Through the Modernist's Lens

THROUGH THE MODERNIST’S LENS

THROUGH THE MODERNIST'S LENS 1

THROUGH THE MODERNIST’S LENS

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THROUGH THE MODERNIST'S LENS

THROUGH THE MODERNIST'S LENS

Designed by: Fiona Liem Kansas State University ART 576 | Advance Typography Spring 2018 Professor Matthew Gaynor

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Lustig, Thompson, & Bass Written by: Fiona Liem

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Philip Johnson Written by: Shannon Saville

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Mies Written by: Brett Bolf

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Bibliography

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Contents

Lustig, Thompson & Bass FIONA LIEM

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The period of time leading up to the second world war transformed the world in many ways. People in the past were struggling to come up with new ways to have better communication between industry and the consumers.

They began rejecting traditional ideas like the decorative, organic flourishes of Art Nouveau. Instead, they began adopting abstract, geometric forms, which led to the creation of movements such as Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism, De Stijl, and Dada. These modern movements were simple and expressionistic; thus allowing the creators behind the work to have clear communication with their viewers. On top of that, they became a source of inspiration to many graphic designers. In addition, along with the development of technology, the room for creativity expanded. However, at first, these advancements were exclusive to Europe (Clifford 2014, 16 –17).

Meanwhile, in America, the Stock Market Crash of 1929 triggered a series of events such as the Great Depression of the 1930s. It devastated the global economy and cost millions of people their jobs. The effects did not only happen in America but also other nations. For instance, in Germany, the financial support given by America to the Weimar Republic disappeared. Meanwhile, the Nazis, who were rising in power, took advantage of the economic vulnerability to push their agenda even further in Europe. Designers and Artists at the moment were either forced to conform to Hitler’s policies or migrate elsewhere. Resulted in many of them moving to the United States and bringing their European modern sensibilities with them (Clifford 2014, 68).

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on,

America Post World-War II

Combining European ideas of abstraction, dynamism, and asymmetry with a particular American directness,

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Before the war, the United States was a clean slate with regards to art, unaware of constructivism and all the other 'isms' because all the art movements were isolated in Europe. However, unlike the European designers, most of the American designers did not attach to any philosophy for they remained open to a range of styles (Eskilson 2012, 304). As quoted by the authors of Graphic Styles, “Combining European ideas of abstraction, dynamism, and asymmetry with a particular American directness, the new design provided a viable alternative to the blatant and often vulgar style of mass-market design.” (Heller and Chwast 1988, 195).

the new design provided a viable alternative to the blatant and often vulgar style of mass-market design.

Several years after the depression, America entered World War II. The war created many jobs, which consequently pumped money back to the economy. As a result, the economy of the nation surged. Both consumer demand and birth rate increased, developments of railroads and highways led to easy traveling, and housing sectors that extended beyond the city limits resulted in new ways of life. Moreover, there was a need to marry good design with affordable materials and productions in order to promote products. The new American economy opened many opportunities for both European and American designers to flourish. In addition to advertising, magazine publishing, film and television, and the music industry all attracted talented designers. The aftermath of, the stock market crash, and the war produced economic growth that united people and ideas, resulting in new ways to design and communicate (Clifford 2014, 68 – 69).

Lustig's Apartment, New York, 1953 – 55

Lustig Chair for Paramount Furniture, 1949

a very ambitious man who strongly believed that the title “graphic designer” was too limiting.

Roteron Helicopter, 1945

Nevertheless, before becoming the famous designer that he was, Lustig was a student of Frank Lloyd Wright. He stayed with Wright for some time in Wisconsin until he ran away and opened his own studio because he could no longer stand the pressure of only having to do things the “wright way”. Upon opening his own studio, he targeted architects who wanted to advertise their work. Unfortunately, his efforts resulted in not much. It was only when he designed a Christmas card for Jacob Zeitlin, a bookshop owner whose shop was a mecca for many Los Angeles’ literati and designers, that his career began to get better. From Zeitlin, who had a lot of connections, Lustig received more commissions. In 1940, the twentyfive-year-old prodigy had a bright future and was ready to conquer to world. He left his small studio and moved to a bigger one. He designed letterheads and booklets

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One of the many designers that made it to the top and helped spread modernism in the United States was Alvin Lustig. Lustig was born in Denver, Colorado in 1915 and he went to a Community College in Los Angeles. Lustig was a very ambitious man who strongly believed that the title “graphic designer” was too limiting. Therefore, he did what most of his colleagues did not, he designed literally everything — magazines, interiors, book jackets, packaging, fabrics, hotels, mall signage, the opening credits of the cartoon Mr. Magoo, a helicopter, and the list goes on. What is truly impressive about him, however, was how he achieved all that success before dying at a very young age (Clifford 2014, 94).

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Alvin Lustig

as as if his rvoir of s was ess and less

The man who Died, 1947

The Day of the Locust, 1949

New World Primer, 1947

A Season in Hell, 1945

It res ide end limi

Three Lives, 1945

Lustig then continued to design the total package for his clients, from corporate identities to office environments. Nonetheless, the jack of all trades was best known for his book covers.

James Laughlin, New Directions Publisher would vouch for that. It all began when Laughlin, who had been packaging reprints of modern literary titles in a traditional format, was struggling with his business. However, Lustig came to the rescue by breathing new life into the covers of the books. He rejected the traditional formats that Laughlin had and he added bright colors and abstract visuals that were inspired by Joan Miro and Paul Klee. The sales of the magazine tripled and stores began to display the books prominently. Lustig also never failed to surprise Laughlin with his creative designs that were always different and new. It was as if his reservoir of ideas was endless and limitless even though he seldom relied on literal solutions for he preferred to get the feel of the author’s creative drive and then translate it into his own graphical terms using mostly abstract elements (Heller and Cohen 2010, 50).

Later in his career, in his New Directions work, Lustig adopted the realistic qualities of photography, which he added a twist by mixing it with abstraction. It was then that he officially walked away from pure abstraction and into photo collage. With his new style, Lustig did a series

Although Lustig was not a practitioner of the International style, his innovative designs were one of the markers that show the shift from realism to abstraction in the United States. His tendency was to fill up the space he got with colors, which he then topped with several two and three-dimensional elements, some of which project out of the space that contains it.

Most of his work also includes lines that flow throughout the space, like his book jacket for Anatomy for Interior Designers. As a whole, his works represent the American twist to the European abstract styles — a hybrid of styles instead of just focusing on one, which truly depicts the kind of person that he was (Eskilson 2012, 304 – 305).

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In 1951, he was asked by Josef Albers to help create a graduate graphic design program at Yale University (Meggs and Purvis 2012, 350). Unfortunately, his career had to slow down when his diabetes that he had since a teenager became worse. His vision began failing around 1950, and by 1954 he was totally blind. Nevertheless, a visionary that he was, he did not let his illness stop him from doing what he loved. Instead, he would dictate his ideas to his wife or another assistant, who would then produce the work under his supervision. He also continued to teach until his very last breath. Even after his death, his influence lived on because his wife, Elaine Lustig, took over much of his work and went on to become an acclaimed designer herself (Clifford 2014, 94).

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for clients, experimented with abstract motion pictures, and explored the possibilities of prefabricated furniture and modular houses (Heller and Cohen 2010, 25).

Mister Magoo, UPA 1949

of conceptual black and white covers. His cover for Federico Garcia Lorca’s Three Tragedies is a great example. In his work, he took a picture of the author’s name written on a sandy beach, effectively designing both type and image at the same time. On top of the design, the one-color printing, helped the book stand out in a market cluttered with colors and traditional type.

Thompson used the typecase and print shop as his canvas, easel, and second studio.

Man, Time, and Motion, 1945 Liberty, 1953

Mademoiselle Cover, 1952

With a limited budget for new plates and artwork,

Speaking of layouts, Thompson was a huge fan of magazines. After graduating as an economics major, he worked in the printing industry in Kansas until he decided to move to New York to further pursue his dreams. When in the city that never sleeps, Thompson became the art director at Mademoiselle (1945 – 59) and design director at ARTnews (1945 – 72). All in all, he designed for more than 30 other magazines during his career, including Smithsonian and Business Week.

Still, Thompson is best known for his work with Westvaco (West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company). To promote the company’s papers and printing processes, he designed Inspirations, a magazine that was made for design professionals. He restricted himself by only allowing existing imageries from printers, museums, and ad agencies to be used in his works. This particular decision was the thing that really made him stand out from the designers of his time, because everyone else was moving towards abstraction while Thompson was marrying the past with

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Another great talent who was born in the mid-west of the United States was Bradbury Thompson. While Lustig was breaking the boundaries of his discipline, Thompson was breaking the limits of low budget. Even though he did not design as many things as Lustig, Thompson was especially good with layouts. He was known for his printing skills and his deep knowledge of typography and colors. His work usually included vintage letterpress type and foundry imageries. “With a limited budget for new plates and artwork, Thompson used the typecase and print shop as his canvas, easel, and second studio.”

(Meggs and Purvis 2012, 393).

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Bradbury Thompson

Mobile Mannequin, 1952

Rock ' n ' Roll, 1958

Thompson achieved a rare mastery of complex

organization, form, and visual flow.

Bombardier,1945

During the 1960s and 70s, he turned to a more classical approach to book and editorial design.

Instead of experimenting so much, he focused on readability, formal harmony and the use of Old Style typefaces. Such work can be seen in periodicals like Smithsonian and ARTnews, his postage stamps, and his other books, including the Washburn College Bible. Along with the change in his designs, he went on to pursue a multi-disciplinary career. As mentioned by John Clifford, the author of Graphic Icons, “He designed more than 100 U.S. postage stamps, wrote The Art of Graphic

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Through his work, “Thompson achieved a rare mastery of complex organization, form, and visual flow.” (Meggs and Purvis 2012, 393). He introduced the engravings of the eighteenth and nineteenth century in a way that was never done before. With the use of large, bold organic and geometric shapes, he was able to give the page a touch of magic. Moreover, he would often enlarge letterforms and patterns to use as design elements or as visual patterns and movements. His method also involved taking apart four-color process plates that are often overprinted to create new colors — a method that has been used since then and one that has inspired many people until today.

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Rain, Rain, Rain, 1958

the present. He used Inspirations to experiment with photographic reproduction techniques and printing processes. Consequently, his results were striking layouts that are decorated with vintage illustrations or images, bold cyan, magenta, yellow, and black colors and or shapes. He also played with dramatic scales and transparent layers.

To Arms!, 1945

In his own quiet way, Bradbury Thompson has expanded the boundaries of the printed page

and influenced the design of a generation of art directors.

Design, and taught at Yale University.” (Clifford 2014, 94). Furthermore, the Washburn College Bible that he designed became an example of his style of combining the past and present. In the book, Thompson used classic type and artwork, but he “separated the text into phrases that ended at natural stopping point”, thus giving it a more readable rhythm (Clifford 2014, 94).

In 1980, Allen F. Hurlburt, a distinguished art director, writer, and teacher commented on Thompson’s work that was published in Communication Arts magazine, “In his own quiet way, Bradbury Thompson has expanded the boundaries of the printed page and influenced the design of a generation of art directors. Unfortunately, … many of the young designers who are in his debt are hardly aware of his presence.” (Thompson 1988, 19). He continued with recommending that people take a look at

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The Art of Defense & The Art of Drawing, 1952

Westvaco Inspirations 180's Summary, 1950

the works Thompson created in the year of 1945; the T h o m p s o n i g n o r e d year when the war ended and the year that Thompson them and encouraged wound up his tour of duty with the Office of War Infor- the younger designers mation (OWI). That year, Thompson designed the final to try it and to explore issues of three wartime magazines including Victory and type as if it were a toy USA, all of which were translated into several languages (Thompson 1988, 37). and distributed worldwide (Thompson 1988, 19).

Another important thing Another thing that made Bradbury Thompson stand out to note about Thompfrom many designers was his use of both upper and son was his habit of overloading himself with work. lowercase letters. In 1945, Thompson was experiment- However, like Lustig, he was never out of ideas because ing with ways of combining readability and graphic log- he mainly got his inspiration from the mundane routines ic, when he then s tumbled upon the idea of that many people often complain about. For instance, Monalphabet — an idea to break the separation of let- when asked by TypeTalks what gave him his inspiration, terforms from capital and lowercases. He used the Thompson said his routine as a father to his son. For typeface Futura to conduct his experiments. He began instance, he learned so much when he helped his son by either constantly using all lowercase or uppercase, learn to read, drew railroad tracks for him with two penwhich created a confusion. Then, he moved on to no- cils held together with a rubber band, and many more tating the start of the sentence using a bullet, an under- things that people tend to perceive as something ordiline, and bolding the letter itself, which he ended up nary. As quoted by the master of layout himself, “A conadapting into one of the issues of Inspirations and also stant interest in work plus an interest in everyday things the entire design of the 33rd Annual of Advertising Art. can give the artist and designer endless numbers of Still, he was not satisfied fresh ideas.” (Thompson 1988, 43). with the result. He went on to experiment more and finally settled on the idea of enlarging the lowercase letter at the beginning of the s e n t e n c e, w hi c h h e coined as Alphabet 26.

Alas, critics said it was a w a s t e o f t i m e, b u t

would stick to the viewers' minds while summarizing the complexity of the film content.

The Man With the Golden Arm Poster, 1955

Soundtrack Album Cover, 1955

His specialty was his ability to create a single strong motif that

Newspaper Ads, 1955

Born in New York, Saul Bass was the son of Jewish Immigrants from Eastern Europe. His love for art was in him for as long as he could remember and so was his cutout technique. Bass only began to speak English when he first went to school. However, by high school, he was the arts editor of his school’s literary and arts publication The Monroe Doctrine, and of the yearbook (Bass and Kirkham 2013, 3). He also received various scholarships and awards.

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The last of the three great visionaries is Saul Bass.

Like Lustig, Bass went beyond his title as a graphic designer. However, unlike Lustig, Bass found a special niche, which was movies. Throughout his career, Bass revolutionized the film industry with his amazing designs. His specialty was his ability to create a single strong motif that would stick in the viewers’ minds while summarizing the complexity of the film content. His works are poetic and they certainly tell their own story.

Before Bass, movie titles were considered so unimportant that theater curtains would only be pulled aside after they were over. However, a breakthrough happened when Otto Preminger’s The Man with the Golden Arm was released in 1955, as the movie featured Bass’ minimal, animated title sequence. The director loved Bass’ work so much that the curtains were wide open even before the credits began (Clifford 2014, 124).

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Saul Bass

Vertigo Poster, 1958

Exodus Poster, 1960

visual tensions that are produced by certain graphic elements

form the basis of a universal language of vision

During his time at Art Students League, he learned much from his layout class teacher, Howard Trafton, who was well known as a commercial artist. From Trafton, Bass took up his habit of using freely brushed letters and crisp modern typography. Another man who inspired Bass was the legendary Paul Rand. Bass was highly inspired by Rand’s use of shape and asymmetrical balance but disliked Rand’s way of carefully creating the compositions using complex contrasts of shape, color, and texture. Instead, Bass simplified his designs down to a single dominant image, which he did by using irregular cut out forms that were cut with scissors or drawn with a brush. He also often combined them with typography or handwriting. As a result, his work has an energy to it even though his elements are very much two dimensional and lack all the exactness that could make it seem rigid (Bass and Kirkham 2013, 6).

Anatomy of Murder Trade Ad, 1959

His technique of creating symbolic images that represent the movie instead of focusing on the star was the thing that made him special. “The simplicity and directness of Bass’ work enables the viewer to interpret the content immediately.” (Meggs and Purvis 2012, 395). Film Director Martin Scorsese, also commented, “Bass fashioned title sequences into an art, creating in some cases a mini - film Later, Bass met Gryorgy Kepes, a Hungarian artist, de- within a film. His graphic compositions in movement funcsigner, and teacher, who influenced him greatly through tion as a prologue to the movie ­— setting the tone, prohis book Language of Vision. From Kepes, Bass learned viding the mood, and foreshadowing the action.” (Clifford that visual tensions that are produced by certain graphic 2014, 124). For instance, for The Man with the Golden elements form the basis of a universal language of vision, Arm, starring Frank Sinatra as a card dealer addicted to and that graphic design and motion pictures can change heroin, Bass created abstract paper cutouts that were the world because they are not boundshown on the screen at different aned by tradition. And because of that, gles while the brassy score plays. At Saul Bass had the idea of designing the end, the cutout transforms into a moving images w one that was far jagged arm, which is the primary more progressive than the works of symbol of the film. This title sequence many designers during that period was the first one to set the mood and (Bass and Kirkham 2013, 9). become part of a movie. Also, in his animation for The Man with the In 1952, he moved to the other side of Golden Arm, Bass successfully the country and opened a design ofmatched the movement of the forms fice in Los Angeles where he designed and the design of the forms them-

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print ads for movies. While moving to California, Bass brought with him the ideas that were born in New York. It was then, in 1954, that film director Otto Preminger came in and hired him to design the poster for his film Carmen Jones. For the movie, Bass created a design that superimposed the two elements that best represented the movie — a rose and a flame.

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It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad, World, 1963

After he graduated, the young and naive Saul dreamed big and wanted to see his work in the high end of the industry like Paul Rand and Cassandre. Therefore, he began by entering the industry as a commercial artist.

However, when he did get the chance to get in the industry, he got frustrated as his creativity was always knocked back with the rules they had. He commented that he disliked the industry because there was so little room for creativity in the advertising world at the time for everything was dominated by what he called the “See, see, see” method of design — “See the missionaries boiled alive! See the virgins dance in the Temple of Doom! See Krakatoa blow its top!” (Bass and Kirkham 2013, 8). Still, it was from there that he learned a lot about rendering, tidying up roughs, and typography.

“ I want everything we do to be beautiful.

I don‘t give a damn whether the client understands that that‘s worth anything, or that the client thinks it‘s worth anything, or whether it is worth anything.

It‘s worth it to me.

It‘s the way I want to live my life.

I want to make beautiful things, even if nobody cares.”

At the end of the day, the most important thing one can take away from Saul Bass is his tenacity and his belief in what he was doing. As quoted by Bass himself, “I want everything we do to be beautiful. I don’t give a damn whether the client understands that that’s worth anything, or that the client thinks it’s worth anything, or whether it is worth anything. It’s worth it to me. It’s the way I want to live my life. I want to make beautiful things, even if nobody cares.” (Chris Coyier 2010).

Bass dreamed big, believed in himself, and so he was able to change the design world.

Westinghouse, 1960

In his career, Bass designed classic titles for Psycho, It’s a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, Bonjour Tristesee, Vertigo, Grand Prix, and North by Northwest. In the 1980s and 90s, he continued to design famous film titles, such Martin Scorsese’s Goodfellas and Casino. Not only did Bass transform the design aspect of the film industry, but also he changed the business side of it. He created everything needed for marketing purposes starting from on-screen titles, to posters, to advertising. Bass went on to create Academy Award-winning short Why Man Creates, and the feature-length Phase IV with his beloved wife. He also designed logos for Continental Airlines, Minolta, AT&T, Warner Communications, and others famous companies using his iconic style. Although Bass was known mostly for his film-related designs, some of his logos are still used until today (Clifford 2014, 124).

Saul Bass' Identity Design.

Left to Right: AT&T, 1986 Bell, 1968 Quaker, 1971

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Container Corporation of America, 1957

selves with the beat of the music. The bursting of the jagged arm was a genius touch too as it became the climax of one visual story (Meggs and Purvis 2012, 395).

Philip

Johnson SHANNON SAVILLE

a place where everything is so black and white, Philip Johnson decided to be the opposite.

Interior of Glass House, 1949

n

In a field filled with solemn architects, a place where everything is so black and white, Philip Johnson decided to be the opposite. He was always described as the life of the party, constantly coming up with new ideas that broke the boundaries of modern architecture and approaching everything with a sense of humor (Johnson 1994, 8). His demeanor was relaxed but outspoken, the type of person who left critics questioning his actions; always pushing his work to the edge and thinking in experimental terms while working on a project. He was often referred to as the “controversial mad scientist of his profession”

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In the first half of the twentieth century, after World War II, the development of modern architecture began to form. The new technologies of steel, glass, and reinforced concrete created inspiration for a new style of architecture, one that stepped away from the neoclassical style of the 19th century. As the rise of modern architecture began, it introduced the world to many great architects, such as, Frank Lloyd Wright, Walter Gropius, and Mies van der Rohe. However, there is one architect in particular who paved the way for other modernist and postmodernist architects to follow: Philip Johnson. The American architect Philip Johnson is most known for his modernist and postmodernist architectural designs. Although he does not have an architectural empire, the buildings he has created have truly made a name for him in the architectural world.

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In a field filled with solemn architects,

Rockefeller House, 1950

Rockefeller House Floor Plan, 1950

MOMA Exhibition, 1932

son ys strived eate work an effect.

Johns always to cre with a

Philip Johnson was born in Cleveland, Ohio in 1906. His father was a successful lawyer, so he was born in to a well-off family, the third of four children. Although Philip looked up to his father, it is said that Philip’s great success In 1949, Philip Johnson entered what is formally known is to be credited to the creative and intellectual life of his as his “modernist period”. In this time frame, 1949 – 1979, mother, who was involved in the arts. As a young child, he designed many structures that would define his career Philip and his family would take trips to Europe, where he as a successful architect. One of Johnson’s earlier works was able to admire the beautiful architectural structures began with the design of the Rockefeller Guest House in each city had to offer (Welch 2000, 1– 3). While he was 1950. Johnson was approached by the Rockefeller family fascinated by the gothic structure of cathedrals at a and asked to design a small town house that would be young age, Philips first dream was to become a concert used for their many guests. He took this as an opportupianist. That dream was quickly pushed away when he nity to step outside the bounds of the structural rules for decided to go to Harvard to study classics and philoso- a town house. The interior had an open floor plan, dephy. His interest in philosophy had an effect on Johnson’s signed with steel and glass so there would be no visible personality. The influence of a philosophical embrace of barriers to block the view of the interior of the town house. positivity and an acceptance of new ideas played a key The property contained a garden with a reflecting pool, role in the development of his views and concepts, which settled in the middle of the house, as opposed to the

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(Johnson 1994, 8). His work can be described as minimalist, modern, and a little bit deconstructive, Johnson always strove to create work with an “effect”.

He wanted to construct buildings that left an imprint on the mind. In his field, Johnson was always ready to test the waters of a new idea, jumping into the deep end of something that other architects would be wary of coming near. Though he played a big part in the history of modern and postmodern architecture, Johnson did not believe he deserved to be one of the greats: “this sort of unassuming comment is typical of Johnson in conversation but is undercut by his professional record. Johnson’s contributions have earned him many of architectures highest awards” (Johnson 1994, 8 –11).

Johnson and Hitchcock traveled together through Europe, documenting and discussing this “new” architectural style they were beginning to see. While in Europe they came up with a name for this new architectural look, calling it the International Style. When they returned to the states, the pair wrote The International Style: Architecture since 1922, which helped introduce modern architecture to the American people (Welch 2000, 11). In 1932, upon his return to the United States, Johnson took the position of the first director of the Department of Architecture and Design at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. While working at the Museum of Modern Art, Johnson was able to put together the very first exhibition on modern architecture, which featured works from Frank Lloyd Wright, Raymond Hood, Mies van der Rohe, and Walter Gropius (Welch 2000, 13). Though he had big dreams for this new and exciting exhibition, it did not turn out to be the great success Johnson had hoped for. After a short period as architecture director, Johnson left the Museum of Modern Art to return to Harvard, where he would formally begin his architectural studies.

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showed later on in his architectural designs (Johnson 1994, 11). During his last year at university, Johnson began taking regular trips to New York where he was having meetings with Henry-Russell Hitchcock, a fellow graduate of Harvard and art historian. The two developed a close friendship and bonded over their shared intellect and knowledge of ancient and modern architecture (Welch 2000, 6).

Rockefeller Sculpture Garden and Floor Plan, 1953

Lincoln Centre for the Performing Arts Floor Plan, 1964

The way he approached the garden was not to look at it as a garden,

traditional location at the back end of the house. The façade of the structure was unlike any surrounding buildings, it was symmetrical and two stories high. His goal in creating this town house was to take the modern look and establish a luxurious feel to it. Though the Rockefeller Town House is not one of Philip Johnsons major works, the influence of this style can be seen when compared to what was being built at the time; it served as a prototype for more urbanized structures (Blake 1996, 43 – 45).

Through his connections with the Museum of Modern Art, Philip Johnson was asked to redesign The Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Sculpture Garden at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City in 1953. When the garden was originally built with the museum, it ended up being a rushed project and not much though was given to it.

When asked to take on the project, Johnson was thrilled

One of Philip Johnsons greatest accomplishments is his Glass

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In the early 1960s, Johnson was approached by Governor Rockefeller of New York to help design the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts. This project was not solely carried out by him, but it was carried out by a group of prominent architects from around the city. However, some of Johnson’s ideas did make it through to the final design, such as his Michelangelo inspired plaza and fountain (Johnson 1994, 74). The final design consisted of two main spaces: the auditorium and the grand promenade. Though he was working with around seven other architects, all with different opinions, Johnson was able to push his plans through to an agreement. The interior was created to have a 1930s feel but done it in a modernist way. The auditorium was fitted with eighteenth century balconies, French stair cases, an open designed acoustical ceiling plated in gold leaf, and a central fixture that decorated the room with light (Johnson 1994, 74 – 81). The Lincoln Center for Performing Arts was finished in 1963, six months after President John F. Kennedy was shot and killed.

Painting Gallery, 1949

Lincoln Centre for the Performing Arts Floor Plan, 1964

but as a series of rooms in which the sculptures can be displayed, divided by different elements.

to conquer the task of designing an architectural landscape. The way he approached the garden was not took look at it as a garden, but as a series of rooms in which the sculptures can be displayed, divided by different elements (Blake 1994, 54). When asked to describe his thought process on the design of the garden, Philip Johnson replied, “But this is a room, not a garden, it’s an urban room with definite doorways and processionals, and yet it’s easy enough to penetrate. If you’re not forced to move that way and this way you won’t see anything” (Johnson 1994, 67). Though it was a challenge to figure out a way to make the space work as a whole, Johnson decided to not necessarily design the space to fit the sculptures, but to let the space act as a natural backdrop to highlight each sculptural piece displayed throughout the garden. He accomplished this by creating a stable environment, using neutral colors and linear elements, to compliment the abstract forms that would reside in the interchanging space (Blake 1996, 54). Once completed it became the premium modernist public garden of New York, with its mixture of architecture and landscape.

Glass House, 1949

The beauty within the glass house is not that it‘s made of glass, but how it has the ability to frame the landscape around it.

It also reflects Johnsons abilities to harness the unpredictable resources of nature and turn it into architectural play.

House, which he constructed as a home for himself in New Canaan, Connecticut in 1949. This structure is said to be one of the most well - known modern houses in the world, recognized by the many awards it has won (Blake 1996, 32). This building stands out from the other buildings constructed at this time because of its unique structure. Essentially, it is a glass box, hence the name, The Glass House. Constructed solely of glass and steel beams, this house has an open interior design. The concept behind the idea was that the viewer could see this space within a space without a natural barrier between the house and the surrounding scenery; creating a seamless transition into the landscape. Although there are no walls, the living space is a very traditional colonial structure, with a kitchen, living room, bedroom, bathroom, and dining area (“The Glass House” 2018). The inside living space is designed in a way that contrasts the

Painting Gallery, 1949

One of the most interesting buildings on the property is called The Brick House.

Brick House was originally designed at the same time as The Glass House but was actually finished a few months before hand. The main function of the building is to house all the support systems to run both buildings, but what it really does is create a nice contrast between the two drastically different buildings. While The Glass House is a very natural structure designed to float with the land and have the transparency to see everything, The Brick House is the exact opposite, completely composed of brick to hide away the interior systems. The two were originally conceived as a singular composition but Johnson ended up separating the them, placing Brick House a courtyard away to create a visual tension (“The Glass House” 2018).

At the time, creating structures that were symmetrical was highly frowned upon, so being the rule bender he was, he decided that was exactly what he was going to do; create a completely symmetrical building to prove that it can still be modern (Blake 1996, 35). Mies van der Rohe had always been a big inspiration to Philip Johnson.

In fact, The Glass House was greatly influenced by Mies’ Farnsworth House. Although it was greatly influenced by the work of Mies, Johnson wanted to make sure his design stuck out as his own, doing things Mies would never do. The way Johnson uses his materials to create such a striking home is something many architects can only dream to do. He chose to design his house using glass because it is a material that worked well with the surroundings: “The beauty within The Glass House is not that it’s made of glass, but how it has the ability There are two galleries on the premises, a painting galto frame the landscape lery and a sculpture gallery. The painting gallery was

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Although the title makes it seem like a singular building, The Glass House is actually part of a larger property Johnson owned. What started off as 5 acres of land, has grown into over 40 acres, due to the fact that over time, Johnson added numerous additions to the property. The Glass House is the main centerpieces of what critics have called “a living Museum of Modern Architecture” (Blake 1996, 32). Within this complex there are multiple galleries, sculptural tributes, pavilions, and studio buildings all with a significant meaning, and all created by Johnson.

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In the beginning stages of the design process to build this house, Johnson did not always have a clear vision of how he wanted this project to turn out. Johnson, referring to his many different sketches, once said, “I had a U - shaped house at one time, with a semi-court, the fourth side being the drop. Then I had an early sketch with Syrian arches. That always fascinates scholars. I didn’t realize that I was interested in arcuated buildings that early” (Johnson 1994, 30). When the vision finally came together, he knew he wanted this building to be like none-other before. The idea for The Glass House came about because he didn’t want to have to change the landscape.

All of his other sketches and ideas involved cutting down trees and creating more space in the clearing to fit his designs. The Glass House allowed him to create that pure modern house he was looking for and have it easily flow into the land, making the two become one. Johnson once referred to the structure as a “… pavilion that watches over nature and looks at the stone walls and the trees. Trees are becoming the basic building material of the place. The framing of the view, the repoussoir. The accents are all done by trees” (Johnson 1994, 34).

around it. It also reflects Johnsons abilities to harness the unpredictable resources of nature and turn it into architectural play” (Blake 1996, 38). This is not an easy task to tackle, using the nature he saw around him and creating an architectural landscape design is quite remarkable. Being able to come to terms with all the natural elements that would come into play and make them work within a design is the skill that really defines Johnson as the great architect he was.

Glass House, 1949

outside, using furniture to define the difference between the living spaces: “The fixed furniture plan contrasts with the surrounding landscape, which is ever-changing through weather and season” (“The Glass House” 2018).

Sculpture Gallery, 1949

Ghost House, 1949

Johnson designed the rooftop this way so that light could come into play and dance around the room, creating an interesting and complex patter of shadows and light.

created to house a number of different paintings Philip Johnson had collected from famous painters such as Frank Stella and Andy Warhol. Keeping with his naturalistic yet modern theme, he designed this gallery to be an underground museum. Like his Glass House, he wanted the gallery to become part of the landscape. The whole building is essentially a grass covered hill with the edge of a roof and a simple stone entrance (“The Glass House� 2018). The Sculpture Gallery on the other hand, takes a slightly different design approach. Still keeping the natural and modern feel, the sculpture gallery is designed after the Greek islands and their marvelous stairways. This building houses sculptures with a visual sequence, referring back to the guidance of the stairways. The ceiling of the gallery is made out of glass, supported by tubular steel rafters. Johnson designed the rooftop this way so that light could come into play and

35 THROUGH THE MODERNIST’S LENS

After his great success in his modernist period of architecture, Philip Johnson transitioned into his postmodernist architectural period, which only spanned about ten years, from around 1980 – 1990. Within this time period, Johnson, and partner John Burgee, began his work on the Crystal Cathedral in Garden Grove, California. This project in particular was quite exciting to him because it allowed him, as an architect, to be expressive through the ecclesiastical illustration of religion. The concept behind the design for the church was to create a building that would allow the sun to reach the congregation (Johnson 1994, 97). This church ended up being like no other church, because of its postmodern style and star shaped floor plan, from the exterior it is hard to tell that the building is even a church. Johnson recalled his experience designing the building: “It was a little hard to build, but Dr. Schuller (his client) rose to the occasion and said, ‘If you’ve got to give to God, don’t you think it should be expensive?’” (Johnson 1994, 98). The immaculate cathedral had an open exterior structure, constructed of over ten thousand glass panels and supported by steel trusses, allowing light to penetrate into the congregation. The exterior of the building reflects the crystal like feel along with

Crystal Cathedral, Garden Grove, 1980

Crystal Cathedral, Garden Grove, 1980

dance around the room, creating an interesting and complex pattern of shadows and light (“The Glass House” 2018). Usually known for creating more structural buildings, Johnson did have a few works around the property that were more sculpturally based. One of these would be The Ghost House. Made out of chain- link and steel, this structure plays off of two architectural directions. Though its function was to protect the enclosed flower garden from roaming deer, its main purpose was to pay tribute to one of Johnsons closest friends, Frank Gehry (Blake 1996, 199). One of his other more sculptural pieces was the Monument to Lincoln Kirstein, which was also a tribute to a close friend. The structural shape of it was a jigsaw like tower that was created to evoke a sense of imbalance. Johnson described it as “a staircase to nowhere” and this structure was something he often climbed and encouraged visitors to do as well (“The Glass House” 2018).

Crystal Cathedral, Garden Grove, 1980

AT&T Building, 1984

“ Once I discovered architecture as a need of my nature, then that enthusiasm knew no bounds…art is the only thing I‘ve been alive for.”

37 THROUGH THE MODERNIST’S LENS

AT&T Building, 1984

As the era of postmodern architecture was beginning, there was no prominent example of a building done in a truly post modernistic style. That is, until Philip Johnson’s 550 Madison Avenue, formerly known as the Sony building, which was also first known the AT&T building, was constructed. 550 Madison Avenue is known as one of the few buildings besides The Glass House that really defined Johnsons career and made his name well known (Blake 1996, 193). Although it was not the first ever building to be constructed within the postmodern movement, it has become one of the biggest and most recognizable: “While cities around the globe were erecting bastardizations of the International Style office towers, Johnson and Burgee were finishing a granite clad, gold leafed, postmodern masterwork for AT&T. The practice of reviving history for use in a new movement had earlier emerged in the forms of smaller buildings but it took Johnson ­ — never afraid of the marriage of art and commerce — to put it firmly on the map.” (Johnson 1994, 8) This building was one of Johnson’s first structures that was very visually different from the work of Mies van der Rohe. Always adapting his style, Johnson made it a point to step away from the influence of Mies and try out a new architectural style, completely differing from all of his other Mies inspired works. What made it so different is the archaic style of the building.

Most buildings of the time were made to look sleek, have been constructed out of glass, but Johnson refused to follow suit and proposed a stone structure in pink granite with a high arched entry way and a split pediment on top to resemble 18th century designs (Johnson 1994, 104).

Critics of the time were not fond of this new style or the approach Johnson took, calling its appearance “broken”.

However, looking back, the approach Johnson took in creating 550 Madison Avenue “is now seen as the turning point in a movement that revived decorative programs of expression and the art of building corporate symbols” (Johnson 1994, 8) and brought the word postmodernism back into the mainstream media.

As Philip Johnson reached the later years in his life, he began to rely on partnerships with other architects and agencies, mostly overseeing projects and working less on works of his own. When asked if he would ever be finished designing buildings Johnson replied, “My body has slowed but not my mind, I will never retire” (Welch 2000).

After living a long life, Philip Johnson passed away in 2005 inside his home in New Canaan, Connecticut at age 98. In a way, he was right, he did never retire because his legacy lives on through his works, inspiring people every day to achieve their dreams and reach their goals. Johnson lived a life full of many achievements including the Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1979, the AIA Gold Medal in 1978, and the Twenty-Five Year Award in 1975 for his Glass House. His vision of becoming an architect played out well, considering he is one of the most influential names in modern and postmodern architecture: “Once I discovered architecture as a need of my nature, then that enthusiasm knew no bounds...art is the only thing I’ve been alive for. There’s no such thing as leisure time. If your work is architecture, you work all the time. You wake up in the middle of the night.

‘I’ve got a wonderful idea!’” (“Philip C. Johnson 2018).

From his innovative and unique modern designs to his sleek and archaic postmodern designs, Philip Johnson made an impact on history. His architectural influence will live on through his works, but his memory will always remain within the glass house.

AT&T Building, 1984

the interior that, when illuminated, brings the ecclesiastical feeling; truly living up to its name.

Mies van

der r0he Brett bolf

and more that was promised.

39

Born in 1886 in Aachen, Germany, Mies van der Rohe was one of the most influential architects of the twentieth century. From the very beginning of his life, van der Rohe was a very skilled and motivated worker; by the time he was fourteen years old Mies was working for his father at the family stone masonry shop. From these experiences did van der Rohe begin to pick up the skills that would lead to him becoming one of the most prestigious designers of his time. Mies lived through very precarious times in his younger years, from the time that he accepted his first positions at local Aachen studios to moving to Berlin before his twentieth birthday, Mies van der Rohe; was proving to be everything and more that was promised. By the mid to late 1920’s Mies was deep into personal work, when he was tasked with becoming the head of the Bauhaus, which at the time was a burgeoning design school in Dessau, Germany. After leading the school for only a short amount of time from 1930 until 1931, Mies found major trouble and pressure coming from the Nazi political party who were in position to overtake the city of Dessau and eventually force the closure of the Bauhaus.

It was then that van der Rohe saw the opportunity to escape from Germany and the forthcoming political turmoil, to the United States. It was not until 1938 that Mies found the time and means to make the move. In 1938, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and a few of his design cohorts emigrated to the United States. Joseph Albers, Walter Gropius and László Moholy - Nagy also made the move in an attempt to find new lives and careers in the US. It was there that Mies landed in Chicago, Illinois and

THROUGH THE MODERNIST’S LENS

Mies´ SSA Drawing, 1965

Mies van der Rohe, was proving to be everything

I want to be good.

Urbig House, 1917

Riehl House, 1907

Barcelona Chair, 1929

I don‘t want to be interesting.

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From the Riehl House and the path that it set, van der Rohe was then asked to join forces with visual artist, graphic designer and architect, Peter Behrens. Some of the most important aspects of his designs come from his time with Behrens, where he was exposed to progressive German cultural ideas and radical designs. Along with the ideas that Mies absorbed from Peter Behrens, van der Rohe was also exposed to fellow architects Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier. The relationships that were formed in this time with these three, will come back to show how much van der Rohe excelled as a young architect. With success came the recognition who was to be expected of an architect that was formally trained and had a college level education. One thing that set apart van der Rohe apart from his cohorts was his lack of education and the extreme talent he displayed at a young age. Mies then started receiving a large amount of independent commissions outside of his studio work, a large majority of which were high class homes. One of the most famous, Mies van der Rohe’s early life was one of learning and is the Urbig House; also located in Potsdam, Germany exploration. Early on he was always very hands on, as is this house was commissioned by the Urbig family after shown by his willingness to learn the family masonry seeing the work completed for the Riehl house. While the business from a very young age. From there he went on final design included a sloped roof, the original design to be an apprentice at a multitude of studios where his plans called for a shift in architectural style to include a skill was immediately noticed. At one point in his appren- modern flat roof, a change Mies had been working toticeships Mies showed potential prowess; he was tasked ward for the last couple of years at the Behrens studio. with evaluating a drawing that a designer was working The final design ended up showing the attention to detail with for weeks, but had not been able to create a solu- that all van der Rohe’s work had, and which then became tion to the problem. It was here, within a few hours of the norm for all future work by Mies van der Rohe. studying the drawings, that Mies found a solution that one of the most experienced architects in the studio The Bauhaus was a critical time in van der Rohe’ life, could not accomplish. After his twenty - first birthday, van after having critical success within Peter Behren’s studio, der Rohe moved to Berlin in an attempt to further his van der Rohe was tasked with the reform of the Bauhaus career. He found success very quickly as he joined the from 1929 and onward. However, there were many obstudio led by renowned architect Bruno Paul. Along with stacles that stood in the way of the school finding success the quick success that he had within Paul’ studio, van der from the status that it was in. The school was started by Rohe was commissioned for his first building, the Riehl Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919, a colleague of van House, located in Potsdam, Germany. This house set the der Rohe’s based on a premise of combining the art design language that would define much of Mies’ early forms into a singular discipline which would redefine the career works; pronounced roof lines along with a unique way that schooling for the arts was approached. “Its core stucco pattern became a feature that would resonate objective was a radical concept: to reimagine the matethrough much of Mies’ early works. Other ideas that also rial world to reflect the unity of all the arts.” Gropius exresonated throughout van der Rohe’s early works were plained this vision for a union of art and design in the the influences of English and Japanese interiors, which Proclamation of the Bauhaus (1919), which described a can be correlated to Mies’ future building designs and utopian craft guild combining architecture, sculpture, furniture design. and painting into a single creative expression. Gropius developed a craft-based curriculum that would turn out

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from which he built his new life. Appointed head of the Armour Institute, van der Rohe took the small technical and traditional architecture school and transformed it into a program of innovation and international allure, where they focused on innovation and new design techniques. From the time he was appointed in 1938 until his retirement in 1958, Mies focused on a multitude of personal projects as well as the full - time head of the Armour Institute. Moreover, even after Mies had retired from the Institute, he continued to work on projects in his spare time. Many of these works became some of the most influential of van der Rohe’s career. In the summer of 1969, Mies became very ill and was diagnosed with pneumonia. Sadly, van der Rohe died from complications of cancer of the esophagus a short time later, but his legacy lives on as one the most prominent architects of his time. “I don’t want to be interesting. I want to be good.” — Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

ine the orld to e unity arts

Bauhaus, Dessau, 1926

Mies reviewing Students' Work

to reimag material reflect t of all th

Bauhaus, Dessau, 1926

Mies van der Rohe was appointed to the director of the Bauhaus in 1930 where he focused on the greater ideals of form and function comparative to the looser design direction of the past eight to ten years. He went on the interview each and every student from the moment he was appointed in an attempt to find the students that were truly committed to learning the processes and ideals that van der Rohe was setting forth. Mies went on to dismiss those students that did not fully seem to grasp to the new way of teaching and learning. “Education must lead us from the irresponsible opinion to true responsible judgment. It must lead us from chance and arbitrariness to rational clarity and intellectual order. Therefore, let us guide our students over the road of discipline from materials, through function, to creative work.” ("Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe Quotes — Brainyquote" 2018) This idea stated by van der Rohe was important to the new styles being taught at the Bauhaus; van der Rohe went on to the change the goals of the prior leadership by moving from the manufacture of goods back to the ground roots of teaching in a way that gives students the best ability to succeed as designers without the need to the be able to prove you can produce works at such a high rate.

By the turn of the decade, the school was in a much better position being led by Mies, fiscally as well as in terms of curriculum. However, in 1931, Mies found increasing pressure from the Nazi political party who were starting to gain political influence throughout Germany, and

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artisans and designers capable of creating useful and beautiful objects appropriate to this new system of living.”

(Winton 2018). The ideas behind the visions of Gropius and the instructors that he had hired to run the school became the premise of Bauhaus theory. Initially taught

by Paul Klee, Vasily Kandinsky, and Josef Albers, the students of the Bauhaus followed a strict path of learning where they first began with immersion into Bauhaus theory. This was followed by the process of entering specialized workshops, which included learning a multitude of unique disciplines through hands - on craft. This idea was well thought out and in theory was a plausible curriculum of thoroughly teaching students the ideas of all artistic disciplines. However, the idea became less plausible as the costs of teaching a unifying style of art, grew harder to offset. The “Art in Industry” idea coined by the Bauhaus was important in understanding how the school implemented real life lessons into curriculum. In 1925, the school saw a major hurdle as the Weimar campus became inadequate for the way that the school was needing to house students and teach the large number of disciplines. With that major complication, Gropius took the initiative to move the school to a brand-new building in Dessau. This building, designed by Walter Gropius himself, led the way for the establishment of the modernist architecture movement. The hallmarks of this design language were the use of steel frame construction, asymmetrical

43

design plans, and glass curtain walls (The Met). The art school saw drastic changes in the later part of the decade, leading to the founding of the architecture program in 1927. From there, Gropius went in search of a head for the program, and he landed on a Dutch architect, and friend, Mart Stam. When Stam declined the position, he gave reference to a friend of his, Hannes Meyer. More turmoil in the Bauhaus programs led to the firing of Hannes Meyer, due to political influence and Meyer’s personal agenda that limited student freedoms and pressed new theories upon a program that was having success. This led to the appointment of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.

Lemke House, 1932

Mies felt that the module

was a very important thing to determine

from there, the leaders of the Nazi Party pressed to close the school. Mies had no choice but to give in and find another solution. This came in the form of moving the school again, this time back to a place Mies knew true and well, Berlin. Mies had found a space that he felt would be adequate to house a third revival of the school, a derelict factory that was rented out with Mies’ own money. Current students made the move alongside of van der Rohe to help transform and rehabilitate the space. Within ten months, the Gestapo had closed down what would be the final iteration of the school. Mies had taken the Bauhaus to prominence with a lasting influence on the history of teaching art and design, and it lives on as one of the most influential design programs ever created.

45 THROUGH THE MODERNIST’S LENS 880 Lakeshore Drive Apartments , 1949

Minerals and Metals Building, 1943

With the Bauhaus closed and van der Rohe moving into Mies followed the existing grid when designing the new a new period in his life, he went back to working primar- building, a key feature in the way that all future building ily on personal projects. Per- would follow as well. This module is delineated in steel haps the most important on facades of most campus buildings. project in this period in van der Rohe’s career was the But unlike the earlier Minerals & Metals Research Building, Lemke House; the last of his in which Mies was able to expose true structure on the work in Germany, this piece end, the steel grid of Alumni Hall only suggests the actuincorporates ever y thing al steel structure within, an adaptation in response to a Mies had known and worked city mandate to fireproof classrooms, which forced Mies toward in starting his transi- to encase the structural steel in concrete. Thus, the coltion to modernist architec- umns you see are actually mullions that hold the brick ture in America. “Unique to and glass panels. The fireproofing also instigated Mies’ the Lemke House is its court- tireless effort to resolve the corner detail, a solution which yard. No other house by would reappear in modified versions in almost all later Mies would feature this rela- buildings.” ("Projects — Mies Van der Rohe Society" 2018) tion to green space. It's also the last house built by Mies Throughout the rest of the decade, van der Rohe went on in Germany, and he emigrated to the United States soon to design many other buildings for the campus, including after. Like the Lange and Esters Houses, the Lemke Wishnick Hall and Perlstein Hall. A feature that would House exists today as a contemporary art exhibition also come to prominence throughout van der Rohe’s work space called the Mies van der Rohe House.” ("Projects — on campus would be the unique use of interior spaces Mies Van der Rohe Society" 2018) In 1938, van der Rohe within the structures. "Mies felt that the module was a very emigrated to the United States, landing in Chicago, Illi- important thing to determine," (Danforth "Projects — Mies nois, here he would rise to fame as the pre-eminent ar- Van der Rohe Society" 2018) Through the use of modules chitect of the modernist movement in America. The in the spaces he designed, van der Rohe expanded the reason for the emigration along with a multitude of other spaces created without compromising the usefulness of reasons, the shifting political fabric of Germany, and the the intended space, a hallmark of a Mies design. burgeoning threat of war on the horizon. Mies made the move to America to pursue the opportunity to become Much of van der Rohe’s most important work in the Unitthe head of the Armour Institute in Chicago. Later re- ed States, came after the turn of the mid - century. While named the Illinois Institute of Technology, van der Rohe continually working as the head of the technology instiwas tasked with changing the culture of teaching and tute, Mies began to take more high-profile work in the learning at the newly created architecture program. city as his notoriety spiked, and as more people started Along with the styles of teaching that van der Rohe went to notice his mastery of modernist craft and design. 860on to implement, came the design attitude called the 880 Lake Shore Apartments are a premier example of Second Chicago School. This left a lasting legacy van der Rohe’s work in Chicago throughout the United States and the way that modernist proper. Techniques used in the architecture was defined in the mid - century. Another of design of the Lake Shore Drive the reasons that van der Rohe was convinced to move Apartments continue to be used from his native Germany was the promise that came with and copied as an example of accepting the head of the architecture school at the insti- modern International Style artute. He was promised that he would be commissioned chitecture. Best said by Helmut and appointed to designing new buildings for the cam- Jahn “Since 860 - 880 LSD were pus and eventually defining a new master plan for the completed, architecture has Illinois Institute of Technology. A function of the campus veered a divergent course grid that had already been set, the first building that van through modernism, brutalism, der Rohe was to design for the school was Alumni Hall. advocacy architecture and the

Seagram Building, 1958

“ I wanted to keep everything reasonable and clear to — have an architecture that anybody can do.”

erratic excesses of postmodernism. 860 - 880 has survived all those fashions and, though often very unpopular during those periods, emerges today even stronger and clearer as everlasting, exemplary buildings of the 20th century.” (Jahn "Projects — Mies Van der Rohe Society" 2018) In 1956, Mies received the commission for what would most likely be the most famous of all the buildings he designed on the campus of the Illinois Institute of Technology, S.R. Crown Hall. Designed for the school of architecture, this building is described by many as a true masterpiece. It would become a facet for all future designers to reference and admire to this day. Design complications that arose from the proposed use of a primarily glass and steel structure complicated the construction process.

Along with the issues that were raised by the contractors, the planners and city contractors that were tasked with making sure the design was up to code, also came concerns related to fire safety of the building, something that was not factored into the design by van der Rohe. These concerns were made evident but yet construction continued; until a fire which was started by a heater went on to destroy much of the brand new first floor; damages that went on to exceed $100,000. “Each material has its specific characteristics which we must understand if we want to use it. This is no less true of steel and concrete.” ("Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe Quotes — Brainyquote" 2018) In the last of his work before retirement from the Illinois Institute of Technology, van der Rohe received the commission promised to him all along, to redesign and set a new master plan for the school that gave him his career in the United States. Mies went on to redefine how spaces worked within a city and how a city worked within a campus. He went on to create a grid of twenty-four foot proportions across the entire campus, a plan that establishes structure but it is the strategic breaking of the grid that makes IIT, as timeless and synonymous as the man that designed it. "It is the beautiful ambiguity of the IIT campus that the status of its built substance oscillates between object and tissue, that its modules imply potential extension yet end emphatically, that its structures hover between recessive foreground and prominent background." (Rem Koolhaas "Projects — Mies Van der Rohe Society" 2018) As van der Rohe’s personal catalog of commissions started to add up, he could not continue

47

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe continued to work on personal commissions into the 1960s, designing some of the most famous works of architecture in Chicago that remain until this day. A few of his works in the 60s are those of the Seagram Building in New York City, the American Federal Building, 2400 Lakeview Apartments, the Chicago Federal Center, and the School of Social Service Administration. Sadly, Mies would end up in the hospital due to a diagnosis of pneumonia and with complications of an untreated cancer of the esophagus, and would die in the summer of 1969. Mies left behind a lasting legacy that all can admire. Many of his structures stand to this day and continue to amaze all who get to experience them on a daily basis. He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom during his lifetime in 1963. In 1959, he received the ‘Royal Gold Medal’ from the Royal Institute of British Architects. In 1960, The American Institute of Architects awarded him the AIA Gold Medal to van der Rohe. Posthumously, Mies was awarded the Twenty-Five Year Award, which would then be subsequently awarded to him in the years of 1976, 1981, and 1984. After all the awards and honors the idea remained the same for van der Rohe, he pushed the envelope of design further than many others could have.

He worked in academia to further push his design philosophies on to the next generation of architects and designers, while also remaining grounded as one of the most influential modernist architects of the twentieth century. “I have tried to make an architecture for a technological society," he told the New York Times. "I wanted to keep everything reasonable and clear — to have an architecture that anybody can do.” (Rohe 2018)

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S.R. Crown Hall, 1956 Illinois Institute of Technology Master Plan

to serve as the head of IIT, and as such retired from his position as head of architecture and subsequently left the remaining work of the master plan to the firm of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill.

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49 Peter, John. Master of Modern Architecture. New York: G. Braziller, 1963.

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Welch, Frank D. Philip Johnson & Texas. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000.