1 compact urban development ec link (1 cud23 012018) by Florian Steinberg

Compact Urban Development: Urban Planning for Eco-Cities

January 2018

Principal author Florian Steinberg

EC-Link Position Paper Draft Version 1.5 EC-Link Working Papers: edited by Florian Steinberg and Li Chunyan

PREFACE China’s Commitment to Mitigate Climate Change In 2015, China was one of the first Asian countries – besides Japan and South Korea – to come out strongly with a commitment to combat climate change, and to adapt to eventual future impacts. Context. With its population of about 1,300 million people, China is one of the world’s major emitters of green house gases (GHG), and at the same time it is also one of the most vulnerable countries to the negative impacts of climate change. Commitment. In preparation for the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Meeting (COP21) in Paris, the government of China has announced that its GHG emissions will peak in 2030. Equally, it is committed to reduce by 2030 by 60-65% the intensity of its carbon usage in relationship to its gross domestic product (GDP), compared to 2005 levels. It will take on the responsibility to increase substantially its forest cover, and will ensure that by 2030 some 20% of its energy requirements will be covered by renewable energy. Actions. The country’s measures will include mitigation of its contributions to GHG emissions, and it will introduce adaptations measures to cope with negative impacts of climate change in food production, protection of its population, and in climate-proof infrastructure. China aims at biding climate change agreements under the COP21. The international community sees the proposed measures as ambitious but achievable. Since several years, China has started with low-carbon development. Today it is working towards a full-fledged program of green development of its economy.

Eco-Cities and Climate Change China’s activities to create eco-cities must be seen as part of its contributions to low-carbon development with aim to mitigate climate change. Among the various support mechanisms which exist, to support low-carbon development, the Ministry of Housing, and Urban-Rural Development (MoHURD), is being supported by the European Union (EU) through the Europe-China Eco-Cities Link Project (EC Link). Background.The main objective of the EC Link project is to serve as a support mechanism to the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development to implement its sustainable lowcarbon urbanisation agenda. The project will support the Ministry in 4 strategic areas: 1) Demonstrate best approaches to implement low carbon solutions by introducing appropriate urban planning tools. Best practice low carbon planning will be identified in both Europe and China and made available nation-wide to municipal governments. Advanced planning tools will be deployed at the local level with the support of the

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project, with a view to refining proposed low-carbon planning models and to scaling them up across Chinese provinces. 2) Serve as testing ground for innovations in specific low-carbon policies (e.g. energy performance labelling for buildings, intelligent transport systems, smart cities, GIS planning tools, eco city labelling schemes) and technologies (in the 9 sectors selected by the project: compact urban development, clean energy, green buildings, green transportation, water management, solid waste treatment, urban renewal and revitalization, municipal financing, green industries). 3) Improve Chinese Municipalities' potential to finance low carbon solutions and notably their ability to attract private sector financing in the form of public private partnerships. The EC Link will support MoHURD to define innovative financial schemes, support feasibility studies and the formulation of finance and investment proposals, better coordinate and leverage investments undertaken by European Union (EU) Member States, or to link projects to European financing institutions (e.g. European Investment Bank) and to European companies. 4) Establish knowledge networks and test the functionality of the support mechanism by leveraging, scaling up, and integrating transformative actions supported by the policy and technology tools developed under the project. The Knowledge Platform will demonstrate how strategic objectives have been translated at local level and how results have been integrated at national level for the definition of long-term best practices. Results will be shared via training and capacity building at local level, and via the knowledge platform set-up by the project at national and international level. The EC Link Position Papers. MoHURD and the EC Link Technical Assistance Team (TAT) have identified 9 specific sectors for the deployment of technology based tool boxes. In all of these, Europe has a lot of knowledge and best practice to contribute to support the deployment of these solutions in China. These 9 sectors include:

• • • • • • • • •

compact urban development, clean energy, green buildings, green transportation, water management, solid waste treatment, urban renewal and revitalization, municipal financing, green industries.

MoHURD’s Department of Science and Technology, EC Link’s direct counterpart, has issued targeted objectives for the deployment of policy, research and development and engineering agendas. Users and Target Groups of Position Papers. The EC Link Position Papers will be utilized by personnel of the cities which are covered by MoHURD’s eco-city programme. This covers Compact Urban Development - EC-Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

technical and managerial staff of these cities. Additionally, at central government level, MoHURD and other ministries may also make use of these position papers for the purpose of staff training and briefing. Since these position papers are also going to be published in the EC Link website (www.eclink.org), also the general public is invited to make use of these position papers. Content of Position papers Sector overview: The EC-Link position papers provide an overview of each thematic sector (compact urban development, clean energy, green buildings, green transportation, water management, solid waste treatment, urban renewal and revitalization, municipal financing, green industries). It begins with a state-of-the-art review of the sector, and presents sector challenges as development objectives. Sector policy analysis: As part of the sector overview, the EC-Link position papers provide sector policy analysis, and a comparison of EU and Chinese sector policies. Comparison of European and Chinese experiences: The comparison of real-life EU and Chinese project experiences are used to illustrate innovations and progress in the respective sector. Both for EU and Chinese cases, there is an overview of good practices, technologies and products, performance indicators, technical standards, verification methods, and lessons learnt from best eco-city practices. Tools: This position paper contains four primary tools. Throughout the text of this position paper there are flags to point at these primary tools ( Tool CUD1,  Tool CUD 2,  Tool CUD 3,  Tool CUD 4). At the end of the position paper there is an Annex with short summary descriptions of these primary tools. The primary tools for Compact Urban Development (CUD) are: • • • •

Tool CUD 1: urban form – density nexus. Tool CUD 2: Transit-oriented Development (TOD). Tool CUD 3: Urban design improvements for better urbanity and decentralized land use. Tool CUD 4: Eco-low carbon planning methodology.

It is understood that these primary tools, do contain numerous secondary tools which cannot be elaborated in the context of this position paper.

Position Paper - a living document: This position paper will be updated based on city-level real-life project experiences in the EC-Link pilot cities.

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Possible misconceptions: These position papers shall not be mistaken for ‘cook books’, or ‘how to do’-manuals like we know them from other subject fields (car repair, computer servicing, etc.). Urban development is too complex for such an approach. Upon request of MoHURD these position papers are addressing good practices and seek to provide tools for complex issues of urban planning and implementation.

DISCLAIMER The illustration of EC Link Position Papers was only possible through the use of a wide range of published materials, most of these available online. The position papers’ authors have utilized illustrations which originate from internet sources, and these are reproduced here with proper citation and reference. The use of these materials is solely for the purpose of knowledge sharing, without any commercial use or intentions.

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CONTENTS Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... 7 List of cases ...................................................................................................................... 8 List of illustrations .............................................................................................................. 8 List of tables ...................................................................................................................... 8 Glossary of terms .............................................................................................................. 9 1.

THEMATIC BACKGROUND .................................................................................... 10

DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES ............................................................................... 39

KEY ISSUES --- KEY CONCEPTS ........................................................................ 63

PERSPECTIVES FROM EUROPE ........................................................................... 64

4.1

Sector Context and Policy Analysis ....................................................................... 64

4.2

Good Practices - Illustrations ................................................................................ 76

4.3

Standards ........................................................................................................... 102

4.4

Technologies and Products................................................................................. 102

4.5

Indicators ............................................................................................................ 102

4.6

Lessons Learnt from Pilot Projects ...................................................................... 104

4.7

Outlook ............................................................................................................... 107

PERSPECTIVES FROM CHINA ............................................................................ 109

5.1

Sector Context and Policy Analysis ..................................................................... 109

5.2

Good Practices – Illustrations ............................................................................. 120

5.3

Standards ........................................................................................................... 134

5.4

Indicators ............................................................................................................ 147

5.5

Verification Methodology ..................................................................................... 153

5.6

Lessons Learnt from pilot projects ...................................................................... 154

5.7

Outlook ............................................................................................................... 156

VALUE ADDED and CROSS CUTTING THEMES ................................................ 159

AVAILABLE RESOURCES AND TOOLS .............................................................. 160

RECOMMENDED READING ................................................................................. 161

ANNEX.......................................................................................................................... 163 Annex 1: Urban Densities in Developing and Developed Countries´Cities .................... 163 Source: ARUP. 2016. Cities Alive: Towards a walking world. p. 19. .............................. 165 Annex 2: Tool CUD 1: urban form – density nexus. ....................................................... 166 Annex 3: Tool CUD 2: Transit-oriented Development (TOD). ........................................ 171 Annex 4: Tool CUD 3: Urban design improvements for better urbanity and decentralized land use. ....................................................................................................................... 177 Annex 5: Tool CUD 4: Eco-low carbon urban planning methodology. ............................ 185

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Abbreviations AP

acidification potential

BedZED

Beddington Zero Energy Development

BREEAM

British Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment (system)

CBD

central business district

CLC

Centre for Liveable Cities

COP21

United Nations Climate Change Meeting

CSUS

Chinese Society for Urban Studies

EC Link

Europe-China Eco-Cities Link Project

eutrophication potential

European Union

FAR

floor area ratio

FSI

floor space indexes

GDP

gross domestic product

GHG

green house gases

GWP

global warming potential

HQE

High Quality Environment

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

JUCCCE

Joint US-China Collaboration on Clean Energy

MEP

Ministry of Environmental Protection

MoHURD

Ministry of Housing, and Urban-Rural Development

OECD

Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development

NRE

non-renewable energy

radioactive waste

SSTEC

Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City

TBNA

Tianjin Binhai New Area

ToD

transit-oriented development

UNDP

United Nations Development Program

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List of cases Case 1 Freiburg, Germany: Eco-District Vauban................................................................. 76 Case 2 Germany: Data of Eco-Districts in Each State ......................................................... 80 Case 3 London, United Kingdom: Eco-District Bed-ZED ..................................................... 80 Case 4 Stockholm, Sweden: Eco-District of Hammarby ...................................................... 83 Case 5 Grenoble, France: Eco-Quartier De Bonne ............................................................. 88 Case 6 Helsinki, Finland: Eco-District Viikki ........................................................................ 91 Case 7 Pamplona Navarra, Spain: Sarriguren eco-city ....................................................... 93 Case 8 Near Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Regan Village ................................................. 95 Case 9 Rioja, Spain: Logroño Eco City ............................................................................... 97 Case 10 Copenhagen, Denmark: Green urban development and mobility in Nordhavnen .. 99 Case 11 Denmark: Nordic Approaches to Creating Liveable and Sustainable Urban Environments - medium to high densities .......................................................................... 100 Case 12 Tianjin: The Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco City (SSTEC) ....................................... 120 Case 13 Tangshan, Hebei Province: Caofeidian International Eco-City ............................ 124 Case 14 Chongming District, Shanghai: Dongtan Eco‐City ............................................. 126 Case 15 Qingdao, Shandong Province: Sino-German Ecopark ........................................ 128 Case 16 Wuhan, Hubei Province: Sino-French Wuhan Ecological Demonstration City ..... 131 Case 17 Shenzhen, Guangdong Province: Shenzhen International Low Carbon City (ILCC) ......................................................................................................................................... 132

List of illustrations Figure 1: Urban Density, Land Use, Connectivity and Accessibility as parameters for Low Carbon Development .......................................................................................................... 16 Figure 2: Mixed Land-Use and High Density Developments Supporting the Interface between Different Forms of Mobility. ................................................................................... 17 Graph 1: Densities in European Cities – An International Comparison of High-Density Districts ............................................................................................................................... 36 Graph 2: Low Density = Higher Infrastructure Costs, energy consumption and carbon emissions ............................................................................................................................ 39 Graph 3: The CLC Liveability Matrix Diagram ..................................................................... 44

List of tables Table 1: Comparison of Connectivity in Europena and Chinese Cities ................................ 29 Table 2: Urban Density ....................................................................................................... 31 Table 3: Overview of ‘Eco-City’ Indicator Schemes and Frameworks ................................ 103 Table 4: Eco-City Indicators 2012 ..................................................................................... 116 Table 5: 26 Key Performance Indicators of Tianjin Eco-City .............................................. 147 Table 6: Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City (SSTEC) Key Performance Indicators .............. 148 Table 7: Indicators of the Sino-German Eco-park Qingdao ............................................... 149 Table 8: Proposed Compact Urban Development KPIs .................................................... 151 Table 9: Development Standards Matrix as per the China Sustainable Cities Program ..... 152

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Glossary of terms Compact urban development

This term describes urban development with high densities and a variety of land uses. The term leaves it open which densities are defined “compact”.

Ecological

Ecological describes natures systems of air, earth, water, flora and fauna, and other natural resources (for instance geological formations or mining resources).

Eco-city

An eco-city is a city that respects existing eco-systems and is intended to develop in harmony with this eco-system. Lately, the eco-city is understood to be a low-carbon city. The eco-city has a controlled and low impact ecological footprint in its surrounding hinterland.

Land use

Land use describes built environment or temporary activities.

Liveable cities

Liveable cities are characterized by their standard or quality of life.

Low-carbon development

Low-carbon development or ‘green’ development (in building, transport, energy production, water management, waste management, industries, urban renewal and other) describes activities which consume (much) less carbon than conventional development patterns. ‘Green’ or ‘clean’ technologies support low carbon development.

Transit-oriented development (TOD)

TOD is a planning technique which bundles densities near urban transit hubs, and generates real estate development opportunities which are banking on high density and mixed land-use. TOD is often used to generate revenues for public agencies which develop TOD projects through public-private partnerships. Such revenues can be utilized to finance and cross-subsidize other non-revenue earning developments.

Urban density

Urban density is defined by the floor area ratio (FAR), or floor space index (FSI), of buildable land versus available land.

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1. THEMATIC BACKGROUND Introduction to Urban Planning for Eco-Cities This Position Paper covers foremost an aspect of urban planning, the relevance of “compact urban development” (CUD) which has become a key element of today’s discussion on spatially-efficient, vibrant mixed used and high-quality urban spaces which can support energy-efficiency and low-carbon development. In 2013, the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (MoHURD) received assistance for the preparation of an Eco-Low Carbon Urban Planning Methodology, which was formulated with the assistance of the reputed consulting firm Atkins of United Kingdom (UK). This methodology handbook1, written in Chinese, presented a generic urban planning well illustrated textbook. Its limitations, however, were that – with the exception of the work on the water and flood management - it largely showed conventional urban planning paradigms that are not exclusive and specific to the development of eco-cities. The shortcomings in the methodology must be seen in the absence of thematic coverage for the topics of: -

Compact urban development, and specific density recommendations for Chinese cities; Use of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) at transport hubs to generate land value maximization, good densities, and vibrant mixed-use areas of quality environments; Reduced car-orientation of cities through expansion of public transport and nonmotorised transport means (cycling and walking). Impacts of ‘smart city’ development and the wide application of renewable energy, smart management of urban services (transport; water; waste water treatment; waste management). Resilience from impacts of climate change through adaptation measures to prevent flooding or other impacts.

This Position Paper is able to cover to deal with the first three dimensions listed above. Smart city development is left to other sectoral Position Papers (Green Building; Green Transport, Water Management; Solid Waste Management; Urban Renewal and Rehabilitation; and Green Industries), and particularly the Water Management covers in more depth aspects of flood management. Over and above the thematic coverage of this Position Paper, there is an extensive attention to the existing examples of eco-districts in Europe and China. These must be seen as nascent nuclei of urban experimentation. They may not be really the most compact and walkable urban development, and may not cover all multi-sector complexities of the ideal eco-city, but they must be seen as modest and important beginnings. More work will need to be done. But the current consensus emphasises that mixed use, compact and high density developments represent the best potential for low-carbon urban development, and that better and more liveable cities will be created through compact urban development. 1

China Society for Urban Studies (CSUS) and Atkins. 2013. Eco-Low Carbon Urban Planning Methodology (in Chinese). http://www.atkinsglobal.com/en-GB/group/sectors-and-services/services/future-proofing-cities/china

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In the coming years, China is expected to build a large number of additional eco-cities (or eco-districts), although there exists no firm (Chinese) definition yet for these ‘eco-cities’. China expected to build large number of Eco-Cities China is now planning to build 285 "eco-cities" across the country. Currently, 80% of prefectural-level Chinese cities supposedly have a green urban development in the works, and it's estimated that soon more than half of all new urban developments will be "green," "eco" or "smart,"… Still, this surge in "eco-city" development is not without its skeptics. For one, Jiaotong-Liverpool University professor Austin Williams who thinks that due to the lack of a formal definition of "eco-city," the phrase can be rather widely interpreted by local authorities with governments using the prefix to justify further urbanization while doing the bare minimum to help the environment. "In the West, eco-cities are about nature: carbon reduction, restricting cars, minimizing consumption, and restraint; while in China they are still about people, economic growth, improved conditions, better mobility, and social progress," Williams told Forbes. China's eco-cities are simply intended to be much-needed urban improvements and infrastructural development with an eco-prefix." The design for Italian architect Stefano Boeri's ambitious "forest city" in Shijiazhuang, the smoggy capital of Hebei

Source: China is now looking to build nearly 300 'eco-cities' across the country. 5 September 2017. http://shanghaiist.com/2017/09/05/eco-cities.php

1. Urban form and urban densities. Urban densities, land use planning, open space planning, transport planning, and provision of service infrastructure (integrated land use planning) have an impact on how green and sustainable principles are achieved and require control at two levels. Key to the built environment is the relationship or interaction of an area’s spatial extent, built form including methods and materials, transport planning, and infrastructure provision. City structure and form greatly influence energy consumption, transport modes, and overall quality of life.2 Urban form also influences residents’ access to employment opportunities and livelihood choices based on proximity of other land uses, services, markets, and prevailing environmental conditions.3 Recent urbanization in China 2

UNEP. 2011. Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, pp. 454-488. http://www.unep.org/greeneconmy 3 Asian Development Bank. 2015. Green City Development Tool Kit, Manila.

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has been largely on city fringes, with cities extending further and further, eating up farmland and converting fertile cropland to new suburbs.4 While there are government initiatives to stop this kind of urbanisation which was used to raise municipal revenues from the sale of land, the result are an overall reduction of urban densities.5 Overwhelming Urban Density: Hong Kong

Source: http://qz.com/662631/photos-hong-kongs-overwhelming-urban-density-captured-from-a-drone/ ‘Hong Kong has one of the highest population densities in the world. This city is full of sky-high buildings, yet surrounded by lots of mountains. If you go up to the top, you will see a motherboard like structural design of the whole city. The buildings seem like computer servers, whereas the main roads are the connecting cables of different servers. People are like data, transferring from one side to another side.’

Mercator Institute. 2016. Urbanization to convert 300,000 km²of prime croplands. http://www.mccberlin.net/en/media/press-information/press-release-detail/article/urbanization-to-convert-300000-kmx00b2-ofprime-croplands.html 5 Angel, S. et al. 2010. Making room for a planet of cities. Cambridge. Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

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Photograph: Ho Lam Cheng Source: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/jul/03/national-geographic-cities-travel-photographeryear-in-pictures

2. Why is Compact Urban Development Important? Various projections indicate that between 2000 and 2050 the urban space around the world will need to be doubled in developed countries, and be expanded by 326% in developing countries to accommodate people.6 Cities and their local Governments will have to manage this growth, and counter environmental degradation. “We need compact and well-planned cities”7 can often be heard. Better urban planning decisions and decisions concerning urban densities will be critical.8 Spatially, this urban expansion can be accommodated through three spatial strategies: (i) densification in existing areas; (ii) horizontal urban expansion; and (iii) new town development, or a combination of these. Densities of compact urban development that are manageable and suitable will play an important role. Achieving compact and sustainable urban forms is possible where there is strong local government and policies for urban intensification. However, often the process of densification occurs in the absence of policies and control.9 The case of China can show very clearly that a lot of precious agricultural land has been lost to urban sprawl, and that action is necessary to contain further unplanned expansion. More compact development thus seems paramount.10  Tool CUD 1

Angel, S. et al. 2010. Making room for a planet of cities. Cambridge. Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. Siller, R., “We need compact and well-planned cities”. FC – Financial Cooperation Magazine. Special Issue. KfW. Frankfurt. October 2016, pp. 2-3. 8 UN-Habitat. 2012. Urban Planning for City Leaders. UN-Habitat. Nairobi http://mirror.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=3385&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1 9 Jenks, M. and Burgess, R. (eds.), 2000. Compact Cities: Sustainable Urban Forms for Developing Countries. Routledge. London. http://www.istoecidade.weebly.com/uploads/3/0/2/0/3020261/compact_cities.pdf 10 Yeh, A. G., and Li, X. The Need for Compact Development in the Fast-Growing Areas of China: The Perl River Delta. in: Jenks, M. and Burgess, R. (eds.), 2000. Compact Cities: Sustainable Urban Forms for Developing Countries. Routledge. London. pp. 73-90. http://www.istoecidade.weebly.com/uploads/3/0/2/0/3020261/compact_cities.pdf 7

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The Negative Image of Unsustainable Density: Hong Kong’s Walled City in Kowloon

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/279856564317663243/feedback/?sender_id=305682030866350581

3. Definition of ¨compact¨. Compact city approaches have become one form today of achieving ´sustainable urban development´or even aiding eco-city development. However, a definition of compact development seems to have been difficult since it remains unclear if the city itself, or the city region should be the point of geographical reference. The question

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is there whether compaction should be limited to new development in (suburban) subcenters or to existing urban areas.11 4. Relevance of high densities. The implementation of eco-city development approaches concept makes it necessary to deal with densification. It is important to note that compact development has been rather an interest of cities in developed countries which showed an interest in compact development, and not so much the developing world cities. To implement a compact cities agenda it will be necessary to have strong government and the ability to enforce certain rules. China´s interest in compact urban development comes at an important junction in its thrust towards more rationale and more sustainable urban development. And China does have the capacity of implementation since its governance structure is strong and determined.  Tool CUD 1 5. The implications of high density patterns are that economies of scale are reached for trunk infrastructure (i.e. transport, water supply) and in treatment plants (i.e. water purification, waste water treatment). The lower costs per household can be passed on to residents, and smaller debt ensures better fiscal balance. Higher density can enable a city to fund district heating and cooling systems as they service more customers. As higher density developments trigger higher property values, their contribution to public revenues will increase through property taxes. Eventually, higher property taxes, or valuation fees will contribute to pay off the higher costs which are associated with some of the technical implications of densities (for instance need for quality elevators, pumping stations, etc.). 

Tool CUD 1 6. Urban Structure - Guiding spatial development.12 Governments play an important role in regulating urban spatial forms and land development through infrastructure development, taxation, and land use regulations. The government, however, is not often the dominant force; the real estate market still affects developments and sets trends. Despite this, the government can still either favour or discourage concentration or sprawl. These choices are supported through strategic decision for transport systems or development of ring roads. Ideally, these strategic decisions are supported by regulations that determine floor space indexes (FSI), or density, of built-up urban areas.  Tool CUD 1 7. Densification. Urban densification is an important approach to achieve sustainability benefits. It is an accepted notion that a number of environmental problems like high energy use, high carbon emissions can be attributed to deficiencies in the urban form. By restructuring the urban mobility system, by establishing a closer coordination between land use and transportation planning a higher efficiency can be achieved. A number of concepts have been created to achieve benefits of compact development: High-rise, high-density (re)development which allow short journeys to work, easy access to services, good access to mass transit, and adequate provision of public space are seen as the most environmentally sustainable solutions. Such densification models may be pursued in existing central urban areas through infill, or as decentralized (sub-)urban satellites. However, the current preferred model is transit-oriented development (ToD) where public mass transit infrastructure takes the lead, and development can be channelled along transit routes and modal interchange modes. Thus, a combination of densification, intensification and mixed land use can achieve 11

Jenks, M. and Burgess, R. (eds.), 2000. Compact Cities: Sustainable Urban Forms for Developing Countries. Routledge. London. p. 9. http://www.istoecidade.weebly.com/uploads/3/0/2/0/3020261/compact_cities.pdf 12 This draws from Steinberg, F. and Lindfield, M. Spatial Development and Technologies for Green Cities. In. Lindfield, M. and Steinberg, F. (eds.). (2012) Green Cities. Asian Development Bank. Urban Development Series. Manila, pp. 23-107. http://www.adb.org/publications/green-cities; See also: Simon, D. 2016. Rethinking Sustainable Cities – Accessible, green and fair. Policy Press. Bristoi. https://oapen.org/search?identifier=613676

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compaction and low-carbon benefits. Higher densities and an emphasis on multimodal transit forms, places renewed emphasis on public outdoor spaces, for leisure and sports and communication activities. The importance of outdoor spaces is being recognized widely 13 and being reappraised across Europe. 14  Tool CUD 2 8. Urban density and mitigation of climate change. In discussing the relevance urban density, the 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Assessment Report has established that infrastructure and urban form are strongly interlinked, and lock in patterns of land use, transport choice, housing, and behaviour (medium evidence, high agreement). Urban form and infrastructure shape long-term land-use management, influence individual transport choice, housing, and behaviour, and affect the system-wide efficiency of a city. Once in place, urban form and infrastructure are difficult to change. 15 

Tool CUD 1 Figure 1: Urban Density, Land Use, Connectivity and Accessibility as parameters for Low Carbon Development

Source: IPCC Assessment Report, 2014 : Technical Summary, pp.90-93. https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessmentreport/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_technical-summary.pdf

Facing up to the future: Prince Charles on 21st century architecture, 20 December 2014. http://www.architectural-review.com/essays/facing-up-to-the-future-prince-charles-on-21st-centuryarchitecture/8674119.article 14 Wolfrum, S. (ed.). 2014. Platzatlas der Stadträume in Europa, Lehstuhl für Städtebau und Regionalplanung. München. 15 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2014. Assessment Report: Summary for Policy Makers, pp.25-26. https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_technical-summary.pdf, See also: ARUP. 2016. Deadline 2020. How Cities will get the job done. London. http://publications.arup.com/publications/d/deadline_2020

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Figure 2: Mixed Land-Use and High Density Developments Supporting the Interface between Different Forms of Mobility.

Centre for Liveable Cities and Urban Land Institute Asia Pacific. 2014. Active Mobility – Creating Healthy Places through Active Mobility. Singapore. http://www.clc.gov.sg/documents/books/Active-Mobility.pdf

9. Urban densities have declined instead of increased. The UN-Habitat has found that world-wide a decrease in urban densities has been observed, that there is a broad proliferation of urban sprawl. Maintaining an optimal density will be a challenge to strive for. To deal with this challenging issue it has advocated better urban planning. ¨Urban planning is not about images but is way to make a difference; it is a framework that helps leaders to transform a vision into reality using space as a key resource for development and engaging stakeholders long the way.¨16 10. Assessing the most suitable urban grid. The discussion about the most adequate form of the urban neighbourhood has focused on the block of the urban grid as the most appropriate base module for urban development. It allows for all basic activities to be 16

UN-Habitat. 2012. Urban Planning for City Leaders. UN-Habitat. Nairobi http://mirror.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=3385&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1

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allocated within a certain radius. In many countries the ideal radius has been defined as 400-500 metres. On the larger scale, the grid plans of whole cities have been developed by multiplying this concept, as exemplified by Chicago, USA; Turin, Italy, or Barcelona, Spain, and its famous urban superblocks. In South America where the grid system is widely applied, traditional block sizes are around 80 m x 80 m. And Barcelona´s grid is about 1240 feet x 1240 feet (= approximately 400 m x 400 m). Hence, a so called superblock (¨supermanzana¨) of 400 m x 400 m is favoured, and advocated by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). Interestingly, this is the same size as prototype blocks in Tianjin Eco-City (400 m x 400 m), as discussed later. This superblock structure, when subdivided into ´small blocks´, is recommended as optimal structure to accommodate mixed use, and high densities, and eventually bundle traffic flows to allow for quieter roads with controlled vehicular circulation.  Tool CUD 1

Walkable Downtown Environment, Parma, Italy

Barcelona´s Gothic Quarter – High Density and Walkable Neighbourhoods

Source: Sanchez, C. 2016. Low Carbon Buildings. Low Carbon Urban Planning. Powerpoint Presentation. EUChina Low Carbon Cities Conference, Date: 28-29 June, 2016. Wuhan.

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Car City – Los Angeles, USA

Source: Sanchez, C. 2016. Low Carbon Buildings. Low Carbon Urban Planning. Powerpoint Presentation. EUChina Low Carbon Cities Conference, Date: 28-29 June, 2016. Wuhan.

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11. Historic reference from China. Interestingly, even in ancient Chinese cities, a maximum block length of some 200 steps is recommended, which actually would indicate block sizes below 200 meters.17

The urban grid of a pedestrian, walkable superblock: streets (blue), paths (green) and open spaces (yellow)

http://www.calthorpe.com/publications/pedestrianpocket-book-new-suburban-design-strategy

The Urban Grid in Chicago, USA. Blocks of 80, 40, and 10 acres establish a street grid at the outskirts which continues into the more finely divided downtown area.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_block

Ideal city layout in ancient China: Every market and government office should be located within 100 steps to reach the edge of a block. Cited from an exhibit in the Beijing Ancient Architecture Museum .

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Barcelona and its superblocks

Comparison of various urban grid sizes

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_plan

Barcelona Plans to Reclaim Its Streets

Source: Superblocks to the Rescue! Barcelona Reclaims Its Streets http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/may/17/superb locks-rescue-barcelona-spain-plan-give-streets-backresidents http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_plan

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Barcelona opening the first ‘super-block’ to its pedestrians and cyclists In 2016, the city of Barcelona started to measures to reduce traffic in central urban areas aimed at better livability in the central high density neighborhoods.

Source: Martinez Gaete, C. 9 September 2016. Barcelona abre la primera ‘supermanzana’ para devolverle las calles a los peatones y ciclistas. http://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/794868/barcelona-abre-la-primerasupermanzana-para-devolverle-las-calles-a-los-peatones-y-ciclistas

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The Superblock – A Universal Model for Compact Cities?

Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). 2015. Blog 71. What are the superblocks, and how they benefit a city? (¿Qué son las supermanzanas y cómo benefician a las ciudades?) http://blogs.iadb.org/ciudadessostenibles/2015/01/07/supermanzanas/

Learning from Barcelona’s ‘Superblocks’

Streets in the El Born neighborhood of Barcelona used to be open to vehicles now mostly serve pedestrians. Credit Daniel Etter for The New York Times

An intersection in El Poblenou, a section of Barcelona, that was transformed into a playground with a soccer field and sandbox. Credit Confederación de Talleres de Proyectos de Arquitectura (Confederation of Workshops of Architecture Projects)

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Pedestrians stroll through the neighborhood of El Born. Credit Daniel Etter for The New York Times Source: Winnie Hu, 2016. What New York Can Learn From Barcelona’s ‘Superblocks’. 30 September. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/02/nyregion/what-new-york-can-learn-from-barcelonassuperblocks.html?_r=0

‘In 1990s Britain, … the Urban Task Force advocated high density residential development along the lines of the city of Barcelona (density of 15,000 people/sq km), with its consistent superblocks as a civilised counterpart to suburbia. This argument for density is echoed by geographers such as Richard Florida, who point out that the entire point of the city is the dense proximity of people, leading to what he calls “collision density”, and all the innovations of modern life. Higher density city environments can also be more efficient, with greater public transport use and shorter journeys. Clustering dwellings together also means they share in each other’s energy loads – so density can have a significant effect on reducing carbon emissions. “Anyone who believes that global warming is a real danger should see dense urban living as part of the solution,”...’18 Floor area ratios. A densification strategy can be implemented on the basis of land readjustment or land pooling as demonstrated in the example from Cape Town (see below). As illustrated in the generic illustration about different spatial arrangements using the same density, medium-rise densities (see below) can achieve densities similar to those of high-rise construction. However, depending on the regulations, FAR (FSI) higher than 4.0 can achieve substantially higher building densities, often by compromising on public open spaces. 12.

 Tool CUD 1

Murphy, D. 2017. Where is the world's densest city? The Guardian 11 May 2017.https://amp-theguardiancom.cdn.ampproject.org/c/s/amp.theguardian.com/cities/2017/may/11/where-world-most-densely-populated-city

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Barcelona’s Superblocks – High Urban Density

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/511369732672143664/sent/?sender=305682030866350581&invite_code=f11c21f 957e8f021fdb1a76a73eb963a

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Recommended Zoning for Mixed-Use with ´Small Blocks´

Source: Climate Works Foundation. Low Carbon Cities – Principles and Practices for China´s Next Generation of Growth. The China Sustainable Energy Program. P. 23. www.calthorpe.com/files/China Design Manual Pamphlet.pdf

Same Density in Different Layouts

Source: Ng, E. (ed.).2010. Designing High-Density Cities for Social & Environmental Sustainability. Earthscan. London, p. 10.

Relationship between Building Height, Plot Ratio, Site Coverage and Solar Obstruction

Source: Ng, E. (ed.).2010. Designing High-Density Cities for Social & Environmental Sustainability. Earthscan. London, p. 11.

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Reasons for High Density Living

Cited in: Ng, E. (ed.).2010. Designing High-Density Cities for Social & Environmental Sustainability. Earthscan. London, p. xxxiii.

Same Density in Different Forms

Source: Ng, E. (ed.).2010. Designing High-Density Cities for Social & Environmental Sustainability. Earthscan. London, p. 44.

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Densification with land readjustment or Different groupings of built structures – land pooling same density

Source: UN-Habitat. 2012. Urban Planning for City Leaders. UN-Habitat. Nairobi. p.33 http://mirror.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?p ublicationID=3385&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport

Source: UN-Habitat. 2012. Urban Planning for City Leaders. UN-Habitat. Nairobi, p. 3. http://mirror.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?p ublicationID=3385&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1

Comparative densities and urban morphologies

Based on: Salat, S. 2006. The Sustainable Design Handbook China: High Environmental Quality Cities and Buildings, Urban Morphology Laboratory CSTB, Editions Hermann.

Connectivity in Chinese and other cities. Large blocks may have high average population densities, but they reduce the frequency of intersections and make transportation nodes and other amenities less accessible to residents, counteracting the benefits of population density. As a World Bank study on urbanization in China puts it: “Density, i. e. demographic or floor area ratio (FAR), is not the only characteristic of compact sustainable cities. Proximity and accessibility, mixed use, [and] connectedness are also preconditions for the formation of agglomeration economies for addressing social inclusiveness and environmental wellbeing. The should be enhanced in an adaptive strategic planning process

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by increasing progressively the number of intersections per square kilometre and the linear density of streets to develop the connectivity and create a more fine-grain urban fabric.¨19 A comparison of European cities (Turin, Italy; Barcelona, Spain; Paris, France) and Chinese cities (Beijing, Shanghai) shows that in compact European cities, the number of intersections per sqkm is above 100 intersections. However, in modern Chinese city areas like Beijing and Shanghai it is just 14 or 17, respectively, which means block size s are too big and these urban areas are far from walkable. Correspondingly, the distance from intersections in to residences averages between 80-150 meters, and in the case of Beijing and Shanghai between 400 and 280 meters. The only exceptions are the old hutongs of Beijing where the number of intersection per sqkm is 119, and the distance to closest intersection is just 75 meters. Table 1: Comparison of Connectivity in European and Chinese Cities

Quoted from: World Bank. 2015. East Asia’s Changing Urban Landscape. Measuring a Decade of Spatial Growth. Urban Development Series. Washington. P.53 http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/publication/east-asias-changing-urban-landscapemeasuring-a-decade-of-spatial-growth

Comparing density. Density can measure a series of different urban parameters at different scales. Measuring urban density requires first a determination of what is being measured (i.e. population, jobs, activities, housing, etc.) and the level of geographic reference (city, district, neighbourhood, block etc.). A pattern of density parameters are inhabitants per sqkm, and number of jobs per sqkm. A comparison between Taiyuan Shanxi Science Town, Core Area and the Paris downtown area illustrates that Taiyuan has achieved so far only about one third of these two density parameters. Urban Density and energy-efficiency. A comparison has been made to assess built urban form, residential densities, exterior volume of buildings and the consumption of energy in buildings. This clearly demonstrates a relationship. The more compact urban neighbourhoods, with a lower amount of external surface, consume lower amounts of heating energy.

World Bank. 2015. East Asia’s Changing Urban Landscape. Measuring a Decade of Spatial Growth. Urban Development Series. Washington. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/publication/east-asiaschanging-urban-landscape-measuring-a-decade-of-spatial-growth 19

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Comparison of population and employment densities – Taiyuan New Town, China and Paris, France Taiyuan Shanxi Science Town, Core Area (20 sqkm), 7,500 Inhabitants per sqkm, and 10,000 jobs per sqkm.

Paris centre (17 sqkm), 20-25,000 inhabitants per sqkm20, and 20-30,000 jobs per sqkm.

Source: Salat, S. and Bourdic, L. 2014. Spatial Planning Principles & Assessment Framework for Climate Adaptive & Resilient Cities in China. International Workshop NDRC – MoHURD – ADB 5 September Beijing. p. 4. http://www.urbanmorphologyinstitute.org/resources/confe rences/spatial-planning-principles-resilient-cities-china/

Source: Salat, S. and Bourdic, L. 2014. Spatial Planning Principles & Assessment Framework for Climate Adaptive & Resilient Cities in China. International Workshop NDRC – MoHURD – ADB 5 September Beijing. p. 4. http://www.urbanmorphologyinstitute.org/resource s/conferences/spatial-planning-principles-resilientcities-china/

Relationship between Urban Density, Building Surface and Energy Consumption of Buildings

Source: Goretzki, P. 2007. Energie-effiziente Bauleitplanung. Solarbuero fuer energieeffiziente Stadtplanung. Stuttgart. http://www.erfurt.de/mam/ef/leben/stadtplanung/gutachten_energieeffiziente_bauleitplanung.pdf, cited in: DGNB. 2014. Urban Districts Workshop (China). Beijing. PDF

International comparison of urban densities. New York´s city centre has a population density of 9,166.6 persons/sqkm, but in comparison Beijing´density is 5,377 persons/sqkm, and that of Shanghai´s city centre exceeding New York with 10,258.6 persons/sqkm. A comparison of international densities shows us that in developing countries´cities, the mean 20

Another source indicates that Paris has densities of up to 56,000 people per square mile. Source: Why Are European Cities So Dense?. CityLab. Oct 27, 2016 http://www.citylab.com/housing/2016/10/why-are-europeancities-so-dense/505541/

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density in city centres is 7,739.3 persons/sqkm, while for metropolitan areas as a whole the mean density is only 2,151.6 which indicates urban sprawl. In developed countries´cities the overall picture is somewhat similar, with an overall city centre density of 5,945.3 persons/sqkm, and 1,926.7 persons/sqkm across their metropolitan areas. It is interesting to note that in general, China´s urban densities may appear high in the city centres of Beijing and Shanghai, but their average densities across their metro regions is quite low in the case of Beijing (Beijing – 845.2 persons/sqkm), and just above the mean of metro regions of developing countries´ densities as Shanghai shows (Shanghai – 2,378.9). The European scenario is quite different, with several cities standing out with high density city centres: Paris (20,647.0 persons/sqkm), Barcelona (17,433 pers/sqkm) and Lisbon (9,893.0 persons/sqkm). The developed countries´cities show a mean density in their city centres of 5,945.3 persons/sqkm and for their overall metro areas of 1,926.7 persons/sqkm. Thus, as the international comparison indicates, densities are just in the mid-range of other Asian cities. Chinese cities seem to require further densification and limitation of their rather indiscriminate spreading.21 Many cities in Asia (including China) have demonstrated over recent decades that residential densities have declined as incomes have risen, that traditional centers have lost importance as individual mobility has increased through car ownership or improved public transport systems. When we compare a district in Paris and in Manhattan, New York, ¨we find the same relative distribution of large public parks, medium scale and pocket scale parks smaller than half hectare, than in the whole city. Each district is reduced scale version of the city for the relative distribution of seizes of amenities such as public parks, health [facilities], education and shops. When we look at the distribution of sizes of streets in Paris, we find at the city scale and at district scale the same blend of 20 meters wide boulevards, 12 meters wide streets, 10 meters wide, 8 meters wide. Each sub pattern of streets at neighbourhood and district scales presents the same distribution properties as the whole city. In the resilient order of cities one can observe, like in nature, the same level of complexity and several scales. The local and the global are linked by a successive series of connections that show structure and organization at each scale. This is called a scale-free structure. In such a structure, the global order emerges from local orders. A complex order is created from the bottom-up evolution of the small scale and its integration at higher scales.22 The European discussion about density has expressed positive acclaim doe increased densities in many new neighbourhoods and districts, but there is also concern about high floor space densities without the necessary services and spatial as well as environmental qualities known among lower-density developments. The combination of mixed uses, residences, commercial areas, recreational spaces is seen as the real challenge for highdensity neighbourhoods to succeed. 23 The current world-wide urbanisation creates many new opportunities for green development urbanism as indicated from the announcement of many new projects in Europe and in China. 21

For more details refer to: Richardson, H.W., Change Hee, C,B. and Baxamusa, M. H. Compact Cities in Developing Countries: Assessment and Implications. In: Jenks, M. and Burgess, R. (eds.), 2000. Compact Cities: Sustainable Urban Forms for Developing Countries. Routledge. London, pp. 25-36. http://www.istoecidade.weebly.com/uploads/3/0/2/0/3020261/compact_cities.pdf. See also Annex 1. More recent fugures also in: UN-Habitat. 2016. World Cities Report 2016. Nairobi. http://wcr.unhabitat.org/mainreport/#section_eleven 22 Salat, S. and Bourdic, L. 2014. Spatial Planning principles & Assessment Framework for Climate Sdaptive & Resilient Cities in China. International Workshop NDRC – MoHURD – ADB 5 September Beijing. p. 5. http://www.urbanmorphologyinstitute.org/resources/conferences/spatial-planning-principles-resilient-cities-china/ 23 Geipel, K. 2016. Dichte Packung. Stadtbauwelt 209. 12-2016. http://www.bauwelt.de/das-heft/heftarchiv/Intro2539056.html

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The Urban Future has Begun: Mega-Projects Transforming Capital Cities In today’s urbanising world, a growing number of people will live in highly densified cities. Some cities and districts will look quite different. Many cities strive to develop sustainable districts, harnessing green and smart technologies. While some of this is ‘greenfield’ development, the majority of Europe’s mega-projects will be ‘brownfield’ developments, i.e. urban renewal. Paris, France — Europa City. In 2016, Paris began building an 8.6-million-square-foot mixed-use development, called Europa City, north of downtown.

Image Source: BIG

Designed by Danish architecture firm Bjarke Ingels Group (the company behind Google’s California headquarters), Europa City promises housing, shops, and restaurants, though the exact numbers of each are not confirmed yet. The development is also slated to include plazas, an artificial ski slope, open walkways, a golf system, and a new transit system. Triangle de Gonesse, the suburb where it will be located, is still largely rural. But according to Europa City’s developers, the goal of the $3.4 billion project is to connect the area with urban Paris and reduce congestion downtown. (Construction started in 2016 and is expected to wrap up by 2024.) Berlin, Germany — Europacity. Berlin is building a new neighborhood called Europacity. Spanning nearly 100 acres, the mixed-use development near the Berlin Central Station is set to become a new commercial and residential hub. The master plan, which will be complete by 2025, calls for 2,000 apartment units, 4.3 million square feet of office and retail space, a promenade, a school, roads, bridges, and a public square. Construction began in early 2014, though the exact cost of the project has not been announced. New developments like Europacity have been a point of contention for some Berliners, who are fighting against the city’s recent rapid gentrification.

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Image Source: CA IMMO

London, England — The Battersea Power Station Development. The renovation of the Battersea Power Station … is at the center of a larger mega-development in London’s Nine Elms neighborhood. The estimated $16 billon (£13 billion) project will include new residential and commercial complexes, including apartments, hotels, and offices. Construction is slated to proceed in seven phases — the first began in 2014 and the last is expected to finish in 2025.Spanning over 8 million square feet, the construction site for the Battersea Power Station development is the largest in London in 30 years … Apple, the complex’s anchor tenant, will move its London headquarters to the former power station in 2021. The company is expected to take up 40% of the building’s available office space. A rendering of Apple’s new UK headquarters, part of the Battersea Power Station Development

Image Source: Battersea Power Station

Madrid, Spain — Castellana Norte Redevelopment. In early August, the city of Madrid approved the $ 7.1 billion redevelopment project for Castellana Norte, a district north of downtown. Currently, the site is home to a municipal bus station, a few houses, and a series of half-abandoned industrial buildings and warehouses. The redevelopment will turn Castellana Norte into a new neighborhood with skyscrapers, parks, roads, bridges, and apartments for an estimated 17,000 people, by 2035.

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Image Source: DCN

Shanghai, China — Todtown. Set to be complete by 2020, Todtown is a new mixed-use development in Shanghai’s Minhang District. The development will feature 1,000 apartment units, a 1.3 million-square-foot shopping mall, an additional 580,000 square feet of retail, 1.5 million square feet of office space, and a 53,000-square-foot cultural center, Todtown will also incorporate lots of greenery, from green roofs to mini parks scattered throughout. The master plan was created by Chicago-based architecture firm Goettsch Partners and Hong Kong-based studio Lead 8. Construction on the $1 .5 billion project began in 2014.

Image Source: Goettsch Partners Source: 11 Billion-Dollar Mega-Projects That Will Transform the World's Greatest Cities by 2035 https://futurism-com.cdn.ampproject.org/c/s/futurism.com/11-billion-dollar-mega-projects-that-will-transform-theworlds-greatest-cities-by-2035/amp/

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Recent High Density Developments in Europe Austria – Vienna: South Station District

Denmark – Aarhus: Isbjerget

Source:http://www.bauwelt.de/das-heft/heftarchiv/Intro2539056.html

Source:http://www.bauwelt.de/dasheft/heftarchiv/Intro-2539056.html

Germany – Muenchen; Hirschgraben

France – Paris: Boulevard Macdonald

http://www.bauwelt.de/themen/betrifft/Dichte-Packung2539088.html

http://www.bauwelt.de/12.2016-2514277.html

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Graph 1: Densities in European Cities – An International Comparison of High-Density Districts

The Netherlands - Amsterdam: Zeeburg Inhabitants per sqkm: 3698 FAR: 3.20 Greece - Athens: Exarchia Inhabitants per sqkm: 17.043 FAR: 4.00

Spain - Barcelona: Eixample Central Superblocks Inhabitants per sqkm: 15.824 FAR: 4.26 Germany – Berlin: Prenslauer Berg Inhabitants per sqkm: 3.908 FAR: 2.98

Germany – Düsseldorf: Carlstadt Inhabitants per sqkm: 2.781 FAR: 2.24

Germany – München: Theresienhöhe Inhabitants per sqkm: 4.601 FAR: 1.67

France – Paris: Palais Bourbon Inhabitants per sqkm: 21.154 FAR: 4.28

Switzerland – Zürich: Kreis 1 Inhabitants per sqkm: 4.406 FAR: 3.60

Source: Klepel. J. 2016. Dichte im Internationalen Stadt-Vergleich. Stadtbauwelt 209. 12. 2016 http://www.bauwelt.de/themen/bilder/Dichte-im-internationalen-Stadt-Vergleich-2545112.html

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Table 2: Urban Density City Hong kong, China Macau, China Beijing, China Shanghai, China Singapore Manila, Philippines Mumbai, India Delhi, India Tokyo-Yokohama Sydney, Australia Tehran, Iran Cairo, Egypt Sal Paulo, Brazil Paris London Berlin New York San Francicso-San Jose Toronto, Canada Mombasa, Kenya

Urban area (km2) 220 23 4,300 2,396 479 1,425 777 1,425 7,835 1,788 635 1,269 2,590 3,043 1,623 984 11,264 2,497 2,500 57

Urban density (person per km2) 29,400 23,350 4,300 5,700 8,350 13,450 21,900 10,700 4,350 2,050 12,300 12,800 7,200 3,400 5,100 3,750 1,750 2,150 2,500 14,050

Cited in: Ng, E. (ed.).2010. Designing High-Density Cities for Social & Environmental Sustainability. Earthscan. London, p. xxxii.

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Urban Density â&#x20AC;&#x201C; visions from the early 20th century

Source: s3.amazonaws.com https://www.pinterest.com/pin/99923685456173959/sent/?sender=305682030866350581&invite_code=d1ea7ae bf02279697e20043649fb8d29

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2. DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES Urbanization Targets. China alone has over 20% of the world’s population, and is urbanizing faster than any country in history. For its cities it will require huge amounts of non-renewable materials, resources, energy and water, which provides the rationale for green cities approach. In 2009, China had 120 cities with over one million, 36 cities over two million. It is predicted that by 2030, China will have an urban population of 1 billion people and 221 cities of more than 1 million. Chinese urban densities still too low. Chinese cities are hovering in their average density close to the threshold of 5000 inhabitant/km2, with highly dense congested cores and a vast suburban expansion where the suburban area has been multiplied by 1.8 every 10 years for the last 2 decades. If the present trends continue, Chinese suburban density will be around 2500 inhabitant/km2 in 2030, with suburbs 36 times bigger in surface than the core, as the Shanghai case exemplifies. It would notably lead to a tripling of energy demand for transportation and contribute to increasing the infrastructure costs per capita.24

Graph 2: Low Density = Higher Infrastructure Costs, energy consumption and carbon emissions

Source: Salat, S. and Bourdic, L. 2014. Spatial Planning Principles & Assessment Framework for Climate Adaptive & Resilient Cities in China. International Workshop NDRC – MoHURD – ADB 5 September Beijing. http://www.urbanmorphologyinstitute.org/resources/conferences/spatial-planning-principles-resilient-citieschina/

Salat, S. and Bourdic, L. 2014. Spatial growth and urban densities in China - trends and impacts on economic and energy efficiency, in: International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development, Volume 5, Issue 2, Seoul, pp. 100-108.

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Need for compact urban development. In China, urban sprawl has become so accentuated that authorities have become alarmed about the increased costs of these developments. Recent measures to limit urban sprawl through development borders have not proven sufficient, though. A rational densification approach needs to become the agenda for future eco-city development. China needs an urgent and ambitious shift toward infill urban development to avoid the current trend of edge and leapfrog growth that feeds dedensification and urban sprawl. National and local policies must promote and foster compact urban development and high levels of articulated density: high residential density, high job density, neighbourhood scale mixed use, and high density of urban amenities to improve accessibility.25  Tool CUD 1 Multi-functional compact developments are better than mono-functional developments Functionally flexible urban block offering Mono-functional housing estate limits advantages of compact and multiple uses mixture of functions and use

Source: Salat, S. and Bourdic, L. 2014. Spatial Planning Principles & Assessment Framework for Climate Adaptive & Resilient Cities in China. International Workshop NDRC – MoHURD – ADB 5 September Beijing. http://www.urbanmorphologyinstitute.org/resources/co nferences/spatial-planning-principles-resilient-citieschina/

Source: Salat, S. and Bourdic, L. 2014. Spatial Planning Principles & Assessment Framework for Climate Adaptive & Resilient Cities in China. International Workshop NDRC – MoHURD – ADB 5 September Beijing. http://www.urbanmorphologyinstitute.org/resources/c onferences/spatial-planning-principles-resilient-citieschina/

Density controls. However, experience from various countries indicate that mere FAR / FSI regulations 26 have been inefficient in guiding and directing growth and supply of land. Market forces, including factors such as vicinity and location advantages, prevailed stronger than permits for higher land use density. Yet, government investments in infrastructure still have important impacts on urban spatial structure and the real estate market. Interventions to regulate FSI may be well intended as a contribution to urban design and zoning, but many of these interventions do not have the desired impacts. In general there are four types of land use regulations: (i) regulations which establish minimum plot or apartment sizes; (ii) regulations which limit FSI; (iii) zoning plans which limit type and density of land use; and (iv)

25 Salat, S. and Bourdic, L. 2014. Spatial growth and urban densities in China - trends and impacts on economic and energy efficiency, in: International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development, Volume 5, Issue 2, Seoul, pp. 100-108. 26 Floor area ration (FAR), floor space ration (FSR), floor space index (FSI), site ratio and plot ratio are all terms for the ratio of a buildings total floor area to the size of the parcel of land upon which it is built. The terms can also refer to limits impose on such a ratio. The FAR can be used to prescribe density.

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land subdivision regulations which regulate percentages of sellable land in new ‘greenfield’ developments.  Tool CUD 1 Density guidelines. Few governments in Asia have achieved guidelines for optimal land use and densities, though the Government of India has tried to use floor area ratios (FARs) to regulate developments. Over time, FARs have increased and financially optimum densities have been achieved when economic densities were maximized. As many monocentric cities have gradually become less dense and more polycentric, a high degree of work places and services remain in the traditional centers causing continued commuting and congestion like in the case of Shanghai or Singapore. The number of trips may still grow while governments seek ways to curb and reduce individual car use. Singapore is a leader in application of a congestion pricing system for individual cars, which, like London, places a high price tag on travel to the central business district (CBD). As cities keep growing, continued traffic congestion may drive more and more consumers and employees to sub centres.  Tool CUD 1 Defining optimum densities. Despite attempts to define optimum FSI/FAR, there can be no optimum value that is universally valid for a city or for the whole of Asia. What has been observed during recent decades is that FAR/FSI of many cities, like Mumbai or Metro Manila, has been far too low, leading to decay in the old city center, sprawl, and eventual nascence of new sub centers replacing the role of the old centers.27  Tool CUD 1 Besides density criteria (FSI or FAR) there exist zoning plans which regulate those zones covered and can include regulations on plot coverage, maximum heights, setbacks, and FARs. For greenfields, or new development areas, zoning plans may be expressed in land subdivision regulations; these regulate the percentage of sellable land (commercial and residential plots) versus circulation space and open areas. The standards being applied determine chances for ‘green’ development. Only high densities in combination with the right means of green transport will permit reductions in commuting and individual trips. It is important to understand the implications of transport options, and how development of public transport and other infrastructure can support density decisions. This means improved spatial configuration, i.e. more compact and multi-functional urban areas would reduce or avoid the need to undertake lengthy commuter trips. The notion of a shift supposes that a gradual shift can be undertaken to modes of transport that are cleaner, eventually utilizing non-fossil energy sources. The intention to improve transport modes hints at the possible improvements in energy efficiency and use of clean energy modes.28  Tool CUD 1 Standards that are too high and unaffordable cannot be implemented and will force people to seek solutions in the informal sector. For example, despite legitimate goals of regulating densities through plot sizes, many standards do not apply to poor households. As trade-off they may opt to escape standards, which are too high for them, by moving into the informal settlements, closer to job opportunities. Thus, instead of being a trade-off between density and distance, it can become a trade-off between legality and illegality. It is, therefore, recommended that “regulations should be tested using land and infrastructure price models to establish the minimum household income required to afford a minimum standard plot in a new greenfield development.” 29  Tool CUD 1

E. Ng, ed. 2010. Designing High-Density Cities for Social and Environmental Sustainability. UK: Cromwell Press Group; Hasan, A. et al. 2010. Planning for High Density in Low-Income Settlements: Four Case Studies from Karachi. Human Settlements Working Paper Series. Urbanization and Emerging Population Issues 28 Sonne, W. 2014. Urbanität und Dichte im Städtebau des 20. Jahrhunderts. Dom Publishers. Berlin. 29 Managing the Spatial Structure of Cities. In H. Suzuki, A. Dastur, S. Moffatt, N. Yabuki, and H. Maruyama, eds. 2010. Eco2Cities, Ecological Cities as Economic Cities, World Bank. Washington. D.C. p. 326.

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The Most Common Urban Spatial Structures

Source: H. Suzuki, A. Dastur, S. Moffatt, N. Yabuki, and H. Maruyama, eds. 2010. Eco2Cities, Ecological Cities as Economic Cities, World Bank. Washington. D.C. p. 313. http://www.worldbank.org/eco2

High-density residential development in Singapore. Before turning attention to the experiences of European countries and China, it seems important to look at Singapore, since the island state is experimenting with high urban densities in its latest generation of public housing schemes. Singapore´s Centre for Liveable Cities (CLC) realizes that density can be a very slippery concept. When density is measured over a very large metropolitan area that varies in size from city to city, it does not provide very meaningful data. For instance a comparison between Singapore and Paris. Singapore’s metropolitan area of 710 square kilometers compared against Paris’ metropolitan area of 17,174 square kilometers, indicated that Paris is 24 times larger. In this way, Singapore’s population of 5 million+ yields a density of 7,130 inhabitants per square kilometer, while Paris’ density yields a mere 704 inhabitants per square kilometer. However, if you compare the inner ring of Paris, which has an area similar in size (657 sqkm) to Singapore, the density is 6,647 inhabitants per sqkm, i.e. almost the same density. Within the 105 sqkm of the City of Paris itself, density is 20,169 inhabitants per sqkm.30 The CLC liveability matrix (see below) is suggesting that Singapore is one of the densest and one of the most livable cities in the world. But what does it really show? Firstly, what are they measuring along the “liveability” scale? Is it standard of living, or quality of life? How are the comparable city densities measured, and over what area? Density and high-rise are not the same. Are we supposed to deduce that Singapore, with its tight clusters of interconnected 50+story high-rise residential towers, should be the model for all future cities 30

Centre for Liveable Cities. 2015. The High Density Livability Question. http://www.livablecities.org/articles/highdensity-livability-question

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desirous of livability? Should Singapore be awarded the crown as the most livable dense city in the world? ¨In evaluating city livability, it is essential to distinguish between quality of life and standard of living. The report in which this graph appears - “10 Principles for Liveable High-rise Cities. Lessons from Singapore” - conflates these concepts. Their “liveability” index is based on Mercer’s 2012 “Quality of Living Survey”, produced for the benefit of multinational firms. It compares standard of living parameters such as “internal stability, law enforcement effectiveness, education, crime levels and the quality of health care”. There is no doubt that standard of living for expats with multinational firms and most residents is extremely high in Singapore. Economic growth is the nation’s most important goal, and it has one of the highest per capita GDP in the world. Quality of life, on the other hand, has to do with experienced sense of well-being. According to Argyle, it is the “immaterial aspects of the living situation like health, social relations or the quality of the natural environment.” 31 In Europe, quality of life would also include “the extent to which social cohesion is deepened, social exclusion is diminished, and social capital is grown.” The real difference between Singapore and the European cities is that Singapore has embraced high-rise, 50+ story buildings with large footprint shopping malls, while European cities, for the most part, have maintained a human scale continuous urban fabric of 6-8 stories with a very fine textured street grid, and mix of uses. 32 EU and livable cities. While the European Commission has not abandoned the goal of increasing GDP, it also “wants an economy that is sustainable.”33 The definition of livability emphasizes factors that improve quality of everyday life for all, especially the more vulnerable. If a city is livable for children and elders, it is livable for all. Pedestrian and bike networks, safe streets, human scale mixed-use, 10-minute neighborhoods, and places to foster community are all important characteristics that improve health and well-being. 34 Smart Growth, urban planning and design principles are based on similar livability values.¨35 However, many aspects of city livability that are considered essential in the US and in Europe are not well accommodated in the high-rise housing developments and office skyscrapers that constitute Singapore. “…the literature suggests that high-rises are less satisfactory than other housing forms for most people, that they are not optimal for children, that social relations are more impersonal and helping behavior is less than in other housing forms, that crime and fear of crime are greater, and that they may independently account for some suicides.” Further, high-rise buildings are not the most ecologically sustainable form of construction. They are subject to the effects of too much sun and too much wind. All-glass skin high-rise buildings are inherently inefficient because glass provides minimal insulation. Moreover, steel and concrete construction produces a lot of greenhouse gases. High-rises seldom meet the high sustainability goals (of energy efficiency and savings) it's proponents claim.

Argyle, M. “Subjective Well-Being.” In Offer, A. In Pursuit of the Quality of Life. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. January 1997. Pp. 18-45. 32 Rifkin, J. 2004. The European Dream. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. pp. 82 33 Rifkin, Jeremy. The European Dream. 2004. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. pp. 82 34 http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/policy/themes/urban-development/portal/ 35 Centre for Livable Cities. 2015. The High Density Livability Question. http://www.livablecities.org/articles/high-density-livability-question 31

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Graph 3: The CLC Liveability Matrix Diagram

Source: http://www.livablecities.org/articles/high-density-livability-question

Singapore’s 50+ story Pinnacle at Duxton, Paris: human scale mixed-use generates safe, the biggest public housing complex in the lively streets and a density of 20,169 world, looms above earlier development inhabitants per square kilometer

Source: http://www.livablecities.org/articles/highdensity-livability-question

Source: http://www.livablecities.org/articles/high-densitylivability-question

The principles for liveable high-density cities. The Centre for Liveable Cities (CLC)´s work on issues of high densities in Singapore has produced a set of 10 principles for liveable

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high-density cities.36 These are generic principles which do have a lot of value for other cities which are developing criteria for densification and compactness. 10 Principles for Liveable High-Density Inclusive mixed-use high-density Cities residential neighbourhood, Singapore I. II. III. IV.

Plan for long-term growth and renewal. Embrace diversity, foster inclusiveness. Draw nature closer to people. Develop affordable mixed use neighbourhoods. V. Make public spaces work harder. VI. Prioritize green transport and building options. VII. Relieve density with variety and add green boundaries. VIII. Activate spaces for greater safety. IX. Promote innovative and nonconventional solutions. X. Forge 3P partnerships – people, private, public.

http://uli.org/press-release/10-principles-singapore/

Is the Vertical City a viable solution for sustainable living? http://www.treehugger.com/urban-design/vertical-city-viable-solution-sustainable-living.html Vertical City – Manifesto of New Urban Form

Centre for Liveable Cities - Urban Land Institute. 2013. 10 Principles for Liveable High-Density Cities – Lessons from Singapore. CLC – Centre for Liveable Cities - Urban Land Institute. Singapore. http://uli.org/pressrelease/10-principles-singapore/ 36

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Manhattan, New York City. Credit: Zhou Fang. A new urban form is in need urgently and experts in relevant areas have discussed and experimented with different ways to solve humanities’ most pressing problems. Although some methods have remitted some issues more or less, still we have not been able to eliminate the urban crisis. That’s why we hope Vertical City will be the new urban form that can solve our problems. “If it is properly designed, a Vertical City provides its residents with a sense of belonging to a community and most importantly, it is easier and less costly to maintain and operate.” A well designed Vertical City will address concerns in three areas – Environmental, Formal, and Socioeconomic/Political – and will achieve eight key objectives in each area. ENVIRONMENTAL 1. Curb global warming by every means available. This is an imperative of the first order. 2. Use clean energy like solar, wind, geothermal, and tidal sources, or biomass energy from plant-based materials, all of which can help significantly alleviate both the climate and e nergy crises. 3. Localize power sources in close proximity to end users in order to prevent significant energy loss through transmission over long distances. 4. Preserve arable lands. This anti-sprawl initiative is one of our greatest concerns, as land los t to development will never be returned. 5. Conserve clean water, including rainwater capture, evaporative technologies, and the reuse of gray water for non-potable purposes. 6. Detoxify air through indoor and outdoor plantings that recycle exhaled carbon dioxide into lifesustaining oxygen, and purify the atmosphere of airborne pollutants. 7. Reduce waste through recycling and reuse, and separating compostable matter. Adopting Nature as our model, wherein waste does not exist, our goal is to achieve zero w aste. Such an undertaking is possible through coordinated management, applied technologies, and full spectrum education programs that make clear the positive benefits (and also the negative consequences of non-compliance). 8. Localize food production, including aquaponics and fish ponds for fresher, better -tasting food, discontinue the use of chemical preservatives and refrigerants, and reduce the pollution and spoilage involved in long-distance shipping. FORMAL 1. Maximize density and compactness for optimum efficiency in clustered ultra-tall towers. 2. Limit the project footprint to 15-minute walk ability from one end to the other. 3. Dedicate the main surface level to car-free pedestrian friendly use with easy access to shops, services and outdoor resources for recreation and enjoyment. 4. Confine passenger vehicles and deliveries to lower levels of a raised podium for increased safety, reduced pollution and surface congestion, and improved quality of life. 5. Locat utilities accessibly to facilitate secure access and minimal disruption during maintenance and repair. 6. Provide mass transit for clean, efficient access around the Vertical City, and intermodal links to outlying areas. 7. Link the towers with skylobbies for structural stability, convenien ce, increased efficiency, and security, and expanding opportunities for social interaction in a series of linked town squares in the air. 8. Use the latest high-performance technologies to optimize efficiency and sustainability. SOCIOECONOMIC/POLITICAL 1. Mix uses to meet essential needs for housing, employment, education, recreation, health care, and other services, optimizing the efficiency gains of centralized labor and consumption markets by doing away with long wasteful and polluting commutes between home and work. 2. Maximize the range of services and amenities to provide a lively mix of commercial, recreational, cultural, and educational opportunities, enriching individual life experience and ultimately resulting in an invested and creative society that takes full advantage of the unique opportunities afforded.

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3. Foster diversity and social inclusiveness with wide-ranging choices in housing and recreation at various economic levels. There are no slums in the Vertical City; every resident will have a decent place to live securely and with dignity, promoting well-being and productivity and ultimately making the Vertical City a better place for everyone. 4. Maximize job opportunities and averting misemployment, which adds little to the common good, by merging economic and environmental concerns and providing green industries and jobs that will benefit the Vertical City and its greater environment. 5. Nurture democratic and accountable governance that integrates ecological imperatives in the decision making and legislative processes, recognizing that human values and environmental well-being are not unrelated to good business policies and economic growth. 6. Promote healthy lifestyles and individual human development by active engagement and exercise against obesity, heart disease, and other afflictions related to an overly sedentary existence. 7. Recognize differences in the social, economic, and ecological conditions of different cities and nations, allowing each to adapt our basic concepts to their parti cular needs while moving beyond past, often destructive, processes of economic growth and urbanization. 8. Challenge leadership in municipal and national governments to offer incentives that would encourage new ways of thinking and enable the sustainable development of new urban forms. http://www.verticalcity.org/8-8-8-manifesto-of-new-urban-form.html

Definition of Eco-City. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) defines an ecocity as “a city that provides an acceptable standard of living for its human occupants without depleting the eco-systems and biochemical cycles on which it depends”.37 Another definition of the eco-city has identified it as “an ecologically healthy city. It is a healthy human ecological process leading to sustainable development within the carrying capacity of local ecosystems through changes in the production mode, consumption behaviour and decision instruments based on ecological economics and systems engineering.”38 Also, the Eco-city has been defined by its vision of a sustainable and liveable city or town to be implemented as a city of short distances, i.e. compact and with high densities. 39 The development of eco-cities is tied to the three goals of eco-industry (industry metabolism, life-cycle production, resource conservation, use of renewable energy etc.), eco-scape (built environment, open spaces, connectors, maximizing accessibility, while minimizing resource use and urban problems), and eco-culture (understanding of balance between man and nature, understanding of environmental ethics in order to enhance people’s contribution to maintaining a high-quality urban ecosystem).40 Others categorize eco-cities as eco-managed (e.g. new city, liveable city, healthy city); ecobuilt (e. g. landscape city, garden city, green city); and integrated development (sustainable city, environmentally-friendly city, eco-city). It has also been suggested that while the preservation of ecologically valuable and/or both ecologically and economically valuable aspects should be prioritized, aided or managed eco-systems can be a valuable alternative.

United Nations Development Program (UNDP). 2010, April. Renmin University of China. China Human Development Report. 2009/10: China and a Sustainable Future: Towards a Low Carbon Economy and Society. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing. 38 Wang, Rusong and Ye, Yaping. 2004. Eco-City Development in China. Ambio, 33 (6), 341-342. 39 Gaffron, P., Huismans, G., Skala, F. (eds.). 2005. Ecocity – A better place to live – Book I, Strategic approaches and methodologies in urban planning towards sustainable urban transport, European Commission, DG Research. Brussels. p. 12. 40 Shen, Qingji and Song, Ting. 2010. Advancements in Eco-City Research 生态城市研究进展. China Low Carbon Eco- City Development Report. 2010 中国低碳生态城市发展报告2010, pp 67-104.

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Figure 3: Features of an Eco-City – Features of the EU Vision

Source: Gaffron, P., Huismans, G., Skala, F. (eds.). 2005. Ecocity – A better place to live – Book I, Strategic approaches and methodologies in urban planning towards sustainable urban transport, European Commission, DG Research. Brussels. p.17. [Spanish edition: http://www.gea21.com/_media/publicaciones/proyecto_ecocity_la_ecociudad_un_lugar_mejor_para_vivir.pdf

The best way to fix our cities is to make them walkable At a time when all the engineers are touting the benefits of autonomous cars and how they might fix our cities, it is surprising to see one of the world’s great engineering firms, ARUP, making the case for- walking. In a comprehensive report, “Cities Alive: Towards a Walking World”. They note how the 20th century belonged to cars, and we see the results: The legacies of the traffic-dominated planning era are still clearly visible in cities worldwide. We can see this in neighbourhoods without sidewalks, in public spaces made redundant by parked vehicles, and in the urban highways that segregate neighbourhoods in order to serve sprawling suburbs.

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They then go through, count them, 50 drivers of change, 50 benefits from walking. 40 actions that can be taken and 80 case studies. They note the problems with a motorized focus: The negative effects of heavy automotive use on urban everyday life are significant. Motorisation is currently dependent on non-renewable fuels and motorised vehicles are a major contributor to air and noise pollution. Speed is the main cause of premature deaths and injuries in road accidents, and traffic congestion is a huge issue – and cost – for cities. The development of car-centric lifestyles heavily contributes to the decline of physical activity and the rise of obesity, while sprawl may lead to social isolation and disconnection of communities. They list the effects on peoples’ bodies and health: Physical activity has dropped 32% in the last 44 years in the United States and 45% in only 18 years in China; rates which are predicted to grow. The decline of activity in the urban context relates to the rise of car ownership and ‘passive’ modes of transport. Poor walking infrastructure, lack of recreation facilities, high-density traffic and low air quality are both major causes and effects of this phenomenon. They note so many benefits. We need to design physical activity back into our everyday lives by incentivising and facilitating walking as a regular daily mode of transport. In addition to the host of health benefits, there are many economic benefits for developers, employers and retailers when it comes to walking. It is the lowest carbon, least polluting, cheapest and most reliable form of transport, and is also a great social leveller. Having people walking through urban spaces makes the spaces safer for others and, best of all, it makes people happy. Source: Alter, L. 2016. The best way to fix our cities is to make them walkable, says ARUP. Treehugger. 27 July 2016. http://www.treehugger.com/urban-design/best-way-fix-our-cities-make-them-walkable-says-arup.html

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What is a Healthy Neighbourhood

Source: UK Green Building Council. 2016. Health and Wellbeing in Homes. http://www.ukgbc.org/sites/default/files/08453%20UKGBC%20Healthy%20Homes%20Updated%2015%20Aug% 20%28spreads%29.pdf

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Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/282319470367513692/sent/?sender=305682030866350581&invite_code=a03549 0263536d745be1d8139e0809b2

The international definition of the Eco-City by the international Eco City Builders´ Society. The definition of An Eco-city is a human settlement modeled on the self-sustaining resilient structure and function of natural ecosystems. • An ecocity seeks to provide healthy abundance to its inhabitants without consuming more renewable resources than it replaces.

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•

It seeks to function without producing more waste than it can assimilate or recycle for new uses or than nature can dilute and absorb harmlessly, and without being toxic to itself or neighboring ecosystems. Its inhabitants’ ecological impacts reflect planetary supportive lifestyles; its social order reflects fundamental principles of fairness, justice, reasonable equity and consensus at ample levels of happiness.41

http://www.ecocitystandards.org/ecocity/

Cities are urban ecosystems

http://www.ecocitystandards.org/ecocity/

Requirements of eco-cities. Several requirements have been identified for low carbon ecocity planning. These include green energy planning; green transport planning, in terms of modifying existing transport modes and introducing innovative green transport options; promotion of green buildings; making industries more environmentally friendly; promotion of green consumerism through eco-friendly design and production as well as consumption; water management and conservation through a clear water resource strategy; making public services and infrastructure more environmentally friendly especially for waste management,

http://www.ecocitystandards.org/ecocity/

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management of air pollution, waste water management.42 Many conceptual approximations also suggest to combine the eco-city concept with urban resilience measures, and ¨smart¨ management of urban services. Walkability of a city or least its residential areas has become an important parameter, as mentioned earlier. The Asian Development has even developed a ‘ composite “walkability index” to evaluate the spatiotemporal evolution of the walkability of PRC cities…. [the] comprehensive walkability index … integrates five aspects of the urban built environment: dwelling density, street connectivity, land-use mix, access to public transit, and elevation variation.’43 Public participation. However, one notable conceptual void 44 seems to be the absence of the notion of participation of communities and the private to achieve social and eco goals of the eco-city. It needs to be understood that future changes in life style, which will affect the use of public transport, the support to energy saving, and the readiness to separate recycle waste from the solid waste generated, will be driven be sustained by the eco-city populations. It is these populations who will need to participate in the future evolution of their eco-cities. 45 ¨Regions, cities and urban development ministries should phase out incentives for urban sprawl. Mutilateral and national development banks should work with countries to redirect infrastructure spending away from projects that enable urban sprawl and towards more connected, compact and coordinated urban development.¨ From conventional city planning towards sustainable cities. In the classic modern urban planning literature, the concept of time proven patterns has been enshrined as a strong power. The pattern language of the Christopher Alexander school of thought saw the slow emergence of a (better) town after application of smart construction and environmental principles. 46 The literature on environmental management and control of urban areas is vast, however, the concept of green and low-carbon city development emerges only in the last 20 year, despite the strong discourse on sustainable cities.47 42

Steinberg, F. and Lindfield, M. Spatial Development and Technologies for Green Cities. In. Lindfield, M. and Steinberg, F (eds.). (2012) Green Cities. Asian Development Bank. Urban Development Series. Manila, pp. 23107. http://www.adb.org/publications/green-cities 43 Peilei Fan, Guanghua Wan, Lihua Xu, Hogeun Park, Yaowen Xie, Yong Liu, Wenze Yue, and Jiquan Chen. 2017. Evaolving Walkability of Major Cities in the People’s Republic of China. Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI) Working Paper Series No. 645. Tokyo.https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/223501/adbiwp645.pdf 44 Source: London School of Economy (LSE). 2014. New Climate Economy – Better Growth Better Climate. p. 53. http://static.newclimateeconomy.report/TheNewClimateEconomyReport.pdf 45 Joss, S. Rising to the Challenge: Public Participation in Sustainable Urban Development. in: European Union, Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, et al. 2014. Eco-Cities - Sharing European and Asian Best Practices and Experiences. EU-Asia Dialogue. Singapore. Pp.35-52. http://www.eu-asia.eu/publications/eco-cities/ 46 Alexander, C. 1979. The Timeless Way of Building. Oxford University Press. 47 UNEP. 2013. Integrating the Environment in Urban Planning and Management – Key Principles and Approaches for Cities in the 21st Century. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi; Seto, K.C. and Satterthwaite, D. (eds.). 2010. Human Settlements and Industrial Systems, in: Current Opinion on Environmental Sustainability. Vol 2 (2010). Elsevier, Amsterdam; Bicknell, J. Dodman, D., and Satterthwaite, D. (eds.). 2009. Adapting Cities to Climate Change – Understanding and Addressing the Development Challenges. Earthscan. London; Working Towards a Sustainable Environment, in: Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2008. Managing Asian Cities. ADB. Manila, pp. 224-249; Cities Alliance, ICLEI and UNEP. 2007. The Benefits of Urban Environmental Planning. Washington; Pugh, C. (ed.). 2000. Sustainable Cities in Developing Countries, Earthscan. London and Sterling; Freire, M. and O´Meara, M. Exploring a New Vision for Cities, in: Stren, R. (eds.). 2001. The Challenge of Urban Government – Policies and Practices. The World Bank Institute, pp. 337355; Barton, H. (ed.). 2000. Sustainable Communities – The Potential for Eco-Neighbourhoods. Earthscan. London; Desai, N. Cultivating an urban eco-society: The United Nations respionse, in: Inoguchi, T. Newmann, E. and Paoletto, G. (eds.). 1999. Cities and the Environment – New Approaches for Eco-Societies. United Nations University Press, pp.233-255; Atkinson, A., Dávila, J.D., Fernandes, E., and Mattingly, M. (eds). 1999. The

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Building the cities of the Future with green districts Better design can make sense aesthetically, environmentally – and economically, as the McKinsey Global Institute has found.

Challenge of Environmental Management in Urban Areas, Ashgate Studies in Environmental Policy and Practice, Aldershot; Barrow, C. J. 1999. Environmental Management – Principles and Practice. Routledge Environmental Management Series. Routledge. London; Stren, R. White, R., Whitney, J. (eds). 1992. Urbanization and the Environment in International Perspective. Westview Press.

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Source: Bouton, S., Newsome, D., Woetzel, J. 2016. Building the cities of the Future with green districts – Better design can make sense aesthetically, environmentally – and economically. http://www.mckinsey.com/businessfunctions/sustainability-and-resource-productivity/our-insights/building-the-cities-of-the-future-with-green-districts

Tomorrow´s Sustainable City – An Integrated Approach Needed

Source: UN-Habitat and ESCAP. 2016. The State of Asian and Pacific Cities 2015. Nairobi-Bangkok. p. 153. http://unhabitat.org/books/the-state-of-asian-and-pacific-cities-2015/

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The Green Urbanism Wheel â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 15 principles in four sections. Interconnected and holistic

Source: UN-Habitat and ESCAP. 2016. The State of Asian and Pacific Cities 2015. Nairobi-Bangkok. P. 154. http://unhabitat.org/books/the-state-of-asian-and-pacific-cities-2015/

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The 15 principles of Green Urbanism

Source: UN-Habitat and ESCAP. 2016. The State of Asian and Pacific Cities 2015. Nairobi-Bangkok. P. 156. http://unhabitat.org/books/the-state-of-asian-and-pacific-cities-2015/

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CitiesÂ´Quality of Life Parameters

Source: http://www.e-architect.co.uk/images/jpgs/copenhagen/carlsberg_masterplan_entasis020908_10.jpg

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Smart Cities â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A Definition

A Smart City is one that places people at the center of development, incorporates Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) into urban management, and uses these elements as tools to stimulate collaborative planning and citizen participation. By promoting integrated and sustainable development, Smart Cities become more innovative, competitive, attractive, and resilient, thus improving lives. The Concept of a Smart City

http://www.iadb.org/en/topics/emerging-and-sustainable-cities/smart-city-management,20282.html

National League of Cities. 2016. Trends in Smart City Development. Washington. http://www.nlc.org/Documents/Find%20City%20Solutions/Research%20Innovation/Smart%20Cities/Trends%2 0in%20Smart%20City%20Development.pdf

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Smart and Connected Cities

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/448460075369228734/sent/?sender=305682030866350581&invite_code=40c04 cc844b54bb7a922a5388123b31d

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Paris High-density Downtown Neighbourhoods

Source: http://ysvoice.tumblr.com/post/56493504156/paris-view#.UfP_Dqxse70

Madrid, Salamanca Neighbourhood, Spain – high-density neighbourhood

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/415879346817050615/sent/?sender=305682030866350581&invite_code=b0494 6398862af05379b950922604522

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Beijing from the Air

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/280067670554544626/sent/?sender=305682030866350581&invite_code=d39625 21d5484beced9b0662731fdf04

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3. KEY ISSUES --- KEY CONCEPTS Key issues to be addressed

Key concepts recommended

Integrated land use planning: spatial development â&#x20AC;&#x201C; transport nexus

Strategic planning

Land use efficiency

Incorporating resilience into planning

Urban resilience

Green infrastructure (water; waste water; drainage and storm water; solid waste management; energy supply)

Development control and compliance with regulations or standards

Smart management of eco-systems

Availability of land for urban expansion or new town development

Land availability, access and orientation of buildings

Ecosystems available

Retrofitting of older buildings to achieve better eco-performance and resilience

Ecological footprint of eco-city

Complementarity to compact urban development

Monitoring and eco-performance assessment

Affordability

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4. PERSPECTIVES FROM EUROPE 4.1 Sector Context and Policy Analysis Compact urban development in Europe. In 2007, the European Commission published its Green Paper Towards a new culture for urban mobility48 calling for customised sustainable mobility plans and supporting measures for regional and urban planning ('city of short distances'), thus indirectly calling for more compact cities. This referred among others to the EU strategy to combat climate change and other environmental problems. Planning policies which increase population densities in urban areas do tend to reduce car use, but the effect is a weak one, so doubling the population density of a particular area will not halve the frequency or distance of car use. Urban intensification and smart growth through compact cities seems accepted in Europe as a meaningful approach, though in general there is not much advocacy for higher densities. 49 As examples of adoption of the compact city approach we shall briefly look at two countries, the Netherlands and United Kingdom, where this approach has yielded some results. Influence of Compact Urban Development in the Netherlands. The Netherlands' urban planning is highly influenced by the 'compact city'-concept. In the 1960s cities expanded in large neighbourhoods using the scarce space available to use as efficiently as possible. Later, cities weren't allowed to expand anyhow, giving way for completely new towns on moderate distances from the main city. Public transport between the main city and its towns in the rural areas connected them. This policy resulted in typical commuter towns. Afterwards, in the 1980s, new urban neighbourhoods had to be around a city, as a skin, encircling skins of older neighbourhoods. The new neighbourhoods were cleverly designed, relatively dense and with very good connections to get downtown by public transport or bicycle.This history results in a lack of urban sprawl, or at least of new urban sprawl. As new neighbourhoods need to be built as an outer skin around existing settlements and as other policies prohibit establishing new settlements outside other towns or villages, no new linear villages could be founded without governmental intervention any more. This in order to keep the rural landscape 'clean' and cities dense and compact. As a result, in Dutch towns all neighbourhoods are close to city centers, enabling inhabitants to get around quickly and cheaply by bike. Getting out of town doesn't involve driving through ever-ongoing sprawled suburbs, making it easy and popular to visit rural areas. By all these regulations, for instance the Green Hart (amid the urban belt of Amsterdam to Rotterdam) is kept green, while buffers around cities like Amsterdam, Utrecht and Delft avoids getting the cities grown together entirely.50 Influence of compact city in the United Kingdom. The Compact City concept had a particularly strong influence on planning policy in the UK during the Labour Governments of 1997–2010. The first Labour Government in 1998 set up the Urban Taskforce under Lord Richard Rogers, which produced the report Towards an Urban Renaissance. Influenced by this report, the UK Government issued its Planning Policy Guidance on Housing which introduced a 60% brownfield target, a minimum net residential density guideline of 30 dwellings per hectare, a sequential hierarchy beginning with urban brownfield land, maximum parking guidelines replacing the previous minima, and a policy of intensification around public transport nodes. Over the succeeding years, these targets were substantially

European Commission. 2007. Green Paper – Towards a new culture for urban mobility. Brussels. http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/urban/urban_mobility/green_paper/ 49 Melia, S., Barton, H. and Parkhurst, G. 2011. The Paradox of Intensification. Transport Policy 18 (1). http://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=1083948 50 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_City 48

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exceeded, with the brownfield proportion reaching 80% by 2009, and average densities 43 dwellings per hectare. 51 Are current European eco-cities compact? Available data suggests that European cities are much more compact than their developing countries´ counterparts. As cited earlier, several cities are standing out with high density city centres: Paris (20,647.0 persons/sqkm); Barcelona (17,433 pers/sqkm); Lisbon (9,893.0 persons/sqkm); Dublin (4,485.0 persons/sqkm); Lyon (8,679.3 persons/sqkm); Madrid (5,046.0); Marseilles (3,334.6 persons/sqkm); Milan (8,227.0 persons/sqkm); Munich (4,192.0 persons/sqkm); and Stockholm (3,051.3). The developed countries´ cities show a mean density in their city centres of 5,945.3 persons/sqkm and for their overall metro areas of 1,926.7 persons/sqkm. Thus, in residential areas the density pattern is quite different, much more modest, but in many cases higher than that of their developing countries´ peers: Dublin (1,107.0 persons/sqkm); London (4,227.0 persons/sqkm); Lyon (2,524.7 persons/sqkm); Madrid (596,0 persons/sqkm); Marseilles (1,482.9 persons/sqkm); Milan (2,714.0 persons/sqkm); Munich (421.0 persons/sqkm); and Stockholm (285.8 persons/sqkm) (see Annex 1 for more details). Characteristics of European cities. Most of Europe´s cities can be described as cities which since World War II have been renovated and consolidated. There were some new town creations, but overall this was a limited development. Their current development stage is characterized as mature and stable. Many of these cities do not grow anymore, and in some areas cities are even contracting due to reductions in working population due to economic changes, restructuring and crisis; and some are shrinking due to regressive population trends. Policies to encourage higher urban densities. It is noticeable that the link between higher densities and TOD approaches has not yet really explored in terms of EU instruments to promote higher urban efficiencies through higher densities.52 Thus, it is of interest to refer to the case of Toronto, Ontario in Canada. Toronto has ‘set an ambitious goal for Toronto: no more sprawl’. In prioritizing “smart growth” it is proposed that urban planning rules emphasize dense, walkable neighborhoods, public transit and green space. “Under the recommendations, future transit funds would be contingent on having zoning in place to allow for high-density development along transit corridors. Sixty percent of new residential projects would be situated in already built-up areas, Municipalities would have to be “transparent” about smart growth efforts.” 53 Thus, higher densities through TOD are leveraged through subsidies and government support. Connected parameters – compact + liveable + ecological. As will be illustrated further below, many European cities are experimenting with aspects of urban ecology, in fields such as public transport, non-motorized transit, energy production, green buildings, waste recycling; green financing, green industries; and development of entire eco-districts. Their two prime concerns are liveability (better quality of life and comfort), ecological efficiency, energy efficiency and sustainability (improved energy performance; better utilization of 51

Department of Communities and Local Government. 2010. Land Use Change Statistics (England) 2009. London. https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/land-use-change-statistics-england-provisional-estimates-for2009-published-july-2010 52 The relevance of densities in European cities has been studied, as shown with the cases of Amsterdam, Copenhagen and Hamburg, but no planning guidelines or instruments do exist to leverage higher densities, as in the case of Toronto, presented below. See: Scheurer, J. 2007. Compact City Policy How Europe Rediscovered Its History and Met Resistance. http://www.urbanreinventors.net/2/scheurer/scheurer-

urbanreinventors.pdf. New planning rules would address Toronto’s sprawl. May 20, 2016. http://citiscope.org/citisignals/2016/new-planning-rules-would-address-torontossprawl?utm_source=Citiscope&utm_campaign=65fcfbcb18Mailchimp_2016_05_20&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_ce992dbfef-65fcfbcb18-118049425 53

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natural resources).54 However, compactness of cities is not seen as a high priority goal, since densities are already rather high, if compared with cities in developing countries. Thus, in the coming sections we will review a number of European experiences of cities which have experimented with aspects of ecology -- public transport, non-motorized transit, energy production, green buildings, waste recycling; green financing, green industries. Secondly, we are also reviewing relevant cases of eco-districts in Europe. Unlike China, there no new cities which could be labelled as ¨eco-cities¨. 55 What exists, however, in European cities are so-called ¨eco-districts¨. The examples presented below are from the cities of Freiburg, Germany; London, United Kingdom; Stockholm, Sweden; Grenoble, France; Finland, and Spain. 56 Copenhagen may become the World´s First Zero Carbon Emission City by 2025. Among the European Cities the example of Copenhagen is outstanding. In 2009, a plan was submitted in Copenhagen, Denmark which contained two phases. In the first phase, the carbon emission of Copenhagen in 2015 would be decreased by 20% of the standard of 2005, while in the second phase the carbon emission would be reduced to zero. This goal should be achieved through the use of wind power and other renewable resources.57 Top Eco-Friendly Cities – a broad variety of experiences of cities which seek an ecoprofile European eco-friendly cities58:

Prominent aspects of ecology

Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Malmö, Sweden

• • • • • • • • • •

pioneer in environmental awareness innovative energy management projects since 2009 power hookups for electric cars solar panels household wind turbines working towards its goal of a 40% drop in emissions by 2025 home to the world’s third largest wind farm a wide cycle network impressive amount of parks and green spaces home to an innovative new urban development located on the city’s western harbor – an entirely green district housing some 10,000 inhabitants and utilizing water harvesting, solar power, and wind power to furnace a 100% renewable energy zone

Habermann-Nieße, K., Jütting, Klehn, K. and Schlomka, B. 2012. Mit eKo-Quartieren zu mehr Energieeffizienz. Strategien zur Modernisierung II: Heinrich Böll Stiftung Berlin. https://www.boell.de/sites/default/files/Endf_Strategien_zur_Moderisierung_2_kommentierbar.pdf 55 European Union, Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, et al. 2014. Eco-Cities - Sharing European and Asian Best Practices and Experiences. EU-Asia Dialogue. Singapore. http://www.eu-asia.eu/publications/eco-cities/ 56 This list of eco-districts is not exhaustive. Other eco-districts can be found in Basle, Switzerland; Heidelberg, Germany; Hebsingor-Helsingborg, Denmark-Sweden; and Lograno, La Rioja, Spain; Delft, Netherlands; Eva Lanxmeer, The Netherlands; Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Växjö, Sweden; Hannover, Germany; Leuven, Belgium. Please notice that the following compilation of Eco-District or Eco-Cities is not comprehensive. Other eco-city examples are in Bad Ischl/Austria; Trinitat Nova – Barcelona/Spain; Gyor/Hungary; Vuores – Tampere/Finland; Trnava/Slovakia; Derendingen – Tübingen/Germany; Umbertide/Italia. See early documentation on these in: Source: Gaffron, P., Huismans, G., Skala, F. (eds.). 2005. Ecocity – A better place to live – Book I, Strategic approaches and methodologies in urban planning towards sustainable urban transport, European Commission, DG Research. Brussels. 57 Copenhagen may become the World´ s First Zero Carbon Emission City by 2025. In: Green. # 3. Spring 2013. Beijing. p. 43. http://weibo.com/greenmagazine. 58 10 of Europe’s Most Eco-Friendly Cities http://www.fodors.com/news/story_4533.html

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Hamburg, Germany

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Zurich, Switzerland

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Budapest, Hungary

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• •

Reykjavik, Iceland

• • • • •

2011 European Green Capital Plenty of greenery from vast public parks and flowering gardens to lakeside beaches and shaded woodlands - a haven of natural beauty “car-free Sundays” (held several times annually) free public transportation on car-free Sundays city center’s free bicycle rental scheme urban (¨S-bahn¨[urban train]) from/to the airport train is powered entirely from renewable sources 300 green taxicabs plough the streets daily

city’s environmental policies are appreciate by the citizens city dwellers recently voted in a referendum to enforce individual CO2 limits air quality is a noticeable better than in most cities there are also bicycle-only zones rapid development of renewable energy sources innovative waste reduction schemes tourism is getting on the eco band wagon – alongside walking and cycling tours, visitors can even tour the city on eco-friendly electric scooters

at the top of the list of green cities in Europe city knows how to make environmental awareness fun hosting events like the 2009 Eco Costume Fashion Show, where designs were fabricated from recycled materials and a mass cycle expedition to promote Earth Day in the same year (a record 50,000 cyclists participated) high concentration of hotels taking big steps towards sustainable and environmentally sound practices, and lower budget hostels following suit, too rental bikes

good use of abundant geothermal activity: harnessing the natural heat source for much of its electricity and power needs one of the most energy-efficient cities in Europe hydrogen buses on city routes Reykjavik has pledged to become fossil-fuel-free by 2050 aiming for the title “the cleanest city in Europe”

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Riga, Latvia

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Copenhagen, Denmark

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serious eco credentials since it actually reduce greenhouse gas emissions abundant forests and peat bogs naturally convert carbon dioxide to biomass Latvia has the lowest CO2 emissions within the European Union Riga, is one of Europe’s cleanest capitals bicycle city (with free rental bikes available) large offshore wind farm excellent public transport system green activities: open-air swimming down at the harbor pools (proof of how clean the waterways are) world’s first carbon-neutral theme park: Tivoli Gardens eco fashion labels, organic perfumeries, and vintage boutiques first climate-change adapted neighborhood in Europe, with cloudburst boulevards and innovative bowl-shaped parks, designed to protect the city from rising sea levels59 Aiming to be first zero carbon emission city by 202560

Nantes, France

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Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain

•

• •

2013 European Green Capital Nantes has worked hard on environmental programs and in the battle against climate change electric tramways and bicycles are the most common forms of transport city districts are divided into three “circles,” each encompassing different areas of development – the city centre, land converted into greenery, public parks, and protected mountain and forest areas Electric tram system 2012 European Green Capital title, an honor sure to draw in a few more eco tourists.

Adapted from: 10 of Europe’s Most Eco-Friendly Cities http://www.fodors.com/news/story_4533.html

Copenhagen unveils first climate-change adapted neighborhood, AlJazeera America, 26 January 2015. http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/1/26/copenhagen-worlds-first-climate-adjusted-neighborhood.html 60 Copenhagen may become the World´ s First Zero Carbon Emission City by 2025, 2013. In: Green. # 3. Spring 2013. Beijing. p. 43. http://weibo.com/greenmagazine.

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European Green Capitals The European Commission has long recognised the important role that local authorities play in improving the environment, and their high level of commitment to genuine progress. The European Green Capital Award was conceived as an initiative to promote and reward these efforts, to spur cities to commit to further action, and to showcase and encourage exchange of best practice among European cities. (www.europeangreencapital.eu) European Green Capitals Awarded. The first European Green Capital was awarded in 2010 and nine cities have been awarded the title thus far. The European Green Capitals to date are: 2010 – Stockholm, Sweden 2011 – Hamburg, Germany 2012 – Vitoria Gasteiz, Spain 2013 – Nantes, France 2014 – Copenhagen, Denmark 2015 – Ljubljana, Slovenia 2016 – Bristol, United Kingdom 2017 – Essen, Germany 2018 - Nijmegen, Netherlands Winning Cities: Requirements & Benefits. Being a European Green Capital brings many benefits long after the designated ‘winner’ year ends. Some of the city specific benefits of our previous winners are detailed below: • • • • • • • •

Increase in tourism Positive international media coverage worth millions of euro Increase in international profile, networking and new alliances New jobs – green capitals have successfully exported their green products, processes and services More emphasis on environmental projects through sponsorship and grants Momentum to continue improving environmental sustainability Boost in local pride and feeling of belonging Enhancement of culture and the arts – The European Green Capital network

And more specifically: Being an EGC attracts public financing – Bristol 2015 received £7 million to deliver a range of projects: clean tech award, UK schools programme, green tech festival, grass roots catalyst fund, volunteer programme. The Green Capital ‘label’ as an accelerator and catalyst for public policies with ownership of green issues and tools by local actors. (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/europeangreencapital/winning-cities/requirements-benefits/)

Urban Policies of the European Union. The EU has issued several important urban policy declarations, like the 2007 Leipzig Charter, and the 2010 Toledo declaration. The most recent document is the Pact of Amsterdam. This new Urban Policy Agenda has been agreed on 31 May 2016 during the Dutch Presidency of the EU).

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LEIPZIG CHARTER on Sustainable European Cities The “LEIPZIG CHARTER on Sustainable European Cities” is a document of the Member States , which has been drawn up with the broad and transparent participation of European Stakeholders. In the knowledge of the challenges and opportunities as well as the different historical, economical, social and environmental backgrounds of European cities, the Member States’ Ministers responsible for Urban Development agree upon common principles and strategies for urban development policy.

Making greater use of integrated urban development policy approaches • • •

II.

Creating and ensuring high-quality public spaces Modernizing infrastructure networks and improving efficiency Proactive innovation and educational policies

energy

That special attention is paid to deprived neighbourhoods within the context of the city as a whole. • • • •

Pursuing strategies for upgrading the physical environment Strengthening the local economy and local labour market policy Proactive education and training policies for children and young people Promotion of efficient and affordable urban transport

We emphasize the importance of systematic and structured exchange of experience and knowledge in the field of sustainable urban development. We ask the European Commission to present the outcome of the exchange of good practice on the basis of the guidelines of the Leipzig Charter at a future conference under the auspices of the “Regions for Economic Change” initiative. Alongside this we need a European platform to pool and develop best practice, statistics, benchmarking studies, evaluations, peer reviews and other urban research to support actors involved in urban development at all levels and in all sectors. We will continue to promote and intensify the exchange of knowledge and experience between policy makers, practitioners and researchers at local, regional, national and European level in the future in order to reinforce the urban dimension of the EU Sustainable Development Strategy, the Lisbon Strategy and the European Employment Strategy. Source: EU. 2007. Leipzig Charter. http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/archive/themes/urban/leipzig_charter.pdf

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Toledo Informal Ministerial Meeting on Urban Development â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Declaration Ministers responsible for Urban Development agreed upon and approved the following statements of the: A. ON ADDRESSING THE CURRENT URBAN CHALLENGES AND IMPLEMENTING THE EUROPE 2020 STRATEGY BY ACHIEVING A SMARTER, MORE SUSTAINABLE AND SOCIALLY INCLUSIVE URBAN DEVELOPMENT. A.1. The suitability of the integrated approach in urban development policies and the need for a common understanding of it. A.2. The importance of integrated urban regeneration and its strategic potential for a smarter, more sustainable and socially inclusive urban development in Europe. B. ON SUPPORTING THE CONTINUATION OF THE MARSEILLE PROCESS AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EUROPEAN REFERENCE FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE CITIES (RFSC). C. ON THE NEED TO CONSOLIDATE A EUROPEAN URBAN AGENDA IN THE FUTURE C.1. Strengthening the urban dimension in Cohesion Policy. C.2. Supporting a greater coherence between territorial and urban issues and agendas and fostering the urban dimension in the context of territorial cohesion. C.3. Continuing to promote research, comparative studies and statistics, exchange of best practices and dissemination of knowledge on urban topics, and strengthening coordination of them all. C.4. Promoting sustainable urban development and integrated approaches by reenforcing and developing instruments to implement the Leipzig Charter at all levels. C.5. Considering the most important challenges that European cities will face in the future. The strategic importance of integrated urban regeneration to achieve a smarter, more sustainable and inclusive urban development Taking the environmental dimension first, metropolitan areas, cities and towns are key actors for global sustainability and more specifically to combat climate change, since they are the places where most of the resources consumption (both materials and energy) and the production of waste and emissions (including, most significantly, greenhouse gases) are concentrated. To solve the equation of urban sustainability, and taking into account that the Europe 2020 goals include reducing greenhouse gases by at least 20% compared with the 1990 levels (or by 30% if the conditions are suitable), increasing the percentage of renewable-energy sources in our final energy consumption by up to 20%, and energy

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efficiency also by 20%, the eco-efficiency of the new urban developments (for example, by means of developing new ‘eco-neighbourhoods’) is a necessary condition, but it is not enough. The core battle for urban sustainability will lie in achieving the maximum possible eco-efficiency in the existing urban fabrics of cities. To achieve this, a genuine ‘green, ecological or environmental’ regeneration of cities must be undertaken, including such key issues as: - reducing transport needs by the promotion of proximity and mixed-uses schemes, while at the same time stimulating a more sustainable mobility (on an urban, metropolitan and interurban scale) by: prioritising non-motorised (‘walkable’, ‘cyclable’ cities)9, less pollutant means of transport, supporting affordable and efficient public transport accessible for allnotably for deprived neighbourhoods, where it can play a key role in breaking its physical isolation-, and multimodal transport networks, and optimizing urban logistics; - boosting energy efficiency in existing buildings (by improving the thermal insulation of exterior walls, roofs and glazing, and the efficiency of heating and other installations), considering the physical conditions of the building stock; - improving the management of energy and material resources and flows in the city (urban metabolism), including the whole water cycle, waste, etc., striving to close urban metabolic cycles locally and to reduce the ecological footprint; - promoting renewable energies and implementing them and their use in cities; - recycling land (by means of urban regeneration, the redevelopment or reuse of abandoned, derelict or unused areas, etc.) as a key strategy for contributing towards the reduction of land consumption and therefore combating ‘urban sprawl’; - promoting the consumption of local green products to shorten consumption circuits and to strengthen the local eco-economy; - protecting natural, landscape, forestry, water resources, agricultural areas, etc. around cities and strengthening their links or articulation with cities (for example, with green belts and/or corridors connected to and in continuity with the network of public parks and spaces), ‘re-greening’ the existing city, etc. Finally, it shouldn’t be forgotten that besides strategies to mitigate climate change there is a need to begin to stimulate strategies to adapt to it, particularly in coastal or river areas that could be affected by rising sea levels or flooding, or areas where the effects of warming are expected to be the greatest. The new scenarios being considered imply the need for cities to develop proactive strategies to resist these changes (‘resilient cities’), to protect them against natural disasters or warming and to improve water management in times of drought. Source: EU. 2010. Toledo Declaration. http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/archive/newsroom/pdf/201006_toledo_declaration_en.pdf

Pact of Amsterdam: Urban Agenda for the EU. “More and more people are living, working and spending their free time in cities. Cities offer fertile ground to start new business, provide platforms for cultural dialogue and diversity, and are incubators for innovation. With the current (European) trend towards urbanisation, the importance of cities and urban areas will continue to grow. This growth is accompanied by complex challenges, including an ever greater risk of segregation, increased criminality and environmental problems. Through the Urban Agenda for the EU Member States, cities, European institutions and other stakeholders will be working together for a sustainable, socially inclusive, innovative and economically powerful Europe. What is the Urban Agenda for the EU? The Urban Agenda for the EU is a new working method to ensure maximum utilisation of the growth potential of cities and to successfully tackle social challenges. It aims to promote cooperation between Member States, cities, the European Commission and other stakeholders, in order to stimulate growth, liveability and

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innovation in the cities of Europe. Part of this new approach is the development of a range of European partnerships with the objective of: 1. Promoting the involvement of cities in EU policy making and the development, implementation and evaluation of more ´urban friendly´ European legislation(‘Better Regulation’). 2.

Ensuring better access to and utilisation of European funds.

3. Improving the European urban knowledge base and stimulating the sharing of best practices and cooperation between cities. Why an Urban Agenda for the EU? International research has revealed that cities are of huge importance to Europe. They are the powerhouses of economic growth, innovation and employment. 72% of all Europeans live in cities. This percentage is expected to rise to 80 by 2050. Complex challenges related to the environment, transport and social cohesion are increasingly negatively impacting quality of life in cities. The Urban Agenda for the EU aims to address these challenges. To fully exploit the potential of cities, European policies and rules should be more in line with local practice in cities. This does not entail new or more competences for the European Union, but a better working method, focused on cooperation between Member States, cities, European institutions and other stakeholders.“61 As pronounced during the United Nations’ HABITAT III Conference in Quito during October 2016, the EU is in the process of developing a “green city tool” which will be utilized for benchmarking of low-carbon development performance. Such a tool will be important for further work that will guide European cities towards the achievement of their low-carbon development goals. 62 Pact of Amsterdam - Urban Agenda for the EU - 2016 “The European Union has no formal authority over urban policy. Nonetheless, there are three tracks through which the EU can foster the development of European cities: 1. Improve regulation. The Commission Juncker has announced initiatives to improve European legislation and remove unnecessary regulations. 2. Create more workable financial instruments. Cities wish that more attention is given to the implementation of financial EU programs (and the additional regulatory burden) and the way they are set up. This will make it easier for cities and regions to use these funds. 3. Create a European platform for urban imagination and knowledge. Dutch cities are a breeding ground for innovations at the interface of urban planning and technology, and they contribute to economic growth. Providing cities, especially during the presidency, a European platform that can boost economic growth and urban dynamics.

European Urban Agenda: innovative collaboration. The Commission Juncker wants to strengthen ties between the Member States of the European Union, national parliaments, regions and cities. The aim is to improve the performance of existing policies and increase the effectiveness of new measures. The Urban Agenda for the EU supports this. The Urban Agenda for the EU will create new forms of cooperation, focusing on urban issues with a European dimension. These themes are linked to European priorities such as energy, employment and further development of the internal market. In the upcoming three years, three or four urban themes will feature on a rolling agenda. In cooperation with Dutch cities, the Dutch government will determine the Dutch theme for the Urban Agenda for the EU in 2015.

Source: http://urbanagendaforthe.eu/pactofamsterdam/, and: http://urbanagendaforthe.eu/wpcontent/uploads/2016/05/Pact-of-Amsterdam_v7_WEB.pdf 62 See also: UN-Habitat - EU. 2016. The State of European Cities 2016. http://unhabitat.org/books/the-state-ofeuropean-ciies-2016-cities-leading-the-way-to-a-better-future/

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The European Parliament already called for an Urban Agenda for the EU in 2011. It is very likely that the current European Parliament will issue a report by mid-2015 to support an Urban Agenda for the EU. During its presidency of the European Union in 2016 the Netherlands wants to take the Urban Agenda for the EU to the next level and simultaneously place Dutch cities in the European spotlight, by working towards: 1. A manifest by town makers, a meeting with mayors and an innovation relay to mobilise support for the Urban Agenda for the EU and provide a platform for innovators from Dutch cities. 2. A political agreement in which Member States, cities and the European Commission commit to cooperate based on the three aforementioned tracks, and seek innovative partnerships.” June 20, 2016. Source: http://urbanagendaforthe.eu/urban-agenda/

The most far-reaching European declaration in support of Eco--Cities is, however, contained in the Freiburg Charter of 2010 of Universal Principles for Creating a Sustainable City which underlines the need for compact urban development, of walkable cities. The Freiburg Charter – Universal Principles for Creating a Sustainable City The Freiburg Charter was developed in partnership with the City of Freiburg in recognition of winning the Academy’s European City of the Year Award 2010. The city is an outstanding example of sustainable urbanism of which this publication aims to distill through 12 principles. “The Charter represents a critical step in identifying transferable principles of high-quality urban planning. Seen through a European lens, this helps to bring these principles much closer to many more people and places. We are delighted to be supporting the initiative.” (Emma Cariaga, Head of Strategic Projects, Land Securities) “In 1992, Freiburg was chosen as Germany’s Environmental Capital. In 2010, The Academy of Urbanism awarded us the title of European City of the Year. These recognitions honour us, but also motivate us to develop new ideas and work harder to become more sustainable.” (Dr. Dieter Salomon, Lord Mayor, The City of Freiburg) THE 12 PRINCIPLES Spatial Principles I. DIVERSITY, SAFETY & TOLERANCE Encouragement of a balanced age and social profile within functioning neighbourhoods, with the provision of appropriate workplaces for all sectors of the population and the encouragement of innovative residential models. The provision of facilities in public and private infrastructure for all generations with the provision of well-managed places balanced with free spaces. The provision of a full range of facilities, especially for very young and very old citizens. The integration of all strands of society irrespective of ethnicity, gender or age. II. CITY OF NEIGHBOURHOODS Decentralised governance, with a defined degree of empowerment and personal responsibility, is indispensable for cities and should be actively encouraged. Decentralised governance is of particular importance in: residential living and working, social infrastructure, education and culture, recreation and management of green spaces and networks. The protection of a city’s identity is a precondition for sustainable urban planning and development. III. CITY OF SHORT DISTANCES Existing facilities should be enhanced and new ones introduced in such a way that they are in accordance with the idea of the Compact City. Accessibility to all infrastructure networks on foot minimises car traffic and leads to an improvement in environmental quality. The development of public transport and pedestrian and bicycle networks should be given priority over the use of private motor vehicles. IV. PUBLIC TRANSPORT & DENSITY Public transport needs to be closely integrated with the urban design vision and, as a general principle, must always be given priority over car traffic. Increased urban density along public transport routes should be brought about in a sensitive and sustainable manner.

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Land uses with civic function and high frequency of use should be located in close proximity to public transportation nodes in order to increase urban intensity. Content Principles V. EDUCATION, SCIENCE & CULTURE Schools and universities, research facilities and cultural institutions make a significant impact on the attractiveness and the quality of a city. They have a strong influence on public life and can have a decisive influence on the planning culture of a city. A city has to create opportunities for personal development and life-long learning. VI. INDUSTRY & JOBS The most important task for the future is the conservation of existing employment and the development of groundbreaking and innovative businesses. In order to achieve this, we must fully tap into every opportunity that enables the city to maintain existing jobs on the one hand, and to develop new ones on the other. The trend to greenfield development and ‘edge city’ has to be counteracted with a concentration on the regeneration of existing urban fabric. The proper application of these principles is indispensable. VII. NATURE & ENVIRONMENT The conservation of biological diversity, the wise use of resources for the benefit of future generations and the protection of a healthy and liveable environment are key objectives for urban development. All areas of planning have to be evaluated for their impact on the environment prior to implementation, in order to safeguard the habitats of animals and plants as well as historically-important cultural landscapes. VIII. DESIGN Most planning decisions shape the appearance of the city for generations. These decisions must therefore support and enhance the character of a city by promoting the highest qualities of design. Public spaces play a key role: together with their neighbouring buildings they form the public face of a city. Public property rights and the authority for disposal of public space must remain with the body politic in order to mediate between different interests and to counteract undesirable development. The development of key building projects has to be led by the planning authority from initial concept through to realisation on the ground. Tools such as architectural design competitions, multiple commissioning and expert panels should be employed as a general principle, in order to find solutions for important buildings and public spaces. The structure of the plot plan – as a starting point for diversity – plays a very important role. Processes of urban redevelopment will be of special importance in the future. Process Principles IX. LONG-TERM VISION Consistent urban planning and development needs to follow a unifying vision that refers back to the city’s past and projects forward several decades. The face of the city must not be submitted to short-lived fashions or political whim. Additions to cities that have evolved over historical timeframes must anticipate the needs of future generations (conserve the old and celebrate the new). Only in this way can the uniqueness and the character of a city be developed, maintained and enhanced. Continuity, quality and awareness of the intricacies of a location are important attributes for a sustainable, future-oriented city. X. COMMUNICATION & PARTICIPATION Communities must work continuously on their collective vision for the city through public discourse that becomes manifest in public spaces and in city culture. Continuous communication must be supported among the protagonists and stakeholders inside and outside the city administration. The outputs should be fed directly into planning processes to help create transparency and to inform political decisions. All parts of a city’s population must be invited to participate, co-operate and engage through appropriate modes of communication – in all phases of development from initial visioning through to

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detailed planning, delivery and management. A culture of engagement should be established, employing a wide range of techniques available to central, regional and local authorities. XI. RELIABILITY, OBLIGATION & FAIRNESS A citywide concept, with principles of consensus, creates the proper environment within which all the participants in urban development can act with equal rights. In order for the city to become a reliable partner for all citizens and investors, urban policy needs to be founded on basic resolutions that have a binding effect on the city administration. Basic principles need to govern site development guidelines and standards of sustainable construction. Guidelines such as the City of Short Distances have to be enshrined in subject-specific policies – such as the retail concepts embodied in Freiburg’s marketplaces and sub-centres. These principles should be made legally binding through development masterplans. A level of trust should be created between the protagonists within the city’s administration and those outside, based on continuity and with sufficient freedom to enable innovation and creativity to flourish. Source: http://www.academyofurbanism.org.uk/freiburg-charter/

4.2 Good Practices - Illustrations Progress of Eco-District development. The following overview of eco-districts reveals that some cities have implemented demonstration projects in a range of fields, covering green energy, green transport, green buildings, green services (water recycling, waste water treatment); green solid waste management, and green industries. All of these represent efforts at concrete project levels, as well as efforts to change life styles and consumer habits. Case 1 Freiburg, Germany: Eco-District Vauban Vauban is a new neighbourhood planned for 5,000 inhabitants and 600 jobs. It is high density as per German standards with a density of 1,497 pers/sqkm. It is located 4 km south of the town center of Freiburg. It was conceived as a sustainable ¨model¨district on the site of a former French military base, and is named after Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, the 17th century French Marshal who built fortifications in Freiburg while the region was under French rule. Development of the Vauban eco-district began in the mid1990s. Buildings. All houses are built to a low energy consumption standard, with 100 units designed with Passivhaus ultra-low energy building standards. Other buildings are heated by a combined heat and power station burning wood chips, while many of the buildings have solar collectors or photovoltaic cells. Perhaps the most outstanding example of solar architecture is the Solar Settlement in Vauban, a 59 PlusEnergy home housing community. It is the first housing community world-wide in which all the homes produce a positive energy balance. The solar energy surplus is then sold back into the city's grid for a profit on every home. Transport. Within Vauban, transportation is primarily by foot or bicycle. The development is connected to the Freiburg city center by a tramway, and is laid out linearly along the tracks such that all homes are within easy walking distance of a tram stop. As of 2009 around 70% of the households had chosen to live without a private car. The level of car ownership has fallen over time. An earlier survey showed over 50% of households owned a

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car; of those who were living car-free, 81% had previously owned one and 57% gave up their cars on or immediately after moving to Vauban. 63 Both this and an earlier study found that cycling was the main mode of transport for most trips and most activities, including commuting and shopping. Separation of transit modes in Vauban, Freiburg, Germany

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vauban,_Freiburg

Car-free residential areas allow safe child play, convenient walking and biking, with cars a second class option, Vauban, Freiburg, Germany

Source: China Development Bank Capital (CBDC). 2015. 12 Green Guidelines. CDBCÂ´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft). p.41. http://energyinnovation.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/12/12-Green-Guidelines.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vauban,_Freiburg

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The circulation planning for the eco-district shows a departure from the traditional grid and the adoption of a more complex combination grid: There are three types of circulation modes: roads (in red), local streets (in orange) and pedestrian bicycle paths (in green). The preference for walking and cycling can be partly attributed to the layout of the district. Building on previous experience, the plan departs from the simple inherited grid, and creates a network which incorporates the principle of “filtered permeability”. It means that the network geometry favours the active modes of transport and, selectively, “filters out” the car. This is accomplished by reducing the number of streets that run through the neighbourhood. Instead, most local streets are crescents and cul-de-sacs (see drawing). While they are discontinuous for cars, they connect to a network of pedestrian and bike paths which permeate the entire neighbourhood. In addition, these paths go through or by open spaces adding to the enjoyment of the trip. The logic of filtering a mode of transport is fully expressed in a new comprehensive model for laying out neighbourhoods and districts – called the ¨fused grid¨.  Tool CUD 3 Discouraging parking of individual cars. Most of Vauban's residential streets are described as y "free from parking spaces" (stellplatzfrei). Vehicles are allowed down these streets at walking pace to pick up and deliver but not to park, although there are some infractions as the system depends essentially on social consensus - there are few official controls. Each year, households are required to sign a declaration stating either that they do not own a car, or that they do, in which case they must buy a space in one of the multistorey car parks on the periphery, at a one-off cost of 17,500€ plus a monthly service fee. The city-wide car club has the greatest concentration of its 2,500 members in Vauban – at least ten of its cars are stationed around the district. Thus, Vauban has been successful to counteract the increase in traffic and congestion which has been effecting the larger region of Freiburg. At the eco-district level it was possible to counteract the increases in traffic and congestion, resulting from increasing population densities.  Tool CUD 3 Lessons learnt. Vauban´s experience shows that (i) strategies for urban transformation are based on individual sector strategies. These are becoming part of the overall strategy to mitigate climate change; (ii) there is a local autonomy to decide on and adopt certain policies; and (iii) the local population plays an important role in implementing innovations.64

An Ecological Life Report from Freiburg. 2013. In: Green. #3. Beijing. pp. 134- 143; Green City Office (ed.). 2010. Vauban Quartier Freiburg – A Guided Tour, The vision of a sustainable district becomes reality, FWTM Management and Marketing for the City of Freiburg, Freiburg; Pouille, J. 2015. Die Stadt von morgen – vielleicht, in: Stadtbauwelt 206, Vol. 106. pp. 55-59; Hall, P. 2014. Freiburg: The City that did it all, in: Hall, P. 2014. Good Cities, better lives: How Europe Discovered the Lost Art of Urbanism. Routledge. London, pp. 248-276.

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Eco-District Germany

Vauban

Freiburg, Vauban Solar Germany

GIZ. 2013. Technical Offer, Europe-China Eco-Cities Link Project.

Settlement,

Vauban,

Source: Florian Steinberg

Public Low-Carbon Transport to the city Award-winning Solar Architecture centre

Source: Florian Steinberg

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Case 2 Germany: Data of Eco-Districts in Each State In May 2009, the German government compiled a summary overview of eco-districts in Germany which provides a global overview: German Eco-Districts – a comparison Provinces (Bundesland)

Number of Eco-Districts

Ranking

Number of Residential Units

Baden-Württemberg

13.338

Bayern

1.200

Schleswig-Holstein

1.096

Nordrhein-Westfalen

1.980

Berlin

919

Hessen

620

Hamburg

1.641

Niedersachsen

3.357

Rheinland-Pfalz

Sachsen

1.305

Brandenburg

Mecklenburg-Vorpommern

136

Thüringen

119

Bremen

103

Saarland

Sachsen-Anhalt

Sums

183

25.786

Source: http://www.oekosiedlungen.de/_Listen/laender/uebersicht.htm

Case 3 London, United Kingdom: Eco-District Bed-ZED Beddington Zero Energy Development (BedZED). The Beddington Zero Energy Development (BedZED) is an environmentally friendly housing development in Hackbridge, London, England. It is in the London Borough of Sutton, 2.0 miles (3 km) north-east of the town of Sutton itself. Designed to create zero carbon emissions, it was the first large scale community to do so. 65 BedZED was designed to be carbon neutral, protecting the environment and supporting a more sustainable lifestyle. The project was also pioneering by being the first construction project where a local authority sold land at below market value to make sustainable economically development viable. Buildings. The 82 homes, and 1,405 square metres (15,120 sq ft) of work space were built in 2000–2002. The apartments are finished to a high standard to attract the urban professional, and the project was shortlisted for the Stirling Prize in 2003. Through integrated building design, the elements dedicated to energy production also perform other functions. For 65

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BedZED

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example, there are wind turbines on the roof that, besides producing energy are also used to promote ventilation and indoor-outdoor air exchange. The houses face south to take advantage of solar gain, are triple glazed, and have high thermal insulation. Low-impact materials—Building materials were selected from renewable or recycled sources within 56 km of the site, to minimize the energy required for transportation. Heating. The project is designed to use only energy from renewable sources generated on site. There are 777 sqm of solar panels. Tree waste fuels the development's cogeneration plant (downdraft gasifier) to provide district heating and electricity. The gasifier is not being used, because of technical implementation problems, though the technology has been and is being used successfully at other sites. Biomass heaters were implemented along with solar heating. The pipes used for hot water distribution pass near the windows to maintain their heat even using the sun's rays. Water. Rainwater is recovered and used for irrigation and water closets. Part of the water used for irrigation is purified through phyto-treatment and fed back into the tank. Most rain water falling on the site is collected and reused. Appliances are chosen to be water-efficient and use recycled water when possible. A "living machine" system of recycling waste water was installed, but is not operating. Transport. Because of BedZED's low-energy-emission concept, cars are discouraged; the project encourages public transport, cycling, and walking, and has limited parking space. There are good rail and bus links in the immediate area. The project works in partnership with the United Kingdom's leading car-sharing operator, City Car Club. Residents are encouraged to use this environmentally friendly alternative to car ownership; an on-site selection of vehicles are available for use. Encourage eco-friendly transport—Electric and liquefiedpetroleum-gas cars have priority over cars that burn petrol and diesel, and electricity is provided in parking spaces for charging electric cars. Performance. Monitoring conducted in 2003 found that BedZED had achieved these reductions in comparison to UK averages: (i) space-heating requirements were 88% less; (ii) hot-water consumption was 57% less; (iii) the electrical power used, at 3 kilowatt hours per person per day, was 25% less than the UK average; 11% of this was produced by solar panels. The remainder normally would be produced by a combined-heat-and-power plant fueled by wood chips, but the installation company's financial problems have delayed use of the plant; (iv) water consumption has been reduced by 50%, or 67% compared to a powershower household, and (v) residents' car mileage is 65% less. A review of the BedZed development in 2010 drew mainly positive conclusions. Residents and neighbours were largely happy. However, a few significant failures were highlighted, for example: (i) the biomass wood chip boiler (biomass gasifier) was no longer in operation and the back-up power source, a gas boiler, was now used. The downdraft wood chip gasifier CHP (combined heat and power) had reliability problems due to technical failures and the intermittent schedule of operation (no night time operation) imposed by the local authority; (ii) the 'Living Machine' water recycling facility had been unable to clean the water sufficiently. The cost of the facility also made it unviable; (iii) the passive heating from the sunspaces had been insufficient; and (iv) despite best efforts, residents were on average still leaving an ecological footprint of 1.7 planets, which is more than the target of 1.0 planet (but much less than the UK average of 3 planets).66

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BedZED, see also: Ryser, J. Ecocities in Action: Sustainable Development in Europe –Lessons for and from China? in: European Union, Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, et al. 2014. Eco-Cities Sharing European and Asian Best Practices and Experiences. EU-Asia Dialogue. Singapore. pp. 107-123 http://www.eu-asia.eu/publications/eco-cities/

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Eco-District Bed-ZED, London, United Kingdom.

Biomass heaters and solar heating in Bed-ZED, London

Source: GIZ. Technical Offer, Europe-China Eco-Cities Link Project. 2013.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BedZED

Building Physics of Eco-District Bed-ZED, London

Street in Bed-ZED

Source: http://www.eurotubieuropa.it/english/NL/2014/09/nl_09_3.html

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BedZED

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Beddington Zero Energy Development community in Hackbridge, London, England, is designed to create zero carbon emissions

Source: Other cities can learn from London's drive for clear air. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2015-03/31/content_19958465.htm

Case 4 Stockholm, Sweden: Eco-District of Hammarby Since 1995, the city of Stockholm has developed Hammarby Sjöstad (Hammarby Lake City), built on a previous industrial site at a harbor area which has been cleaned up, developed and converted into a modern and eco-friendly district. Hammarby Sjöstad is Stockholm’s largest urban development project with its own environmental programme incorporating energy supply, water and wastewater treatment and waste management. Hammarby is meant to provide 10,000 apartments for 35,000 inhabitants and it occupies 200 ha of land in Southern Stockholm. Hammarby was developed to support Stockholm´s bid for hosting the 2004 Olympic Games. Mixed forms of tenure apply throughout the district, with a 45%-55% split between tenancy and tenant ownership. Hammarby is a wellplanned area with its own recycling model and local sewerage treatment plant. Energy is being produced in the district heating plant, based on renewable fuels. Combustible waste is burnt to generate heat. The integrated model for energy, waste management, water management is now known as the ¨Hammarby model¨. Sweden´s environmental code came into effect in 1999, and damands the integration of environmental concerns in all public planning activities. Today, the developemnt of Hammarsby almost complete. Environmental targets and the Hammarsby model. The city council aimed to make this district two times more sustainable than other best practices of energy-efficiency in Sweden, which normally is 200kWh/m2. Other cutting edge practices produce an average annual energy use of 120kWh/m2, while Hammarby´s target is 100kWh/m2. Other environmental targets include water conservation, waste reduction, reduced hazardous materials in construction, use of renewable energy sources, and integrated transport solutions. Representatives from different key departments of the city administration were concentrated into a project team to synergize all sectors (planning, energy, waste management, real

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estate, traffic, water and sewerage. Jointly they developed the ¨Hammarby model¨. The Hammarby model is a unique eco-cycle system that integrates energy, solid waste, water and wastewater for homes, offices and other activities in the area. Seen as a blueprint for city systems of the future, the cycle also includes all stormwater, rainwater and meltwater. Hammarby Model of Integrated Infrastructure and Eco-Services

Source: GIZ. 2013. Technical Offer, Europe-China Eco-Cities Link Project.

The following accomplishments are being reported: Land use. Industrial brownfields have been redeveloped into attractive residential areas, with parks and green spaces. This fulfilled the city´s intention to develop the city without opening up virgin land through greenfield development, in accordance with the 1999 Stockholm City Plan. Building materials. Healthy, dry and environmentally sound materials utilized. These have been selected according to their ecological characteristics. No harmful materials allowed. All materials used - inside and outside the buildings - were carefully selected based on environmental considerations. The philosophy is to use proven, sustainable materials and products with environmental declarations, and to avoid chemical products or building materials containing hazardous substances. Water. Reduction water consumption per person by 60% has been achieved. Solid waste management. Waste is treated as resource. Waste recycling being practiced widely. Combustible energy is being returned to the community as energy and hot water. Domestic refuse is separated into different chutes and the various fractions are then transported by vacuum to containers at a central collecting station. Reduction of land fill waste by 90% through recycling and environmental consciousness. 40% reduction of all waste produced. Recovery of 50% of nitrogen and water discharged, recovery of 95% of phosphorus for usage as fertilizers in agriculture. Transport. A fast and safe tramway system and a ferry provide public transport. A network of cycling paths is the backbone of the non-motorised transit system. The district has a car-

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sharing system. Individual car parking has been limited, with voluntary contributions by community members giving up private car use. Numerous bicycle parking facilities. 80% of the population is travelling on public transport. 25% electric or biogas vehicles. “Hammarby’s transit spine groes through the main areas of the district so that every residence is within walking distance from a transit stop. Density is also concentrated along the transit lines. The transit spine’s ability to link all residences to a major transit source exemplifies transit-oriented development.” 67  Tool CUD 3

Source: China Development Bank Capital (CBDC). 2015. 12 Green Guidelines. CDBC´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft). p.15. http://energyinnovation.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/12/12-Green-Guidelines.pdf

Energy. Hammarby Sjöstad produces half the energy it needs. The energy concept is based on sustainable and renewable fuels, re-use of waste heat, biogas and household energy efficiency. The adjacent Hammarby thermal plant extracts heat from the treated wastewater and also contributes by-product energy to the district cooling network. The Högdalen co-generation plant separates combustible waste as an energy source in electricity and district heating production. Energy consumption of buildings was target at 50kWh/m2 out of 15 kWh/m2 for electricity. 100% is sourced from renewable energy sources (RES): usage of energy from waste incineration - 80%; biogas production from sludge (and waste water) accounting for the remaining 20%. Centralised production of district heating and cooling is another feature, with cooling generated as a clean by-product of district heating production. Hammarby Sjöstad also has solar panel installations on its walls and rooftops that use photovoltaic cells to convert sunshine into energy for heating water. Renewable energy sources such as biogas, and reuse of waste heat have been coupled with efficient energy consumption in buildings. 23,000 tons of sludge are being treated annually and 3,5 million cubic meters (m3) of biogas are being produced. District heating is being supplied to all Hammarby from waste incineration and biogas. Social facilities. Public facilities include schools, kindergarten, homes for the elderly, sports facilities, libraries, bookshops, concert halls, hair dressers, restaurants, pharmacies, post offices, and various commercial establishments. The environmental information center provided advice on ecological technologies and resource conservation. The district also provides a healthy environment for residents, offering ample opportunities for exercise, sport and local culture. 67

China Development Bank Capital (CBDC). 2015. 12 Green Guidelines. CDBC´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft).p. 15. http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/12-GreenGuidelines.pdf

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Social participation. Involvement of citizens in planning and implementation. Creation of attractive places for living and work. Recreation for better health is encouraged. Decentralization and management. In Sweden, cities, however, do have legal and financial autonomy. Since that date, Stockholm has developed its Local Investment programme of Euro 693 million for ecological sustainability. The Hammarby project was estimated to cost about 15-20 billion Swedish Crowns. Various different parties have financed the project. The City of Stockholm joined forces with 25 construction companies to build the district, with the latter contributing 80% of the total cost. Other funding comes from two government agencies - the Swedish Rail Administration (rail transport) and the Swedish Road Administration (routing of the Southern Link ring road). Great emphasis placed on collaboration of different social and economic actors, and holistic thinking being encouraged between the city administration, real estate sector, technology companies, the water company, city waste management company, city environmental information centre (GlasHusett). Evaluation. Initial findings of the first cycle of development indicate a 30% of reduction in non-renewable energy (NRE) use, a 41% reduction in water use, a 29% reduction in global warming potential (GWP), a 41 % reduction in photochemical ozone creation production (POCP), and 36% reduction in acidification potential (AP), a 68% reduction in eutrophication potential (EP), and a 33% reduction in radioactive waste (RW). Eco-District of Hammarby SjĂśstad, Sweden

ource: http://www.energycities.eu/IMG/pdf/Sustainable_Districts_ADEME1_Ham marby.pdf

Source: http://www.symbiocity.org/en/approach/Casesundersidor/Hammarby-Sjostad-three-in-one/#

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Public transport to the city centre

Quality outdoor spaces

Source: www.stockholm.se

Source: http://ecodistricts.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/05/Hammerby.pdf

Eco-City Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm

Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm - canals

http://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/799017/estocol mo-ya-tiene-su-primer-barrio-sustentable-y-desde-los90?utm_medium=email&utm_source=Plataforma%20A rquitectura

http://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/799017/estoco lmo-ya-tiene-su-primer-barrio-sustentable-y-desdelos90?utm_medium=email&utm_source=Plataforma%20 Arquitectura

Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm courtyard

ENVAC solid waste collection system

http://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/799017/estocol mo-ya-tiene-su-primer-barrio-sustentable-y-desde-los90?utm_medium=email&utm_source=Plataforma%20A rquitectura

http://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/799017/estoco lmo-ya-tiene-su-primer-barrio-sustentable-y-desdelos90?utm_medium=email&utm_source=Plataforma%20 Arquitectura

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Case 5 Grenoble, France: Eco-Quartier De Bonne Background. The eco-district (ëco-quartier¨) de Bonne got its name from the late 19th century military barracks, the Caserne de Bonne, which occupied the site until 1994. This small neighbourhood, in between the Grands Boulevards and the historic centre, is noteworthy for its cutting edge ecological features, which follow the French green building codes of the HQE (Haute qualité environnementale (French) or High Quality Environment). This special development area is France’s leading eco-district. The conversion of a former military brownfield site into a mixed-use district comprising offices, housing, a student residence and a hotel. The project broke ground in 2003 and in 2009, it received the National Grand Prize for Ecological Neighbourhoods in France awarded by the country's Ecology, Energy, and Sustainable Development Minister. This eco-district till this moment is the only one of its kind in France. It wants to demonstrate solutions to several problems of urban living and growing cities: Solar heating systems shall fulfil half of the area's hot water needs. Solar panels provide electricity for the commercial and residential buildings. The buildings' shapes are also compact to reduce urban sprawl. With 850 apartments—40 percent of which will be social housing for low-income families— the Ecological Neighbourhood is set to become one of Grenoble's most popular residential areas. The De Bonne eco-district has been planned with a comprehensive viewpoint of buildings, road networks, public parks and the orientation of the blocks in mind. Unlike other well-established eco-districts in Europe and elsewhere, which were initiated based on community demand, this project was initiated from the top-down with the aim of reducing electricity, heating, promoting resource efficiency, as well as improving community awareness. Perhaps the district is too new to be assessed.68 At this moment, the following is only a reflection of work still in progress. Environmental targets. The environmental targets of this district are as follows: Energy. Reduction of energy consumption. The buildings – among other elements of the city - will follow very strict requirements for power consumption per square metre. The ecodistrict makes use of solar energy. Grenoble is member of the Energy Cities network. Transport. De Bonne is limiting private car utilization, and inciting the use of alternative mores, like public transport, cycling, and walking. It promotes the use of bicycles through bicycle paths, the presence of secure bicycle parking. Pedestrian routes allow to circulate safely. Bus stops are available throughout the eco-district. There have been considerations to prohibit private cars, as during done in ćar-freeńeighbourhoods. A critical review has stated, however, that essential bicycle parking and concrete cut-outs for trees seem to have been forgotten. Streets appeared less friendly to pedestrian uses. Vehicles seem to predominate the district streets, even with the narrow roads and one-way traffic. Water. The aim is to reduce water consumption. Stormwater is recovered and used to irrigate green spaces, to clean public roads or usage in toilets. Solid waste management. Collection target of waste is 100%. Green waste shall be composted, and composts can be used for gardens and green spaces. Outdoor spaces. The eco-district fosters biodiversity. It supports diversification of local fauna and flora. 68

http://www.durable.com/actualite/article_l-eco-quartier-de-grenoble-recompense_368; and http://www.ecoquartier-strasbourg.net/index.php/transition/quest-ce-quun-eco-quartier/quelquesexemples/ecoquartier-zac-de-bonne-grenoble.html; http://ecoquartiergare-trevoux.over-blog.com/article-l-exemple-de-bonne-en-france-98031281.html

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Buildings. Construction materials and sites have received special attention (ecological materials, optimized building waste management, reuse of materials where feasible). A pilot construction project experimented with the use of prefabricated wood frame structures. Environmental certification for La Caserne for outstanding performance. In 2014, an environmental performance certificate at ¨outstanding level¨ was obtained for the La Caserne shopping centre. This building applied for a certification under the British Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment (BREEAM) system. This sets a strong precedent. Energy use. In terms of energy use, the centre was designed in accordance with the principles of bioclimatic architecture (favoring natural light, orientation relative to the wind, low-E glazing). It is also built in wood in order to benefit from the thermal inertia of the material. The shopping mall is neither heated nor air conditioned. It benefits from heat provided by the shops and from natural ventilation. All of these factors help to significantly reduce the centre’s energy consumption, limited primarily to lighting. The centre’s shops are provided with heat via the city’s district heating system. Fresh air is supplied through a geothermal system, using a groundwater pumping mechanism. In the event of severe heat, an ammonia-based cooling unit is used to provide air conditioning for shops.69 70 Residents´ participation. Residents are involved in the design of the eco-district, and particular importance is attached to socio-economic, cultural and generational diversity. Many diverse actors need to come together. At the city levels there is a multidisciplinary project team (planners, landscape designers, architects, sociologists, consultants in environment) structuring this dialogue with the citizens. Private sector participation. Other actors required are the developers, investors and managers of infrastructure networks. Landlords do have an interest in seeing energy bills decrease, and they can be important partners. The participation of the inhabitants must be very upstream of the construction or renovation of the eco-district. By taking part in the design of their future place of life, people are encouraged to respect the principles of operation, becoming part of the success of their district. Specific media of communication (intranet network in the neighbourhood, internet forum, publication of journal of neighbourhood, debates, seminars, exhibitions) are relevant for interaction. Environmental associations are closely involved. Recreational activities. The eco-district provides easy access to sports and cultural activities. From the economic point of view, services and businesses will want multifunctional. Social action and health. Intergenerational, cultural and socio-economic diversity is a priority in the development of a sustainable district.

http://www.breeam.org/podpage.jsp?id=765 This “urban recycling” development project, with high environmental aims, has been selected as the pilot project for the EU’s Concerto initiative. 70

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Eco-district De Bonne, Grenoble, France

La Caserne Le Bonne Shopping Centre, BREEAM certified

Source: Source: GIZ. 2013. Technical Offer, Europe-China Eco-Cities Link Project.

http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/project/2010/15 020/groupe-6/caserne-de-bonne-ingrenoble.html#sthash.if4Ty5yY.dpuf

Eco-district De Bonne, Grenoble, France

Source: http://www.energy-cities.eu/Eco-District-inGrenoble-France

Source: http://ecoquartiergare-trevoux.over-

Location of Eco-district De Bonne, Grenoble, France

La Caserne Le Bonne Shopping Centre, BREEAM certified

Source: http://chemindetables.over-blog.com/articlegrenoble-premier-eco-quartier-de-france123996594.html

blog.com/article-l-exemple-de-bonne-en-france98031281.html

Source: http://www.breeam.org/podpage.jsp?id=765

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Case 6 Helsinki, Finland: Eco-District Viikki Background. The eco-district in Viikki, Finland is the result of long-term work aimed at putting ecological principles into practice in actual buildings. Two design competitions were organised for the area and a number of seminars and debates. The master plan competition was won by a proposal based on a finger-like structure with alternating buildings and green open spaces. The layout permits functions to be combined naturally, nutrients and water to be recycled (composting, allotments, collecting surface water runoff), and the utilisation of solar energy. Another competition was organised for the first blocks. The proposals were evaluated using eco-criteria drawn up by an interdisciplinary working group. The eco-criteria defined levels of five different aspects: pollution, natural resources, health, bio-diversity and urban agriculture. An environment profile was calculated for each competition proposal. In this system, points for those five aspects are added up. A zero-points scheme fulfils the strictest minimum criteria for conventional residential building. A ten-point design represents an ecologically excellent scheme and to exceed twenty points requires exceptional innovations. 71 Eco-Viikki is part of the sustainable cities of Europe initiative. In December 1998, the Government approved a programme of ecologically sustainable development for the construction and property sector, which focuses partly on arriving at models of good practice. In 1998-2000, a special subsidy for pilot projects in line with the principle of sustainability was linked with the Government experimental building programme. During the period 1998 to 2002, an experimental area of ecological building of international importance is being constructed at Viikki, a district to the Northeast of the centre of Helsinki. Viikki is situated 7 kilometres from the heart of Helsinki. Buses began running between Viikki and the city centre in autumn 1999. In the future the area will also be served by the new orbital 'Jokeri' line, running across the Helsinki Metropolitan area. Since 2010, Viikki residential district is completed, with a Science Park nearby. The Science Park is an international centre of excellence evolving as part of the University of Helsinki situated in Viikki which specialises in biology and biotechnology. Viikki will provide 6,000 jobs, places for 6,000 students and homes for 13,000 people. Housing. The Viikki eco-neighbourhood blocks are the result of long-term work aimed at putting ecological principles into practice in actual building. Two design competitions were organised for the area and a number of seminars and debates. The master plan competition was won by a proposal based on a finger-like structure with alternating buildings and green open spaces. The layout permits functions to be combined naturally, nutrients and water to be recycled (composting, allotments, collecting surface water runoff), and the utilisation of solar energy. Another competition was organised for the first blocks. The proposals were evaluated using eco-criteria drawn up by an interdisciplinary working group. The eco-criteria define levels of five different aspects: pollution, natural resources, health, bio-diversity and growing food. An environment profile was calculated for each competition proposal. In this system, points for those five aspects are added up. A zero-points scheme fulfils the strictest minimum criteria for conventional residential building. A ten-point design represents an ecologically excellent scheme and to exceed twenty points requires exceptional innovation.

http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/archi/programmes/cost8/case/holistic/viikki.html; see also: The Finnish Association of Architects. 2000. Towards a Sustainable City. The Viikki Eco Neighbourhood Blocks. Eco Community Project. Helsinki; Helsinki City. 1998. Ecological building criteria for Viikki. Helsinki City planning Publications 1998:6; Helsinki City. 1999. Viikki. A Science Park at the Centre of a New University District. City of Helsinki, City Planning Department.

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Internal evaluation. The housing blocks are considered an ecologically excellent scheme, but do not show any exceptional innovations. Plenty of data is available based on detailed evaluation of the plans and construction.72 In the Viikki projects, carbon dioxide emissions are expected to be cut at least by 20% in relation to conventional building and consumption of pure water by more than 20%. Waste during construction is 10% less than normal and, when the buildings are in use, the amount of mixed refuse (max. 160 kg/person/year) is aimed to be 20% less than normal. The use of non-renewable fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions are prevented by cutting energy consumption. A good 60% of normal heating energy is used (105 kWh/m2/year) and 45 kWh/m2/year of electricity. Consumption of primary energy (energy bound up to materials) also has been reduced by one fifth that of conventional building. Emission targets over a 50 year lifespan are 2,575 kg/gross sqm which is approximately 30% less than in conventional buildings. Water efficiency is calculated at 126 l/person/day, or 22% less than without water-efficient fixtures. Domestic recycling of solid waste reduces the available wastes to 160 kg/resident/year which is about 20% than in conventional settlements. Lessons. More data will need to be collected. There exists a preoccupation concerning the location of Viikki, since the area too far from the existing services. Since there is no investment in public transport as an alternative to private motorised transport, whether continued private car use will eliminated the benefits of residential energy efficiency. This matter needs to be assessed. The solar heating project included in Viikki schemes has been approved for funding under the EU Thermie Programme. Eco-District Viikki, Helsinki, Finland

Low-rise apartment buildings, EcoDistrict Viikki, Finland

Source: GIZ. 2013. Technical Offer, Europe-China Eco-Cities Link Project.

Source: http://skanska-sustainability-casestudies.com/pdfs/39/39_Eko_v001.pdf

Skanska.2008. Eco-Viikki, Finland. http://group.skanska.com/Global/About%20Skanska/Our_Green_Initiative/The_Green_City/Casestudies/Eko_Vii kki_cs.pdf

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Housing with solar heating in Viikki, Finland

Source: http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/archi/programmes/cost8/case /holistic/viikki.html

Site plan of Eco-District Viikki, Finland

Source: http://www.hel.fi/ksv/english/projects/vikki_kivikko/lato kartano/#

Housing with solar heating in Viikki, Finland

Source: http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/archi/programmes/cost8/cas e/holistic/viikki.html

Low-rise apartment buildings, EcoDistrict Viikki, Finland

Source: http://skanska-sustainability-casestudies.com/pdfs/39/39_Eko_v001.pdf

Case 7 Pamplona Navarra, Spain: Sarriguren eco-city Background. Sarriguren is Spain´s first eco-city, planned as an expansion of the city of Pamplona, located 3 kms from the city. The eco-city of Sarriguren was promoted by the Navarre Government Department of the Environment, Spatial Planning and Housing, and was designed by Fundación Metropoli. It follows ten principles devised in terms of performance specifications, with specific emphasis on the protection of natural areas, energy saving, integration of renewable energies and healthy construction. In 2014, Sarriguren had some 13,000 inhabitants. Award. In 2008 it won the 7th European Urban Regional planning Award of the European Council of Spatial Planners. These eco-urbanism criteria are: Nature as integral part of urban design, conservation of rural settlement structure, priority of public transport, cycling and walking, diversity of housing, integration between housing and workplaces, high quality and diversity of public realm, bioclimatic architectural design, commitment to innovation, and high-quality natural environment, with a well-confined physical framework

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for the eco-city. Master Plan. The master plan for Sarriguren eco-city identified strategies for the reduction of green house gas emissions, and proposed innovative eco-measures. The eco-city plan devised eco-design criteria which guided the practical design. Sarriguren became an extension of the existing innovation corridors where high-tech firms are located. Eco-boulevards with sustainable public transport connect the eco-city with the existing urban fabric of Pamplona. The transports system provides for cycle lanes and footpaths to the surrounding nature. Buildings. Sarriguren is to occupy a total surface area of 1,501,906 m2 and some 5,207 homes have been built, 56.81% subsidised housing and 40.81% with controlled housing prices. This social housing has been built by the local housing corporation. It includes a wide range of types and tenure modalities to promote social inclusiveness. Specifications were elaborated in a Municipal Impact Sector Plan (PSIS) related to urban infrastructure. The PSIS adopts a firm commitment to the achievement of energy savings and to maximum energy utilization at two levels: spatial planning and construction: (i) the building orientation must make it possible to capture direct sunlight in cold periods and to prevent shadow casting from adjacent buildings. For this reason, the height of the buildings gradually decreases towards the south and towards the eastern and western boundaries of the residential development; (ii) with regard to construction, the bioclimatic regulations make it mandatory to ensure the dual orientation of all the homes to be developed, whilst also demanding a 25% improvement in the building thermal transmission coefficient in relation to the maximum value indicated by the maximum Spanish standard in force at the plan drafting time. Thus, the buildings were developed using passive and active energy efficiency solutions, renewable energy supply, complete water cycle and innovative smart communication technologies.These technologies were submitted to a certification process to prove their low energy consumption, and low carbon emission characteristics. The building program included refurbishment of the historic village, eco-city gates, viewing towers in the park, blocks of flats, single family houses, and live in work premises. Green areas. The eco-city has allocated a surface area of 159,734 m2 to green areas, a highlight of which is the creation of an 86,000 m2 central park and an artificial lake to permit the responsible management of the water resources and which is used for irrigation purposes, rainwater collection and the regulation of the environmental humidity. Work opportunities. Similarly, a range of job opportunities and places for learning were planned so that need for commuting would be reduced. Land reserves and infrastructure connections enable the future growth of the eco-city. 73 Sustainability. The following aspects can be pointed out concerning sustainability of Sarriguren eco-city: (i) financial sustainability – since the project has largely been funded by the private sector, and since it is directed at different population groups, it is foreseen that public funds will flow back, and the remaining aspects will be financed by private initiatives; (ii) social and economic sustainability – expected possible since the eco-city contemplates employment and work opportunities for its target population; (iii) cultural sustainability – seems likely since the old core of the Sarriguren village has been preserved and given added value through the investments in the eco-city; and (iv) Ryser, J. Ecocities in Action: Sustainable Development in Europe –Lessons for and from China? in: European Union, Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, et al. 2014. Eco-Cities - Sharing European and Asian Best Practices and Experiences. EU-Asia Dialogue. Singapore. pp. 107-123 http://www.eu-asia.eu/publications/eco-cities/ 73

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environmental sustainability – this shall be achieved through impacts of the bio-climatic architecture, the application of renewable energy projects, the ecological corridors which connect the eco-city with the city and the hinterland. 74 Master Plan of Sarriguren, Pamplona, Spain

Solar housing in Sarriguren, Pamplona, Spain

Source: http://www.itursa.com/en/proyectos/urbanizacion-desarriguren

New Eco-Districts currently being developed Case 8 Near Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Regan Village

“ReGenVillages aims to create the "Tesla of eco-villages," and its first development is underway outside Amsterdam. Imagine a neighborhood that can grow its own food, produce its own energy, and turn its 74

http://habitat.aq.upm.es/dubai/00/bp349.html

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waste system into a closed-loop Regenerative system. Now imagine a network of such villages all over the world. Pretty far-fetched, eh? Maybe, but that's what people thought just a few decades ago, when the first modern hybrids were being brought to market, and the idea of affordable and practical electric cars was starting to be pursued commercially. But today, even just a quick look at the alternative transportation market, which includes everything from e-bikes to electric airplanes, reveals a quite different view, and while there are a number of kinks to work out (cutting costs, adding infrastructure), it's starting to look a lot less like science fiction and a lot more like we're living in the future right now. And although electric vehicles might seem a lot sexier to talk about than housing developments, addressing the sustainability of our living quarters, and the neighborhoods and communities that surround them, is something at least as eco-worthy as the latest electric mobility innovations. With that in mind, this intriguing eco-village concept, ReGenVillages, looks as if it's got real potential for guiding the future of sustainable neighborhoods. It's certainly not the first attempt to build self-sustaining communities, but it does seem as if the necessary technology is approaching the inflection point, where dropping costs and progressive policies (and consumer demand) might enable something resembling truly sustainable living situations for more people than just the off-grid crowd. ReGen Villages, which is a spin-off company of Stanford University, is working on a pilot development of 25 homes in Almere, Netherlands, beginning this summer, with the aim of integrating local energy production (using biogas, solar, geothermal, and other modalities), along with intensive food production methods (vertical farming, aquaponics and aeroponics, permaculture, and others) and 'closed-loop' waste-to-resource systems, along with intelligent water and energy management systems. The project has the potential to redefine residential housing developments, with a focus on building "integrated and resilient neighborhoods that power and feed self reliant families around the world." According to the Regen website, the problem this concept addresses is the coming population boom, with an estimated 10 billion people who will have to live on (seemingly) limited resources by 2050, which is expected to put unprecedented demands on our clean water supplies, food systems, and energy systems. Its solution is to design for resiliency from the get-go, and instead of focusing on trying to retro-fit sustainability solution into existing residential developments (which has merits as well), the project aims to instead use a ground-up approach. "Desirable off-grid capable neighborhoods comprised of power positive homes, renewable energy, water management, and waste-to-resource systems that are based upon on-going resiliency research â&#x20AC;&#x201C; for thriving families and reduced burdens on local and national governments." - ReGenVillages "We're really looking at a global scale. We are redefining residential real-estate development by creating these Regenerative neighborhoods, looking at first these greenfield pieces of farmland where we can produce more organic food, more clean water, more clean energy, and mitigate more waste than if we just left that land to grow organic food or do permaculture there." - James Ehrlich, CEO of ReGen Villages, via FastCoexit.

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There's no word on what the potential costs are for a home in one of these eco-villages, perhaps because there are too many unknowns (and unknown unknowns) about it to be able to set a dollar figure on it, but I'm guessing it will be quite spendy in comparison with conventional housing options. I'll be keeping my eye on this project, for sure.” Source: Marham, D. 2016. This eco-village is designed to be fully self-sufficient, from energy to food to waste. http://www.treehugger.com/culture/housing-development-designed-be-fully-self-sufficient-energy-foodwaste.html

The ReGen Villages combines a variety of technologies, like clean renewable energy, energy storage, organic production of food, decentralised water management, and recycling of waste. All technologies applied are alrready existing and made available for the residents of ReGen Villages.

Source: Esta villa autosostenible podría ser el futuro de la vida semi-urbana. 20 September 2016 http://www.archdaily.co/co/795346/esta-villa-autosostenible-podria-ser-el-futuro-de-la-vida-semiurbana?utm_medium=email&utm_source=ArchDaily%20Colombia

Case 9 Rioja, Spain: Logroño Eco City “The government of the Spanish province and autonomous community Rioja has decided to go ahead with the development of the extension to Logroño. The Eco-City designed by MVRDV in collaboration with GRAS foresees the construction of 3,000 social homes [for about 130 inhabitants] and complementary programs. The new neighbourhood achieves a CO2 neutral footprint by producing renewable energy on site. The total investment is 388 million Euro.

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image © MVRDV 2008

The 56 ha site, just north of Logroño on the two small hills of Montecorvo and la Fonsalada, offers views over the city and vast south facing slopes. The masterplan is designed in a compact way occupying only 10% of the site: the linear compact urban development meanders through the landscape, providing every apartment with views towards the city. In addition sports facilities, retail, restaurants, infrastructure and public and private gardens are part of the plan. The remaining landscape becomes an eco-park: a mix of park and energy production. As the slopes are south facing solar energy is easily generated. A tapestry of PV-cells clad the mountain, covering the hills in golden reflection. On top of the two hills, windmills generate part of the energy needed for the 3.000 social houses and at the same time they work as landmarks for the development. 100% of the energy demand is generated on site by a combination of solar and wind energy. A greywater circuit and on site natural water purification are parts of the plan that combines dense urban living with real ecological improvements. All these measurements will allow the new development to reach a CO 2 neutral footprint and the highest Spanish energy efficiency rating.

image © MVRDV 2008

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Next to this, by building as compact as possible (following the optimal height line of the hill) the building costs are minimized. A further part of the plan is the construction of a funicular accessing a museum and viewing point hidden in the top of Montecorvo which will also house a research and promotion centre for renewable and energy efficient technology. The on-site production of clean energies and the quality of construction will allow to save an excess of 6,000 tons of CO2 emissions annually.” Source: http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/project/2008/10395/mvrdv-architects/logro-o-montecorvo-ecocity-in-rioja-province.html

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Source: http://www.designbuild-network.com/projects/logrono-montecorvo/

Case 10 Copenhagen, Denmark: Green urban development and mobility in Nordhavnen Nordhavnen, located only 4km from the city centre of Copenhagen, is the largest metropolitan development project in Scandinavia in the years to come. With its fantastic accessibility to the city's core infrastructure and direct access to the water, Nordhavnen will become a unique city district. The post-industrial harbour site will be developed over the next 40-50 years, featuring a total floor area of up to 4,000,000 m2, providing living space for 40,000 inhabitants and workspace for another 40,000 people. Located on the Øresund coast, Nordhavnen will utilize its direct access to the sea by providing a multitude of recreational urban spaces and public facilities at the water.

As a project of sustainable urban development, Nordhavnen is leading in the effort of creating a better climate and shows how cities can help reverse the climate change without sacrificing quality of life, welfare or democracy. COBE is collaborating with Rambøll, Sleth, and Polyform in the development of strategies for energy supply as an

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integrated part of the development of Nordhavnen. Various clean-tech technologies are used as well as heat storage, solar installations, wind turbines, and geothermal energy. The sustainability strategy for Nordhavnen has been certified in accordance with DGNB standards (gold certificate). A key element in the sustainable urban development of Nordhavnen is the traffic system The Green Loop. The Green Loop is Nordhavn's backbone for sustainable traffic. With a metro line, a bicycle path passing through the entire neighbourhood, and good connections for pedestrians, The Green Loop creates optimal conditions for traffic flow, while having the lowest possible impact on the environment. The Green Loop passes through different public spaces and combines the different areas of Nordhavnen. The Green Loop adjusts to the character of the different areas, while maintaining an efficient and safe traffic flow through Nordhavnen. The Green Loop is continuously developed according to the extension of the Metro. Source: https://stateofgreen.com/en/profiles/cobe/solutions/nordhavnen-green-urban-development-andmobility-in-copenhagen?utm_source=AddThis+subscriber+list&utm_campaign=2dafbe4d39State+of+Green+Newsletter_newsletter&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_3997cf0db9-2dafbe4d39273120853

Case 11 Denmark: Nordic Approaches to Creating Liveable and Sustainable Urban Environments - medium to high densities

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Source: Danish Cleantech Hub together with Nordic Innovation. https://www.vanalen.org/events/archtobergoes-nordic/

Besides clean energy, green building, and green urban infrastructure services, there is frequent reference to the need to incorporate a more ‘traditional’ concept of green cities, the actual incorporation of nature – parks, public green spaces, urban agriculture, green roofs, green facades - into the urban tissue. This is important since it provides absorption capacity of water and co2, and helps to clean the air. Urban Green: A rediscovery as drive for eco-cities evolves

Source: https://thought-leadership-production.s3.amazonaws.com/2017/08/21/12/54/28/fd5a55fb-d086-45cc882a-63e922305221/heatgraphic_credit%20EricaSimekSlonikerTNC.jpg; see also: Arup. 2017. Cities Alive: Green Building Envelope. London. https://www.arup.com/publications/research/section/cities-alive-green-building-envelope

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4.3 Standards As evident from the diversity of cases from different European countries, standards of these cases vary. Some do reflect established local building codes, but for certain new technologies, one could describe these at best as Â¨experimentalÂ¨, in a stage of try-out. Over time it can be expected that standards will evolve and be developed. However, all European countries do have building standards for wall constructions, windows and roofs, and have defined which permeability of air is permissible in the case of residential buildings. Similarly for transport vehicles, or energy technology, there exist standards which are being followed, or innovated in some cases.

4.4 Technologies and Products Due to the innovative nature of eco-cities and eco-districts, the technologies and products applied are undergoing a constant process of innovation also. The technologies and products are mostly in the fields of green and ecological building construction, smart water and waste water management, modernized and smart solid waste processing technologies, in the clean energy and green transport sectors. In general, the picture is that of a rapid technology evolution.

4.5 Indicators The innovations promoted by the respective industries are preceding the eventual preparation and issuance of standards. The indicators which exist are in the buildings, energy and transport sectors. For instance building standards have been developed related to energy savings in enclosures (walls, windows, roofs) of buildings, and these are reflected in existing national building laws and regulations. The existing eco-city indicators have been summarized in the following table, showing examples of Chinese, European and North-American indicator systems. Notably, most of these indicators are green building indicators.

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Table 3: Overview of ‘Eco-City’ Indicator Schemes and Frameworks NATIONAL EXAMPLES BREEAM Communities

CASBEE UD

DGNB NSQ

BRE UK/Global

Japan GreenBuild Council

German Society for Urban Studies

Eco-city Development Index System

Chinese Society for Urban Studies

Enterprise Green Communities, USA

Enterprise Community Partners, Inc.

Green Communities

Green Star Sustainable Communities

IGBC Green Townships Rating System

LEED ND

Sustainable Communities

US Environment Protection Agency

Green Building Council of Australia

Indian Green Building Council

US Green Building Council

Audubon International

Multi-stage assessment and certification scheme designed for urban master planning. Covers six urban sustainability areas (energy, governance, innovation, land use, socio-economic development, transport). Assessment system for “built environment efficiency’ (incl. districts/cities) regarding economic, environmental, and social criteria. In association with Japan Sustainable Building Consortium. Certification system for new neighborhoods, including 50 indicators across six quality dimensions (environmental, economic, process, socio-cultural, site, technical). Allows for flexibility across contexts. Proposed national indicator framework, organised along five categories and 28 indicators. Specific targets for majority of indicators, with eight indicators defined more flexibly in terms of “innovative approaches”. Not-for-profit certification programme to support sustainability initiatives for affordable (low income) neighbourhoods. Free online planning/indicator tool includes mandatory and optional criteria. Open access “assistance kit” to guide community-led sustainability action plans. Multi-stage process, including guidance on selection, use and reporting of sustainable development indicators. Rating tool providing best practice benchmarking and certification for community-level developments. Indicator areas include: design, economic prosperity, environment, governance, innovation, liveability. Three-stage rating/certification scheme for large-scale developments (incl. residential areas). Four indicator categories: community development, environment and land use planning, resource management. Multi-stage certification scheme operation at neighbourhood level. Focus on green buildings, smart growth and urbanism, including green infrastructure, integrated transport and liveable community. Multi-stage certification scheme based on Audubon International Principles for sustainable resource management. Specific performance indicators defined by community, with annual re-certification.

MUNICIPAL EXAMPLES Caofeidian EcoCity

Tangshan Municipality

Purpose-built framework comprising 141 indicators (of which 109 planning and 32 management indicators) for city, neighbourhood and building levels.

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Eco-Metropolis 2015

City of Copenhagen

Greenest City 2020

City of Vancouver

SolarCity Linz

City of Linz

Tianjin Binhai Ecocity

Singapore and Chinese Governments

Treasure Island

Treasure Island Development Authority

Strategic vision statement aimed at making Copenhagen “the environmental capital of Europe”. Includes ten indicator categories, of which six are environmental and four social. The Greenest City 2020 Action Plan incorporates ten headings focusing on carbon emission, ecosystems, and waste. 15 high-level output indicators (targets) guide the step-by-step implementation plan. Piloted for Linz, but designed as a replicable indicator framework for master planning. Includes six categories (economy, environment, facilities, planning, space, transport), each with six indicators. 26 tailor-made Key Performance Indicators with focus on resource efficiency, and incorporating Sino-Singaporean national standards. Sustainability master plan incorporating four indicator categories (community, energy, resilience, waste), each with specific indicatr targets. Incorporates LEED ND and Climate+ Development Program.

Source: Joss, S. (ed.). 2012. Tomorrow’s City Today – Eco-City Indicators, Standards & Frameworks. University of Westminster. London. p. 9. http://www.westminster.ac.uk/data/assets/pdf_file/0007/198358/Bellagio_Spreads_PDF-Version__28.1.13-12.pdf

4.6 Lessons Learnt from Pilot Projects The experiences of European Eco-Cities are much better described as ¨econeighbourhoods¨ or ¨eco-districts¨. These must be seen as work in progress where guidelines, and standards, as well as funding principles are still evolving. Many of the econeighbourhoods have emerged in an incremental fashion, like Vauban in Germany. One sector project, say neighbourhood cycling paths, may have started an initiative, later to be added by a waste recycling scheme, and gradually the local planning department and the residents may have started to think about a more comprehensive plan for their neighbourhood, adding in more ecological principles and dimensions. Thus, from a bottomup initiative a comprehensive plan evolved, gradually turning the small-scale case into a city level opportunity for experimenting and development urban alternatives. The members of the community and the private sector have often played an important role in these evolving ecocommunities, and without these many of the eco-neighbourhoods. Essential Features of Active and Healthy Neighbourhoods The demand for walkable neighbourhoods is growing. Planning tools which are essential to achieve such neigbourhoods use four land use factors: “* Residential density. It takes a critical mass of homes in a neighborhood to support economically viable shops and amenities within walking distance. * Intersection density. Well-connected streets tend to shorten travel distances and put more likely destinations within walking distance. * Public transport density. More transit stops within walking distance make it more likely that residents have transit options and will elect to use them. * Access to parks. Parks serve not only as places where people exercise but also as destinations people walk to and from, getting exercise as they do.”

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Source: Benfield, K., 2016. Four Characteristics of Active, healkthy Neighborhoods. 6 September. http://www.placemakers.com/2016/09/06/four-characteristics-of-active-healthy-neighborhoods/

Cities Alive: Towards a Walking World Mobility is intrinsic to the quality of life experienced in cities. But for the past century, the car has dominated how we plan and grow our urban areas. We must now seize the opportunity to place people back at the heart of our cities and drive a human focused approach to the design of the built environment. With a growing desire to create more liveable streets, a light needs to be shone upon the benefits of walking as a catalyst for developing sustainable, healthy, prosperous and attractive cities. From 70 years of practice, [the British consulting firm] ARUP recognises that a walkable city is a better city and that the more we walk, the better the city in every respect. 5 Key features. Cities Alive: Towards a walking world highlights the significant social, economic, environmental and political benefits of walking. Informed by specialist insight and multidisciplinary expertise from across our global offices, we highlight 50 benefits of walking explored through 16 distinct indicative themes, and list 40 actions that city leaders can consider to inform walking policy, strategy and design. These are informed by a catalogue of 80 international case studies that will inspire action, and further aid cities in identifying and evaluating opportunities. In its new report, Cities Alive: Towards a walking world (Source: http://www.arup.com/walking), the British consulting firm ARUP shines a light on walking, and the impact walkability has on the success of a city. In particular, we highlight the opportunity for cities to embrace walking in response to some of the significant societal, environmental and market challenges they are facing. "From 70 years of practice we know that a walkable city is a better city and that the more we walk the better the city in every respect." Why walkability needs attention. Mobility is intrinsic to the quality of life experienced in cities. But for the past century, the car has dominated how we plan and grow our urban areas. We must now seize the opportunity to place people back at the heart of our cities and drive a human focused approach to the design of the built environment. With a

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growing desire to create more liveable streets, walkability should be used as a catalyst for developing sustainable, healthy, prosperous and attractive cities.

Source: http://www.arup.com/walkingcities?utm_source=LinkedIn&utm_medium=Social&utm_campaign=WalkingWorld

In terms of densities, these eco-districts do follow the established local density patterns. None of these seems to have created an approach of higher density. However, the concept of compact mixed-use neighbourhoods and districts is very much at the heart of most of these neighbourhoods, since non-motorised transport, walkability and good access to public transport of these districts is a cross-cutting principle.  Tool CUD 3,  Tool CUD 4 Model of Sustainable Green City

Idealized Image of Sustainable City

Source: unitedlab.org https://www.pinterest.com/pin/295830269256788948/s ent/?sender=305682030866350581&invite_code=5c3f c1c4248010347f25a685d205383e

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/480266747746710903/s ent/?sender=305682030866350581&invite_code=b92 7770b1e3cae4b660d5d7ecd89f654

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4.7 Outlook The experience of eco-cities or eco-districts in Europe represent work in progress. More detailed assessments need to be done, particularly in terms of energy, buildings and transport performance. So far, the kaleidoscope of eco-cities or eco-neighbourhoods in Europe seems experimental in nature, but in some cases these seems to inform public policy in the areas of energy, buildings, management of basic services (water; waste management), and motorized as well as non-motorized transport. The performance of eco-districts in terms (i) of energy savings (or net gains in terms of energy production through photovoltaics); (ii) better urban services originating from compact mixed use spatial plans, and (iii) better residential comfort from well-climatised and affordable housing is yet to be done. The economy of these eco-districts need to be studied further, since replicability is important. User feedback and satisfaction surveys will play another important role in these assessments to be made. Both these two dimensions of cost or expenses, and the feedback of customers or users will inform future policy regarding ecodistricts. Ten Principles of Sustainable Urban Growth that respect the tradition. European city transformations, and ecological principles are widely being adopted, and have been elevated to Ten Principles of Sustainable Urban Growth that respect the tradition. Prince Charles of United Kingdom has drafted these, and follows on from decades of engagement with the topic of architecture and urbanism. Notably there is strong emphasis regarding the themes of construction materials, pedestrians (´non-motorized transit´), and densities: 1. Developments must respect the land: they should not be intrusive and should fit the landscape they occupy. 2. Architecture is a language: new designs should abide by grammatical rules to avoid dissonance with existing structures. 3. Scale is also key: new buildings should respect both the human scale and the scale of the surrounding buildings. 4. Harmony − the playing together of all parts: richness comes from diversity, but buildings should be in tune with their neighbours. 5. The creation of well-designed enclosures: enclosed spaces are both more visually satisfying and encourage walking. 6. Materials also matter: materials should be natural and local, drawing on traditional local styles 7. Signs, lights and utilities. They can be easily overused: it is possible instead to control traffic using 'events' in the road layout which cause drivers to slow down. 8. The pedestrian must be at the centre of the design process: streets must be reclaimed from the car. 9. Density: though density is critical, it can be achieved through traditional typologies such as the terrace or the mansion block. 10. Flexibility: rigid conventional planning should be avoided in favour of flexible schemes.75 The OECD goes several steps further in recommending explicit compact city goals, both for city fringes and for retrofitting of existing build-up areas. The objective is again to enhance diversity and the quality of urban life.  Tool CUD 1

Prince Charles' 10 "Geometric Principles" for Architecture Cause a Stir in the UK, http://www.archdaily.com/582691/prince-charles-10-geometric-principles-for-architecture-cause-a-stir-in-the-uk/

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Five Key Policy Strategies by OECD for Compact Cities – 20 Sub-strategies

Source: OECD. 2012. Compact City Policies – A Comparative Assessment. http://www.oecd.org/gov/regionalpolicy/50524895.pdf

Source: http://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/greening-cities-regions/compact-city.htm

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5. PERSPECTIVES FROM CHINA 5.1 Sector Context and Policy Analysis Legal Basis. The legal basis for urban planning and is the existing urban planning legislation of the People´s Republic of China (PRC), and other guidelines of the Ministry of Housing, and Urban-Rural Development (MoHURD), particularly those pertaining to eco-city development. The relevant legal reference documents are: • • • • • • • •

Urban Planning Law. 1984. In 2008 updated as “The Urban and Rural Planning Law of People’s Republic of China”; latest revised in April 2015. Land Management Law. 1998. Based on this law, the detailed Enforcement Regulation has been developed, and undergone revisions for several times. The latest is the 2014 version. Environment Protection Law. 1990. Latest revised in 2014 and applied since 2015. MoHURD. March. 2013. The 12th 5-Year Plan on the Green Building and Green Ecological Districts. CCPCC and State Council. March, 2014. National New-type Urbanization Plan 20142020. State Council. April, 2015, Suggestions on Enhancing Eco-civilization. CCPCC and State Council. 2016. Central Government Guideline on Urban Planning. CCPCC and State Council. 2016. The thirteenth Five-Year Plan (2016-2020)

Specifically related urban planning the following legal instruments exist: • •

Ministry of Land and Resources. May 2014. Regulations on Economical and Intensive Land Use Ministry of Land and Resources. Sep 2014. Recommendations on Promoting the Economical and Intensive Land Use. Chinese Cities’ Expansion Plans Could House 3.4 Billion People ¨New areas planned by China’s small cities could accommodate 3.4 billion people by 2030 -- or almost half the world’s current population -- a target that even Chinese state media calls problematic. A report by the National Development & Reform Commission, China’s central planning agency, found that small- and medium-sized cities were planning more than 3,500 new areas that could accommodate more than twice the country’s current population of 1.4 billion. The entire world has a population of 7.4 billion, according to U.S. Census estimates. The findings were detailed in an analysis by the official Xinhua News Agency, which criticized the planned new areas as unworkable: "Who’s going to live in them? That’s a problem," the piece said. The expansion comes amid urbanization calls by President Xi Jinping and Premier Li Keqiang as China prepares for another 100 million people to move from the countryside to urban metropolises by the end of the decade. People tend favor bigger markets with more opportunities and fewer than 1-in-10 migrant workers moved to small cities last year, according to an NDRC report published in April. Even without the new areas, China already has more housing than it needs and "ghost cities" have proliferated. China has been building more than 10 million new units annually for the past five years, outstripping an estimated of demand of less than 8 million, according to an analysis by Bloomberg Intelligence Economists Tom Orlik and Fielding Chen. The expansion plans were obviously unrealistic, the Xinhua piece cited South China Urban Planning Society President Hu Gang as saying. Overplanning was driven by local governments’ desire for more land income, Hu said. Higher population targets can help

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them allocate more land for building.¨ Source: Chinese Cities’ Expansion Plans Could House 3.4 Billion People. Bloomberg News. 15 July 2016. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-07-15/chinese-cities-expansion-plans-could-house-3-4-billionpeople

Policy Direction from the 13th Five-Year Plan. The Government´s pronouncement of the 13th Five Year Plan objectives has stated efficiency of land-use among its three key objectives: Increased efficiency of energy resources development and utilization; effective control total aggregate of energy and water consumption, construction land, and carbon emissions. The total emissions of major pollutants shall be reduced significantly. City development shall be in accordance with the carrying capacity of resources and the cultural context. Green planning, design and construction standards shall be applied. Support reduced emission standards, and implement demonstration projects of ¨near-zero¨carbon emission. China Development Bank Capital (CDBC) Policy for Green Urban Development. The CDBC´s policy document for Green Urban Development states several principles for compact urban development: Urban Growth Boundary: Every city should establish an enforced urban growth boundary (UGB). The UGB should be set based upon a rigorous analysis of ecological sensitivities, environmental capacity, and the efficiency and productivities of various land uses. The boundary can expand beyond the existing urban footprint only if there are no suitable infill locations as indicated by an intensity of urban land use of at least 10,000 residents per square kilometer. Mixed Use: All residential units should be close to at least six kinds of amenities within 500-meter radius of building entrance (amenities include schools, post offices, banks, retails, clinics, activity centres, restaurants, etc.). The job-resident ratio (the number of people employed divided by the number of residents) should be between 0.5 and 0.7 over every commuting district, which should have a spatial area that is no more than 15 km2. Normally, these commuting districts are bounded by physical barriers for pedestrians. Small blocks. Blocks should be less than or equal to 2 hectares and 70% of the blocks should comply with this standard. Exceptions are made for industrial areas. Public green space. Publicly accessible and usable green space should comprise 20-40% of the construction areas (residential area should be at the higher end of this range). All residents should have accessible public space within 500 meters.76  Tool CUD 3,  Tool CUD 4 Proposed urban density targets. The Design Manual for Low Carbon Development77 as per the China Sustainable Cities Program has made the attempt to quantify floor areas rations (FAR), or floor space indexes (FSI), for diverse type of developments, ranging from mid-rise residential to highly compact commercial developments. The range covers 10 storey to 50 storey developments, or FAR of 2.7 to 8.0. This is range is substantially above the densities achieved by Eco-City pilots like the Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City (SSTEC), or other current eco-cities in China.  Tool CUD 1

China Development Bank Capital (CBDC). 2015. 12 Green Guidelines. CDBC´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft). http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/12-GreenGuidelines.pdf 77 The Energy Foundation - China Sustainable Cities Program (ed.). 2011. Design Manual for Low Carbon Development. p .46. http://www.chinastc.org/en/research/34

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Evolution of the Eco-City Concept in China. In 2012, China´s urbanisation rate has crossed the 50% threshold. By 2030 China’s cities are expected to be home to about 1 billion people.78 Since 1978 500 million have moved to cities, the largest population shift in history. And it is forecast that within the next 20-25 years another 300 million will follow. 79 China alone has over 20% of the world’s population and is urbanizing faster than any country in history.80 China’s cities will require huge amounts of non-renewable materials, resources, energy and water, providing the rationale for a green cities approach. In 2009, China had 120 cities with over one million, 36 cities over two million. It is predicted that by 2030, China will have an urban population of 1 billion people and 221 cities of more than 1 million. 81 Since its introduction at the 17th National Congress, the low carbon eco-city model has been touted officially as the answer to China´s urban development, social, economic, and environmental problems. This position is reflected in a preliminary scan of the Chinese literature on ecocities and sustainable urban development, where the model is frequently cited as the strategy for overcoming China’s myriad urbanization problems. Some are high-profile international ventures led by the central government, such as the Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City (SSTEC) and Caofeidian (Tangshan), while others are driven primarily by local authorities and local entrepreneurs. Although the idea of adopting ecological principles in urban planning had surfaced in China in the late 1980s, it was only in the last decade that eco-cities were seriously considered and implemented as an urban development model. In 1995, the State Environmental Planning Agency, now renamed the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP), issued guidelines for the building of demonstration EcoCommunities and Environmental Protection Model Cities under its Eco-Construction Program.82 By one count, there were 135 cities or local municipalities planning or developing some kind of ecological settlement. 83 The MEP also lists 389 counties and cities as approved National Ecological Demonstration Sites and 629 towns as Environmentally Beautiful Towns.84 In addition, the MEP has named 67 cities and 5 municipalities as National Environmental Protection Model Cities in its efforts to promote environmental protection by showcasing model cities.85 These efforts have served as a precursor to the emergence of eco-cities, as MEP-accredited eco-cities were selected from the more advanced EcoCommunities and Model Cities. 86

Building the dream. 2014. in: The Economist. Special Report China. 19 April. http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21600797-2030-chinese-cities-will-be-home-about-1-billionpeople-getting-urban-china-work 79 Urbanization to boost spending. In: China Daily. 14 may 2015. http://china.org.cn/business/201505/14/content_35568506.htm 80 Iishi, S. and Muzones, M. 2013. Low-Carbon Development in Small and Medium-Sized Cities in the People´ s Republic of China: Challenges and Opportunities. Asian Development Bank. ADB Briefs. No. 14. Manila. http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30334/low-carbon-devt-small-medium-cities-prc.pdf 81 S. Lehmann. 2009. The principles of Green Urbanism – Transforming the City for Sustainability. Earthscan, London et al, p. 677. 82 L. Liu. 2009. A regional divide in sustainability performance in China: geography, governance and income. Sustainable Development; and Zhou, Shengxian. 2008. Key problems and challenges for urban environmental protection in China. 我国城市环境保护面临的重大问题与挑战. In China Urban Development Report 2008, pp 310. Beijing: China City Press. 83 Yip, Stanley C.T. 2008. Planning for Eco-Cities in China. In 44th ISOCARP Congress 2008. Dalian, China: International Society of City and Regional Planners (ISOCARP) and Urban Planning Society of China (UPSC). 84 Wu Xiaoqing, Vice-Minister for Environmental Protection (2009, October 19). Establishing scientific development, promoting the circular economy 立足科学发展大力推进循环经济. China Environmental News 中国环境报. Retrieved 20 July 2010 from http://www.mep.gov.cn/zhxx/hjyw/200910/t20091019_162536.htm 85 Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) (2010, May 27). National Ecological Demonstration Zones 国家级生态示范区名单. Retrieved 20 July 2010 from http://sts.mep.gov.cn/stsfcj/mdl/200412/t20041230_61343.htm 86 This section draws from: Steinberg, F. and Lindfield, M. Spatial Development and Technologies for Green Cities. In. Lindfield, M. and Steinberg, F (eds.). (2012) Green Cities. Asian Development Bank. Urban Development Series. Manila, pp. 23-107. http://www.adb.org/publications/green-cities

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Low Carbon Urban Development in China

Source: World Bank. China 2030. Building a Modern, Harmonious, and Creative Society. Washington. p.255. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2013/03/17494829/china-2030-building-modern-harmoniouscreative-society

China’s ecological culture. China has chosen to frame the eco-city concept through the utopian ideal of an “eco-culture”. The concept of an eco-culture was first officially cited at the 17th National Congress of the Communist Party of China in 2007. An eco-culture calls for the building of “a harmonious world characterized by sustained peace and common prosperity”. Eco-culture as defined by the central government is a broad concept of mutual respect for fellow human beings, nature and society at the material and spiritual levels. Man is at the centre of the eco-culture system, but does not dominate Nature. When the central government introduced the “scientific development concept” as a new development paradigm, the concept of an eco-culture provided another facet to articulate the central government’s goal of establishing a xiaokang society. The amended Constitution emphasizes “balancing urban and rural development,” and developing an “innovative country and resource-conserving, environment-friendly society”. The eco-culture supports the positive circular material flow (Circular Economy concept). The first batch of 33 National Ecological Demonstration Sites was announced in March 2000 by the MEP. As of May 2010, there were 389 such sites. In 2013, MoHURD launched its smart-cities initiative in 90 cities. 87 The China Development Bank has made available a lending facility of 80 billion RMB in support of this MoHURD program. The eco-city model can also be interpreted as a realization of China´s “dual oriented” society, which combines conservation orientation with environmentally friendly society. Two challenges have been identified in the implementation of a dual oriented society.88 The first 87

Eco Cities in China. 2013. Green. #003. Beijing. pp.118-123. Zhou Fengqi. 2007. Establishing “dual-oriented” society to advance eco-culture. 建“两型”社会促生态文明. Retrieved 20 July 2010 from http://theory.people.com.cn/GB/49154/49156/6604010.html 88

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is the need to internalize environmental externalities through government regulations, whether these are market mechanisms such as emissions trading, renewable energy allowances; or direct penalties, taxes and technical standards. Secondly, a more robust regulatory and implementation structure as well as more comprehensive public education on environmental issues are needed. In concrete terms, an eco-city is expected to provide a vibrant economy in promoting environmentally friendly production and industry, above national average per capital GDP levels; a healthy environment, effective environmental protection, resource and energy conservation and intensification meet international standards; reduction in emissions, high air and water quality standards; above national average per capita green ratio; social harmony with adequate educational and employment opportunities, social safety net; housing and public infrastructure/public services system; cultural protection of physical and non-physical cultural legacies, promotion of green lifestyles; as well as regional integration. Eco-city characteristics in China. The research on defining, designing, developing, managing and measuring the performance of eco-cities and sustainable cities has experienced explosive growth in recent years. The term “eco-city” now appears as a catchall phrase for a variety of new urban development models. Though there is a proliferation of eco-city research in recent years, 89 there has been comparatively little research on the practical aspects of urban planning in eco-city development. China’s low Carbon Eco City Development Report of 2010 describes a low-carbon eco-city as an innovative type of urban development model based on the principle of balance with the natural environment. Here, it is defined as a low carbon eco-city aimed to minimize resource consumption and emissions generation, while conserving energy and focusing on environmental protection. An assessment of low carbon cities in China also identified three types of low carbon ecocities: technologically innovative eco-city model (which is usually neither replicable nor scalable and tends to require substantial funding); liveable eco-city model (which is replicable and sustainable, typically designed for population of up to 300,000, employs green building technologies, focuses on developing services industries, emphasizes urban planning is based on transit-oriented development (TOD) model and green transport modes (e.g. walking, cycling, public transport); and progressive evolution of the eco-city model (or “retrofit” model), which refers to rehabilitation and renewal of “old cities” towards more sustainable urban development.90 An evolving definition. The absence of a commonly accepted definition of an “eco-city” has contributed to the proliferation of variations of the eco-city model observed, including low carbon eco-city model and liveable city model. Other urban development models suggested by Chinese planners are the garden city, where the focus is on integrating greenery and landscaping into the urban areas; the landscape city which harmonizes the cityscape with the surrounding natural landscapes and the historical and cultural city where conservation of historical and cultural sites within the city is the priority. The eco-city has been described as the intention to create a healthy balance and equilibrium (symbiosis) between the urban core and its rural hinterland. There is an urban growth boundary that respects and protects precious farmland and forests, and the city does not grow at the expense of its surrounding landscape and supporting agricultural system:

Shen, Qingji and Song, Ting .2010. Advancements in Eco-City Research 生态城市研究进展. China Low Carbon Eco-City Development Report 2010 中国低碳生态城市发展报告2010, pp 67-104. 90 Qiu, Baoxing. 2009. Urban development trends in the CHINA– low carbon eco-city. 我国城市发展模式转型趋势 – 低碳生态城市. 城市发展研究Urban Studies. 2009 (8), pp 1-6 89

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The Eco-City Concept – Synergies between the city and its hinterland

Source: Lehmann, S. 2010. The Principles of Green Urbanism. Earthscan, London.

In addition, the MEP has an approved category of national ecological demonstration sites, defined as an administrative area targeting the promotion of coordinated economic, social, and environmental development based on accepted ecological and economic principles. Such zones typically promote eco-agriculture, ecotourism, eco-restoration, the integration of agriculture, industry and commerce and attempt to employ the principles of the Circular Economy. While the characteristics and objectives associated with eco-cities are varied, a crucial thread runs through these variations in the Chinese context. It is the adherence to ecological principles, resource and energy management and conservation, waste minimization, and recirculation of materials and energy in an urban context, which makes an eco-city. Characteristics of an eco-city identified by Chinese authors include harmonious relations and cohesiveness, high efficiency in energy and resource use, multi-faceted approach, zero pollution, and continuous circulation of material flows. Localizing the eco-city. Variations of the low carbon eco-city model and corresponding performance measurement systems would be needed to match local conditions. Though the eco-city model can be applied in two fundamental scenarios—114 greenfield projects and retrofitting of existing cities—there is no single applicable solution. Differences in geographic landscape for example, would necessitate different approaches. Low-energy green buildings and eco-friendly transport would be more suited in Southern China whereas in northern China, traditional heating can be replaced with solar thermal heating and geothermal heating. In water-scarce western China, water conservation and wastewater recycling techniques would be particularly important. Clearly, industrial restructuring, and even changes in consumer behaviour, would need to accompany the development of eco-cities. Building an eco-culture is the “most difficult task for eco-city development, which needs both top-down and bottom-up strategies”.91 A low carbon economy necessitates low carbon consumerism and this would provide opportunities for restructuring of the economy and industry. The appropriate eco-city model should be replicable and self-sustainable in terms of the economic development and operation costs. In the Chinese context, an eco-city is not necessarily a high-tech one, but would instead focus on the use of appropriate technology.92

Wang, Rusong and Ye, Yaping. 2004. Eco-City Development in China. Ambio, 33 (6), 341-342. Footnote 62 and Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (MoHURD). 2009. Urbanization Challenges for China and Development Opportunities for Cities in Guangzhou. Qiu Baoxing at the 11th Guangzhou Party Secretary’s training course. 19 October. 92

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Eco‐city standards in China. In addition to local governments, there are primarily two central government bodies engaged in the promotion, development and evaluation of ecocities, namely, the Ministry of Housing, Urban-Rural Development (MoHURD) and the MEP. The regulatory and approval framework for the development and construction of government-sanctioned eco-cities appears to fall under the purview of the MoHURD. MoHURD issued a policy directive in 2007, which served to guide local planning authorities on key performance indicators for master plan preparation and monitoring. 93 These highlighted new resource management performance measures covering water resources and re-use, land resources, energy efficiency, emissions reduction and materials recycling. On the other hand, the MEP accredits national level eco-cities and various other ecological demonstration sites such as Eco-Provinces, Eco-Counties, and National Environmental Protection Model Cities throughout the PRC. Both ministries are involved in the setting of eco-city performance standards in the PRC. The MEP recommends performance standards for eco-cities, eco-counties, and eco-provinces. These standards, which were first issued in 2003 and revised in 2007, cover social, economic, and environmental aspects, with the highest number of 36 indicators at the eco-county level, while there are 28 indicators at the eco-city level and 22 at eco-province levels.94 The MEP’s eco-city standards per capita GDP, such as annual per capita income, energy and water consumption, and compliance rate for clean production are yet to be pronounced. Environmental indicators include proportion of forest cover, proportion of protected areas, air and water quality levels (per CNY10,000), municipal and industrial solid waste treatment rates, noise pollution, per capita urban green space, and level of investment in environmental protection. Social indicators include urbanization level, Gini ratio (at province level), public satisfaction with the environment. At least 80% of counties within the administrative control of the city should meet the eco-province standards and the primary city should have National Environmental Protection Model City status accorded by the MEP. Although local governments are expected to lead such projects, the performance evaluation and monitoring are carried out by the local MEP offices and reported back to the central MEP. In 2009 MoHURD and the Chinese Society for Urban Studies (CSUS) embarked on a “Ecocity Assessment and Best Practices Program”. The project is in its preliminary phase and a survey has been released to obtain feedback from various parties on their perspectives on key performance indicators for an eco-city in China. The Eco-City Index System to be developed is intended as a measurement tool to guide and measure the China´s eco-city planning and development, as well as existing eco-city practices. Individual cities, like Caofeidian, Tianjin, Zhuhai or Guiyang, have attempted to develop their eco-city indicator systems. 95 However, so far, these indicators are still being tested. The Tianjin key performance indicators, supported by MoHURD, seem to be by far the most concise of these indicator systems. 96

Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (MOHURD). 2007. China Urban and Rural planning Law. 29 October 中华人民共和国城乡规划法 http://www.MoHURD.gov.cn/zcfg/fl/200710/t20071029_159509.htm 94 Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP). 2008. Revised Development Standards for Eco-County, Eco-City, Eco- Province. 15 January 生态县、生态市、生态省建设指标 ( 修订稿 ). Retrieved 20 July 2010 from http://sts.mep.gov.cn/stsfcj/ghyzb/200801/t20080115_116249.htm 95 Nan Zhou, Gang He, and Wiliams, C. 2005. China’s Development of Low Carbon Eco-Cities and Associated Indicator Systems. Ernesto Orlando Lawrence Berkeley national Laboratory. China Energy Group. Berkeley. https://china.lbl.gov/sites/all/files/china_eco-cities_indicator_systems.pdf 96 Guiyang Municipality. Guiyang Eco-Civilization City Indicators System. Guiyang. June 2015 (unpublished report). Among other international urban indicator systems there are indicators which Singapore uses. See:Heng Chye Kiang and Lai Choo Malone-Lee. 2014. An Assessment Framework for Monitoring Cities’ Sustainability. Centre for Sustainable Asian Cities, National University of Singapore (NUS). Singapore. http://www.sde.nus.edu.sg/csac/booklet%20small.pdf

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The CSUS publishes reports on best practices in China´s eco-cities and proposes policy and development strategies for eco-city planning and development.97 The MEP’s standards have a broader scope and include targets on energy and resource use efficiency, as well as measures of economic and social improvements, while MOHURD’s standards will likely focus on urban infrastructure construction aspects. This is largely a reflection of the differing mandates of each ministry. However some aspects of environmental sustainability, such as greenhouse gas emissions, utilization of renewable energy, and green transportation, which are usually included in the development of eco-cities in other countries, appear to be missing. The issue of density, and the right density-transport mode remains an unresolved issue: Transport planners have estimated, that the right mixture of high-density urban land use mixtures, avoidance of travel requirements, and good choices between public transport, nonmotorized traffic and walking as an option, could reduce the energy requirements by 25%. On the contrary if urban trends remain as they are, urban energy use will more than triple by 2050. “The mitigation potential is greatest in rapidly growing cities and in cities where infrastructure is not set in place. This way lock-in of high carbon emission pattern can be avoided.”… “In China, urban areas are responsible for more than 80 percent of the country’s CO2 emissions because of the high energy demand of these cities combined with China's dependence on coal,”… “It is important that China continues to target inefficiencies and invest in energy conservation for example through stricter building codes.” 98 China’s evolving eco-city indicators. The first attempt of a more comprehensive framework yet of performance benchmarks has been drafted by a team of the former Vice Minister of MoHURD. Besides the MoHURD Key Performance Indicators for the SinoSingapore Tianjin Eco-City (SSTEC), this system is probably the best developed so far. However, it does not yet rate urban compactness. Nevertheless, indicators of built-up area per person, or distance to urban parks, are related but not sufficient from a perspective of compact urban development. Table 4: Eco-City Indicators 2012 扩展性指标 number of extensive indicators

指标项数 number of items

核心指标 number of key indicators

资源节约 Resource efficiency

环境友好 environmental friendly

经济持续 economically sustainable

社会和谐 social harmony

共计 total

指标 Indicator

引导性指标 number of indicative indicators

资源节约 Resource efficiency 序号 No. 1 2 3

指标 Indicator

属性 attribute

2015 年

2020 年

再生水利用率（%）reuse rate of reclaimed water

核心 key

严重缺水地区≥25；缺水地区≥15

严重缺水地区≥30；缺水地区≥20

工业用水重复利用率（%）reuse rate of industrial water 非化石能源占比重（%）percentage of

扩展 extensive 引领 leading

≥90

≥95

≥15

≥20

Eco Cities in China. 2013. in Green. # 003, Bejing, pp. 118-123. Creutzig, Felix; Baiocchi, Giovanni; Bierkandt, Robert; Pichler, Peter-Paul; Seto, Karen. 2015. A Global Typology of Urban Energy Use and Potentials for an Urbanization Mitigation Wedge, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. http://www.mcc-berlin.net/~creutzig/CreutzigPNAS2015.pdf 98

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non-fossil energy 4

单位 GDP 碳排放量（吨/万元）carbon emission per unit GDP

引领 leading

单位 GDP 能耗（吨标准煤/万元） energy consumption per unit GDP (ton standard coal/10000Yuan)

核心 key

人均建设用地面积（平方米/人） average built-up area per capita (m2/person)

核心 key

绿色建筑比例（%）percentage of green building

核心 key

≤2.13

≤1.67

≤0.87

≤0.77

≤85

≤80

既有建筑≥15；新建建筑 100 existing building≥15; newly-built 100

既有建筑≥20；新建建筑 100 existing building≥20; newly-built 100

≥320

≥347

≥292

≥310

100

环境友好 environmentally friendly 空气优良天数（SO2,NO2,PM10 综合指 8

核心 key

数) days with excellent or good air quality according to SO2、NO2、PM10 indexes

PM2.5 日均浓度达标天数 days when PM2.5 index reaches standard

引领 leading

集中式饮用水水源地水质达标（%） water quality at centralized drinking water source reaches standard

核心 key

城市水环境功能区水质达标率（%） water quality of urban water environment reaches standard

扩展 extensive

引领 leading 12

生活垃圾资源化利用率（%）reuse of domestic waste

工业固体废弃物综合利用率（%）reuse of industrial solid waste

扩展 extensive

环境噪声达标区覆盖率（%）coverage rate of area where noise level reaches standard

扩展 extensive

公园绿地 500 米服务半径覆盖（%） area covered by 500m service radius of green park space

核心 key

资源化利用率≥50 reuse rate ≥50

核心 key 16

无害和处理率达 100%

生物多样性 biodiversity

资源化利用率≥80 reuse rate ≥80

≥90%

≥95%

≥95

100

≥80%

≥90%

综合物种指数≥0.5 overall species index ≥0.5 本地植物指数≥0.7 local species index ≥0.7

综合物种指数≥0.7 overall species index ≥0.7 本地植物指数≥0.85 local species index ≥0.85

经济持续指标 economically sustainable 17

第三产业加值占 GDP 比重(%) percentage of service sector in GDP

扩展 extensive

城镇失业率(%) urban unemployment

核心 key

RD 经费支出占 GDP 百分比(%) percentage of expenditure on R&D in GDP

扩展 extensive

恩格尔系数(%) Engel index

扩展 extensive

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≥51

≤4.20

≤3.20

≥2.2

≥2.6

≤33

≤30

117

社会和谐指标 social harmony 21 22 23 24 25

保障性住房覆盖率(%) percentage of families covered by social housing 住房价格收入比 housing price and income ratio 基尼系数 Gini index

扩展 extensive

城乡居民收入比 ratio of urban and rural income

引领 leading

绿色出行交通分担率(%) percentage of green traffic in total traffic volume 社会保障覆盖率（%）percentage of people covered by social welfare system

核心 key

人均社会公共服务设施用地面积（平方

扩展 extensive

≥20

≥30

≤10

≤6

0.33≤G≤0.4

≤2.54

≤2.41

≥65

≥80%

≥90

100

≥5.5

≥6.0

≤35

≤30

核心 key 扩展 extensive

核心 key

米/人）average land area for public facilities per capita (m2/person) 平均通勤时间（分钟）average commuting time (mins)

扩展 extensive 扩展 extensive

城市防灾水平 level of disaster prevention capacity

社会治安满意度（%）satisfaction level of security

1）城市建设满足设防等级要求；（2）城市生命线系统完好率 100%；3）人均固定避难场所面积≥3 平米 1. urban development reaches the requirement of establishing prevention measures; 2. Serviceability rate of urban basic infrastructure 100%; 3. Average shelter area per capita ≥3 m2

扩展 extensive

≥85%

≥90%

Cited from: Qiu Baoxing. 2012. Combine idealism and pragmatism – a primary exploration of setting up and implementing low carbon eco city indicator system in China [in Chinese], China Construction Industry Publisher. Beijing.

On-going eco-city projects appear to be adopting their own performance benchmarks and priorities, many of which may not be officially endorsed by the MEP or MoHURD, potentially leading to uneven quality in the developments.99 As the eco-cities’ movement is evolving and diversifying the need for a unified indicators and monitoring system will increase. International experience from EU countries with similar urban indicators, or from the region, like Singapore, may be taken as a reference point. 100 Eco‐city Case Studies. There are varying reports on the number and progress of eco-city projects. One count of eco-city projects at various stages of development by the Tongji

Global Environment Facility (GEF). 2010. China: Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City Project. Request for CEO Endorsement/Approval. 3 May. Retrieved 24 August 2010 from http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/documents/document/05-03-10%20Council%20document.pdf 100 The EU-China Urbanization Partnership was established at the time of the Shanghai Expo in 2010. It has held a series of high-level and high-profile events which were inspired by the “better cities – better life” slogan of the 2010 Expo. Lately, the EU-China urbanization partnership has taken on the topic of eco-cities or low-carbon cities. See: National Development Reform Commission (NDRC) – Friends of Europe – European Commission (eds.).2012. http://www.friendsofeurope.org/media/uploads/2014/11/2012-EU-China-Urbanisation-PartnershipWEB.pdf

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University puts the total at 168101, others talk of a figure above 200.102 The Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) report indicated that by 2008, there were about 60 cities from 22 provinces that announced plans to build eco-cities.103 The Joint USChina Collaboration on Clean Energy (JUCCCE) puts the number of eco-cities in development close to 40 in 2009.104 By 2010, the MEP accorded eco-provinces status to 14 provinces, including autonomous regions and municipalities, such as Hainan, Jinan, and Heilongjiang, which have announced eco-city projects. Meanwhile, 11 of over 500 cities (county and district levels) with plans to develop eco-cities have been recognized as National Eco-Cities, Eco-Districts, and Eco-Counties. 105 While a definitive answer on the number of eco-city projects in remains elusive, this number is clearly on the rise. However, there exist also cases of serious setbacks like the Dongtan Eco-City near Shanghai which did not materialize despite substantial support from the government and the private sector.

Source: EC Link Project106

Shen, Qingji and Song, Ting. 2010. Advancements in Eco-City Research 生态城市研究进展. China Low Carbon Eco-City Development Report 2010 中国低碳生态城市发展报告2010, pp 67-104. 102 Greentech Report 2013: China at a Crossroads. in: Econet China. June 2013, pp. 3-6. www.econetchina.com 103 OECD. 2009. Eco-Innovation Policies in the People’s Republic of China. Environment Directorate. 104 The Economist. 2009. Economist Debate on China and the US. 25 November. Retrieved July30, 2010 from http://www.economist.com/debate/days/view/421 105 Wu Xiaoqing, Vice-Minister for Environmental Protection. 2009. Establishing scientific development, promoting the circular economy 立足科学发展大力推进循环经济. 19 October. China Environmental News 中国环境报. Retrieved 20 July 2010 from http://www.mep.gov.cn/zhxx/hjyw/200910/t20091019_162536.htm 106 This map does not yet show the foreign collaborations which some of these Eco-Cities have, like Tianjin (Singapore), Caofeidian (Sweden), Qingdao (Germany) 101

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5.2 Good Practices – Illustrations Case 12 Tianjin: The Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco City (SSTEC) The Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco City (SSTEC). This project represents China´s eco-city programme, and is probably the most advanced case as of today. Tianjin, China´s third largest city is developing SSTEC in collaboration with Singapore. The site of the SSTEC is non-arable salt land, located in the Tianjin Binhai New Area (TBNA), the power house of Tianjin’s economic and demographic growth, which has been experiencing one of the fastest growth rates in China. It is planned that 350,000 people will live in the 34.2 km2 SSTEC area by 2020. SSTEC has adopted a mixed land use plan to accommodate not only housing but also service-oriented and high technology/environment-related industries which will create 190,000 jobs (about 80 percent of the working population). As a part of its economic development plans, SSTEC is developing, in its Phase 1 area, a large scale National Animation Center where 12,000 people will work. The preliminary estimated investment cost for public infrastructure and facilities for the entire SSTEC area is to be RMB 25.5 billion (US$ 3.8 billion). The construction of SSTEC was started in September 2008 and the completion of Phase 1 (7.8 km2) is scheduled for 2015. SSTEC is intended to be a model eco-city that is energy/resource efficient with low GHG emissions, while it maintains economic viability and social harmony. Features of Tianjin Eco-City. SSTEC has many notable features as an “eco-city”, among others: (a) was selected among four candidate cities and obtained strong political support from the Prime Minister; (b) converted non-arable salt land into urban land with high economic value, without sacrificing scarce agricultural land; (c) introduced global experience and knowledge through the partnership with Singapore; (d) adopted the Transit Oriented Development (TOD) plan, integrating the transport plan and land use, including higher Floor Area Ratio (FAR) allocation around the metro stations, which has led to high population density at about the same level as the city center of Tianjin; (e) adopted mixed land use plan, reducing the commuting transport needs outside SSTEC; (f) adopted energy efficient building standards higher than the national standard and promoting renewable energy use; (g) planned low per capita water consumption (not exceeding 120 liters per day per capita) and a high rate of water provision (exceeding 50 percent ) from non-conventional water sources; and (h) maintained social harmony by providing affordable public rental houses at least 20 percent of total housing stock. The Eco-City in Tianjin aims to demonstrate that 90% of all trips will be made either in clean, energy efficient public transport, on foot or on bike.107 Promising potentials of Tianjin Eco-City. The Tianjin Eco-City is located in the vibrant Tianjin Binhai New Area (TBNA), 45 km away from Tianjin City Centre. It is also the nearest eastern starting point of Asia-Euro Continental Bridge and key access to the sea for the neighboring inland countries. With a planned area of 2270 square kilometers, TBNA has a coastal line of 153 kilometers. TBNA has a rather favorable ecological environment and abundant natural resources and wetlands of 700 square kilometers. There are still 1200 square kilometers salt and alkali wasteland remained for development and the verified reserves of oil reach over 10 billion tons and those of natural gas reach 193.7 billion cubic meters. As the 3rd economic growth pole in China, TBNA is one of the fastest growing regions with an average of 22.9% GDP growth over the last 10 years. It’s GDP clocked RMB 503 billion in 2010 and surpassed Shanghai Pudong. Currently TBNA has a population base of 1.2 million residents, with its non-agriculture population making up some 80%.

107

ADB. 2011. Green Cities (brochure). Regional Sustainable Development Department. Manila

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Limitations of the Tianjin experience. Despite these promising overall economic prospects of the Tianjin region, SSETCÂ´s population had reached only about 20,000 inhabitants of its programmed 350,000 population. 10,000 of the inhabitants are said to be working within the SSTEC area itself. Location of Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco City Site

Spatial Module of Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco City

Source: www.tianjinecocity.gov.sg

Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco City Master Plan

Source: www.tianjinecocity.gov.sg

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Urban Design with Basic Grid of 400m x 400m

The Eco-cell is a key concept in the Master Plan. Eco cells are basic building blocks of the Eco-city. Each cell is about 400m by 400m large, generally accepted as a comfortable walking distance. Four Eco-cells make an Eco-neighbourhood. Several Eco-neighbourhoods come together to form an Eco-district. There are 4 Eco-districts in the Ecocity.

Transit Oriented Development in Tianjin Eco-City

Source: China Development Bank Capital (CBDC). 2015. 12 Green Guidelines. CDBCÂ´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft). p.20. http://energyinnovation.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/12/12-Green-Guidelines.pdf

Source: www.tianjinecocity.gov.sg

View of Scale Model of Tianjin Eco-City

Source: Florian Steinberg

Social Housing in Tianjin Eco-City

Commercial housing in Tianjin Eco-City

Source: Florian Steinberg

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Wind turbines on roof of low carbon living laboratory, Tianjin Eco-City

Source: Florian Steinberg

Water heaters in Tianjin Eco-City

Source: Florian Steinberg

Solar Energy Farm in Tianjin Eco-City

Newly Built Housing in Tianjin Eco-City

Source: Pouille, J. 2015. Die Stadt von morgen – vielleicht, in: Stadtbauwelt 206, Vol. 106. pp. 55-59

Aerial View of Tianjin Eco-City

Source: Pow Choon Piew and Harvey Neo. 2013. Eco-cities need to be based around communities, not technology, in: China Dialogue 1.10.2013. https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6427-Ecocities-need-to-be-based-around-communities-not-technology

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Case 13 Tangshan, Hebei Province: Caofeidian International Eco-City Background. Caofeidian is a small alluvial islet facing the Bohai Sea, located to the south of Tangshan, about 80 km from central Tangshan, Hebei province. The Caofeidian ecocity s close to the industrial zone of Caofeidian New Area. The industrial zone has been established under the jurisdiction of Tangshan and the zone is designated as pilot site for the promotion of a circular economy. More than 50 sqkm have been reclaimed for the development of Caofeidian since 2003. The PRC's port construction, steel and power enterprises such as Beijing Capital Iron and Steel Group, Huadian Power Group and Petroleum, are reportedly investing CNY 192.9 billion for infrastructure construction in Caofeidian. Beijing Capital Iron and Steel Group's steel plant was moved from Tangshan city to the Caofeidian industrial zone in 2007. There are plans for Caofeidian to become the PRC’s largest steel production base. Relevance of Caofeidian. The Caofeidian Eco-City is one of the largest eco-city developments in the PRC and is envisaged to be a new sub-centre for Tangshan along the coast and would help to alleviate the increasing urban pressures in the area while supporting the area’s industrial development. The first stage is expected to house a population of 400,000 over an area of 30 sq km. When fully completed by the target date of 2020, the eco-city will accommodate 1 to 1.3 million residents over 150 sqkm. Incidentally, Tangshan had been considered as the host city for the Sino-Singapore ecocity project which eventually went to Tianjin. The strategic planning for the southern coastal area of Tangshan was launched in 2006 with the involvement of the Urban Planning and Design Institute of Tsinghua University, CAUPD and the Shenzhen Planning and Design Institute. Foreign expertise was also brought into the project through the participation of Swedish sustainable engineering and design firm Sweco in the concept planning in 2008. The statutory master plan is currently being developed by a team from Tsinghua University. Caofeidian Eco-city master plan. The site faces a number of difficulties including the shortage of fresh water; the threat of salination and possible storm surges, owing to its coastal position as well as the adverse developmental impact on the original site. The planning framework used considered the site problems in terms of four aspects – biodiversity, eco-shelter, eco-safety and eco-repair. The master plan will promote ecorepair by conserving the existing green corridors and wetlands with buffers to protect these ecologically rich areas from further damage. For flood control and prevention of soil salination, it was proposed for two dykes to be constructed along the coastline, with an artificial lagoon created on the inland portion of the inner dyke while an inner sea would be formed between the two dykes. The lagoon would serve to store the freshwater from the rivers and mitigate salination of the soil and groundwater. The inner sea could be used for recreational purposes, such as water sports. Development targets. The master plan for Caofeidian would also feature green transport modes and transit-oriented design to create a “city of short distances”. The city centre and sub-centres would be served by light rail and bus-rapid transit systems, with the intention of making the eco-city more pedestrian friendly and liveable while reducing transportrelated emissions. For energy sources, the planners turned to wind power, which has good potential, as Caofeidian is a coastal city. The target is for wind power to provide at least 80% of the eco-city’s energy needs. Cleaner energy sources such as gas would be used while waste-to-energy plants to generate biogas, heating and electric power are also being incorporated. Given the water supply constraints of the area, water conservation and re-

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use would be emphasized, with a target of 50% of water supply to be provided through reuse and reclamation. 108 Location of Caofeidian Eco‐City

Caofeidian Eco‐protection and Eco‐ Repair System

Source: Ma, Qiang (2009). Eco-City and Eco-Planning in China: Taking an Example for Caofeidian Eco-City. In The 4th International Conference of the International Forum on Urbanism (IFoU) 2009. Amsterdam.

Caofeidian Eco‐City

Source: http://www.swecogroup.com/en/Sweco-group/Solutions/Sustainable-City/The-new-Caofeidian-ecocity-will-be-climate-neutral/

Imagery of a the modern city centre

Projections of the city centre

Source: Fangzhu Zhang. 2011. Eco-Cities in China – Dream or Reality. www.dime-eu.org/files/active/0Zhang-2011-cities.pdf

Adapted from J. Chia. 2010. How Can ADB Better Support the PRC’s Sustainable Urban Development? Selected Themes in Sustainable Urban Development in PRC. Intern Report. Asian Development Bank, Manila. 108

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Case 14 Chongming District, Shanghai: Dongtan Eco‐City Pilot project. The first eco-city project to be announced in the PRC in 2003, Dongtan ecocity was also proclaimed as the world’s first purpose-built carbon neutral eco-city. The first phase of the project was targeted for completion in 2010, in time for the Shanghai World Expo. In fact, Dongtan was presented at the 3rd UN-HABITAT World Urban Forum in 2006 as a demonstration project for eco-city development. Planning targets. Aside from the Chongming Island Bridge 13 which links to Shanghai mainland and a wind farm, the Dongtan eco-city has since largely failed to materialize for a number of reasons (discussed below) and there is no mention of the eco-city at the Shanghai World Expo. The Dongtan site is located on an estuary tidal flat at the east end of Chongming Island at the mouth of the Yangtze River, about an hour’s ferry ride from Shanghai. Phase one of the eco-city which was scheduled to be completed in 2010 was expected to accommodate up to 10,000 residents in an area of 1 sqkm. The start-up phase was expected to house 80,000 people, intended for completion in 2020, while the completed eco-site was to have consisted of a population of 500,000 by 2050. The eco-city envisaged to have a ¨compact¨pedestrian friendly self-contained and ecological footprint of 2.6 global hectares per person which is 60% smaller than that of conventional Chinese cities, 66% lower energy demand with 40% energy supplied from bio-energy, 83% reduction of waste going to landfills and almost zero co2 emissions. Bottlenecks. The project was perhaps ill-considered at the onset. Chongming Island is the most rural area of Shanghai and the economic sustainability of the eco-city was questionable. The eco-city would most likely have had to rely on Shanghai for most of the employment opportunities. In addition, displaced farmers were not likely to be able to afford housing at the eco-city site, even with 20% of dwelling units designated as affordable housing. Management problems contributed to the demise of the project. According to one report, there was confusion between the city design firm, ARUP and the state-owned developer, Shanghai Industrial Investment as to the source of funding for the project estimated at US$1.3 billion. Political backing for the project also evaporated when the former Shanghai Communist Party chief, Chen Liangyu was imprisoned on corruption charges in 2008.109 The proposed eco-city was sited next to the Dongtan National Nature Reserve, a Ramsar Convention wetland site and the construction of an eco-city would likely have significant adverse impact on the protected wetlands next-door. The Dongtan site did however have the potential to tap on renewable energy sources such as solar and wind and a wind farm started operations at Dongtan in June 2008. Ecofarming activities have also taken root at Dongtan. Participation and consultation of the local community was also lacking in the process, although this problem is not unique to the Dongtan project. The land use regulations also posed some difficulties as the land on Chongming Island was originally intended as compensation for agricultural land lost to urbanization in Shanghai and should have been used for agricultural production, rather than further urban development. 110

109

McGirk, J. 2015. Why eco-cities fail, in: China Dialogue. 7.05.2015. https://www.chinadialogue.net/books/7934-Why-eco-cities-fail/en 110 Adapted from Chia, J. 2010. How Can ADB Better Support the PRC’s Sustainable Urban Development? Selected Themes in Sustainable Urban Development in PRC. Intern Report. Asian Development Bank, Manila.

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Location and site plan for Dongtan

Source: Adapted from Chia, J. 2010. How Can ADB Better Support the PRCâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Sustainable Urban Development? Selected Themes in Sustainable Urban Development in PRC. Intern Report. Asian Development Bank, Manila.

Artist visualization of Dongtan Eco-City

Source: Arup 2008

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Case 15 Qingdao, Shandong Province: Sino-German Ecopark111 The Sino-German Ecopark is a pilot project for sustainable urban development in China that is supported by the German Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology. The Ecopark is being built in the port city of Qingdao in eastern China and is expected to satisfy high ecological ambitions thanks to the expertise and solutions of German companies. The nature of this eco-city is predominantly as can be seen from the land use pattern. Conceptual Planning. The Conceptual Planning is formulated by the German Architectural Firm gmp. The planning is based on Qingdao natural conditions and keeps pace with the development trend of an international city. By using German advanced planning and design ideas, the conceptual planning makes a systematic analysis of the development direction of the Ecopark. The planned land area for the park is 11.6 square kilometers, of which industrial & infrastructure land area takes up 45%, living & public facilities 25%, and road & ecological green land 30%. Sino-German Ecopark Qingdao â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Zoning

Source: http://www.sgep-qd.de/index.php?id=4&L=2

Land Use

Source: http://www.sgep-qd.de/index.php?id=4&L=2

111

Based on http://www.sgep-qd.de/index.php?id=4&L=2

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Transportation System

Source: http://www.sgep-qd.de/index.php?id=4&L=2

Public Transport

Source: http://www.sgep-qd.de/index.php?id=4&L=2

Green Planning System. By putting planning first and highlighting ecological concept, the park has entrusted top ranking planning & design companies from both China and Germany to formulate 20 planning items including the conceptual planning, regulatory detailed planning and the planning on industries, traffic, public utility, energy and green architecture, thus finally forming a sound green planning system for Ecopark. During the

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planning process, German concepts are highlighted to make sure that every building and every road has a connection with German elements. The General Layout for Regulatory Planning. With â&#x20AC;&#x153;green and integrationâ&#x20AC;? as the core, the planning aims to achieve the coordination and harmony for such urban functions as high-end industries, science, education, research and development, commercial residence. Land Use. The Ecopark controls land utilization intensity, makes a suitable layout for industries, residence and public buildings, thus optimizing public utilities and infrastructure services. Transportation System. Green transportation, non-motorized transportation and public transportation are advocated. A multi-level and 3-dimenional green traffic system is established. Ecological Landscapes. Natural landscape is well-preserved and eco-protection is prioritized. During the city development, the original natural environment with great value should be reserved to the best, thus realizing a harmony between urban development & natural environment, artificial landscape & natural landscape. Green Architecture. The national evaluation standard for green architecture is strictly abided by. The proportion of the buildings which can reach two Star or above accounts for more than 30%; With German DGNB evaluation standard for green architecture is introduced, the whole green architecture level in the Ecopark can be greatly improved. City Design. A holistic approach is applied for the design of spatial structure, architecture form, architecture style, and landscape elements. Landscape Concept

Source: http://www.sgep-qd.de/index.php?id=4&L=2

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Green Architecture

Source: http://www.sgep-qd.de/index.php?id=4&L=2

Case 16 Wuhan, Hubei Province: Sino-French Wuhan Ecological Demonstration City Wuhan has traditionally closest connection with France. At present, the amount of SinoFrench joint ventures and independently owned French enterprises in Wuhan reaches over 100. 40% of French investment in China comes to Wuhan. In this context, on March 26, 2014, with the witness of leaders of two countries, the cooperation of the development of Sino-French Wuhan Ecological Demonstration City was initiated. It is located in Caidian district, western part of Wuhan city, and covers the area of 30 km2. The target of Sino-French Wuhan Ecological Demonstration City is to become: - the platform for cooperation on low carbon development and for technical exchange between China and France; - the demonstration on urbanization; - national demonstration on ecological & environmental friendly industry park - production & life integrated livable community Industry orientation: High-end service industry, focused on recreation service, hotels, exhibitions, wedding service, health care & service for senior citizens.

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High-tech innovation industry, including Sino-French technology valley for software development & outsourcing, chip design; establish car centre and aviation centre incorporating research, sales, display function. Demonstration of eco-industry, including establishing French style farms and chateaus for developing eco-planting & eco-tourism; implement circular economy, promote clean production, enhance clean energy and renewable energy. Education and cultural innovation. So far EDF Group, Suez Environmental group, France Kutei group, Nanomade and LAM have signed cooperation agreement with the demonstration city. The development is on planning phase. 6 sector plans are included, wetland protection and sponge city development, green building, underground gallery, smart city, road network and watercourses, urban design.

Source: http://ecoen.caidian.gov.cn/

Case 17 Shenzhen, Guangdong Province: Shenzhen International Low Carbon City (ILCC) In May 2012, Shenzhen International Low-carbon City (ILCC) was identified as one of the flagship projects of China-EU cooperation on sustainable urbanization. ILCC is located in Longgang district of Shenzhen city. The total planning area is 53 km 2, while 5 km2 area of it is the expansion zone, where the comprehensive plan and detailed design would be applied. The development started with the 1 km2 core area, with a planned building area of 1.8 million m2, 50,000 expected jobs, among which 15,000 people live within the planned area. The development is planned for 8 years.

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The Shenzhen International Low-Carbon City (SILC) is aiming for energy efficiency through microgrids, smart building technologies, and public transportation combined with electromobility. In January 2014, ILCC has won “2014 Sustainable Development Planning Program Award” which was launched by China Center of International Economic Exchanges together with Paulson Foundation of USA. SMART planning principle: Sequestration, Micro-climate, Architecture, Recycle, Traffic. Highlights: Low-carbon municipal infrastructure, which organically integrates water, (renewable) energy and waste (recycling) systems together. TOD oriented space layout pattern: constructs the green travelling system by integrating the rail transportation, tramcar, bus, and slow traffic system. 3 different levels of TOD system as of city, region, and community according to its radiation scope. Space Planing: ‘One Axis & One Belt, One Core with Three Centers, Cross Development, and Cluster Layout’, which are: City Functions Expanding Axis; Dingshan River Vitality Belt; Low-carbon Service Core ; TOD Clusters of Pingdi, Jiaoyu Road, and Liulian. Industries Layout: Aerospace Industry, Life & Health Industry, New Energy Industry, Energy Saving & Environmental Protection Industry, Low-carbon Service Industry, High-end Equipment Manufacturing Industry Key Projects: 1. Exhibition Center land area 120,000m2, floor area 25,000m2 main measures: eco-landscape rehabilitation, variable vertical planting, intelligent micro-grid system, individual temperature & humidity control, individual sewage treatment, robot canteen, carbon account experience platform, mobile body buildings. 2. Dingshan River Reformation 6.7km long within Shenzhen administration area. Main measures: Clean the “black, odorous” water, improve waterfront landscape. 3. C-Hotel (retrofitted from an old dormitory house) Building area 9,080m2, 8 floors. 3-star green building as the target; Main measures: grass swales, raingarden, permeable pavement for Rainwater harvest; green roof & vertical greening to adjust micro climate. 4. C-Plaza (retrofitted from an old factory built in 2012) Building area 13,523m2, 6 floors, listed as the demonstration project winning the national level finance rewarding for energy-saving and carbon emission reduction; Target: 1-star green building, to explore replicable, spreading retrofitting experience for buildings with characters of southern China.

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5. Aerospace Science & Technpology South Center 6. Revitalization of traditional Hakka Round House Main measures in the following aspects: 1. Environmental ecology; 2. supporting services; 3. building envelope; 4. resource utilization; 5. comfortable indoors; 6. efficient facilities; 7. green construction 7. LE Town, planned floor area 19,280m2 It will be a 3-star green building, used as culture center, office, theme hotel, etc. 8. Low-carbon offices, planned floor area 883,250m2 Main functions are smart low-carbon information industry, low-carbon service industry, science & technology research, and science & education service industry as well as fostering the industry chain of low-carbon development. More information on http://en.ilcc.com.cn

Picture credits: Philip Lee Harvey, Jodi Jacobson, Lu Xi Zeng (Getty Images) https://www.siemens.com/customer-magazine/en/home/specials/taking-the-measure-of-the-city/measuringperformance-assessing-results.html

5.3 Standards Assessment of SSTEC. As the World Bank has pointed out in its review of SSTEC112, the Tianjin Eco City has many positive elements which have the potential to contribute to more ecological urban development. The location makes strategic sense from an economic and population growth point of view. The proposed mixed land use and the key performance target of reductions in travel related emissions reinforce each other. The social housing plans confirm a commitment to social inclusion. By supporting an aggregate density of 10,294 persons/sqkm, Tainjin Eco City will exceed the threshold of 5,000-10,000 persons/sqkm required to make public transport viable. In additional the distribution of densities and spatial forms in SSTEC is aligned with its trunk infrastructure. STTECÂ´s transitoriented development encourages greater use of public transport. To reduce transport needs, the design has accommodated community centres at various scales (eco-cell, eco112

World Bank. 2009. Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City: A Case Study of an Emerging Eco-City in China. Technical Assistance Report. Beijing. www-wds.worldbank.org/.../PDF/590120WP0P114811REPORT0FINAL1EN1WEB.pdf

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community, and eco-district). SSTEC is a community where citizens can walk 300-500m to reach a large variety of facilities and services. These include open spaces, business, leisure and recreational facilities, entertainment and cultural activities. Integration of infrastructure into the spatial plan. Integration of transport systems is a key factor for development. Equally the integration of water, waste water, solid waste management, and energy systems are likely to increase efficiency of network transmissions (pumping). Urban design. The decision to adopt the size of 400m x 400 m for its residential blocks has been viewed as risky by the World Bank. As per the World Bank assessment these bock sizes are felt to be too big when compared with vibrant traditional Chinese residential neighborhoods. And even a comparison with US cities, like New York seems to support this view that smaller blocks are successful there. However, as the example of Barcelona, demonstrated earlier, shows, the block size of superblocks of 400m x 400m has universal value, if adequately subdivided. Thus, such superblocks in Tianjin may require further refinement and subdivision as the comparison between SSTEC and a high-density environment like New York´s suggests.  Tool CUD 1 The perimeter of 1,600 meters in SSTEC and New York encompasses very different densities

Source: World Bank. 2009. Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City: A Case Study of an Emerging Eco-City in China. Technical Assistance Report. Beijing, p.20. wwwwds.worldbank.org/.../PDF/590120WP0P114811REP ORT0FINAL1EN1WEB.pdf

New York is able to achieve much higher density and compactness within the same perimeter of 1,600 meters.

Theoretical and conceptual parameters of residential densities. A recent guidebook elaborated that there are many factors influencing the population carrying capacity, including the environmental factors such as land resources, water resources, environmental resources; at the same time also includes the social factors such as the degree of openness, regional prescriptive time, productivity level, living standard, social system, as well as the mode of distribution. From a single point of view to predict population carrying capacity is one-sided, one should, hence, use all three factors for the population carrying capacity: (i) W1 - Comprehensive population carrying capacity = “land resources and construction carrying capacity¨; (ii) W2 - water resources carrying capacity; and (iii) W3 - atmospheric environment carrying capacity.113 While these three dimensions are relevant, it does not yet provide the recommended density.  Tool CUD 1 113

Atkins. 2014. Eco-low Carbon Urban Planning Methodology [低碳生态城市规划方法], Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development. Beijing. http://journal.hep.com.cn/laf/EN/Y2014/V2/I3/70

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Singapore as comparator. The population density in Singapore was last measured at 7,252.43 pers. in 2010, according to the World Bank.114 This is approximately 9-10 times the population density of Tianjin (and SSTEC). Thus, if SSTEC wants to stand out as an example of a compact and spatially efficient city, there may be need for a review of its achievement. The key performance indicators of SSTEC, or MoHURD for that purpose, do not provide density figures. However, SSTEC confirms that its FSI is 1.0 – 1.2. SSTEC´s vision of densely built-up neighborhoods

SSTEC is located close to the vibrant Tianjin Binhai New Area (TBNA)

Source: www.tianjineco-city.com

The existing MoHURD national standards for Eco-Garden Cities (see Annex 2) adequately provide parameters of the natural environment, living environment, infrastructure, proportion of green buildings, and proportion of green trips on public transport. However, again, there are no density standards. In other more recent eco-city plans, like those for Zhuhai, Guandong province, the proposed residential density of the new town districts is estimated to be 9,000 person/sqkm; in some central areas reaching eventually 20,000 persons/sqkm. Zhuhai Residential District

Zhuhai New Town High Density Areas

Source: Florian Steinberg

If urban China were to promote denser development coupled with smart(er) transportation systems, the benefits would flow not only in the form of better quality of life in the urban 114

http://www.tradingeconomics.com/singapore/population-density-people-per-sq-km-wb-data.html

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environment but also with hard impacts, such as deep cuts in transportation energy demand. International studies have shown that individual motorized traffic declines between 20-30% for every doubling of residential density. Given the fact that the average density of the largest cities in China will be below that of other larger European or Asian cities, there is significant potential for further savings. Better-planned, denser cities are known to have higher concentrations of knowledge workers, and are therefore more competitive in highvalue services. 115 A new model of urban development and transport connectivity The work of New Climate Economy demonstrates that countries and cities can follow a different growth pathway to unlock a new wave of urban productivity and transport connectivity based on Compact urban growth, Connected infrastructure and Coordinated governance (or the so-called “3C” model of urban development). • Compact urban growth refers to managed expansion and/or urban retrofitting that encourages higher densities, contiguous development, functionally and socially mixed neighbourhoods, walkable and human-scale local urban environments, the redevelopment of existing brownfield sites and the provision of green spaces. • Compact growth represents relatively dense, proximate development, with high levels of accessibility to local employment and services. This type of development is not about urban containment or solely about high density, but rather about how urban expansion is managed to limit unplanned peripheral development and build dense, transitoriented urban forms. Density is a necessary but not sufficient condition for smarter urban development: land use mix, connectivity and accessibility are equally important. • Connected infrastructure refers to investment in innovative urban infrastructure and technology, with a focus on smarter transport systems to connect and capture the economic benefits of more compact urban forms. These transport systems would connect mixed-use, employment, housing and commercial clusters. They include mass rapid transit (including subways, light rail systems and bus rapid transit systems), bicycle “superhighways”, car- and bicycle-sharing, smarter traffic information systems, and electric vehicles with charging point networks using renewable energy sources. • Coordinated governance refers to effective and accountable institutions to support coordinated planning and implementation across the public and private sectors and civil society, particularly for land use and transport integration. The existence of organisations dedicated to coordinating policies within entire urban agglomerations, for example, has especially positive effects, ranging from lower levels of particulate matter air pollution to a reduction in urban sprawl. Encouraging more compact, connected and coordinated cities is ultimately about harnessing cities’ growth potential by reinforcing their central function: facilitating access to people, goods and services, and ideas. Throughout history, cities have been dynamic centres of economic specialisation and cultural expression. By enabling the concentration of people and economic activities in a smaller geographic space, these economic and social interactions create a vibrant market and fertile environment for innovation in ideas, technologies and processes, spurring innovation and productivity. More compact urban growth can significantly reduce the cost of providing services and transport infrastructure. It also significantly increases the viability of public transport and 115

McKinsey Global Institute. 2012. Preparing for China´s Urban Billion. http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/urbanization/preparing_for_urban_billion_in_china

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other urban infrastructure, by attracting more intensive use, and creates a deeper labour market that can achieve faster and better job matches. Moreover, the components of this system are self-reinforcing, generating a virtuous circle: more compact urban centres concentrate urban innovation and job creation, helping to attract talent and capital for investment in smarter transport infrastructure and technology, and widening the skilled labour pool. The model can also lead to a wide range of co-benefits, such as reduced congestion, improved air quality, reduced carbon emissions and enhanced social inclusion. In the medium to long term, the economic and social benefits of a large-scale shift to a compact, connected and coordinated urban pathway include strengthening local economies, closing the infrastructure gap, savings on transport costs, benefits to health and social equity, reduction in carbon emissions, and making freight greener. Recommendations for policy-makers116 The economic, social and environmental case for investing in better urban transport systems both within and between cities is compelling. As the various NCE reports have demonstrated, this model of more connected, compact urban development can be more productive, socially inclusive, cleaner, quieter and safer. The decisions that national decision-makers and cities take within the next 5–15 years will be critical to capturing these benefits. To facilitate this transition, we set out our recommendations as follows. National and city-level Decisionmakers should: •

• • •

•

Consider setting up integrated transport and land use authorities to plan urban growth and scale up public transport, cycling, walking and spatially efficient use of low-carbon vehicles, with nations playing a key role in empowering local authorities with the powers to act. Strengthen strategic planning at the city, regional and national levels, with a focus on improved land use and integrated multi-modal transport infrastructure. Reform fuel subsidies and consider introducing new pricing mechanisms such as road user charges to reduce and eventually eliminate incentives to fossil-fuelled vehicle use. Consider charges on land conversion and dispersed development, and measures that place a higher price on land than on buildings such as land taxes and development taxes. These reforms can raise revenue to invest in public transport and transitoriented development. Introduce new mechanisms to finance upfront investments in smarter urban infrastructure and new technology. These may include the creation of dedicated national, regional or city-level investment platforms to prepare and package investments to attract private-sector capital into the transport sector. Demonstrate leadership by committing to ambitious emissions reduction targets and/or low-emissions development strategies, with cities worldwide aiming to comply with the framework of the Compact of Mayors by 2020 and nations aiming to introduce national legislation to support and incentivise the adoption of emissions reduction targets and/or low-emissions development strategies, including developing national urbanisation strategies in conjunction with city government, prioritising policies and investments in public and non-motorised transport.

116

http://2015.newclimateeconomy.report/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Unlocking-the-power-of-urban-transportsystems_web.pdf?utm_source=NCE+Newsletter&utm_campaign=9cdc1f313dJanuary_newsletter_201602032_3_2016&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_244a9d5541-9cdc1f313d204428953

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The international community, working with national governments and cities, should: •

• •

Help to accelerate and scale up these efforts by developing an integrated package worth at least US$1 billion over five years to support at least the world’s largest 500 cities by 2020 to: i. comply with the Compact of Mayors; ii. strengthen capacities for project preparation, including for urban transport;158 iii. enhance creditworthiness to underpin large-scale urban infrastructure investments, including in the transport sector; iv. access climate finance more directly to cover the incremental upfront costs of sustainable transport projects and other low-carbon investments when agreed in partnership with nation states. Provide enhanced platforms for knowledge-sharing and technology transfer among cities – for example, through supporting global city networks such as C40, ICLEI and UCLG – to create local demand for sustainable transport financing.159 Make a stronger political commitment to sustainable transport, including taking steps to strengthen existing international collaborative initiatives. The largest investments continue to be directed at large-capacity road projects aimed at improving vehicle flows. Decision-makers within the international community, as well as at the state, regional and local levels must demonstrate a renewed commitment to targeting investments towards sustainable transport. City leadership is playing a more prominent role, locally by articulating a vision of how to improve quality of life and well-being of citizens.

This needs to be complemented by leadership at the international level.

•

Promote improved quantification of wider co-benefits and evaluation of performance. The significant social and economic benefits and wider co-benefits of investing in low-carbon transport and transport for sustainable development must be measured objectively and better emphasised to decision-makers. Current decision-making processes typically fail to take into account the full economic, social and environmental consequences of policies, programmes and projects. There is a need for cities and countries – with support from the international community – to establish clear and consistent performance outcomes to assess the impacts of funded projects, using indicators of health, safety, equity, access, environmental quality and economic productivity.117  Tool CUD 2

What type of cities for China? One of the issues that needs to be resolved in China´s urbanization is the type of urban configuration and the type of density which will be applied. There is ample evidence that current new towns in China are not efficient in terms of space use and that they lack in density compared to European cities. A more rigorous exploitation of the transit oriented development (TOD) paradigm is recommended, as evidenced by the Design Manual for Low Carbon Development, developed by the Energy Foundation under its China Sustainable Cities Programme.118  Tool CUD 2 117

For a detailed description, including assumptions, see NCE’s 2014 and 2015 reports: Better Growth, Better Climate and Seizing the Global Opportunity. http://newclimateeconomy.report/wpcontent/uploads/2014/08/NCE_GlobalReport.pdf 118 Calthorpe, P. (ed.). 2014. Transit-Oriented Development in China – A Manual of Land-use and Transportation for Low Carbon Cities. www.bookuu.com

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The nine principles for sustainable urban development are highly important for eco-city development: 1. Develop neighborhoods that promote walking – by breaking down the block and street sizes, mixing users, and clustering density near transit, the neighborhood will be more functional, safe, and pleasurable for walking. 2. Prioritize bicycle networks – these facilities should be developed while maintaining traffic access. 3. Create dense networks of streets and paths – the smaller the block sizes allows for a more intensive and robust system of streets and paths. 4. Support high-quality transit – by clustering development near stations and by promoting job/ housing balance, promoting the health and efficiency of the metro system. Street designs include the possibility of transit-only lanes for fast and dependable services. 5. Zone for mixed-use neighborhoods – blocks and place types need to be mixed-use and allow many trips to be made locally at distances which promote walking and bicycle use. 6. Match density to transit capacity – recognize the high transit accessibility of public transport systems supporting the significant density of neighborhoods, including housing, employment, retail and civic uses. 7. Create compact regions with short commutes – by accommodating growth in appropriate locations, reducing pressure on developable land in more peripheral locations. 8. Increase mobility by regulating parking and road use – by reduction or elimination of minimum parking requirements. Parking can be sensibly included without impacting negatively the liveability.119 9. Create Energy Efficient Buildings & Community Systems to Reduce Carbon Emissions. 120  Tool CUD 3,  Tool CUD 4

119

Adopted from: The Energy Foundation (ed.). 2011. Design Manual for Low Carbon Development. Sustainable Cities Program. http://www.chinastc.org/en/resource/65/479 120 Carl Carlthorpe. 2103. Urbanism In The Age Of Climate Change. http://www.douban.com/note/272680145/

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Cities for Cars or for Pedestrians?

Promoting Neighbourhoods that Encourage Walking

Source: Climate Works Foundation. Low Carbon Cities – Principles and Practices for China´s Next Generation of Growth. The China Sustainable Energy Program. p. 5. www.calthorpe.com/files/China Design Manual Pamphlet.pdf

Transformation of Superblocks: Smaller blocks and Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)

Source: Climate Works Foundation. Low Carbon Cities – Principles and Practices for China´s Next Generation of Growth. The China Sustainable Energy Program. p. 14. www.calthorpe.com/files/China Design Manual Pamphlet.pdf

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Concentrating Density at Transit Stations

Source: Climate Works Foundation. Low Carbon Cities – Principles and Practices for China´s Next Generation of Growth. The China Sustainable Energy Program. p. 18. www.calthorpe.com/files/China Design Manual Pamphlet.pdf

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Transformation of a Superblock Grid into an ´Urban network´: arterial avenues, one way streets, auto-free streets, and local streets

Source: Climate Works Foundation. Low Carbon Cities – Principles and Practices for China´s Next Generation of Growth. The China Sustainable Energy Program. p. 20. www.calthorpe.com/files/China Design Manual Pamphlet.pdf 121

This approach has recently been recommended for the improvement of Barcelona's ‘superblocks’. Barcelona’s urban planning committee wants to reverse its superblocks. First, traffic would be routed to larger roads on the perimeters, with cars, trucks and scooters only allowed within each block if they belong to residents. 186 new miles of cycling lanes throughout the city will encourage biking, and an orthogonal bus network keeps public transit on main thoroughfares. Each superblock would become like its own little city, with its own character. 121

Source: Superblocks to the Rescue! Barcelona Reclaims Its Street, http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/may/17/superblocks-rescue-barcelona-spain-plan-give-streets-backresidents

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Principles which – when combined – create a mixed-use, walkable and liveable city

Source: Climate Works Foundation. Low Carbon Cities – Principles and Practices for China´s Next Generation of Growth. The China Sustainable Energy Program. p. 26. www.calthorpe.com/files/China Design Manual Pamphlet.pdf

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Benefits of Small Blocks versus Super Blocks

Source: China Development Bank Capital (CBDC). 2015. 12 Green Guidelines. CDBC´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft). http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/12Green-Guidelines.pdf

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Recommended New Planning Methodology to Incorporate Transit-Oriented Development into City Master Plans

Source: Climate Works Foundation. Low Carbon Cities – Principles and Practices for China´s Next Generation of Growth. The China Sustainable Energy Program. p. 12. www.calthorpe.com/files/China Design Manual Pamphlet.pdf

Proposed Transit-Oriented District in Chenggong, Kunming

Source: Climate Works Foundation. Low Carbon Cities – Principles and Practices for China´s Next Generation of Growth. The China Sustainable Energy Program. p. 28. www.calthorpe.com/files/China Design Manual Pamphlet.pdf

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5.4 Indicators The two Eco-City pilots featured earlier, are good examples of two different paths of eco-city development. SSTEC and Caofeidian. SSTEC does have a set of 22 quantitative and 4 qualitative indictors which have been developed at the time of its Master Plan development in 2008. Table 5: 26 Key Performance Indicators of Tianjin Eco-City

Source: www.tianjineco-city.com122

Caofeidian does have 141 indicators (109 planning indicators and 32 management indicators) which seems more complex and difficult to handle, as MoHURD has stated informally. Review of Indicators. A brief assessment of the EC Link project of the key indicators of SSTEC which was done in March 2015, indicates that important indicators are on track: #4 on control of noise pollution (100%); # 6 control of loss of wetlands to construction (0); #7 proportions of green buildings (100% by 2013); # 9 - public green spaces; #11 – proportion of green trips; #12 - overall waste recycling rate (60% target); #14 – provision of free recreational and sports facilities; #15 – treatment of hazardous and domestic non-toxic solid waste; #16 – barrier free accessibility; #17 – service network coverage; #18 – proportion of public housing (>20%); #20 – water supply from non-traditional sources; #21 number of R&D and engineers per 10,000 labour force; and #22 – employment-housing equilibrium index (>50%). It is particularly notable that at this early stage in the development of SSTEC, that #19 - renewable energy´s proportion is already at 25%, exceeding the indicator of 20%;

122

See also Annex 2 for full details of 22 quantitative indicators.

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it is predicted that increased population growth of SSTEC may reduce this figure in case that investments in renewables do not keep up with growth. A couple of indicators however, seem to reflect work in progress whose targets are not yet accomplished: #1 – ambient air quality; #2 - quality of water bodies; #3 – water from taps at drinking water standards; #5 – carbon emissions per unit GDP; #10 – per capita waste generation. The SSTEC management is continuously measuring the evolution of these indicators, and is aware of some of its current shortcomings. In 2007, MoHURD had already conceived more ambitious KPI´s exceeding the standards of MEP´s eco-city standards. Six KPIs which should be met by 2020 (or earlier) have been highlighted also in the 2009 World Bank study123 of the SSTEC experience: • • • • • • •

KPI 5: Carbon emissions per unit GDP: ≤150 tons C per one million US$ GDP; KPI 7: proportion of green buildings: 100 %; KPI 11: per capita domestic waste generation: ≤0.8 kg per day (by 2013); KPI 12: Proportion of green trips: > 90%. KPI 13: Overall solid west recycling rate: ≥60% (by 2013); KPI 19: Renewable energy usage: ≥20%; KPI 20: Water supply from non-conventional resources: ≥50%.

Table 6: Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City (SSTEC) Key Performance Indicators No. KPI Area and Details Natural Environment

Ambient Air Quality

Quality of water bodies Water from Taps attaining drinking water 3 standards Noise Pollution Levels should met the 4 stipulated standards for different functional zones 5 Carbon Emission Per Unit GDP 6 Net Loss of Natural Wetlands Man-Made Environment 7 Proportion of Green Buildings 8 Local plants index 9 Public green space per capita

Indicative Value No. of days per year in which ambient air quality meets or exceeds China’s National Ambient Air Quality Grade II Standard ≥ 310 (85% of 365 days) No. of days per year in which SO2 and NOx content in the ambient air should not exceed the limits stipulated for China National Ambient Air Quality Grade I standard ≥ 155 (85% of 310 days) To meet the standard stated in the PRC’s National Standard GB 30951996

Timeframe

Immediate

By 2013 By 2020

100%

Immediate

100%

Immediate

150 ton-C per one million US dollars 0

immediate Immediate

100% ≥ 0.7 ≥12 m2 per capita

Immediate Immediate By 2013

123

World Bank. 2009. Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City: A Case Study of an Emerging Eco-City in China. Technical Assistance Report. Beijing. p. iv. www-wds.worldbank.org/.../PDF/590120WP0P114811REPORT0FINAL1EN1WEB.pdf

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10 Per capita domestic water consumption Living Style 11 Per capita domestic waste generation 12

Proportion of green trips

Infrastructure 13 Overall solid waste recycling rate Provision of free recreational and sports 14 facilities within walking distance of 500m Treatment to render hazardous and domestic 15 solid wastes non-toxic 16 Barrier-Free Accessibility 17 Services Network Coverage Management 18 Proportion of Public Housing Economic Sustainability 19 Renewable Energy Usage 20 Water supply from non-traditional sources Technological Innovation Number of R&D scientists and engineers per 21 10,000 labor force Employment 22 Employment-Housing Equilibrium Index

≤ liters per day per capita

By 2013

≤ 0.8 kg per day per capita ≥ 30% ≥ 90%

By 2013 By 2013 By 2020

≥ 60%

By 2013

100%

By 2013

100%

Immediate

100% 100%

Immediate By 2013

≥ 20%

By 2013

≥ 20% ≥ 50%

By 2020 By 2020

≥ 50 man-year

By 2020

≥ 50%

By 2013

Source: World Bank. 2009. Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City: A Case Study of an Emerging Eco-City in China. Technical Assistance Report. Beijing. www-wds.worldbank.org/.../PDF/590120WP0P114811REPORT0FINAL1EN1WEB.pdf

Table 7: Indicators of the Sino-German Eco-park Qingdao

1. 绿色建筑比例 2. 日人均生活用水量 3. 日人均生活垃圾产生量 4. 建筑合同能源管理率 5. 分布式能源供能比例 6. 可再生能源使用率 7. 非传统水资源利用率 8. 垃圾回收利用率 9. 绿色出行所占比例 10. 建筑与市政基础设施智能化覆盖率 11. 开挖年限间隔不低于五年的道路比例 12. 危废及生活垃圾无害化处理率

1. 单位 GDP 碳排放强度 2. 企业清洁生产审核实

Proportion of Green Building Daily Water Consumption Per Capita Daily Domestic Waste Generation Per Capita Proportion Of Energy Management Contract Projects Proportion Of Decentralized Energy Supply Usage Of Renewable Energy Usage Of Water From Non-Conventional Source Overall Waste Recycling Rate Proportion Of Green Travel Intelligent Coverage Rate Of Building And Municipal Infrastructure Proportion Of Roadways That Excavation Length No Less Than 5 Years Proportion Of Harmless Processing For Hazardous Wastes And Household Garbage

CO2 Emission Intensity Per Unit Of GDP Auditing And Approval Ratio For Enterprise Clean

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2015 100% ≤ 100L ≤ 0.8kg ≥ 20%

2020 100% ≤100L ≤ 0.8kg ≥100%

≥ 30% ≥ 10% ≥ 30% ≥ 40% ≥ 70%

≥ 60% ≥ 15% ≥ 50% ≥ 60% ≥ 80%

100%

2015 ≤ 240 100%

2020 ≤ 180t CO2 100%

Unit (人日) Capita.dday (人日) Capita.dday

Unit Tco2/百万美元 Tco2/million USD

149

施及验收通过率 3. 单位工业增加值 COD 排放量 4. 工业余能回收利用率 5. 单位工业增加值新鲜水耗 6. 工业用水重复利用率 7. 中小企业政策指数 8. 研发投入占 GDP 比重

Production COD Discharge Of Industry Per Value Added Recovery Ratio Of Industrial By-Product Heat Fresh Water Consumption Of Industry Per Value Added Industrial Water Reuse Ratio Small And Medium-Sized Enterprises (SME) Policy Index R&D Investment Proportion Of GDP

1. 环境空气质量提升 2. 园区智能化系统高水平建设 3. 海洋新兴产业发展优先 4. 本地产业共生与配套完善 5. 绿色设计理念推广 6. 海洋文化特色突出

≤1

≤ 0.8

≥ 30% ≤9

≥50% ≤7

≥ 75% ≥ 3%

≥ 75% ≥ 5%

≥ 3%

≥ 4%

Kg/万元 Kg/CNY 10000

M3/万元 M3/CNY 10000

Improving Air Quality High Level Delivery Of Intelligent System On Site Priority Of New Marine Industry Local Industrial Symbiosis And Encourage Of Service Facilities For Key Industries Promotion Of Green Design Outstanding Features Of Marine Culture

1. 人均绿地面积 2. 区内地表水环境质量达标率 3. 区域噪声平均值

Area Of Green Space Per Capita The Reaching Standard Rate Of Surface Water Quality

4. 城市室外照明功能区达标率 5. 园区范围内原有地貌和肌理保护比例 6. 绿色施工比例 7. 鸟类食元树种植株比例

The Reaching Standard Rate Of Exterior Lighting Proportion Of Preserving The Original Terrain Features Proportion Of Green Construction Proportion Of Tree Species Suitable For Birds Habitat

1. 民生幸福指数 2. 步行范围内配套公共服务设施完善便利的区域比例 3. 步行 5 分钟可达公园绿地居住区比例 4. 保障性住房占住宅总量的比例 5. 本地居民社会保险覆盖率 6. 适龄劳动人口职业技能培训小时数 7. 中德国际交流活动频率

People’s Wellbeing And Happiness Index

Average Value Of Regional Noise

2015 30 100% 昼平均值≤55，夜间均值≤45 Daytime mean ≤55 night mean ≤45

2020 30 100%

Unit Tco2/百万美元 Tco2/million USD

昼平均值≤55，夜间均值≤45 Daytime mean ≤55 night mean ≤45

100%

≥ 40%

100% 30%

100% 35%

dB(A)

M3/万元 M3/CNY 10000

2015 ≥ 80

2020 ≥ 90

Proportion Of Community Covered By Social Infrastructure Within Walking Distance

100%

Proportion Of Community Within 5 Minutes’ Walk From Park Green Space

100%

Proportion Of Low-Income Housing

≥ 20%

100%

≥ 20

≥ 25

小时/年 Hours/year

≥1

次/年 times/year

Coverage Of Social Insurance For Local Residents Professional Training Hours For Labor Polulation Frequency Of Sino-Germany Exchange Activities

unit 分/points

Source: http://www.sgep-qd.de/index.php?id=4&L=2

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Table 8: Proposed Compact Urban Development KPIs 124 Indicator Category

Average built-up area per capita (m2/pers) [1] Parks within a 500m radius [1] [6]

2 3

5 6 7 8

Coverage of green areas [6] Public green space [1; 3] Proportion of green areas [5] Average land area for public facilities per capita [1] Proximity to amenities: schools, post offices, banks, retails, clinics, activity centres, restaurants, etc. [6] Provision of free recreational and sport facilities within walking distance of 500 m [3] Mixed land-use land [4] Residential density [6] Residential blocks [6] Density : Floor Area Ratios (FAR) – 10-50 storeys [7] Transit-oriented Development (TOD) around public transit systems [7]

Floor area ratio (FAR) [7] 9

Great accessibility (pleasant walking amenities to transit system within 500meter radius) [7] 10 11 12

Heat island effect density Ambient noise meeting ambient noise standard GB 3096 Flood prevention as per national design standards GB50201 and GB50805 [5]

Indicators: indicative values ≤85 m2/pers [1] ≤100 m2/pers [9] ≥80% [1] ≥100% [6] 20-40% [6] ≥12 m2/pe: rs [1] ≥35%

Current achievements / Time frame for accomplishment

By 2013 [3]

≥5.5 m2/pers [1] ≤500m [6] 100% [3] Walking distance to parks≤400m [2]

By 2013 [3]

20% [4] 10,000/km2 [6] ≤ 2 ha (= 20,000 m2) [6] 2.7- 8 [7] ≤ 500-800 m to major transit stations (metro or bus rapid transit (BRT) [8] ≤ 500 m of nearest bus or transit stops (in case BRT or Metro is not available) For the city as a whole: ≤ 90% within 800m of public transit station. FAR 50% higher (big cities 70%) than the average FAR of the district. 90% ≤ 500 m radius [7] [8] <3.0℃ 70% of road, building roof areas with reflection coefficient ≤ 0.4 ≥80% 100% [5]

Sources: [1] Qiu Baoxing. 2012. Combine idealism and pragmatism – a primary exploration of setting up and implementing low carbon eco city indicator system in China [in Chinese], China Construction Industry Publisher. Beijing [2] UN-Habitat and Tongji Urban Planning & Design Institute, Shanghai. 2014. Guiyang Green and Sustainable City Programme – Sustainable City Reviews. See also: Guiyang Municipality. 2015. Guiyang Eco-Civilization City Indicators System. Guiyang (unpublished report). [3] World Bank. 2009. Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City: A Case Study of an Emerging Eco-City in China. Technical Assistance Report. Beijing. www-wds.worldbank.org/.../PDF/590120WP0P114811REPORT0FINAL1EN1WEB.pdf [4] SWECO. No date. Caofeidian - Detailed ecological indicators system [unpublished document].

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These key performance indicators were prepared and compiled by the EC-Link Project. See: EC-Link. 2016. Sino-EU Key Performance Indicators for Eco-Cities. Beijing (unpublished draft)

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[5] MoHURD. 2015 and 2016 versions. Appraisal Standards for Green Eco-City/District Planning (draft). Beijing [unofficial Translation]. [6] China Development Bank Capital (CBDC). 2015. 12 Green Guidelines. CDBC´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft). http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/12-GreenGuidelines.pdf [7] The Energy Foundation - China Sustainable Cities Program (ed.). 2011. Design Manual for Low Carbon Development. p .46. http://www.chinastc.org/en/research/34 [8] MoHURD. 2014. Green Building Appraising Standard (GB/T50378-2014). [EC Link unofficial translation]. [9] State Council, Government of People’s Republic of China. 2014. China’s New Urbanisation Plan (2014-2020) 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Some Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening the Reform]. Beijing. http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2014-03/16/content_2640075.htm

Spatial planning parameters. The use of spatial planning parameters is an additional approach to determine urban development. The Energy Foundation’s China Sustainable Cities Program has produced a Design Manual for Low Carbon Development which offers urban development standards to achieve compact and high-density development. Table 9: Development Standards Matrix as per the China Sustainable Cities Program Mid-Rise High-Rise Tower Mid-Rise High-Rise Tower Residentlial Residential Residential Commercial Commercial Commercial Maximum building Height Total Maximum FAR Minimum/maximum Sidewalk Commercial / FAR Building Coverage Max. Green Coverage Min. Street Frontage Maximum and Minimum Street Front Setbacks Solar Spacing – all ´small blocks´

Tower elements – Maximum Floor Plate

Primary Pedestrian Entry Parking Structure

Maximum Parking Ration

10 storeys Max 46 m.

20 storeys Max 91 m

33 storeys Max 149 m

16 storeys Max 96 m

30 storeys Max 180 m

50 storeys Max 300 m

2.7

3.5

4.0

6.0

8.0

0.12 / 0.4

0.3 / 0.65

0.5 / 1.3

0.5 / 2.0

40%

65%

30%

20%

Min. 70% facing East/West streets Min. 70% facing all streets Min 60% facing North/South streets 0-2 meters @sidewalk commercial 1-3 meters @office 3-5 meters @ residential 0-1 meters @ within 15 meters of intersection North side- Building height limited to Building elements 7-16 stories must be adjacent street right of way dimension placed to provide 45 degrees solar setback plus building setback to any residential property lines to the north Block interior – maximum 45 degrees from building to the bottom of the first residential floor of the building to the north 400 square 1,200 1,200 meters for square square tower meters for meters for NA NA NA element tower tower above 20 element over element over storeys 16 storeys 16 storeys Primary entry must be located on and directly accessible to the most important public space or street. Multiple entries are encouraged. Above grade structure must include sidewalk commercial use at ground floor where fronting street. Below grade preferred. 1 space per dwelling unit. Other uses as per existing code.

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Parking Entry

No entry off major streets 50 meters or greater. No entry within 20 meters of intersection. Source: The Energy Foundation - China Sustainable Cities Program (ed.). 2011. Design Manual for Low Carbon Development. p .46. http://www.chinastc.org/en/research/34

Alternative Proposal for Urban Densities – City Centres, District Centres, Community Centres

Source: Eco-Low Carbon Urban Planning Methodology, Atkins / CSUS, 2013, p. 82. http://www.atkinsglobal.com/en-GB/group/sectors-and-services/services/future-proofing-cities/china

5.5 Verification Methodology The respective eco-cities´administrations are obliged to measure indicators and to report back to MoHURD, MEF, NDRC and other national entities which are monitoring their development. It seems that no firm protocol for such monitoring has been established as of yet. It can be expected as the program of Eco-Cities, low-carbon cities and smart cities

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evolves, that the national entities involved with these will develop detailed monitoring guidelines. The expected creation of a national eco-cities research centre and an eco-cities alliance, that monitoring and measurement of indicators will become a more methodological and regular activity.

5.6 Lessons Learnt from pilot projects The Chinese eco-cities have benefitted from a number of external factors. They have been inspired by overseas, mostly European cases, and some them have had or still have external advice and support. More support seems to stand-by as private sector companies, foreign and Chinese are getting interested to engage in a bigger way in Eco-cities. The support from national entities, MoHURD, MEF, NDRC and their subsidiaries and associated agencies has been essential, and will be important for future development of Chinese eco-cities. “A… reason to worry about is … sprawl that is making China’s cities less “Harmonious and liveable”… Old neighbourhoods are being demolished, their inhabitants scattered into farflung gated communities, commuting times are lengthening, car-dependence is growing and the spatial divide between rich and poor is widening… “125 Criticism has been articulated about eco-cities not living up to their expectations, either in terms of ecological performance, in terms of economic success and work opportunities, or as centres of a new “eco-civilization”. “A low-carbon craze is sweeping through China, but some say it’s just a mirage… We can’t pursue luxury lifestyles anymore – we need to be more moderate. If you just think about the individual, then the whole system, the whole planet, will collapse. China can’t live the way the Americans do. We’ve had that dream for decades, but it’s time to wake up.”126 A related observation has addressed the issue of technology orientation, criticizing the lack of community involvement and lack of education and consciousness raising, and public education. “Although Tianjin has been feted as a model eco-city, its over-reliance on new technology” is cited to put its sustainability into question. 127 China’s low-carbon city programmes are doing well on public awareness, but an NGO survey finds little evidence of greener habits. Only a small proportion of people in China’s low-carbon pilot cities are living “low-carbon lives” in spite of widespread knowledge of the green agenda, a … survey of household energy consumption… suggests. The study of habits in eight Chinese cities identified as green leaders by China’s top economic planning body, the National Development and Reform Commission, involved 3,200 questionnaires and interviews with three to five households in different income brackets in each region. The NGO wanted to find out if inhabitants of these places had heard about “low-carbon” lifestyles

Urban Sprawl – People, not paving, in: The Economist. 19 April 2014. http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21600802-chinas-largest-cities-can-mostly-cope-populationgrowth-spread-concrete 126Zhang Yue, Xu Nan. How to spot a fake eco-city, in: China Dialogue, 25.08.2011. https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/4488-How-to-spot-a-fake-eco-city 127 Pow Choon Piew and Harvey Neo. 2013. Eco-cities need to be based around communities, not technology, in: China Dialogue 1.10.2013. https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6427-Eco-cities-need-to-bebased-around-communities-not-technology 125

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and whether they were making efforts to reduce their own environmental footprint through their daily choices.”128 Obviously, much of the work in Chinese eco-cities is still work in progress. The majority of cases are urban expansions in ¨greenfield¨ situations. 129 So far there is no case of a ¨brownfield¨redevelopment or urban renewal program, as in Europe, for instance in the case of London, United Kingdom presented earlier. As urban development in China embarks on a course of more compact urban developments, the application of transit-oriented development (TOD) practices will become more relevant. A paradigm shift in terms of more compact and more efficient urban development needs to take place. This implies to work TOD strategies from city levels down to neighborhood scale, and to implement innovative and creative high-density multi-use TOD projects which can reap green development benefits of compact development.  Tool CUD 3 Illustration of Transit-oriented Development Densities

Compact urban development also encourages the promotion of integrated development. Integration of sectors through spatial planning is an obvious requirements. 130 As sectoral coordination is more a necessity to reap additional benefits of improved cross-sectoral benefits of integration, a smart spatial development-transport nexus will serve as the backbone.

128

Wang Haotong and Zhang Chun. 2012. Eco pilots find habits hard to change. In: China Dialogue. 03.08.2012, https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/5056-Eco-pilots-find-habits-hard-to-change 129 Since China has been building new towns and urban expansion areas at a record pace (nearly 600 cities built in fewer than 70 years), some new cities have not been able to keep up with the necessary provision of job opportunities. So called “ghost cities” have emerged which are a detriment to the eco-city vision. Shepard. W. 2015. Ghost Cities in China. Zed Book. London; and: Chao, S. 2016. Inside China's ghost towns: 'Developers run out of money'. Aljazeera. 21 September. http://www.aljazeera.com/blogs/asia/2016/09/china-ghost-townsdevelopers-run-money-160914084316042.html 130 Singh, K., Steinberg, F., The Multi-sectoral Investment Planning Approach for Integrated Development of Urban Services, in: Singh, K., Steinberg, F., von Einsiedel, N. (eds.), Integrated Urban Infrastructure Development in Asia, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi 1996, pp. 17-32.

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An additional dimension is emerging with the growing concern for climate change adaptation. An integrated approach to urban infrastructure and services needs to take into account the growing needs to of adaptation to impacts of climate change. It has been argued that compact urban development is most well suited to support this agenda of adaptation. 131 The recently issued guidelines of UN-Habitat on International Guidelines on Urban and Territorial Planning promote sound urban and territorial planning, not only through compact cities, but also through integrated development. 132  Tool CUD 3

5.7 Outlook It has been observed by the Asian Green Cities Index study, that Chinese cities want to make a change and are strong on policy. They are willing to undertake heavy investments to improve air quality, landscaping and transport. And transport policies in China must be considered as strong, with substantial financial backing by the National government133 UNEP has observed that (i) urban development will have to change t change fundamentally if it is to support the transition towards a green economy; (ii) that unique opportunities exist for cities to lead the greening of the global economy; (iii) ´green cities´ combine greater productivity and innovation capacity with lower costs and reduced environmental impact; (iv) measures to green cities can increase social equity and quality of life; (v) only a collation of actors and effective multilevel governance can ensure the success of green cities; and (vi) numerous instruments for green cities are available and tested but need to be applied in a tailored, context-specific way. 134 China’s cities will densify. 30 billion sqm of housing will be' built and a population of additional 800 million people will be urbanised over the coming 20 years through the creation of 200 towns, each housing over two million inhabitants.135 With the proliferation of new cities in China, thousands of skyscrapers are expected to be built, illustrating the drive for even higher densities. Eco-city development in China is still very much at the experimental stage.136 As can be gleaned from the case studies, appropriate management and policies to drive and support eco-city development are as important as, if not more so than, technology or financing factors. For example, managerial failures were the key contributing factor to the situation in Dongtan. In contrast, with the project being driven by a joint venture enterprise, the Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City (SSTEC) has strong political backing and a clearly defined administrative and operating structure. The project also leverages on expertise from both China and Singapore. Similarly, the Caofeidian eco-city benefited from foreign expertise. This advantage could also turn into a potential weakness, if such collaborations fall apart. Moreover, since greenfield projects are being constructed on undeveloped or under-developed land, it raises the larger question of how eco-cities can be replicated in existing cities that are already well-developed.137 This articulates the question of 131

Salat, S. and Bourdic, L. 2014. Spatial Planning principles & Assessment Framework for Climate Adaptive & Resilient Cities in China. International Workshop NDRC – MoHURD – ADB 5 September Beijing. http://www.urbanmorphologyinstitute.org/resources/conferences/spatial-planning-principles-resilient-cities-china/ 132 UN-Habitat. 2015. International Guidelines on Urban and Territorial Planning. Nairobi. http://unhabitat.org/books/international-guidelines-on-urban-and-territorial-planning/ 133 Asian Green Cities Index-presentation of final results. Singapore, Jan Friedrich, head of Research Asian Green Cities Index, Senior Consultant, Economic Intelligence Unit. http://www.siemens.com/press/pool/de/events/2011/corporate/2011-02-asia/asian-gci-presentation-results-e.pdf 134 UNEP, 2011, Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, pp. 454-489. www.unep.org/greeneconomy 135 Salat, S. 2006. The Sustainable Design Handbook China: High Environmental Quality Cities and Buildings, Urban Morphology Laboratory CSTB, Editions Hermann. 136 J. Woetzel. 2011. How Green Are China’s Cities?. McKinsey Quarterly. January. http://www.mckinseyquarterly.com/How_green_are_Chinas_cities_2734 137 J. Chia. 2010. How Can ADB Better Support the PRC’s Sustainable Urban Development? Selected Themes in Sustainable Urban Development in PRC. Intern Report. Asian Development Bank, Manila

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retro-fitting and transformation of existing cities and their gradual adaptation of green technologies and green economy mechanisms, as attempted in Chongqing.138 “Over the next forty years, China will continue to urbanize rapidly. Their decisions about land use will have a huge impact on energy consumption and carbon emissions. If they live at high densities and use public transit, then the whole world will benefit. If they sprawl, then we will all suffer from higher energy costs and higher carbon emissions. One important reason the West must shrink its own carbon footprint is to reduce the hypocrisy of telling India and China to be greener while driving our SUVs to the mall.” 139 While China is experimenting with eco-cities on a quite large-scale, other East Asian countries, like Japan and South Korea are venturing in the same direction. Many countries want to learn from China´s experience with eco-cities. The Eco-City experience in China, with these beginnings, will bear visible benefits in the next 30-50 years. This work is going to be a medium-term haul. Short-term challenge is to get it right on energy, transport, densities, and the building technologies, and to ¨leapfrog¨to achieve at least the same results as their European peers. China’s premier, Li Keqiang, sees urbanisation as critical to China’s economic success. Urbanisation is said to be one of the keys to mankind’s development in the 21st century.140

C. Liu. 2011. Built in a Dirt Boom, China’s Biggest City Tries to go Green. New York Times. New York. 26 September 2011. 139 E. Glaeser. 2011. Triumph of the City: How Our Greatest Invention Makes Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier. New York: Penguin Press, p. 268. 140 Building the dream. 2014. in: The Economist. Special Report China. 19 April. London. http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21600797-2030-chinese-cities-will-be-home-about-1-billionpeople-getting-urban-china-work 138

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Booming of the Eco-City Movement Over 100 Eco-City planning projects are currently being developed in China.

Source: Fangzhu Zhang. 2011. Eco-Cities in China â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Dream or Reality. www.dime-eu.org/files/active/0Zhang-2011-cities.pdf

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6. VALUE ADDED and CROSS CUTTING THEMES Value added

Cross-cutting themes

Building code and rating system established

Energy efficiency

Urban resilience increased

Alternative renewable energy sources

Green and resilient urban infrastructure, combined with smart management

Low carbon transport

Urban greening augmented

co2 absorption increased

Urban farming considered

Smart city development strengthened

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7. AVAILABLE RESOURCES AND TOOLS ■ Atkins. 2014. Eco-low Carbon Urban Planning Methodology [低碳生态城市规划方法], Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development. Beijing. http://journal.hep.com.cn/laf/EN/Y2014/V2/I3/70 ■ UNEP. 2007. Liveable Cities – The Benefits of Environmental Planning. Cities Alliance. Washington. http://www.unep.org/urban_environment/PDFs/LiveableCities.pdf ■ UN-Habitat. 2012. Urban Planning for City Leaders. UN-Habitat. Nairobi http://mirror.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=3385&AspxAutoDete ctCookieSupport=1 ■ Centre for Liveable Cities - Urban Land Institute. 2013. 10 Principles for Liveable HighDensity Cities – Lessons from Singapore. CLC – Centre for Liveable Cities - Urban Land Institute. Singapore. http://uli.org/press-release/10-principles-singapore/ ■ Centre for Liveable Cities. 2014. Liveable and Sustainable Cities – A Framework. Civil Service College. Singapore. https://www.cscollege.gov.sg/Knowledge/Pages/Liveableand-Sustainable-Cities-A-Framework.aspx ■ Salat, S. 2006. The Sustainable Design Handbook China: High Environmental Quality Cities and Buildings, Urban Morphology Laboratory CSTB, Editions Hermann. ■ World Bank. 2010. Eco2 Cities. Washington. http://www.worldbank.org/eco2 ■ World Bank. 2017. Urban China: Toward Efficient, Inclusive, and Sustainable Urbanization. Washington. http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/publication/urbanchina-toward-efficient-inclusive-sustainable-urbanization

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8. RECOMMENDED READING ■ Salat, S. and Bourdic, L. 2014. Spatial growth and urban densities in China - trends and impacts on economic and energy efficiency, in: International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development, Volume 5, Issue 2, Seoul, pp. 100-108. ■ Lehmann, S. Urban Metabolism and the Zero Waste City: Transforming Cities through Sustainable Design and Behavior Change, in: Lindfield, M. and Steinberg, F. (eds.). 2012. Green Cities. Manila: Asian Development Bank. Urban Development Series. Manila. pp. 108-135. http://www.adb.org/publications/green-cities ■ M. Lindfield and F. Steinberg, eds. 2012. Green Cities. Manila: Asian Development Bank. Urban Development Series. Manila. http://www.adb.org/publications/green-cities ■ Jenks, M. and Burgess, R. (eds.), 2000. Compact Cities: Sustainable Urban Forms for Developing Countries. Routledge. London. http://www.istoecidade.weebly.com/uploads/3/0/2/0/3020261/compact_cities.pdf ■ McKinsey Global Institute. 2009. Preparing for China´s Urban Billion. McKinsey. http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/urbanization/preparing_for_urban_billion_in_china ■ S. Angel. 2012. Planet of Cities. Cambridge, MA.: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/2094_Planet-of-Cities ■ Arup. 2014. City Resilience Framework. The Ford Foundation. Washington. http://publications.arup.com/Publications/C/City_Resilience_Framework.aspx ■ European Union, Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, et al. 2014. Eco-Cities - Sharing European and Asian Best Practices and Experiences. EU-Asia Dialogue. Singapore. http://www.euasia.eu/publications/eco-cities/ ■ Atkins. 2013. Future Proofing Cities. London. http://futureproofingcities.com/ ■ Siemens. Asian Green City Index. London. http://www.siemens.com/press/pool/de/events/2011/corporate/2011-02-asia/asian-gcireport-e.pdf ■ S. Reed, R. Friend, V. Toan, P. Thinphanga, R. Sutarto, and D. Singh. 2013. “Shared Learning” for Building Urban Climate Resilience—Experiences from Asian Cities. http://eau.sagepub.com/content/25/2/393.full ■ D. Dodman, D. Brown, K. Francis, J. Hardoy, C. Johson, and D. Satterwaite. 2013. Understanding the Nature and Scale of Urban Risk in Low- and Middle-Income Countries and its Implications for Humanitarian Preparedness, Planning and Response. http://pubs.iied.org/10624IIED.html ■ Asian Development Bank. 2013. Investing in Resilience: Ensuring a Disaster-Resistant Future. Manila. http://www.adb.org/publications/investing-resilience-ensuring-disasterresistant-future ■ A. K. Jha, T. W. Miner, and Z. Stanton-Geddes, eds. 2013. Building Urban Resilience: Principles, Tools, and Practice. Directions in Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2013/02/17423444/building-urbanresilience-principles-tools-practice ■ Natural England. 2013. Green Infrastructure – Valuation Tools Assessment. www.publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/6264318517575680

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■ B. Madsen, N. Carroll, D. Kandy, and G. Bennett. 2011. 2011 Update: State of Biodiversity Markets. Washington, DC: Forest Trends. http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/reports/2011_update_sbdm ■ B. Madsen, N. Carroll, and K. Moore Brands. 2010. State of Biodiversity Markets Report: Offset and Compensation Programs Worldwide. Washington, DC: Forest Trends. http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/documents/acrobat/sbdmr.pdf ■ Yang, B. and Dong, K. 2008. Theories and Practices of Eco-city Planning: A Case Study on Tianjin Sino-Singapore Eco-city, in China City Planning Review, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 32-39. http://www.cnki.net ■ Shao, M. 2012. Comparative Study of Eco-city Indicator System in Tianjin-Tangshan Area, in: Journal of Landscape Research, Vol. 4, No. 12. pp. 51-54. http://www.cnki.net

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ANNEX Annex 1: Urban Densities in Developing and Developed CountriesÂ´ Cities

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Source: Richardson, H.W., Change Hee, C,B. and Baxamusa, M. H. Compcat Cities in Developing Countries: Asessment and Implications. In: Jenks, M. and Burgess, R. (eds.), 2000. Compact Cities: Sustainable Urban Forms for Developing Countries. Routledge. London, pp. 25-36. http://www.istoecidade.weebly.com/uploads/3/0/2/0/3020261/compact_cities.pdf

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Urban Density versus GDP

Source: ARUP. 2016. Cities Alive: Towards a walking world. p. 19. http://publications.arup.com/publications/c/cities_alive_towards_a_walking_world

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Annex 2: Tool CUD 1: urban form – density nexus. What this tool does: This tool relates urban spatial configurations (urban design) to urban density. It establishes a relationship which city planners need to manage well if they want to achieve positive urban performance, and want to create benefits of low-carbon development. The underlying assumption is that compact urban development can reduce travel and transit requirements, and that compactness also generates higher efficiency of urban infrastructure services. How does it work: Five Key Policy Strategies for Compact Cities – 20 Sub-strategies

Source: OECD. 2012. Compact City Policies – A Comparative Assessment. http://www.oecd.org/gov/regionalpolicy/50524895.pdf

Same Density in Different Layouts

Source: Ng, E. (ed.).2010. Designing High-Density Cities for Social & Environmental Sustainability. Earthscan. London, p. 10.

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Example:

Development Standards Matrix as per the China Sustainable Cities Program

Maximum building Height Total Maximum FAR Minimum/maxim um Sidewalk Commercial / FAR Building Coverage Max. Green Coverage Min. Street Frontage

Mid-Rise Residentli al

HighRise Residenti al

Tower Residenti al

Mid-Rise Commerci al

High-Rise Commerci al

Tower Commerci al

10 storeys Max 46 m. 2.7

20 storeys Max 91 m 3.5

33 storeys Max 149 m 4.0

16 storeys Max 96 m 4.0

30 storeys Max 180 m 6.0

50 storeys Max 300 m 8.0

0.12 / 0.4

0.3 / 0.65

0.5 / 1.3

0.5 / 2.0

40%

65%

30%

20%

Min. 70% facing East/West streets Min. 70% facing all streets Min 60% facing North/South streets Maximum and 0-2 meters @sidewalk commercial Minimum Street 1-3 meters @office Front Setbacks 3-5 meters @ residential 0-1 meters @ within 15 meters of intersection Solar Spacing – North side- Building height limited to Building elements 7-16 stories must be all ´small blocks´ adjacent street right of way dimension placed to provide 45 degrees solar setback plus building setback to any residential property lines to the north

Tower elements – Maximum Floor Plate

Block interior – maximum 45 degrees from building to the bottom of the first residential floor of the building to the north NA NA 400 square meters for tower element above 20 storeys

1,200 1,200 square square meters for meters for tower tower element element over 16 over 16 storeys storeys Primary Primary entry must be located on and directly accessible to the most important public Pedestrian Entry space or street. Multiple entries are encouraged. Parking Above grade structure must include sidewalk commercial use at ground floor where Structure fronting street. Below grade preferred. Maximum 1 space per dwelling unit. Parking Ration Other uses as per existing code. Parking Entry No entry off major streets 50 meters or greater. No entry within 20 meters of intersection. Source: The Energy Foundation - China Sustainable Cities Program (ed.). 2011. Design Manual for Low Carbon Development. p .46. http://www.chinastc.org/en/research/34

Summary Recommendations Concerning Urban Density According to UN-Habitat • •

Small blocks and dense, well connected street patterns with at least 80 to 100 street intersections per sqkm. Adequate space for streets. Based on international benchmarks of efficient, inclusive and sustainable cities, the street network should occupy at least 30% of the land, and with at least 18 km of street length per sqkm.

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• • • •

•

• •

•

High quality public space. Good quality pedestrian connections such as sidewalks and street crossings. Traffic calming, traffic and parking management. Density levels over an 800-metre area within walking distance of a station depend on the magnitude of transit investments. Recommended densities of at least 15.000 persons per sqkm for sustainable neighbourhoods. Mixed land use that will attract occupants, create an attractive environment (services, amenities, public infrastructure, and design qualities), and produce substantial public transportation ridership – specific mix will vary depending on location in region, local context and connectivity. At least 40% of floor space should be allocated for economic use in a sustainable neighbourhood. Limited land use specialisation. This is to limit single function blocks or neighbourhoods; single function blocks should cover less than 10% of any neighbourhood. Social mix. The availability of houses in different price ranges and tenures in a neighbourhood should accommodate different incomes; 20 to 50% of the residential floor area should be for low cost housing and each tenure type should not be be more than 50% of the total. 141

141

Adopted from: UN-Habitat. 2012. Economic Foundations for Sustainable Urbanization: A Study on ThreePronged Approach: Planned City Extensions, Legal Framework, and Municipal Finance. Nairobi. p. 43. http://unhabitat.org/books/economic-foundations-for-sustainable-urbanization-a-study-on-three-prongedapproach-planned-city-extensions-legal-framework-and-municipal-finance/

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Source: UN-Habitat. 2012. Economic Foundations for Sustainable Urbanization: A Study on Three-Pronged Approach: Planned City Extensions, Legal Framework, and Municipal Finance. Nairobi. pp. 32, 36, and 37. http://unhabitat.org/books/economic-foundations-for-sustainable-urbanization-a-study-on-three-prongedapproach-planned-city-extensions-legal-framework-and-municipal-finance/

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Literature / further information: • UN-Habitat. 2012. Economic Foundations for Sustainable Urbanization: A Study on Three-Pronged Approach: Planned City Extensions, Legal Framework, and Municipal Finance. Nairobi. pp. 19-48 http://unhabitat.org/books/economic-foundations-for-sustainable-urbanization-a-study-on-three-prongedapproach-planned-city-extensions-legal-framework-and-municipal-finance/ • Urban Strategies, Inc. 2012. A Citizen´s Guide to Density. Ontario. https://issuu.com/urbanstrategiesinc/docs/citizens_guide_to_density_-_cmhc • Climate Works Foundation. Low Carbon Cities – Principles and Practices for China´s Next Generation of Growth. The China Sustainable Energy Program. www.calthorpe.com/files/China Design Manual Pamphlet.pdf • ICLEI. 2016. Solutions Gateway Sourcebook. Easy-to-use guidance for local governments. Low Carbon Solutions for Urban Development Challenges. http://e-lib.iclei.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/ICLEI_SolutionsGateway-Sourcebook_final-web1.pdf see also: www.solutions-gateway.org

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Annex 3: Tool CUD 2: Transit-oriented Development (TOD). What this tool does: This tool provides city planners with an understanding of the density advantages of urban transport nodes for real estate development. TOD has become synonymous for revenue earning through development of public transport nodes, and in many TOD project these revenues have been able to finance other infrastructure components through cross-subsidies. The tool describes design parameters for commercial centers, urban centers, and town centers. How does it work: “The benefits of Transit-Oriented Development •

• •

•

Promoting higher densities and the concentration of jobs within relatively small areas, TOD creates agglomeration effects proven to boost a city’s competitiveness. Studies have shown that doubling job density, for instance, increases economic productivity by 5 to 10%. This concentration creates vibrant communities with high-quality public areas and shorter commuting distances—making cities more livable. Compact urban development and high-quality public transit also mutually reinforce each other: mass transit can support the large passenger flows that come with high density development, while the concentration of jobs and housing around stations helps make public transport financially viable. Proximity to mass transit improves access to TOD neighborhoods, boosting their attractiveness and increasing real estate value. Cities can capture a part of these increases in value and use it to finance additional transit improvements, affordable housing, and other initiatives that promote sustainable inclusive growth. In Hong Kong SAR, land value capture brought in about HK$140 billion in revenues between 1980 and 2005, and unlocked land for 600,000 public housing units. While TOD can drive up property prices and accelerate gentrification, this can be offset by allocating a significant portion of the new development to affordable housing. This type of inclusive TOD approach enhances access to job opportunities and services for residents at all income levels. By concentrating jobs, services, and housing within the catchment area of transit stations, TOD makes public transport a more attractive and efficient option, while reducing dependence on private cars and promoting shorter commutes. As a result, TOD typically translates into higher productivity and a smaller carbon footprint. In Stockholm, where development has generally followed the city’s main public transport corridors, the gross value added per capita grew 41% between 1993 and 2010, while GHG emissions per capita decreased by 35% over the same period.

When located in areas that are less exposed to natural hazards, the TOD approach can enhance resilience to disaster risks by supporting high-density housing and activities in lower-risk zones.” 142

142

Transforming the Urban Space Through Transit-Oriented Development: The 3V Approach http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/transport/publication/transforming-the-urban-space-through-transit-orienteddevelopment-the-3v-approach

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Concentrating Density at Transit Stations

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Examples:

Illustration of Transit-oriented Development Densities

Source: China Development Bank Capital (CBDC). 2015. 12 Green Guidelines. CDBCÂ´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft). http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/12Green-Guidelines.pdf A new world Bank Report allows decision makers to better understand the linkages between connectivity, accessibility, place quality, and market potential values around a given station. Cities can then identify the type of development for which they are best-suited. The 3V Framework is applicable to large cities with extensive networks, and also smaller cities with only a few mass transit lines or a bus rapid transit system. Where, when, and how to implement TOD: the 3V Framework. TOD principles cannot be applied uniformly across an entire city or transit network, since densities of jobs and people vary widely across the urban space. In fact, experience has shown that only about 15% of transit stations and their surrounding area can support very high density development.

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To make informed decisions about TOD, research institutions and governments have developed a variety of methodologies that can help identify which station areas are good candidates for TOD, determine what level of density the area around a given station can absorb, and figure out what kind of development mix makes sense in a particular area, looking to strike the right balance between jobs, housing, and other amenities. Building on these approaches, the report proposes a new framework for guiding TOD plans, by simultaneously assessing the “three values” (3V) of transit stations and surrounding areas: •

•

The node value describes the importance of a station in the public transit network based on passenger traffic, connections with other transport modes, and centrality within the network. The place value reflects the quality and attractiveness of the area around the station. Factors include the diversity of land use; the availability of essential services such as schools and healthcare; the proportion of everyday amenities that can be accessed by walking or cycling; pedestrian accessibility and also the size of urban blocks around the station. The market potential value refers to the unrealized market value of station areas. It is measured by looking at the major variables that can influence the demand for land (current and future number of jobs in the vicinity of the station, number of jobs accessible by transit within 30 minutes, current and future housing densities) as well as the supply (amount of developable land, possible changes in zoning policy, market vibrancy, etc.).

The report presents an approach to identify and address potential imbalances between node, place and market potential values to create new economic opportunities—for example, by improving the urban environment around a major transit hub, or by improving public transit service to a booming area. The tool provides a common framework of assessment for urban, transport, and economic planners, thereby facilitating conversations needed for better economic, land use, and transport integration. 143

143

Salat, S. and Ollivier, G. 2017. Transforming the Urban Space through Transit-Oriented Development: The 3V Approach. World Bank, Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/26405

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Source: UN-Habitat. 2012. Economic Foundations for Sustainable Urbanization: A Study on Three-Pronged Approach: Planned City Extensions, Legal Framework, and Municipal Finance. Nairobi. p. 29. http://unhabitat.org/books/economic-foundations-for-sustainable-urbanization-a-study-on-three-prongedapproach-planned-city-extensions-legal-framework-and-municipal-finance/

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Literature / further information: •

• •

UN-Habitat. 2012. Economic Foundations for Sustainable Urbanization: A Study on Three-Pronged Approach: Planned City Extensions, Legal Framework, and Municipal Finance. Nairobi. pp. 19-48 http://unhabitat.org/books/economic-foundations-for-sustainable-urbanization-a-study-on-three-prongedapproach-planned-city-extensions-legal-framework-and-municipal-finance/ Energy Foundation. TOD – Transit Oriented Development in China-A Manual of Land-Use and Transportation for Low-Carbon Cities (in Chinese). www.cabp.com.cn , www.china-building.com.cn World Resources Institute (WRI) – Ross Centre for Sustainable Cities. 2016. TOD Guide for Urban Communities. Embarq. http://www.wrirosscities.org/sites/default/files/TOD_Guide_Urban_Communities_English_EMBARQ.pdf

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Annex 4: Tool CUD 3: Urban design improvements for better urbanity and decentralized land use. What this tool does: This tool aims to create spatial hierarchies. Mixed land use and high densities are key principles that ensures highly varied urban spaces and decentralized land use. How does it work: Urban Growth Boundary: Every city should establish an enforced urban growth boundary (UGB). The UGB should be set based upon a rigorous analysis of ecological sensitivities, environmental capacity, and the efficiency and productivities of various land uses. The boundary can expand beyond the existing urban footprint only if there are no suitable infill locations as indicated by an intensity of urban land use of at least 10,000 residents per square kilometer. Mixed Use: All residential units should be close to at least six kinds of amenities within 500-meter radius of building entrance (amenities include schools, post offices, banks, retails, clinics, activity centres, restaurants, etc.). The job-resident ratio (the number of people employed divided by the number of residents) should be between 0.5 and 0.7 over every commuting district, which should have a spatial area that is no more than 15 km2. Normally, these commuting districts are bounded by physical barriers for pedestrians. Small blocks. Blocks should be less than or equal to 2 hectares and 70% of the blocks should comply with this standard. Exceptions are made for industrial areas. Public green space. Publicly accessible and usable green space should comprise 20-40% of the construction areas (residential area should be at the higher end of this range). All residents should have accessible public space within 500 meters.144 Example: Mixed land-use on ground floor and upper floors generates highly diversified environments.

144

China Development Bank Capital (CBDC). 2015. 12 Green Guidelines. CDBCÂ´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft).p. 24 http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/12-GreenGuidelines.pdf

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Examples of Urban Grid Systems

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/453878468671475262/sent/?sender=305682030866350581&i nvite_code=88c9ad6f7f908ae7bbbc7219677c55bd

The Urban Grid •

•

¨Two systematic, universal versions of a layout model – call them “hybrid” grids – have appeared; one in Barcelona, Spain and the second in Calgary, Canada. One for fixing built-up areas and the other for greenfield development. That the city of Barcelona would propose a model for transformation might have been expected. It has an expansive, regular grid that is under perilous pressure: extremely dense, congested, mired in emissions and all its surface space taken for motorized movement and parking. The only option was to reallocate the available space. And that reassignment is now underway.

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•

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The team of Barcelona planners have started the implementation of the ¨superilles¨ (superblocks) model to the classic Barcelona square grid, (see drawing). The principles underpinning the concept are simple and intuitive: No through motor traffic means that streets at the walking scale (400x400 m) serve as capillaries only; they occupy the lowest rank in the network hierarchy, where circulation essentially stops. They serve the residents of a “quadrant” (or “quartier”) only, are unmistakeably local and, thanks to lighter traffic, can be made narrower, freeing up space for other functions. Full accessibility for active transport within the quadrant: people circulation is switched “on” while motorized transport is “off” by means of looping cars back to its perimeter. This preferential filtering manages the permeability of the quadrant to its residents advantage. Additional switches, such as card-activated bollards and the scheduling for entry, parking and deliveries, would add accuracy and flexibility of the “on-off” switching and refine the filtering. Surface space gained from the circulatory function is then assigned to nature and to recreational/social activities thereby strengthening cohesion within each quadrant. These typical modular layouts are then applied to the entire grid of the city with appropriate modifications for circumstantial conditions.¨145

145

Grammenos, F. 2016. Advancing the Texan City-Building Model. New Geography. 15 December 2016. http://www.newgeography.com/content/005479-advancing-texan-city-building-model

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Quality Space between Residential Buildings â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Loretto Areal, Tuebingen, Germany

Source: DGNB. 2014. DGNB Certification System for Urban Districts. https://issuu.com/manufaktur/docs/131204_dgnb_quartiere_en

Affordable Green Housing for Mannheim, Germany

Source: http://www.dezeen.com/2016/04/14/mvrdv-us-army-barracks-mannheim-germany-traumhaus-affordablelow-cost-housing/

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Suggestions for Design Approaches for Urban Outdoor Areas

Source: China Development Bank Capital (CBDC). 2015. 12 Green Guidelines. CDBCÂ´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft). p.26. http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/12-GreenGuidelines.pdf

What needs to be done to make cities liveable, healthy, safe and sustainable? This is a topic which has been addressed by Danish landscape architect Jan Gehl in his publications: Cities for People. Life Between Buildings, and The Human Scale (a documentary about his life's work). His research and theories have inspired a generation of planners and urbanists who are intent on reclaiming cities for people. Here his most prolific proposals:

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¨1. Stop building "architecture for cheap gasoline." ¨Two of the most pertinent macro issues that city planners can address today are climate change and public health…He attributes the problem to cars and the availability of cheap gasoline, which have dictated city planning for the past six decades. ..

2. Make public life the driver for urban design. In 2009, Copenhagen … enacted a plan called "A Metropolis for People," which was based on Gehl's work. It envisioned what the city should look like in the future. "The city council decided upon a strategy to make Copenhagen the best city for people in the world, and it is interesting to read what their arguments are: We have to walk more, we have to spend more time in public spaces, and we have to get out of our private cocoons more," Gehl says. "This becomes good for society, good for the climate, and good for health. They said that if people spend more time in the public spaces, the city becomes safer. It becomes more exciting and more interesting. And it furthers social inclusion. This is an important part of having a democratic society: having

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citizens who can meet each other in the course of their daily doings, and not only seeing different people on television or on screens."

3. Design for multisensory experiences. "We were created as a walking animal, and our senses have developed for slow movement at about three miles an hour. A good city is something built around the human body and the human senses so you can have maximum use of your ability to move and your ability to experience. That is a very important issue. For many years, we have broken all the rules to make automobiles happy."

4. Make transportation more equitable. Social equity is a great challenge in cities today, which is a by-product of rising demand for real estate and higher land values. This often pushes lower income people farther away from urban centers, where many jobs are located. Gehl argues that access to efficient, affordable, alternative transportation (i.e., not in car form) is essential to promoting equality in cities. "Cars are leftover from another time." 5. Ban cars. "It's no secret that the good days of the automobile are over," Gehl says. "In 2009, we saw the peak of driving in the world, and it's on the way down. The days of the

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automobile as something for everyone in the world are definitely over." To highlight how carcentric design is not an option for megacities approaching total gridlock, Gehl points to Singapore. "There's no more space for roads on that tiny island. In a denser city, with walking and bicycling you can get anywhere quickly," he says. "As far as I'm concerned, that is a much smarter solution in all the growing cities and the big cities than using old technology from 1905 Detroit. Cars are leftover from another time. And all these ideas of self-driving cars will not solve the problem of finding space and having friendly streets. They will just enable more cars to be on each street and that will not be a situation that's good for mankind. It would be good for the auto industry." (adopted from: 5 Rules For Designing Great Cities, From Denmark's Star Urbanist. 11 July 2016. http://www.fastcodesign.com/3061586/slicker-city/5-rules-for-designing-great-cities-from-denmarks-starurbanist;photographs: http://www.archdaily.com/801431/jan-gehl-5-rules-for-designing-great-cities).

Literature / further information: •

• •

•

Energy Foundation. TOD – Transit Oriented Development in China-A Manual of Land-Use and Transportation for Low-Carbon Cities (in Chinese). www.cabp.com.cn , www.china-building.com.cn Gehl, J. and Gemzoe, L. 2008. New City Spaces. Island Press. Washington. 5 Rules For Designing Great Cities, From Denmark's Star Urbanist. 11 July 2016. http://www.fastcodesign.com/3061586/slicker-city/5-rules-for-designing-great-cities-from-denmarks-starurbanist Holeywell, R. 2016. What Makes a Great City? Great Public Spaces. And These 6 Rules. Urban Edge. 3 October 2016. http://urbanedge.blogs.rice.edu/2016/10/03/what-makes-a-great-city-great-publicspaces/#.WH4ITX3NIdo

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Annex 5: Tool CUD 4: Eco-low carbon urban planning methodology. What this tool does: The eco-low carbon (ELC) urban planning methodology was prepared with support from China’s Ministry of Housing and Urban Rural Development (MOHURD) and co-funding from the UK’s Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) Prosperity Fund. Preparation of the methodology was led by European consultants in close collaboration with the China Society for Urban Studies (CSUS). Based on both international and Chinese ELC urban planning best practice, the methodology is aimed at providing clear, practical guidance for ELC urban planning in China. China’s National New Urbanization Plan (2014-2020) issued in March 2014 emphasizes the importance of sustainable development and sets out a clear vision of green eco-low carbon smart development. The process and outcome of urban development is to be changed to create new cities that are resource efficient, green and healthy places people want to live in. This means transforming and evolving the whole urban form – the transport systems and street layouts, the building forms and services, the green and public spaces and the energy infrastructure. The eco-low carbon urban planning methodology that was developed by MoHURD to plan cities that meet the aspirations of the New Urbanization Plan. How does it work: The principle of the ELC approach is to follow step by step the traditional Chinese Planning process and then at each step to suggest the data, analysis and techniques that can be incorporated to the plan that will change the design from a conventional to a low carbon / resource efficient solution. It then sets out the communications for the approval process to get outputs from this new approach accepted at the different administrative levels of government as required. The technical, social and economic factors related to each area are described to help the planner to prepare and get approved a feasible planning application. Consideration is also given to the practicalities of the implementation phase, how the plan will be taken to detailed design how the project will be financed, constructed and finally its performance monitored. Process: This ELC urban planning approach can be broken down into 6 steps •

STEP 1: Socio-Economic and Industrial Development Analysis

•

STEP 2: Background Understanding and Eco-security Pattern

•

STEP 3: Development Strategy Formulation

•

STEP 4: Creating the Plan

•

STEP 5: Detailing Urban Form

•

STEP 6: Financing Implementation and Monitoring

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Low-carbon ecological planning method combined with traditional planning and urban design process

Integrated Activities

Input output process

Source: China Society for Urban Studies (CSUS) and Atkins. 2013. Eco-Low Carbon Urban Planning Methodology. http://www.atkinsglobal.com/en-GB/group/sectors-and-services/services/future-proofing-cities/china

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Designing Green Cities The Green & Smart Guidelines are based on the principle that a few key actions taken by urban planners can help create a great city. The graphic below explains our approach in incorporating good policy design principles into each of the 12 guidelines in order to ensure they are beneficial, measureable and practical. Designed as a tool for cities, the guidelines also provide a quantitative benchmark to help urban planners and others in city government fulfill the criteria. Source: http://plantedcity.tumblr.com/post/139986239429/its-getting-hot-in-here-designing-green-cities

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Cities need to be designed by having people in mind rather than vehicles or highways

https://parksify.com/cities-for-the-people-by-the-people-cd9714f5180c#.20jcqhfsp

Literature / further information: • • • • • •

China Society for Urban Studies (CSUS) and Atkins. 2013. Eco-Low Carbon Urban Planning Methodology. http://www.atkinsglobal.com/en-GB/group/sectors-and-services/services/future-proofing-cities/china Centre for Sustainable Energy (CSE). 2016. Low-carbon neighbourhood planning – A guidebook.CSE. Bristol.http://www.ourneighbourhoodplanning.org.uk/storage/resources/documents/CSE_Low_Carbon_Neig hbourhood_Planning_Guidebook_130715_v3.pdf World Bank. 2016. CURB Tool Climate Action for Urban Sustainability. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/brief/the-curb-tool-climate-action-for-urbansustainability Farr, D. 2007. Sustainable Urbanism - Urban Design with Nature. Wiley. Register, R. 2006. Rebuilding Cities in Balance with Nature (revised edition). Society Publisher, UCLG. 2016. GOLD IV. Co-Creating The Urban Future. The Agenda of Metropolises, Cities and Territories. Fourth Global Report on Decentralization and Local Democracy. Barcelona. https://www.uclg.org/sites/default/files/goldiv_eng.pdf

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