, 179, 180, 191; "exterminationist rhetoric" against Japanese, 12, SO; atomic bomb and transformation of Japanese-American relations, 13-14, 179-82, 194-98; in German-American war, 44-46, 48 49, 179, 179-80n1; and atrocities in World War II, 49-50, 182-83; between Soviet Union and Germany, 183; and dropping of atomic bombs, 189-90 Red Cross, 126, 127, 141, ISO, 156 Redmond, Juanita, 145, 150 Refueling operations, 77-78, 77nn6869, 79. See also Fuel Reprisal, 83-84 Revolutionary War, 83-84 Richardson, James 0., 67 Rodgers, John, 84 Roosevelt, Franklin D.: Germany-first priority in World War II, I, 27; criticisms of, 21, 30-31, 38; and MacArthur, 12,21,24-25,29,30,32,34, 36-40; and plans to retake the Philippines, 12, 34, 36-38; before World War II, 18-19; and Quezon proposal for Philippine independence, 22; photograph of, 35; reelection of, in 1944, pp. 37, 38; death of, 39; on Americans' impatience with progress of World War II, SO; and North African campaign, 51; and Pearl Harbor as navy base, 61; and Christmas-tree lighting at White House, 111, 112; and Pearl Harbor attack, 111-12; and Labor Federal Security Appropriation Act, 138; and Selective Training and Service Act, 138;
and Corregidor surrender, 151; and bombing of Japan, 163, 165, 166-67, 169, 171, 184; at Casablanca Conference, 166-67; at Cairo Conference, 168; and bombing cities, 183-84; on Germany as unredeemable, 195, 196 Roosevelt, Theodore, 87 Rosenman, Sam, 34 Ross, Charlie, 17 Rusbridger, James, 8n18
Sabine (ship), 74 Samoa, 77n68 Sampson, William T., 87 San Bernardino Strait, 78n72 Sanctuary (ship), 159 Santiago, battle of, 87 Saratoga (ship), 66 Savo Island, battle of, 78 Sayre, Francis Bowes, 19-20, 148 Sayre, Mrs. Francis Bowes, 149 Selective Training and Service Act, 138 Semmes, Raphael, 85-86, 95 Serapis (ship), 83 Shanghai War Prisoners Camp, 124-34, 125n26 Sherman, Forrest, 38 Sherrod, Robert, 46, 47 Sherwin, Martin J., 9, 9-10n25 Sherwood, Robert, 34, 38-39 Shindo, Dr. Y., 127 Sims, William S., 89, 90 Smith, Holland, 48 Snell, John 1., 8n18 So Proudly We Hail (film), ISS-56 Solace (ship), 139-42, 143 Solomon Islands, 42, 77 Sorenson, Alfred, 157 Sothern, Ann, 156 Soviet Union, 9, 38,183,185-87,18788n12, 190, 192, 193, 198 Spaatz, Carl, 170, 177 Spanish-American War, 87 Spearfish (submarine), 150-51 Spruance, Raymond A., 59 Stalin, Joseph, 55, 190
Index Stark, R. Harold, 93 Stimson, Henry: and MacArthur, 21, 22,24,25,31-32; and Japanese surrender, 54, 190-91, 193-96; and Kyushu invasion, 173; and atomic bomb, 174; on racism during wartime, 191; on Japanese as Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, 194-95 Submarine warfare: by u.S. in Pacific War, 12,93-100, 184; Japanese submarines in World War II, 60, 67, 77, 158; as guerre de course Icommerce raiding) in World War II, 81-82, 81n2; impact of, 81-82, 95, 97; statistics on, 81, 81n2, 95, 97; German U-boats, 88-90, 93; torpedoes fired by, 88, 92, 95; in World War I, 8890, 184; planning for, between World War I and World War II, 9093; German submarines in World War 11,92; U.S. casualties, 100 Sullivan, Margaret, 156 Sutherland, Richard K., 32, 33; photographs of, 23, 197 Suzuki, Prime Minister, 192 Swanson, Claude A., 67 Switzerland, 126
Tachibana Maru Iship), 124n25 Tambor Isubmarine), 93, 94 Tankers, 64-68, 80, 80n75, 97 Theoharis, Athan, 8 Thorne, Christopher, 7 Tibbets, Paul w., Jr., 172 Tirpitz IGerman admiral), 89 Tokyo bombing, 171, 176, 184, 193 Torpedoes, 88, 92, 95 Trafalgar, battle of, 90 Triton Isubmarine), 117 Truman, Harry S.: and atomic bomb, 9, 164,172-74,175,177,192-94; and MacArthur, 17-18, 36, 39-40; at Potsdam Conference, 55, 174, 19293; and B-29 development program, 165-66; and Kyushu invasion, 173; and occupation of Japan after World
219
War II, 185; and Japanese surrender, 190, 192 Tsushima, battle of, 90 Tulagi, 53, 77 U-boats, 88-90, 93 Umezu, Y., 197 United States Iship), 84 Van der Vat, Dan, 82 Vandenberg, Arthur, 24,30-31,32,33, 34 Wainwright, Jonathan, 26, 147,149-51 Wainwright, Richard, 88 Wake Island: defenders of, 12-13, 111-37; aircraft carriers' support for, 75, 77; cancellation of air strike on, 77; refueling destroyers during operation, 77n69; battle of, 112-19, 132, 132n47; and "Remember Wake!" as battle cry, 114, 116; American civilians on, 115-17, 118; and wartime propaganda, 115; Guamanian civilians on, 118; casualties from siege of, 119, 122 Wake Island lfilm), 115 Washington, George, 55-56, 84 Wasp Iship), 78 Watchtower Operation, 53, 73 Watson, Edwin "Pa," 37 Weather conditions, 3, 72-75, 75n63, 77 Wecter, Dixon, 44 Weigley, Russell, 41-42 Weir, Gary E., 97-98 White, Theodore, 18 Wickes, Lambert, 83-84 Willkie, Wendell, 32 Wilkinson, Gerald, 29-30 Willoughby, Charles, 29, 32 Wilson, Woodrow, 89 Wind speed and fuel consumption, 7275 Wohlstetter, Roberta, 78
220
Index
Wolfe, Kenneth B., 165, 166, 167, 16869 Wood, Robert E., 27, 30, 32, 33 World War I, 60-61, 87, 88-90, 97-98, 184 World War I veterans, 43 World War II: Germany/Europe-first priority in, 1,27,30,52, 167; Pacific War compared with European-Mediterranean conflict, 1-4; American negative attitudes against Japanese during, 12, 44-56; isolationists' and conservatives' criticisms of, 30-31;
fears about American GIs, 43-44; atrocities committed in, 49-50, 182-83; American impatience with progress of, 50-54; Japanese surrender, 54-55, 135, 167, 177, 188-98; guerre de course (commerce raiding) in, 81-82; U.S. casualties during, 160; civilian as target in, 183-84; German surrender, 196-98. See also Pacific War; and specific battles Yalta Conference, 89 Yasu, Matsuzaka, 113 Yorktown (ship), 76, 77, 77n68
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