5 water management ec link (5 wm 2018) by Florian Steinberg

Water Management (Water Supply, Waste Water Treatment, Drainage and Flood Management) October 2017

Principal authors Martin Griffiths With contributions by Simon Spooner, Atkins, and Stefan Brueckmann and Dimitra Theochari, Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl,

EC-Link Position Paper Draft Version 1.5 EC-Link Working Papers: edited by Florian Steinberg and Li Chunyan

PREFACE China’s Commitment to Mitigate Climate Change In 2015, China was one of the first Asian countries – besides Japan and South Korea – to come out strongly with a commitment to combat climate change, and to adapt to eventual future impacts. Context. With its population of about 1,300 million people, China is one of the world’s major emitters of greenhouse gases (GHG), and at the same time it is also one of the, most vulnerable countries to the negative impacts of climate change. Commitment. In preparation for the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Meeting (COP21) in Paris, the government of China has announced that its GHG emissions will peak in 2030. Equally, it is committed to reduce by 2030 by 60-65% the intensity of its carbon usage in relationship to its gross domestic product (GDP), compared to 2005 levels. It will take on the responsibility to increase substantially its forest cover, and will ensure that by 2030 some 20% of its energy requirements will be covered by renewable energy. Actions. The country’s measures will include mitigation of its contributions to GHG emissions, and it will introduce adaptations measures to cope with negative impacts of climate change in food production, protection of its population, and in climate-proof infrastructure. China aims at biding climate change agreements under the COP21. The international community sees the proposed measures as ambitious but achievable. Since several years, China has started with low-carbon development. Today it is working towards a fully-fledged program of green development of its economy.

Eco-Cities and Climate Change China’s activities to create eco-cities must be seen as part of its contributions to low-carbon development with aim to mitigate climate change. Among the various support mechanisms which exist, to support low-carbon development, the Ministry of Housing, and Urban-Rural Development (MoHURD), is being supported by the European Union (EU) through the Europe-China Eco-Cities Link Project (EC Link). Background. The main objective of the EC Link project is to serve as a support mechanism to the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development to implement its sustainable lowcarbon urbanization agenda. The project will support the Ministry in 4 strategic areas: 1) Demonstrate best approaches to implement low carbon solutions by introducing appropriate urban planning tools. Best practice low carbon planning will be identified in both Europe and China and made available nation-wide to municipal governments. Advanced planning tools will be deployed at the local level with the support of the project, Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

with a view to refining proposed low-carbon planning models and to scaling them up across Chinese provinces. 2) Serve as testing ground for innovations in specific low-carbon policies (e.g. energy performance labelling for buildings, intelligent transport systems, smart cities, GIS planning tools, eco city labelling schemes) and technologies (in the 9 sectors selected by the project: compact urban development, clean energy, green buildings, green transportation, water management, solid waste treatment, urban renewal and revitalization, municipal financing, green industries). 3) Improve Chinese Municipalities' potential to finance low carbon solutions and notably their ability to attract private sector financing in the form of public private partnerships. The EC Link will support MoHURD to define innovative financial schemes, support feasibility studies and the formulation of finance and investment proposals, better coordinate and leverage investments undertaken by EU Member States, or to link projects to European financing institutions (e.g. European Investment Bank) and to European companies. 4) Establish knowledge networks and test the functionality of the support mechanism by leveraging, scaling up, and integrating transformative actions supported by the policy and technology tools developed under the project. The Knowledge Platform will demonstrate how strategic objectives have been translated at local level and how results have been integrated at national level for the definition of long-term best practices. Results will be shared via training and capacity building at local level, and via the knowledge platform set-up by the project at national and international level.

The EC Link Position Papers. MoHURD and the EC Link Technical Assistance Team (TAT) have identified 9 specific sectors for the deployment of technology based tool boxes. In all of these, Europe has a lot of knowledge and best practice to contribute to support the deployment of these solutions in China. These 9 sectors include:         

compact urban development, clean energy, green buildings, green transportation, water management, solid waste treatment, urban renewal and revitalization, municipal financing, green industries.

Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

MoHURD’s Department of Science and Technology, EC Link’s direct counterpart, has issued targeted objectives for the deployment of policy, research and development and engineering agendas. Users and Target Groups of Position Papers. The EC Link position papers will be utilized by personnel of the cities which are covered by MoHURD’s eco-city programme. This covers technical and managerial staff of these cities. Additionally, at central government level, MoHURD and other ministries may also make use of these position papers for the purpose of staff training and briefing. Since these position papers are also going to be published in the EC Link website (www.eclink.org), also the general public is invited to make use of these position papers.

Content of Position Papers Sector overview: The EC-Link position papers provide an overview of each thematic sector (compact urban development, clean energy, green buildings, green transportation, water management, solid waste treatment, urban renewal and revitalization, municipal financing, green industries). It begins with a state-of-the-art review of the sector, and presents sector challenges as development objectives. Sector policy analysis: As part of the sector overview, the EC-Link position papers provide sector policy analysis, and a comparison of EU and Chinese sector policies. Comparison of European and Chinese experiences: The comparison of real-life EU and Chinese project experiences are used to illustrate innovations and progress in the respective sector. Both for EU and Chinese cases, there is an overview of good practices, technologies and products, performance indicators, technical standards, verification methods, and lessons learnt from best eco-city practices. Tools: This position paper contains three primary tools. Throughout the text of this position paper there are flags are being provided to reference these primary tools ( Tool WM 1,  Tool WM 2,  Tool WM 3) At the end of the position paper there is an Annex with short summary descriptions of these primary tools. The primary tools for Water Management (WM) are:

  

Tool WM 1: Water Safety Plans. Tool WM 2: Waste Water Options. Tool WM 3: Sponge City Planning.

It is understood that these primary tools, do contain numerous secondary tools which cannot be elaborated in the context of this position paper. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

Position Paper - a living document: This position paper will be updated based on city-level real-life project experiences in the EC-Link pilot cities. Possible misconceptions: These position papers shall not be mistaken for ‘cook books’, or ‘how to do’-manuals like we know them from other subject fields (car repair, computer servicing, etc.). Urban development is too complex for such an approach. Upon request of MoHURD these position papers are addressing good practices and seek to provide tools for complex issues of green urban development.

DISCLAIMER The illustration of EC Link Position Papers was only possible through the use of a wide range of published materials, most of these available online. The position paper authors have utilized illustrations which originate from internet sources, and these are reproduced here with proper citation and reference. The use of these materials is solely for the purpose of knowledge sharing, without any commercial use or intentions.

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CONTENTS

2 3

Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... 8 List of cases......................................................................................................................10 List of boxes .....................................................................................................................12 List of illustrations .............................................................................................................13 List of tables .....................................................................................................................14 Glossary of terms..............................................................................................................15 THEMATIC BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES .............................17 1.1 Introduction and Structure ......................................................................................17 1.2 Water Sensitive Urban Design ...............................................................................17 1.3 Evolution of a water sensitive city ...........................................................................18 1.4 Climate Change and the need for adaptation .........................................................19 1.5 Water a scarce resource ........................................................................................21 1.6 Water Security........................................................................................................25 1.7 Water and Energy ..................................................................................................26 1.8 Water and food.......................................................................................................27 1.9 Water, Energy Food Nexus ....................................................................................28 1.10 Water Supply..........................................................................................................29 1.11 Waste Water Treatment .........................................................................................33 1.12 Drainage and Flood Control ...................................................................................34 1.13 Summary of Key Issues and Concepts ...................................................................43 PERSPECTIVES FROM EUROPE ...............................................................................44 2.1 Sector Overview .....................................................................................................44 WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION .......................................................................66 3.1 Sector Context and Policy Analysis ........................................................................66 3.2 Standards - Public Health – Drinking Water ...........................................................68 3.3 Technologies ..........................................................................................................71 3.4 Indicators – Water Supply ......................................................................................73 3.5 Best Practice – Water Supply .................................................................................78 3.6 Outlook - Drinking Water ........................................................................................92 WASTE WATER TREATMENT ....................................................................................95 4.1 Sector Context and Policy Analysis ........................................................................95 4.2 Technologies Waste Water Treatment ...................................................................98 4.3 Standards – Waste Water Treatment ...................................................................109 4.4 Indicators – Waste Water Treatment ....................................................................117 4.5 Outlook – Waste Water Treatment .......................................................................119 SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE AND FLOOD CONTROL .........................................123 5.1 Sector Context .....................................................................................................123 5.2 Technologies - Surface Water Drainage and Flood Control ..................................147 5.3 Standards – Sustainable Urban Drainage ............................................................172 5.4 Best Practice - Surface Water Drainage and Flood Control ..................................175 5.5 Lessons Learnt - Surface Water Drainage and Flood Control...............................181 5.6 Outlook – Sustainable Drainage ...........................................................................182

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PERSPECTIVES FROM CHINA .................................................................................184 6.1 Sector Overview and Policy Analysis ...................................................................184 6.2 Waste Water Treatment .......................................................................................210 6.3 Surface Water and Flood Control .........................................................................218 6.4 Economic and Administrative Issues ....................................................................246 6.5 Eco-City Key Performance Indicators ...................................................................253 7. FUTURE ISSUES AND WATER OPTIMISATION IN ECO-CITIES .............................256 8. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................258 ANNEXES ..........................................................................................................................261 Annex 1: Tool WM 1 - Water Safety Plans. ..................................................................261 Annex 2: Tool WM 2 - Waste Water Options. ...............................................................265 Annex 3: Tool WM 3 - Sponge City Planning................................................................269

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Abbreviations ADB

Asian Development Bank

BMA

Bathroom Manufacturers Association

BOT

Build-Operate-Transfer

BSAP

Baltic Sea Action Plan

BWD

Bathing Water Directive

CDBC

China Development Bank Capital

CIRIA

Construction Industry Research and Information Association

CIS

Common Implementation Strategy

CLG

Communities and Local Government

CNG

Compressed Natural Gas

CSUS

Chinese Society for Urban Studies

Defra

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

EC Link

Europe-China Eco-Cities Link Project

EEA

European Environment Agency

European Union

FCO

Foreign Commonwealth Office

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GEF

Global Environment Facility

GHG

Green House Gases

GIZ

German International Cooperation Agency

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IRBM

Integrated River Basin Management

IUWM

Integrated Urban Water Management

IWRM

Integrated Water Resource Management

JICA

Japan International Cooperation Agency

LFRMS

Local Flood Risk Management Strategy

LID

Low-Impact Development

MBR

Membrane Bioreactor

MoHURD

Ministry of Housing, and Urban-Rural Development

MSA

Motorway Service Area

MSFD

Marine Strategy Framework Directive

NRW

Non-Revenue Water

OECD

Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development

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PPP

Public-Private Partnerships

PSA

Pressure Swing Adsorption

RRC

Rivers Restoration Centre

SPS

Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement

SWITCH

Sustainable Water Improves Tomorrow’s Cities Health

SAGIS

Source Apportionment GIS system

SSSI

Special Scientific Interest

SuDs

Sustainable Urban Drainage System

SWMP

Surface Water Management Plan

THP

Thermal Hydrolysis

ToD

Transit-oriented development

UKWRIP

UK Water Research and Innovation Partnership

UNDP

United Nations Development Program

USEPA

US Environmental Protection Agency

UWWTD

Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive

WHO

World Health Organization

WFD

Water Framework Directive

WHO

World Health Organization

WRI

World Resources Institute

WSSCC

Water Supply and Sanitation Collaboration Council

WS&D

Water Scarcity & Droughts

WSP

Water Safety Plan

WSUD

Water Cycle and Water-Sensitive Urban Design

WTO

World Trade Organisation

WWTP

Wastewater Treatment Plant

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List of cases Case 1 Nijmegen, The Netherlands: A Dutch City Makes Room for Its River and a New Identity ................................................................................................................................................... 35 Case 2 Copenhagen, Denmark: Rain Water Harvesting Project Awarded .................................. 46 Case 3 Denmark: Danish Treatment Plant Wins International Plaudits ....................................... 52 Case 4 Copenhagen, Denmark: Water catchment for a livable, climate resilient city .................. 52 Case 5 EU: EU response to the European Drought 2003 ........................................................... 53 Case 6 Barcelona, Spain: Costs of Barcelona Drought 2007-2008 ............................................. 54 Case 7 EU: EU Floods Directive ................................................................................................. 55 Case 8 Cardiff, UK: How a polluted bay became one of Europe’s best waterfronts .................... 57 Case 9 EU: Integrated Catchment and Water Quality Management ........................................... 60 Case 10 United Kingdom: Engaging water customers in water saving ........................................ 87 Case 11 United Kingdom: Water Efficient House of the Future – Waterwise 2014...................... 90 Case 12 Swindon, UK: Planning Effective Water Efficiency Initiatives ........................................ 91 Case 13 EU: Producing Energy from Wastewater. ................................................................... 102 Case 14 Stockholm, Sweden: Wastewater Treatment Plant ..................................................... 104 Case 15 EU: Sludge to power – Converting Human Waste to Energy ...................................... 104 Case 16 United Kingdom: Thames Water - Struvite/Phosphate recovery ................................. 109 Case 17 EU: EU Bathing Water Directive ................................................................................. 112 Case 18 Berlin, Germany: Switching Digital Control Technology in a Waste Water Treatment Plant ......................................................................................................................................... 114 Case 19 Valencia, Spain: Smart Water Management ............................................................... 115 Case 20 Berlin, Germany: Sponge City- Preparing for a hotter climate ..................................... 126 Case 21: Stuttgart-Ostfildern, Germany: Prototype Drainage Project in Clay Soil Area Scharnhauser Park ................................................................................................................... 129 Case 22: Stuttgart, Germany: Arkadien Winnenden - Residential Community .......................... 134 Case 23 Germany: Smart and Multifunctional Infrastructural Systems for Sustainable Water Supply, Sanitation and Stormwater Management (INIS) - Research Program ......................... 138 Case 24 Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Resilient Rotterdam – Ready for the 21st Century ....... 146 Case 25 London, United Kingdom: Sustainable Urban Drainage Management (SuDs) in London Assessment tools ..................................................................................................................... 150 Case 26 Hampshire, United Kingdom: Residential Use of SUDS ............................................. 159 Case 27 Worcestershire, United Kingdom: Motorway Service Station ...................................... 160 Case 28 Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Managing surface water in regeneration project .............. 163 Case 29 St Ives Cornwall, United Kingdom – Managing flows from a large car park area ........ 164 Case 30 The Netherlands: Different Measures to Improve Drainage ........................................ 164 Case 31 London, United Kingdom: Multi Value Benefits of Mayes Brook Restoration............... 165 Case 32 Coleshill, United Kingdom: Restoring Meanders to Straightened Rivers – New channel meandering through open fields ............................................................................................... 168 Case 33 Coleshill, United Kingdom: Restoring Meanders to Straightened Rivers – New Channel meandering either side of existing channel ............................................................................... 169 Case 34 London, United Kingdom: Thames River Restoration – near Millennium Dome in central London ..................................................................................................................................... 171 Case 35 Copenhagen, Denmark：Why Copenhagen is building parks that can turn into ponds ................................................................................................................................................. 175 Case 36 London, United Kingdom: Development of a Wetland Park in Dagenham .................. 179 Case 37 Chongqing: Urban–Rural Infrastructure Development Demonstration II Project .......... 199 Case 38 Qingdao, Shandong Province: Water-Energy Nexus in Qingdao............................... 199

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Case 39 Xiangyang, Hubei Proince: Innovative Sludge-to-Energy Plant Makes a Breakthrough in China ........................................................................................................................................ 210 Case 40 Decentralized wastewater treatment and effluent reuse.............................................. 215 Case 41 China: The Sponge Cities Concept ............................................................................. 224 Case 42 Changsha, Hunan Province: Meixi Lake – an eco-city in construction phase .............. 228 Case 43 Tianjin, China: Tianjin Cultural Park (TCP): Water Sensitive Urban Design and Sponge Cities ........................................................................................................................................ 231 Case 44 ChangChun, China: Xin Kai River Masterplan - Watershed Study, River Design Masterplan and Flood Prevention and Control Scheme ............................................................ 234 Case 45 Beijing, China: Guo Rui - Exclusive high-end mixed use development with double system of water collection, cleansing and circulation ................................................................ 239 Case 46 Shenzhen, Guangdong Province: The Shenzhen concession .................................... 248

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List of boxes Box 1: United Nations Definition of Water Security ..................................................................... 25 Box 2: Energy opportunity for water and wastewater utilities ...................................................... 26 Box 3: Push, pull and nudge ....................................................................................................... 88 Box 4: CIRIA Research Project, RP993, Demonstrating the multiple benefits of SUDS .............. 93 Box 5: Monitoring requirements and assessment methodology for bathing water quality in the 2014 season ............................................................................................................................. 113 Box 6: The European Union's 7th Environment Action Programme .......................................... 120 Box 7: The Precautionary Principle – EU definition ................................................................... 121 Box 8: What is flood risk management? .................................................................................... 124 Box 9: Attributes of a Drainage Strategy ................................................................................... 147 Box 10: SUDS management considers the following steps: ...................................................... 150 Box 11: What Retrofitting measures could look like .................................................................. 163 Box 12: Why is a Maintenance Plan such an important part of a drainage submission? ........... 174 Box 13: What should a SUDS Maintenance Plan Include? ....................................................... 174 Box 14: The Pitt Review - High Level Recommendations, following the flooding in 2007 .......... 181 Box 15: Extract from McKinsey Report – Water ........................................................................ 186 Box 16: Summary of Key points from ADB report .................................................................... 198 Box 17: The Need for Sponge City Development: South China Faces Worst Floods in Decades ................................................................................................................................................. 221

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List of illustrations Figure 1: Water Cycle and Water-Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD)............................................ 17 Figure 2: Evolution of water sensitive cities ................................................................................ 19 Figure 3: Aggregated Global Gap Between Existing Accessible, Reliable Supply and 2030 Water Withdrawals ................................................................................................................................ 22 Figure 4: Business-as usual Approaches will not meet demand for raw water ............................ 24 Figure 5: United Nations on Water Security ................................................................................ 25 Figure 6: UK Reduction in energy used for household water heating - (TWh) ............................. 26 Figure 7: UN Water, Energy, Food Nexus................................................................................... 28 Figure 8: EU Water Blueprint for Water Security ......................................................................... 44 Figure 9: EU Blueprint for Water Security – High level process ................................................. 45 Figure 10: River basins management deals with upstream and downstream situations .............. 57 Figure 11: Water Supply Demand Balance ................................................................................ 67 Figure 12: Water Supply Demand Balance with potential eco-city impacts ................................. 67 Figure 13: Water Supply Network – Schematic Diagram ............................................................ 71 Figure 14: Water Supply Networks ............................................................................................. 72 Figure 15: Process Diagram for drinking water treatment plant ................................................... 73 Figure 16: Water Supply Achievements in England .................................................................... 74 Figure 17: Compliance with Numerical Standards ...................................................................... 75 Figure 18: – UK Drinking Water Customer reports of dirty water to Water Companies................ 76 Figure 19: Percentage failure rate of E.coli and Enterococci tap water samples 2005–2014....... 76 Figure 20: Thames Water leakage and future targets ................................................................ 77 Figure 21: UK Leakage statistics ................................................................................................ 78 Figure 22: Flow diagram giving the key components in the preparation of a water safety plan ... 80 Figure 23: Average Water Use per Person per Day .................................................................... 84 Figure 24: Example water costs from around the world. ............................................................. 85 Figure 25: UK Water use in the home – itemised figures ............................................................ 87 Figure 26: Waterwise Marque - Water Appliances and Water labelling ....................................... 89 Figure 27: The European Water Label ........................................................................................ 89 Figure 28: Waterwise a UK Water Efficiency NGO ..................................................................... 90 Figure 29: UK National Ecosystems Assessment, 2011 ............................................................. 94 Figure 30: Population connected to wastewater/sewerage networks .......................................... 97 Figure 31: Urban Pollution Management – Planning Procedure .................................................. 99 Figure 32: Simplified Sewage Treatment Works Processes ...................................................... 100 Figure 33: EU Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive overview of process and links to receiving waters. ...................................................................................................................................... 110 Figure 34: UK Safe Sludge Matrix............................................................................................. 116 Figure 35: Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive – Interactive Map ..................................... 117 Figure 36: The pie-chart summarizes the type of treatment applied in the wastewater treatment plants of 586 big cities - 2011 data. .......................................................................................... 118 Figure 37: Percentage of coastal bathing waters in the European Union per compliance category ................................................................................................................................................. 119 Figure 38: Long-term transition/intermediate targets related to environmental policy ................ 120 Figure 39: Making Space for Water .......................................................................................... 145 Figure 40: Integrated Sewerage Strategy for water and sewerage company. ........................... 149 Figure 41: Key benefits associated with SUDS ......................................................................... 158 Figure 42: SUDS Management Train ........................................................................................ 159 Figure 43: Framework for Retrofitting SUDS ............................................................................ 162 Figure 44: Pressures and Services Provided by River Systems ................................................ 166 Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

Figure 45: River Restoration Case Studies – Thames Region and London............................... 170 Figure 46: SUDS – Site assessment to reduce sediment loss during construction .................... 173 Figure 47: Public Engagement in the WFD Process ................................................................. 177 Figure 48: Communication and Engagement in local flood risk management, CIRIA ................ 178 Figure 49: Framework for Communication and Engagement in Flood Risk ............................... 178 Figure 50: Pitt Review 2008, Scope and lessons ...................................................................... 182 Figure 51: Water demand in China’s super-cities...................................................................... 189 Figure 52: Mainstreaming Water Safety Plans in ADB Water Sector Projects ........................... 197 Figure 53: shows the relative cost of water supply .................................................................... 247

List of tables Table 1: Drinking Water Microbiological Parameters................................................................... 69 Table 2: Drinking Water Chemical Parameters ........................................................................... 70 Table 3: Access to Water in China ............................................................................................ 196 Table 4: Access to Sanitation in China ..................................................................................... 196 Table 5: Proposed Water Management KPIs ........................................................................... 254

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Glossary of terms Adaptation

Climate change impacts make it necessary to plan and prepare for mitigation through adaptation measures, such as improved drainage and flood control.

Climate change

The impact of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other polluting human action on the world’s nature is known as climate change which is impacting all aspects of the planet’s life.

Ecological footprint

The geographical manifestation of human life is through the so-called ecological footprint. This footprint of urban areas is sizeable larger than the built-up areas of cities

Grey water

Rain water, flood water and partially contaminated household water (light contamination from washing). Grey water needs to be distinguished from more heavily contaminate waste water (’black water’).

Integrated river basin management (IRBM)

The integrated management of river beds overs all sources of surface and underground waters which belong to a specific river basin. The IBRM approach covers all aspects of clean water and contaminated waters.

Integrated urban water management (IUWM)

IUWM is concerned with the management of conventional and nonconventional sources of water supply, including the economic and financial aspects of the management system.

Low-impact development (LID)

Low-impact development describes a soft approach to flood management, or flood control. It stands for a soft approach to flood management which favour ’making for flood waters’ over the hard approach of building dams and dikes. LID is the more technical term of what today is called the ’sponge city’ approach [see ’sponge city’, below].

Non-revenue water (NRW)

NRW is the water which gets lost due to leakages in the water supply system, or which is not being charged for due to inefficiency in the water management system of a water provider.

Public-private partnerships (PPP)

PPPs in water supply are a modality of ownership and service management which is increasingly utilized to ensure better service efficiency through private sector efforts.

Sponge city

The ’sponge city’ term, adapted from the US, is popularized in China to stand for integrated measures for water harvesting, reuse of semi-treated grey waters, drainage and flood control which follow the LID approach.

Sustainable Urban Drainage System (SuDS)

SuDS is the British version of the LID or sponge city approach.

Waste water

’Black waters’ from toilets and industrial (or commercial activities) which require treatment.

’Water Ten’ Plan

Chinese government’s plan of 2015 to improve efficiency of waste resources and combat water pollution.

Water sensitive urban design

WSUD describes urban design and engineering solutions to implement

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(WSUD)

the LID, SuDS or sponge city approach.

Watershed management

Watershed management is management (IWRM), above.

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equal

integrated

water

resource

1 THEMATIC BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES 1.1

Introduction and Structure

For the purposes of this position paper the water sector can be considered in terms three main elements: 

Water supply,



Waste water treatment, and



Drainage and flood control.

Each component will be explored in three core chapters below. However it is necessary to understand the key interrelationships and opportunities to integrate traditional engineering solutions with the opportunities created by water sensitive urban design and management. At the earliest stage of city planning or retrofitting and refurbishment of city areas, we recommend that the concepts of Water Sensitive Urban design are considered alongside conventional engineering requirements for the safe supply of drinking water, removal of waste water and the integration of draining and flood control requirements. 1.2

Water Sensitive Urban Design

Water Sensitive Urban design concepts are directly aligned with the Sponge City concepts being developed in China and the Sustainable Urban Drainage (SUDS) concepts from the EU and America. Figure 1 demonstrates the progression that can be achieved if water sensitive urban design (WSUD) is developed. Figure 1: Water Cycle and Water-Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD)

Source: Water By Design, Healthy Waterways initiative, Australia http://waterbydesign.com.au/ Note: WSUD = water-sensitive urban design

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Water Sensitive Urban Design – Overview The challenges of delivering effective, efficient and reliable water and wastewater services are well understood. Urbanisation, climate change, environmental protection, expectations from the public and the quest for cost effective infrastructure delivery and operation are some of the potential dilemmas that trouble the water industry. Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD), originally an Australian concept, recognises and attempts to overcome challenges by integrating water into urban development and planning from the earliest stages to maximise the opportunities for sensitive water cycle management. WSUD can be synonymous with sustainable urban water management and integrated water cycle management, which encourages “big picture” holistic thinking about the water cycle. This includes managing potable (drinking) water, surface water, wastewater (sewage and greywater), as well as natural watercourses. It is this integrated approach and the consideration of water supply and wastewater that differentiates WSUD from how sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) are defined in the UK. WSUD is a seductively simple concept, but complex in delivery as it focuses on the relationship and synergies between urban design and development, liveability, ecosystems, landscape, and the urban water cycle. It challenges our traditional approach to water management by recognising that community values and sustainability should inform urban design decisions and water management practices. They should be an integral part of urban planning processes, not simply “tagged-on” at the end. The objectives of WSUD are to:  Protect and enhance natural systems within urban environments o manage the effects of surface water on watercourses o to control the generation and treatment of sewage o to consider opportunities for daylighting culverts and urban channels  Manage water resources and abstractions to maintain groundwater levels and surface water flows  Promote and deliver water conservation o reduce the use of potable water o promote the harvesting of rainwater o promote the use of greywater and effluent recycling  Integrate surface water management into developments o protect water quality o manage flood risk o improve biodiversity and urban design  Protect public health by providing liveable, resilient and adaptable urban developments. Source: Shaffer, P. 2011, The Role of Sensitive Urban design in the UK, a briefing note. UK Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA). www.susdrain.org

1.3

Evolution of a water sensitive city

In this context it is helpful to understand the evolution of water supply and sanitation in cities. Most follow a broad pattern which is well represented in Figure 2. The central premise of IWRM and water security are reflected in the concept of the “watersensitive city.” The water-sensitive city adopts a holistic approach to its environmental resources, it supports actions of water conservation at the level of its source, at the process of its utilization, and during its treatment. The water sensitive city will establish a target to capture water from nonconventional resources, and hereby reduce its use of primary water sources. Used water will be treated and as much as possible recycled for future uses. The eco-city concepts can catalyze the transition to water sensitive city configurations shown on the right hand side of the diagram. Many European cities lie somewhere between the ‘Drained city’ and the ‘Water cycle city’. Emphasis is increasingly on societal amenity use and environmental protection. London and Paris are close to this. Copenhagen and Stockholm have Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

probably moved further towards the ‘ Water cycle city’. Many EU cities aspire to the ‘Water sensitive city, but few can achieve this without significant investment and behaviour change. However, careful planning of new towns and suburbs can enable the move towards the ‘Water cycle city’ and WSUD, SUDS and Sponge city concepts all contribute to this. An overall understanding of this progression from ‘Water Supply city’ towards a ‘Water sensitive city’ is helpful when retrofitting eco-concepts and establishing current status of existing cities. Figure 2: Evolution of water sensitive cities

Source: Evolution of the Water Sensitive City (Ashley et al, 2013; adapted from Brown et al, 2009) http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/75856/1/Ashley%20et%20al.pdf

1.4

Climate Change and the need for adaptation

A changing climate, growing population and migration into cities pose new and enhanced risks. As many European and Chinese cities are close to coastal areas, rivers and large water bodies, the chances of becoming affected by severe rainfalls and extreme weather situations are very pertinent. The threat of climate change impacts is serious. Hence it is very important for coastal cities to increase their preparedness and resilience to the possibilities or regular large scale flooding. In the case of European cities, even inland cities have been affected in recent years by flooding caused by extreme weather events. China, on the other hand has seen frequent inundations in coastal cities, and very damaging typhoons happening practically on an annual basis. In this context the concept of absorptive capacity, the ”sponge city”¨has been introduced to illustrate such capacity.

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Flooding in the Heart of Berlin-Wilmersdorf, Germany June 2017 Cloud Burst

June 2017 Cloud Burst

Unprecedented Masses of Water

Stranded Cars – Inundated Basements

Photographs: B.

Krüger

Much emphasis has been placed on climate change mitigation. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2014 Report1, suggests the following challenge: ‘Stabilizing temperature increase to below 2°C relative to pre-industrial levels will require an urgent and fundamental departure from business as usual. Moreover, the longer we wait to take action, the more it will cost and the greater the technological, economic, social and institutional challenges we will face.’ The following boxes highlight IPCC statements from the 2014 report

IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

We should expect a global temperature increase of around two degrees under all scenarios. Assuming this increase in temperature, most water scenarios expect lower rainfall, and more extreme events including floods and droughts.

Climate change adaptation is required and when adaptation is considered water issues come to the fore. Increased water security is key to this adaptation strategy. Risk and Trend Definitions A global risk is an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, can cause significant negative impact for several countries or industries within the next 10 years. A trend is defined as a long-term pattern that is currently taking place and that could amplify global risks and/or alter the relationship between them. World Economic Forum 2015

1.5

Water a scarce resource

Water is a scarce and undervalued resource. The 2030 Water Resources Group has produced a useful overview of the global water issues facing society. This publication, Charting Our Water Future - Economic frameworks to inform decision-making 2 , highlights the challenges and opportunities. They make it clear though evidence and economic analysis, that current practice is not working and more sustainable approaches must be taken. ‘Constraints on a valuable resource should draw new investment and prompt policies to increase productivity of demand and augment supply. However, for water, arguably one of the most constrained and valuable resources we have, this does not seem to be happening. Calls for action multiply and yet an abundance of evidence shows that the situation is getting worse. There is little indication that, left to its own devices, the water sector will come to a sustainable, costeffective solution to meet the growing water requirements implied by economic and population growth.’ ‘Assuring sufficient raw or “upstream” water resources is a precondition for solving other water issues, such as those of clean water supply in municipal and rural systems, wastewater services, and sanitation—the “downstream” water services. Yet the institutions and practices common in the water sector have often failed to achieve such security. A lack of transparency on the economics of water resources makes it difficult to answer a series of fundamental questions: What will the total demand for water be in the coming decades? How much supply will there still be? What technical options for supply and water productivity exist to close the “water gap”? What resources are needed to implement them? Do users have the right incentives to change their 2

2030 Water Resources Group. 2009. Charting Our Water Future Economic frameworks to inform decision-making. http://www.mckinsey.com/client_service/sustainability/latest_thinking/charting_our_water_future Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

behaviors and invest in water saving? What part of the investment backlog must be closed by private sector efforts, and what part does the public sector play in ensuring that water scarcity does not derail either economic or environmental health?’ ‘By 2030, under an average economic growth scenario and if no efficiency gains are assumed, global water requirements would grow from 4,500 billion m3 today (or 4.5 thousand cubic kilometers) to 6,900 billion m3. As Exhibit 1 shows, this is a full 40 % above current accessible, reliable supply (including return flows, and taking into account that a portion of supply should be reserved for environmental requirements).’ ‘The quantity represented as accessible, reliable, environmentally sustainable supply — a much smaller quantity than the absolute raw water available in nature — is the amount that truly matters in sizing the water challenge.’ Figure 3 shows the sources and use of water now (2010) and in 2030. Figure 3: Aggregated Global Gap between Existing Accessible, Reliable Supply and 2030 Water Withdrawals

Source: 2030 Water Resources Group. 2009. Charting Our Water Future Economic frameworks to inform decisionmaking. http://www.mckinsey.com/client_service/sustainability/latest_thinking/charting_our_water_future

‘Similarly, a business-as-usual supply build-out, assuming constraints in infrastructure rather than in the raw resource, will address only a further 20 % of the gap (Exhibit II). Even today, a gap between water demand and supply exists—when some amount of supply that is currently unsustainably “borrowed” (from non-replenishable aquifers or from environmental requirements of rivers and wetlands) is excluded, or when supply is considered from the perspective of reliable rather than average availability.’ Figure 4 shows the need for innovation in order to close this 40% gap.

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Water Loss management will be critical to climate change adaptation ¨Water loss management is one of the most important issues facing water suppliers around the world. The Sustainable Development Goals have made poverty alleviation and access to safe drinking water a political priority. Targets on providing safe drinking water as a basic human right aim to ensure everyone can access a safe water supply. Unfortunately, the reality is that many of the most vulnerable around the globe still struggle to find a reliable supply of safe drinking water.

Water shortages are being experienced in virtually every corner of the globe. The problems are usually attributed to climate change, natural droughts, poor infrastructure maintenance, population growth, lack of funding, lack of experienced management – the list is endless. In reality, there is rarely one single factor causing the problem and it is often a combination of different factors that lead to water shortages. As populations grow, demand on water resources increases, which under natural flood and drought events will already result in periods of surplus and periods of shortage. … Efficient use of water resources is critical. Even without the aggravating influence of climate change, the impacts of drought on water supplies in many areas have been increasing due to population growth and land use change. This makes it critical that the available water is used efficiently and that water losses are reduced. Every town and city has its own unique combination of problems. Some cities have high water pressures; others have no water pressure and may experience intermittent supply. Some cities have ample financial resources to repair leaks within hours; others have no funds to buy clamps and leaks may run for months, if not years before they are repaired. Some cities deal with pipes that are over 100 years old; others have new systems only 10 or 20 years old. These present unique challenges for water professionals around the world. … Over the past 20 years the [IWA Water Specialist Loss] group has documented a range of issues and solutions, in an attempt to help water supply managers to reduce losses and improve water use efficiency. Some of the key issues include: 

Standard IWA Water Balance: The IWA has developed and encourages the use of a standard water balance as the first step in addressing water losses.  Burst and Background Estimate Methodology: The IWA has taken the initial recommendations from the UK water industry involving burst and background losses, to Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

understand and analyses leakage in water supply systems, and creating the ‘BABE Methodology’, a virtual “science” on the analysis and management of leakage.  Commercial and Physical Losses: The IWA recommends that commercial and physical losses are identified and, if possible, quantified in a standard approach. Both forms of losses are important and require different approaches to reduce them.  Pressure Management: The IWA stresses the importance of managing water pressures in supply systems, highlighting the fact that pressure drives leakage. The concept of fixed and variable area leaks helps explain why leakage from certain pipe materials (asbestos cement, plastic) is highly sensitive to pressure, while leakage from metal pipes tends to be less sensitive to pressure.  Sectorising: Large areas should be split into smaller areas to help identify high leakage zones. Original recommendations of around 2000 connections to a zone have been relaxed and larger zones are now often considered to be appropriate.  Minimum Night Flow Monitoring and Analysis: Analyzing the minimum night flows into an area have long been the backbone of any water loss management programme. Despite advances in computer and communication technologies and leak detection methods, the monitoring of night flows remains one of the most significant water loss management approaches. Tackling water loss is one of the critical solutions that can enable communities to better adapt to climate change and variability, amongst other water challenges. As a community of water professionals we must drive the agenda that enables this to happen, so that the ambitions of the Sustainable Development Goals and the human right to water can be achieved.¨ Source: McKenzie. 2016. Water Loss management will be critical to climate change adaptation. International Water Association. 27 July 2016. http://www.iwa-network.org/water-loss-management-critical-climate-change-adaptation/

Figure 4: Business-as usual Approaches will not meet demand for raw water

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1.6

Water Security

In order to reduce risks to cities and infrastructure, effective strategies to increase water security are essential. Long term strategic water planning is required, taking into account current knowledge and projected future scenarios. The UN provides a useful overview of water security in its Analytical Brief, 20133. The UN definition of water security is given in the Box 1 below. Box 1: United Nations Definition of Water Security Water security is defined as the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution and water-related disasters, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability. Source: UN-Water Analytical Brief on Water Security and the Global Water Agenda, 2013 http://www.unwater.org/topics/water-security/en

Water security risks include; too much water in terms of floods; too little water in terms of drought; and poor water quality in terms of pollution and other contamination, chemical or microbiological. The UN graphic below provides a useful graphic summary. Figure 5: United Nations on Water Security

Source: UN, 2013 Water Security & the Global Water Agenda, A UN-Water Analytical Brief http://www.unwater.org/downloads/watersecurity_analyticalbrief.pdf

UN, 2013 Water Security & the Global Water Agenda, A UN-Water Analytical Brief http://www.unwater.org/downloads/watersecurity_analyticalbrief.pdf Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

1.7

Water and Energy

The provision and treatment of water consumes significant energy and a significant amount of effort has been made to reduce energy usage and even to recover energy from water processes. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), currently, about 8% of U.S. energy demand goes to treating, pumping, and heating water, which is enough electricity to power more than 5 million homes for an entire year. Water saving by industry has been shown to significantly reduce energy, often a significant element of cost, especially if water is heated. Water saving in households also significantly reduces energy, as heating water comprises over 25% of electricity bills4 . The US EPA estimates that water heating accounts for 19 % of US home energy use5. In many respects there is good news in that significant progress has been made in the UK in reducing energy use for water heating. In a United Kingdom, 2012, Housing Energy Fact File6, it was estimated that the UK’s use of energy to provide hot water in homes has fallen dramatically since 1970. This is a quiet success story. Modelling suggested there was a 30% cut in energy used for hot water, in spite of the increase of more than two-fifths in the number of households (see figure 6). Unsurprisingly, this led to a shrinkage in the proportion of household energy used for water heating – down from nearly 30% to just 18%*. This is attributed to more efficient boilers, increased hot water tank insulation and pipe lagging. Figure 6: UK Reduction in energy used for household water heating - (TWh)

Source: UK Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2012, United Kingdom housing energy fact file https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/201167/uk_housing_fact_file_2012.pdf

Box 2: Energy opportunity for water and wastewater utilities “Energy costs for water utilities are large, and growing. Energy is a significant cost for many water utilities, and costs are growing as more energy-intensive forms of water supply, including desalination, are being used. Energy is typically the second-largest utility budget item in developed countries, after labour. In many developing countries, energy can account for 70% or even more, of annual costs. But water and wastewater utilities can generate and 4

UK Energy Saving Trust - http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/domestic/domestic/saving-water US EPA – Water and energy saving http://www.epa.gov/greenhomes/ConserveWater.htm 6 UK Department of Energy and Climate Change, 2012, United Kingdom housing energy fact file https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/201167/uk_housing_fact_file_2012.pdf 5

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export energy – in multiple forms. Water utilities can generate significant flows of energy. There are many examples of water and wastewater utilities successfully implementing Distributed Energy Resources (DER) projects, to offset costs, improve reliability or meet other targets such as greenhouse gas emissions reduction. Biogas (digester gas), co-digestion of food waste, heat generation (incineration of sludges), wind- and hydro- turbines, solar photovoltaic, tidal and geothermal, algal systems and fuel cells are all practical examples that have been proven to work. However, current generation of renewable energy by water and wastewater utilities is a fraction of its long-term potential. In the United States, municipal water supply consumed 40 billion kWh electricity, and wastewater treatment 30 billion kWh in 2012: collectively 2% of total national electricity use. Yet the thermal, chemical and hydraulic energy content of raw wastewater alone in the United States is ~150 billion kWh, with 80% of this as waste heat, and 20% as chemical energy. Globally, a number of wastewater treatment plants, including Morgental in Switzerland, are capitalizing on all these forms of energy, and expect to generate more than five times than the plant itself consumes. Water utilities are well placed to connect to electricity, gas and heat grids. Water and wastewater utilities are often good candidates for Distributed Energy Generation, and integration with electricity, gas and heat grids. They often own large amounts of contiguous land, have high (and movable) energy demand, and have the ability to provide other services to the energy grid. However, this integration is slow. Of the approximately 837 biogas generating facilities in the U.S. in 2013, only 35% generate electricity from the gas and only 9% sell electricity back to the grid. Integrating with – not just connecting to – the electricity grid is key. Successful integration of DER systems into the electric power grid can be problematic when the grid is not designed to accommodate high penetration of DER. To realize fully the value of DER and to serve consumers reliably, integrated planning – and an Integrated Grid – is needed. Lack of co-ordination, is creating a wide set of barriers to integration and a raft of additional challenges exist including policy instability, guarantees, reliability, and maintenance responsibility. Identifying best options, and navigating regulatory requirements, tariffs and other barriers is a significant – and exciting – challenge for water and wastewater utilities. The lack of integration is broader than DER, with limited “integrated planning” across the water and energy sectors more generally. This is partly due to significant inter-sectoral differences, and a lack of a common language also hinders solutions – who in the water industry talks of drop function or voltage harmonic distortion? Another limiting factor is the global paucity of integrated training across the water-energy divide.” Source: International Water Association. 2017. How big is the distributed energy opportunity for water and wastewater utilities? http://www.iwa-network.org/how-big-is-the-distributed-energy-opportunity-for-water-andwastewater-utilities/?utm_source=IWA-NETWORK&utm_campaign=81fa376770EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2017_04_03&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_c457ab9803-81fa376770158918657#ptlink.fid=23829&isc=1&did=bookmark.197e9f6235779668f7105c129686f7e8ea931394&ctp=article

1.8

Water and food

Decisions relating to allocating water for food production in agriculture, whilst satisfying the needs of the world’s rapidly growing cities are particularly difficult. Currently about 60% of water that falls as rain is used in food production. Generally this is a very inefficient use of water. Most water used in agriculture is lost, as this water transpires back into the air and is no longer available to the water and river systems.

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There is significant scope to rebalance this inefficient use of scarce water, through improving agricultural methods and technologies. 1.9

Water, Energy Food Nexus

Significant research work is underway to understand and develop strategies to optimize between these conflicting demands. The UN summaries this in the following text and in Figure 7. ‘Water, food and energy are inextricably linked security concerns and form a critical nexus for understanding and addressing development challenges. Water, energy and food are strategic resources sharing many comparable attributes: there are billions of people without access to them; there is rapidly growing global demand for each of them; each faces resource constraints; each depends upon healthy ecosystems; each is a global good with trade implications; each has different regional availability and variations in supply and demand; and each operates in heavily regulated markets (Bazilian et al., 20117). In this way, water, food and energy are fundamental to the functioning of society, closely interlinked (see Figure 7), and associated with deep security concerns.’ Figure 7: UN Water, Energy, Food Nexus

Source: Adapted from Water – A Global Innovation Outlook Report, IBM, 2009 http://www.ibm.com/ibm/gio/media/pdf/ibm_gio_water_report.pdf

Bazilian, M., H. Rogner, M. Howells, S. Hermann, D. Arent, D. Gielen, P. Steduto, A. Mueller, P. Komor, R. Tol and K. Yumkella, 2011. “Considering the Energy, Water and Food Nexus: Towards an Integrated Modelling Approach”, Energy Policy 39(12): 7896-7906 Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

1.10 Water Supply 1.10.1 Conventional Water Supply In terms of public health and sanitation, the provision of piped water to households and industry can be transformational for societies. Conventionally this is provided by municipalities developing water infrastructure to abstract water from rivers or groundwater, adding some preliminary screening or filtration treatment and developing water supply pipe networks. Initially this may be to public taps, and latterly into individual homes. Treatment facilities are progressively improved and in the EU the normal situation is to provide drinking water quality to homes. Because of this early evolution water supply to established cities was seen as a stand-alone engineering issue. However, pressures to over abstract from scarce water resources, water quality deterioration in rivers and groundwater, combined with high cost has made this unsustainable in some cases. This has given rise to the more integrated thinking seen in the WSUD and Sponge city concepts. The section 1.10.2 below serves to consider the history of water supply and sanitation and enables us to project forward towards more sustainable situations.

1.10.2 From traditional water supply to non-conventional methods. From a perspective of eco-city development, water supply cannot be limited to the simple supply of water in a specific location, its affordability or quality of service. From a perspective of resource efficiency, it is paramount to go beyond access to safe water – as a key requirements for safe and healthy living – towards maximizing the available water resources. Since drinking water has become a finite resource, the generation of water from non-conventional sources such as rainwater harvesting or recycling of water, i.e. the use of renewable and sustainable resource, will assume a new dimension in the future development of eco-cities. Rapid urbanization and climate change have impacted the quality of water resources and the regularity of supply and access. Demand-side issues involve more than just the provision of potable water: with increased population comes increased demand for water especially in the agriculture and industry sectors.

1.10.3 The water cycle Water supply cannot be considered in isolation. Waste water treatment, drainage and flood control (or ¨stormwater¨management), as well as solid waste management need to be seen as integral elements of water management. The lack of wastewater collection and treatment (often combined with poor or absent legislative provisions) has detrimental impact on water supply. Poor practices and the lack of enforcement of appropriate wastewater collection and treatment exacerbate the contamination of water supply which, in turn, contributes to the spread of waterborne diseases that pose health risks to users.

1.10.4 Systems approach for the water sector. Today´s vision of the water sector, is very much influenced by the concept of integrated water resource management (IWRM). IWRM is a systems-based approach to managing water resources. It considers watershed (also termed ´river basin´) management and water harvesting

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at various points, and how this impacts the health and access to the water resource. In addition to the environmental dimensions, IWRM also considers social and economic factors. Tool WM 1 Principles for Water Wise Cities: A Shared Vision

Humanity cannot thrive and survive without water. Cities cannot function without water. A simple, but powerful reality. And yet, the pace of planning, innovation, governance, stakeholder collaboration and level of citizen engagement is slow and insufficient to satisfy the demands of increasingly complex urban water challenges. In this context, the International Water Association has developed the Principles for Water Wise Cities aiming at inspiring change amongst urban and local leaders and catalyzing a shift in the current water management paradigm to make our cities more resilient and livable. … Rapid urban population growth, industrialization, climate change-related risks, conflicts and natural disasters, problems in the renewal of existing assets and infrastructure, are just some of the factors unleashing unprecedented challenges to current urban water management and systems. Traditional paradigms are obsolete. And these challenges are exacerbated by the circumstances that exist in developing economies – how do we move from slums with no basic services, to sustainable urban water in Cities of the Future? Urban and local leaders are witnessing, from the front lines, the increasing demands and challenges this new situation is creating. Uncertainty in the provision of water; improving living conditions, especially in slums and hazardous areas; ensuring safety from floods and natural disasters, while at the same time raising awareness for action so that local communities use water in a sustainable way. All these issues that urban and local water leaders are facing on a day-to-day basis have a profound impact on human well-being, health and safety, the environment, and the development and prosperity of cities. Urban leaders are challenged to go beyond enabling basic service provision and move towards resource stewardship, facilitating the active engagement of communities and extending their foresight beyond city boundaries to the basins that serve them. …

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The Principles of Water Wise Cities Framework – four levels of Action and five Building Blocks for urban stakeholders to deliver Sustainable Water in their Cities

The Principles for Water Wise Cities outlines a framework to assist urban leaders and water professionals to develop and implement their vision for sustainable urban water and resilient planning and design in their cities. The ultimate goal of the Principles is to encourage collaborative action, underpinned by a shared vision, so that local governments, urban professionals and individuals actively engage in addressing and finding solutions on urban water management challenges. Andrews, L. 2016. The IWA’s Principles for Water Wise Cities: Developing a Shared Water Vision. 20 June 2016. International Water Association. http://www.iwa-network.org/the-iwas-principles-for-water-wise-cities-developing-ashared-water-vision/, and: http://www.iwa-network.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Principles-for-water-WiseCities_Final-Draft_v3.pdf

Water solutions can drive resilience and the sustainable growth of cities “The resilience of cities is complex and relies on many components working together. The ability to recover and thrive after a shock or a slow change, relies on the capacity to adapt and react with four interrelated components: the city’s leadership and strategies; people’s health Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

and well-being; the organization of society and economy; and the infrastructure and environment of the city. Where does the water cycle fit into these components? Water contributes to all of these pillars of resilience in one way or the other and, simultaneously, all of these components of resilience contribute to making urban water sustainable. Water is seldom a priority for investments in a city and it’s not high on households’ budgets, potentially because water was there even before the city existed. So water is understandably taken for granted, and water related risks are ignored until a disaster strikes. Our cities have grown fast in the last decades and need to reconnect to water, invest in it, in order to drive resilience and sustainable growth. The new global sustainability agenda, the 17 Sustainable Development Goals, have been agreed by national governments, but cities will be key local implementers to achieve national targets. Water has its own specific goal, but water is also recognized as being critical to achieving many of the other goals. Their implementation is either impacting or being impacted by water. The New Urban Agenda that will emerge from the Habitat III meeting later this year, and which will guide international efforts around urbanization for the next 20 years, provides guidance on all aspects of a city. Yet the way water is impacting or impacted by each component underpinning the resilience of cities is diluted in the outcome document. The IWA Principles for Water-Wise Cities, by contrast, were developed to support cities in understanding what sustainable urban water means, and to develop their water-wise city vision that will contribute to resilience and sustainable growth. They are also instrumental in conveying that water is a lot more than “basic services” for a city. The Principles provide a means to inspire each actor of the city to contribute to sustainable urban water, each in their own sphere of influence. People, “water-wise communities”, are the overarching level of action of the Principles. We need each actor of the city to be water-wise if we want to achieve sustainable urban water, an essential building block for resilience and sustainable growth.” Source: Fletcher, M. Widforss, S. 2016. Water solutions can drive resilience and the sustainable growth of cities. IWA-network. 21 September. http://www.iwa-network.org/water-solutions-can-drive-resilience-and-the-sustainablegrowth-of-cities/

1.10.5 Ecological footprint. For eco-cities, depending on the environmental profile of each city, IWRM is likely to extend beyond city boundaries and potentially across multiple administrative areas. It considers the ecological or environmental ”footprint“ of this sector. It also highlights the importance of institutional and legislative conditions since these do affect actions upstream and downstream. Environmental impacts, for instance by large scale water usage of a city, will be felt in its surroundings, and will influence the ecological ¨footprint¨of a city. 1.10.6 Safe and secure water supply. ¨Water security is a significant challenge for cities in the 21st century. Water security refers to the ability of an area to access, retain, and maintain acceptable quantity and quality of water to support its full range of activities. Such requirements are becoming increasingly more difficult as the impacts of population growth, city growth, and environmental degradation are experienced. The five key dimensions for Asian cities are household security, economic water security, urban

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water security, environmental water security, and resilience to water-based disasters.8 Together, these capture the multiplicity of water in people’s lives. Water security also highlights the importance and challenge of providing water that is “fit for [its] purpose.” IWRM is an approach that considers how a city or urban area fits within a wider context (catchment area) and what factors influence water security, thus enabling appropriate planning and mitigation measures to be developed.¨9 Tool WM 1 1.11 Waste Water Treatment 1.11.1 Environmental Sanitation. Environmental sanitation or management encompasses disposal and treatment of waste waters. This requires an integrated management approach at neighbourhood or city level. At the household level there is of course also the safe management of human excreta, which includes the provision of toilet facilities, in combination with education and behavior change promoting hygienic practices (e.g., hand washing) to reduce fecal–oral diseases. 1.11.2 Centralized versus decentralized systems. Many cities have become oriented towards ¨high-tech¨ solutions of centralized collection and treatment systems. Water supply on the one hand, and waste water collection (sewerage system) and treatment are two sides of the same coin. Urban areas which lack the necessary infrastructure to collect, treat, and dispose of wastewater face numerous human and environmental health problems. Environmental sanitation is necessary for proper management of urban environments and to improve and protect human health as well as the natural environment. Tool WM 2

1.11.3 Water for sanitation. Water is an essential ingredient for sanitation practices, while waste water collection is required to enable capture, treatment, and disposal of waste in appropriate manner. It will ensure water sources are not contaminated and environments not degraded. For a holistic approach to water and sanitation, there needs to be simultaneous development of water supply and a (centralized) sewerage system or means of (decentralized) collection of wastewater (septic tanks/septage system). Consideration must also be given for the type of facilities which are to be introduced, centralised or decentralised. Population, density, topography, the natural environment, and potential cost of the investment are factors that will influence this decision. Tool WM 2 1.11.4 Public toilets. In many cities in China, public toilets are provided but may not have sufficient water supply, are inappropriately located, are not maintained, and/or may not be suitable for use by women (particularly when dark). Similarly, many households that share one toilet may face similar problems with water supply and waste collection. Good sanitation practices are essential the environmental health performance of cities. 10 1.11.5 Inadequate collection of waste water. Inadequate collection of waste water has a very strong impact on the natural environment. More so, the discharge of untreated effluent and industrial waste has strongly detrimental effects on the biology of watercourses and their ecosystem. Contaminated freshwater sources, degraded aquatic environment, and eutrophication through excessive nutrient discharge are all outcomes of poor wastewater and surface water management. Coupled with these challenges, inadequate 8

Baird, A., and Esteban, T.A.O. Green Cities: A Water Save Future. In: Lindfield, M. and Steinberg, F. (eds.). 2012. Green Cities. Manila: Asian Development Bank. Urban Development Series. Manila. pp. 218-261. http://www.adb.org/publications/green-cities 9 ADB. 2013. Asian Water Development Outlook 2013. Measuring Water Security in Asia and the Pacific. Manila. 10 Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2016. From Toilets to Rivers - Experiences, New Opportunities and Innovative Solutions. Manila. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/186078/toilets-rivers.pdf Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

drainage and preparedness for heavy rain events often means that wet season and instances of high rainfall are compounded by poor or absent solid waste management and exacerbate the challenges that cities face in managing water resources, as it impacted by through localized flooding, contamination of water resources (through effluent combined fresh water). Tool WM 2 1.11.6 Improving the fiscal base for waste water treatments. In many Asian cities, waste water treatment is not adequately covered because, the costs for waste water treatment are not covered by revenues. Many cities do not collect (adequate) fees for waste water. The opportunity to charge for this through combined billing with the water bills often times is lost, due to politically minded decisions. Improving the fiscal base and capacity for wastewater collection must be considered in the context of green cities as functional and wellmaintained sewerage system represents a fundamental building block of green city development. Tool WM 2

1.12 Drainage and Flood Control 1.12.1 Drainage and flood control the third leg of the water sector. Drainage and flood control is the final and important element of the water sector. The capacity of a city to cope with rainfall, drain effectively, and maximize opportunities for stormwater collection and reuse is essential for the long-term sustainability of cities. Drainage and flood water management is multifaceted and closely linked to adequate infrastructure. Inadequate drainage and flood control is most pronounced in urban areas that own rivers, and are located on or near floodplains or low-lying areas. Many Chinese cities have these characteristics and, as a consequence, many citizens, often in poorer neighbourhoods, are regularly impacted during seasonal rains and heavy storm events. 1.12.2 Negative impacts of rapid urban development. Rapid urbanization, incomplete urban planning and building control, and constraints of institutions and in fiscal capacity of cities means that many cities do not have adequate drainage and flood control systems in place. Conversion of land to urban uses through building construction and provision of infrastructure such as roads means pervious surfaces become less able to absorb when concrete and asphalt are used. This affects the flow of water and drainage capacity of an area. Often, drainage systems are absent and rain or flood water is not directed, captured, treated, and discharged appropriately. As a result, localized flooding occurs, and the quality of water resources diminished as a result of pollution. Tool WM 3 1.12.3 Maintenance of drainage and flood control infrastructure. Similarly, drainage systems can be poorly maintained and clogged with waste, thus becoming ineffective. Drainage and flood control need to be considered within a holistic system of water management that recognizes the influence of urban drainage within the wider context of watershed management, flood control, environmental health, and water treatment and reuse. 1.12.4 Sustainable Drainage Systems. The so-called sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) are a sequence of water management practices and facilities designed to drain surface water and to mimic natural drainage. Practices refer to improved land use planning and location of potentially polluting activities, water harvesting, and improved urban design and building standards. Facilities refer to the use of permeable surfaces; green infrastructure such as wetlands, filtration and infiltration systems, swales, and detention basins; and underground storage. The SuDS management (SusDrain) is an approach that aims to maximize the benefits of SuDS and to incrementally manage pollution, flow rates, and volumes of water runoff. The SuDS management considers the following steps:

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 

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Prevention: Considers site design, land use planning, and pavement and built area surfaces to reduce and manage runoff and pollution. Source Control: Runoff managed as close as possible to the source—management techniques include the use of green roofs, rainwater harvesting, permeable paving, and filter strips. Site Control: Runoff managed in a network across a site or local area through the use of swales, detention basins, etc. These public realm solutions also fulfil a multifunctional green infrastructure role. Regional Control: Downstream management of runoff for whole site/catchment, such as retention ponds and wetlands. 11 Tool WM 3

1.12.5 Resilience of cities to climate change. As many European and Chinese cities are close to coastal areas, rivers and large water bodies, the chances of becoming affected by severe rainfalls and extreme weather situations are very pertinent. The threat of climate change impacts is serious. Hence it is very important for coastal cities to increase their preparedness and resilience to the possibilities or regular large scale flooding. In the case of European cities, even inland cities have been affected in recent years by flooding caused by extreme weather events. China, on the other hand has seen frequent inundations in coastal cities, and very damaging typhoons happening practically on an annual basis. In this context the concept of absorptive capacity, the ¨sponge city¨has been introduced to illustrate such capacity. Case 1 Nijmegen, The Netherlands: A Dutch City Makes Room for Its River and a New Identity Nijmegen is turning a flood-control project on the River Waal into an opportunity to redevelop its inner core. The Dutch city of Nijmegen is building a flood-control channel for the River Waal (left). In the process, it is also creating an island for recreation as well as prime property that can be developed into a new heart of the city. In this city along the River Waal, this year marks the 20th anniversary of a scary event that quite nearly turned into a catastrophe. Heavy rains upstream in France and Germany, where the river is known as the Rhine, sent a surge of water toward Nijmegen. The city of 170,000 people is protected by dikes. But as the water rose and fear built that the dikes would break, many people and cattle in and around Nijmegen evacuated. Luckily, the dikes held, and after several harrowing days, the water level dropped again.

Asian Development Bank. 2015. Green City Development Toolkit, Manila. http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/173693/green-city-dev-toolkit.pdf Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

The people of Nijmegen aren’t taking their good luck for granted. With climate change expected to bring more intense storms like the one in 1995 (and a previous one in 1993), the city is embarking on a massive flood-control project. That may be expected in the Netherlands, a lowlying country where most homes are built behind protective dikes (There’s a saying here that “God created the world and the Dutch created Holland”). But even here, the approach underway in Nijmegen is unusual, and filled with ideas that river cities anywhere can learn from. There’s two reasons why. First, Nijmegen is not simply raising or strengthening its dikes, which might seem like the obvious solution. Instead, it is moving some dikes back from the river, essentially creating a much wider floodplain. Into that floodplain, excavators and cranes are carving a new channel for the River Waal. That channel is broadening the river—and giving future floodwaters more room to flow without threatening the city. The second reason is that all this engineering work is creating a whole lot more than flood control. Construction of the new channel also means that a new island is being made in the middle of the Waal. The island’s elevation is high enough in some spots that it will be possible to construct a whole new section of the city here, along with parks and nature areas. Source: Reimerink, L. 2017. A Dutch City Makes Room for Its River and a New Identity. Cityscope. 15 May 2017. http://www.citiscope.org/story/2015/dutch-city-makes-room-its-river-and-new-identity

1.12.6 The ”sponge“ city. For thousands of years city planners have engineered water into submission. This is the core of modern infrastructure, a concept derived from ancient times. Collecting water somewhere on the outskirts of the city, sending it with gravity into the city, and when it has been utilized, we put into the ground, in sewers and send it away. Most cities are designed according to this concept. However, surplus rain water is not kept and stored, and stormwater – another form of surplus water was kept neither. In the ¨sponge¨city approach, surplus water is stored for consumption, and flood waters are diverted to storage, and possible later uses.12 Tool WM 3 In China a current major theme is the development and implementation of ‘Sponge City’initiatives. This is driven by MoHURD and central government grants are provided for cities that apply for and win ‘Sponge City’ Status. Other terms are used to describe and align similar initiatives in Europe and around the world. Sponge City = Low impact design and development Eco-city design Sustainable Urban Drainage = SUDSs Water Sensitive Design Making Space for Water Blue Space – Green Space Linked to Water saving in homes and industry Water recycling and reuse Energy saving

Low Impact Development in other countries – examples from USA and Europe Oyster-Tecture of New York Harbor: A wetland concept for the harbor´s macro-region 12

Building Sponge City: Redesigning LA for Long-Term Drought. http://www.npr.org/2015/01/22/378844314/buildingsponge-city-redesigning-la-for-long-term-drought Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

This image depicts SCAPE’s Oyster-tecture (2010) concept for New York Harbor: a living breakwater seeded with oysters that diminishes waves and harnesses the biotic processes of shellfish to clean millions of gallons of Harbor water, and stewarded by community schools. The project has since been refined and ultimately received $ 60 million in funding from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development in 2015. It’s currently advancing through a permitting and construction phase off the shore of Staten Island. Image by Kate Orff/SCAPE. Source: Thompson, G.F.; Steiner, F.R., and Carbonnell, A. 2016. Nature and Cities – The Ecological Imperative in Urban Design and Planning, Landlines. Winter 2016, pp. 8.9. https://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/dl/3621_2970_Land%20Lines%20Winter%202016.pdf

Low Impact Development for MIT´s Stata Centre, Cambridge, Massachusetts designed to provide bio-filtration and preventing runoff from entering the municipal drain system

Laurie Olin designed this system to capture, filter, clean and recycle storm water for use in MIT’s Stata Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts. A landscape basin containing plants, sand, and boulders, set atop a very large Silva cell storage basin, provides bio-filtration and prevents runoff from entering the municipal drain system. Illustration by OLIN. Source: Thompson, G.F.; Steiner, F.R., and Carbonnell, A. 2016. Nature and Cities – The Ecological Imperative in Urban Design and Planning, Landlines. Winter 2016, p. 10. https://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/dl/3621_2970_Land%20Lines%20Winter%202016.pdf

Stormwater management over an underground parking lot. Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia

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Andropogon’s Lubert Plaza, at Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia, was built over an underground parking lot. The plaza effectively manages stormwater onsite, including air conditioning condensation from the adjacent buildings, through infiltration, capture, treatment and reuse as irrigation. Image by Andropogon. Source: Thompson, G.F.; Steiner, F.R., and Carbonnell, A. 2016. Nature and Cities – The Ecological Imperative in Urban Design and Planning, Landlines. Winter 2016, p. 13. https://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/dl/3621_2970_Land%20Lines%20Winter%202016.pdf

Water Inlets in Piazza San Pietro, Rome

Right: in the heart of Piazza San Pietro in Rome, one is reminded of the hydrological cycle in the midst of Gian Lorenzo Bernini’s (1598-1680) timeless design for Vatican City-and of how Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

we depend on water, which sustains life and helps to sculpt our landscapes. Great urban design reminds us of such fundamental processes. Photograph by Frederick R. Steiner, January 18, 2014. Source: Thompson, G.F.; Steiner, F.R., and Carbonnell, A. 2016. Nature and Cities – The Ecological Imperative in Urban Design and Planning, Landlines. Winter 2016, p. 16. https://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/dl/3621_2970_Land%20Lines%20Winter%202016.pdf

1.12.7 Green infrastructure. Green infrastructure in urban areas includes addressing issues (such as drainage) that traditionally have been addressed through hard engineering solutions (capture, redirection, and discharge). Green infrastructure considers natural processes and, in the case of drainage, sustainable drainage systems to incorporate the use of permeable materials and landscaping. This response may be integrated into open space networks including walkways and cycle paths. Responding to climate change and reducing vulnerability of communities are key considerations for provision of resilient infrastructure and are included within the understanding of green infrastructure. Green, resilient infrastructure considers both hard and soft engineering solutions. Green infrastructure basics and benefits. “Green infrastructure is any practice that uses or replicates natural systems to achieve a desired outcome. This includes green roofs, bio swales, and rain gardens. Green roofs replicate meadows to retain water and restore habitats on the top of buildings. Green infrastructure does not exclusively mean vegetation. Permeable surfaces are considered green infrastructure as well, because they handle rainfall the same way natural landscapes do. Green infrastructure looks to nature for advice, restoring and replicating ecological systems to create human benefits. This may seem obvious, but it is a radical departure from our dominant approach to infrastructure (often called “grey infrastructure”). To understand the difference, let’s consider stormwater. Grey infrastructure is designed to quickly divert water. This approach views water as a hazard to be swiftly dealt with. With green infrastructure, water is a resource. It is valuable for keeping landscapes and waterways healthy. With green infrastructure, climate challenges are reframed as opportunities. Green infrastructure not only reduces the load on aging grey infrastructure, but also provides opportunities to nourish plants and provide drinking water. Sounds pretty good, doesn’t it? … Green infrastructure helps solve city challenges: 

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When it’s hot, we can rely on green infrastructure to reduce the urban heat island. Plants absorb solar energy for photosynthesis and provide cooling through evapotranspiration. Vegetation can also shade buildings and nearby surfaces, which decreases the demand for cooling. Cooler environments and less energy production means less smog. Green infrastructure is very effective at lessening the direct and indirect health effects of hot weather. When it rains, we can retain and infiltrate water where it falls with green infrastructure. The retained rainfall infiltrates the ground, increasing the groundwater supply. This reduces runoff, which limits the pollution of waterways and prevents combined sewer overflows. Combined sewers are the infrastructure responsible for collecting both sewage and surface runoff. When the volume of runoff exceeds the sewer’s capacity, overflows occur. This contaminates cities with sewage, creating environmental and human health hazards.

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When we need a dose of nature, we can seek out green infrastructure projects that remediate unused urban areas. These spaces provide habitats for native species, as well as relaxation and recreation opportunities for people. Green space has been shown to decrease stress, reduce crime, and promote community cohesion. Green infrastructure can provide the dose of nature you need and can also revitalize a community. Proximity to green space has been shown to increase rent premiums and improve tenant satisfaction. When greenhouse gas emissions are high, we can sequester emissions with green infrastructure. Plant matter and soil media use and store carbon dioxide. Green infrastructure improves energy efficiency and reduces cooling loads, driving down emissions created by energy production.”

Source: Brown, H. 2016. Green Infrastructure: Back to Basics. Insight 9 August. http://insight.gbig.org/greeninfrastructure-back-to-basics/

Green Infrastructure

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/265079128041498093/sent/?sender=305682030866350581&invite_code=a8ade14ef0f5 e01f3b9c831db2d24e11

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What would an entirely flood-proof city look like? Along with the explosion of the motorcar in the early 20th century came paved surfaces. Rainwater – instead of being sucked up by plants, evaporating, or filtering through the ground back to rivers and lakes – was suddenly forced to slide over pavements and roads into drains, pipes and sewers. Their maximum capacities are based on scenarios such as 10-year storms. And once they clog, the water – with nowhere else to go – simply rises. The reality of climate change and more frequent and intense downpours has exposed the hubris of this approach. As the recent floods … show, it’s not just the unprecedented magnitude of storms that can cause disaster: it’s urbanisation. A recent survey of global city authorities carried out by the environmental non-profit CDP found 103 cities were at serious risk of flooding. With climate change both a reality and threat, many architects and urbanists are pushing creative initiatives for cities that treat stormwater as a resource, rather than a hazard.

Rainwater travels through the self-cleaning, pollution-reducing sidewalk before going on to feed surrounding plants. In this way, 80% of rainfall is diverted from the sewage system, and the road no longer floods, says Jay Womack, a senior landscape architect at Huff & Huff, which was commissioned to design the street. “We try to create porosity and permeability so that water can move in the ways that it moves in the hydrological cycle,” says Womack. “It’s very simple, but it’s very difficult for people to grasp, because we’ve not designed like that in a century.” Masterplan for Yangming Archipelago in Changde, Hunan province

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Changde’s ‘Eco-Boulevard’, in dry conditions (left) and wet (right)

[The new approach means working] “with nature, rather than treating it as a threat – which means letting water flow where it wants, and using floods as a catalyst for more flexible urban development. He talks of relieving crowding in cities by building amphibious architecture on flood plains, or augmenting a city with pop-up floating structures on waterways – concert halls, stadiums, even rescue and relief units during disasters. “For us,” he says, “it’s the wetter, the better.” Source: Knight, S. 2017. What would an entirely flood-proof city look like? 25 September. In: The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/sep/25/what-flood-proof-city-china-dhaka-houston?CMP=twt_aenvironment_b-gdneco

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1.13

Summary of Key Issues and Concepts

Key issues to be addressed Water Supply Water security (and quality) Water balance Pollution control of water resources through waste management Over-exploitation of groundwater resources Remedial actions (e.g. desilting of rivers) Financial and institutional capacity Non-conventional sources of water supply Energy efficiency of water pumping system

Key concepts recommended

Watershed management Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) Watergy Modular Planning Water-sensitive city/Water-sensitive urban design (¨sponge city¨) Rainwater harvesting Implementation models (PPP, BOO, BOOT, DBOM)

Smart water metering Revenue collection Waste Water Treatment Waste water treatment and reuse Control of pollution levels of discharged waters Land Availability Financial and Institutional capacity Safety of women and girls in public toilets Financial and Institutional capacity Revenue collection Drainage and Flood Control Absorptive capacity of drainage infrastructure Management of cleaning of drains Climate change adaptation Financial and Institutional capacity Urban greening and absorptive capacity Urban design, building materials, and impervious surfaces

Environmental sanitation Recycling and waste water reuse Waste-to-energy (sludge utilization) PPP implementation models Centralized versus decentralized facilities Modular planning

treatment

Watershed management Rainwater harvesting Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) Making space for water (the sponge city concept) Grey water reuse

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2 PERSPECTIVES FROM EUROPE 2.1 2.1.1

Sector Overview EU Sector Guidance

The EU has developed an extensive portfolio of water initiatives, water strategies, legislation and guidance, research findings and other information. 13 This section will outline the strategic importance of water to urban development. It will set the important goal of increased water security for China’s cities and the need to use water within sustainable limits. In a changing climate with rapidly increasing urban populations water security is becoming a key consideration. 2.1.2

EU Water Blueprint for Water Security

The water framework directive has been updated and focused on new water resource challenges by the EU Water Blueprint 2012. The EU describes the Water Blueprint as follows: “The achievement of EU water policy goals is threatened by a number of old and emerging challenges, including water pollution, water abstraction for agriculture and energy production, land use and the impacts of climate change.” 14 Figure 8: EU Water Blueprint for Water Security

Source: EU, 2012, Blueprint for water security. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/pdf/blueprint_leaflet.pdf

The EU’s policy response to these challenges is the 2012 Blueprint to safeguard Europe’s water resources. The overall objective of the Blueprint is to improve EU water policy to ensure good quality water, in adequate quantities, for all authorized uses. The Blueprint encourages a move 13

The following sites provide links to much of the EU guidance from DG Environment and other key reference sites in the Commission.  http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/index_en.htm  http://eurlex.europa.eu/search.html?qid=1433820926086&OBSOLETE_LEGISUM=false&type=named&SUM_2_COD ED=2006&SUM_1_CODED=20&name=summary-eu-legislation:environment  http://www.euwi.net/files/MSF14_final_report.pdf Other information is available from EU Member States and a wide range of organisations including governmental institutes, research organisations, NGOs and commercial sources. Much of the information provided in this position paper is sourced from this information source. All has been referenced and the sources provided which will allow access to the original documents. 14 European Union, 2012, Blueprint for water security. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/pdf/blueprint_leaflet.pdf Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

towards what we call ‘prevention and preparedness’. It will ensure a sustainable balance between water demand and supply, taking into account the needs of both people and the natural ecosystems they depend on. Figure 9: EU Blueprint for Water Security – High level process

Source: EU, 2012, Blueprint for water security http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/pdf/blueprint_leaflet.pdf

The Blueprint’s policy recommendations will be based on the results of the following ongoing assessments.  Analysis of the WFD’s river basin management plans: giving information on how Member States have improved their water management.  Review of the 2007 policy on water scarcity and drought: o including water efficiency measures. o The evolution of water resources:  Water’s vulnerability to climate change and man-made pressures such as urbanization and land use.  Outcome of the fitness check of EU freshwater policy: o A gap analysis to identify any uncovered areas and assess the adequacy of the current framework. The results of these reviews, together with other EU studies, provide knowledge to help better implementation of the EU water policy.

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Case 2 Copenhagen, Denmark: Rain Water Harvesting Project Awarded

“The Danish project “The Soul of Nørrebro” won the Nordic Council of Ministers’ Nordic Built Cities Challenge. The challenge is aimed at the development and visualization of Nordic innovative solutions for livable, smart and sustainable cities. Led by the architectural lab SLA and Ramboll, the project “The Soul of Nørrebro” was revealed as the winner of the urban development competition, the Nordic Built Cities Challenge. The project aims at managing rainwater from cloudbursts by the implementation of 'blue-green infrastructure' in the Hans Tavsen's Park in Copenhagen. When implemented the project will transform the park into a series of multifunctional rainwater catchment basins from which the excess rainwater is lead to the adjacent Korsgade street into The Copenhagen Lakes. On its way, the water might also be purified biologically by city park greenery in Korsgade street. The project has been developed in a close collaboration with users and local citizens, and it might be an international beacon for climate adaptation in cities, since it brings together the right technical and social aspects.” Source: Ramboll. 2016. Urban Development Project in Copenhagen Wins Nordic Award. 16 November. https://stateofgreen.com/en/news/urban-development-project-in-copenhagen-wins-nordic-award; See also: The City of Copenhagen. 2012. The City of Copenhagen Cloudburst Management Plan 2012. Copenhagen. http://en.klimatilpasning.dk/media/665626/cph_-_cloudburst_management_plan.pdf; and COWI. 2011. Copenhagen Climate Adaptation Plan 2025. Copenhagen. http://www.cowi.dk/menu/project/Vandogmiljoe/spildevand-ogklimatilpasning/Klimatilpasning/Documents/CopenhagenCCAplan-juli2011.pdf

Copenhagen Cloudburst Masterplan. The case studies of “The Soul of Nørrebro” and “Enghaveparken” are part of the Masterplan that Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl developed together with Ramboll Water Copenhagen and the Municipality of Copenhagen, which have been awarded with an ASLA Award of excellence in the field of Analysis & Planning.

Background. “Following a 2011 Cloudburst that caused damage of approximately USD $1 billion, climate change mitigation solutions became an urgent focus for the city of Copenhagen. The flood’s consequences transcended jurisdictional boundaries, necessitating a truly Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

collaborative effort be established between planners, engineers, economists, citizens, utility providers, politicians, and investors to integrate Climate Adaptation within regulatory planning. The result is the Copenhagen Cloudburst Formula, a flexible, universally adaptable model for mitigating increasingly common extreme flood events – or Cloudbursts – through Blue-Green solutions that integrate urban planning, traffic, and hydraulic analysis with sound investment strategies to improve the quality of cities’ Liveability. Existing city space is valuable. A cost-benefit analysis, conducted on the 10km2 catchment, concluded that the potential of implementing a surface-first approach to mitigating Cloudbursts over solely pipe-based systems reduced investment costs by over $200 million. The trickle-down effect has been the identification of over 300 citywide pilot projects, the incorporation of flood management design guidelines within local developer requirements, and the testing of the Copenhagen Cloudburst Formula applicability throughout Europe, the Americas, and Asia.

PROJECT NARRATIVE Globally, the impact of climate change is an issue that can no longer be ignored. On the 2nd of July 2011, in less than two hours, Copenhagen was hit by an extreme 1000-year storm event – or Cloudburst – where 150mm of rain left large areas of the city under up to one meter of water. The 2011 event had been preceded by a 100-year storm in August 2010 and was hit again in 2014. Copenhagen realized that Cloudbursts were not a one-off occurrence; the threat compounds as harbour sea levels are predicted to rise one meter by 2110. In a city where many buildings and services are located below street level and where stormwater and sewage are in a combined pipe system, contaminated floodwater penetrated buildings and city infrastructure. INNOVATIVE METHODOLOGY WITH PRAGMATIC SOLUTIONS: Traditional drainage solutions such as underground reservoirs are becoming less viable as utilities occupy more underground space. Extreme weather events cannot be managed by conventional pipe systems and their occurrence becomes more difficult to predict. Conventional infrastructure is considered to be generally technical, underground, hidden elements while Blue-Green solutions are low-tech, on the surface, and interactive. The Blue-Green Approach develops a synergistic relationship between the two, integrating climate adaptation solutions within the limited confines of urban space, encouraging a solution utilizing the best of both techniques.

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The Copenhagen Concretization Plans were commissioned to combat climate change following 2011’s flood. These integrated, multi-disciplinary plans bridge the gap between planning and site-specific solutions through the application of a typology-based Cloudburst Toolkit. The process was formalized as the Copenhagen Cloudburst Formula, a six-step procedure for integrating the Blue-Green Approach: 1. Data and Investigation: The city investigated, identified, and ranked areas according to their overall threat due to Cloudburst risk indicators, their potential to stir investment and influence property value, and the viability of implementation affecting adjacent developments. 2. Modelling and Mapping: Municipalities divided their regions into stormwater catchments, undertaking large-scale hydrological models (including GIS, surface water, sewage, landscape character, and risk assessments) to map vulnerable areas. The conclusion traditional piped solutions alone were not enough. The result - public water utility companies began financing solutions that integrated Cloudburst events. 3. Cost of Doing Nothing: An analysis undertaken by the city and consultants calculated that the effect of climate change was so large, that the cost of doing nothing would amount to approximately $60-90 million a year from now to 2110. 4. Design and Qualify: Hotspots were identified, transferring strategic planning to humanscale experiences as a model for how other cities can mitigate Cloudbursts and daily rain events. The “Cloudburst Toolkit” was developed as a palette of universally applicable, multi-functional, flexible elements. 5. Involvement and Iteration: Cloudbursts would influence each area of Copenhagen; an overall strategy for a public participation program was established to gauge the requirements of the citizens who would be affected. 6. Cloudburst Economics: A detailed socio-economic Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) tested two masterplan options. The option with the highest percentage of Blue-Green solutions and also the least additional infrastructural pipe improvements created a potential savings 50% greater than Conventional solutions alone. Additional qualitative social benefits, such as health, environmental, and urban spatial quality improvements resulting from the enhancements would potentially push this number even higher.

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Application. Demonstrating the relevance of the Cloudburst Toolkit palette of retrofit techniques on the first selected Hot Spot of the 10 km2 catchment of Lådegåds-Åen (a priority catchment set in the center of Copenhagen and at a high risk to flooding) investment opportunities in the form of Blue-Green techniques were created on the surface where they are visible, interactive urban components. The solutions are based on real situations, aligned to pre-existing underground infrastructure. Two masterplan variations were developed to assess potential advantages and disadvantages – Option 1 Conventional and Option 2 Blue-Green. Crisscrossed by a number of constructed urban barriers (such as streets, sidewalks, buildings, or train tracks) and with only minimal grade differences that prevent floodwaters from positively draining towards the main Copenhagen harbour outlet point into the sea, the key difference between the two options is the strategy for mitigating Sankt Jørgens Lake. The Conventional Masterplan Option retained Sankt Jørgens Lake as it exists; there is cultural value in keeping the historical layout yet the lake currently lies above the surrounding street level and floods during rain events, requiring the creation of a new 5m diameter pipe to funnel flood water to the harbour. The technical engineering investment is calculated at twice the size and cost of the pipes required for the Blue-Green Option, and also creates limited new public green space. In contrast, the Blue-Green Masterplan Option lowered the lake level from +5.8m to +2.8m, creating a new Cloudburst storage volume of 40,000m3 and a revitalized lakeside connection which had previously been only partially accessible. The lake overflows into a 2.5m diameter tunnel to the harbour as a reduced sized pipe. The solution combines the Blue-Green with the Grey (conventional) piped solution to result in a harmony between infrastructure and green space. But what do the numbers say?

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Blue-Green Solutions make financial sense. The Conventional Masterplan has a total net performance value (NPV) €78 million while the Blue-Green Option is almost twice as effective at an NPV of €142 million. This estimate can even be considered conservative when the qualitative health benefits or the macro-scale loss of GDP caused by extreme flooding are further calculated. The insurance damage savings and the increase in real estate value are two of the highest socio-economic benefits from Cloudburst adaptation. Today we are seeing Cloudburst solutions implemented in local plans where synergy projects are encouraged between municipalities, water utilities, and philanthropists as catalysts for development. Public participation workshops encourage and allow citizens to actively shape their municipality's Cloudburst strategy. Blue-Green is the future for establishing urban ecological waterscapes while balancing sound investment and economic opportunities with social benefit improvements.

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Public-private engagement – lasting benefits. The Copenhagen Formula provides a structure for integrating built, existing context with retrofit Blue-Green solutions. The implementable, pragmatic tools mitigate extreme storm events and improve our cityscapes. Private developers and homeowners alike become champions for local solutions where a multidisciplinary, cross-agency collaboration engaged designers, planners, sociologists, economists, biologists, geographers, information specialists, and communication experts interacting with public utility companies, stakeholders, interest groups, local politicians, and investors. Cloudburst solutions are often left out of upstream area planning where residents see no flooding problems. Yet water has no boundary. Municipal borders must be lowered to develop a common vision across disparate districts. A recent interactive workshop led by the Engineer and Landscape Architect in a suburb of Copenhagen engaged residents through a series of interactive sessions designed to raise awareness and survey desired citizen interests. Hydraulic function was presented in an engaging, educational sequence that involved the public interest with private development goals. Cloudburst solutions can provide much more than just stormwater management. The strategic flood masterplan is the opportunity to safeguard Copenhagen while providing the foundations for a high quality city environment. Resilient urban ecological waterscapes are the foundation for vibrant public realm spaces that are culturally and socially significant and contribute to the economic longevity, quality of life, and well-being of cities. Blue-Green Infrastructure represents the next generation of water infrastructure considerations where nature, city and recreational space are rolled into a holistic package. Cities around the world can look to the Copenhagen Cloudburst Formula as a model for implementing innovative, pragmatic, feasible measures within existing urban fabric.” Source: Text by Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl as submitted for the ASLA Award of Excellence in Urban Planning https://www.asla.org/2016awards/171784.html

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Case 3 Denmark: Danish Treatment Plant Wins International Plaudits “The Danish water sector is a role model for the rest of the world, says a new international report on energy efficiency in the water sector. The Danish water sector uses far less energy on producing drinking water and on cleaning wastewater than other EU Member States and the US. Wastewater treatment plants in Denmark are world leaders and produce much more energy than they use. And this has caught the attention of the international community.

The latest report from the International Energy Agency (IEA), the Danish water sector is presented as an energy-efficient sector. World Energy Outlook 2016 mentions in particular the Marselisborg wastewater treatment plant in Aarhus, Jutland, as an example of how wastewater treatment can become energy-neutral in the future. "It's good for the environment and for consumers when a growing number of Danish wastewater treatment plants become energy producers, and make revenues from selling energy. I urge all Danish wastewater utility companies to examine whether they can clean wastewater at a lower cost by selling energy from wastewater treatment. The International Energy Agency's mention is valuable for Danish technology producers, and hopefully they will ensure that the technology will be valuable to countries outside Denmark as well, said the Danish Minister for Environment and Food, Esben Lunde Larsen. The water sector is one of the most energy-consuming sectors in the world. The sector is estimated to account for 4% of total annual electricity consumption worldwide. This corresponds to the entire electricity consumption of Russia. This figure is around 3% in the European Union and in the US. However, the Danish water sector only uses 1.8% of Danish electricity consumption, and this figure is set to decrease significantly in the forthcoming years.” Source: Lay Rasmussen, J. 2016. Danish Treatment Plant Wins International Plaudits. State of Green. 16 November. https://stateofgreen.com/en/profiles/mim/news/danish-treatment-plant-wins-internationalplaudits?utm_source=AddThis+subscriber+list&utm_campaign=04514d133eState+of+Green+Newsletter_newsletter&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_3997cf0db9-04514d133e-273120853

Case 4 Copenhagen, Denmark: Water catchment for a livable, climate resilient city [The] “Danish capital Copenhagen consistently ranks as one of the world’s most livable cities – but it is not immune to climate change impacts such as severe flooding. … [But] the city is rejuvenating itself and building climate resilience at the same time… Unfortunately, Copenhagen will be hit quite severely by climate change as we will experience heavier, more frequent rainfall. So the urban projects that we build today and in the future will have to be resilient in terms of catching and using storm water. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

A climate adaptation neighbourhood in Copenhagen designed to store and delay large amounts of rainwater so the city can avoid the disastrous flooding experienced in recent years due to heavier rainfall. Image: Eco-Business

Copenhagen tries to do this actively; for example, exposing our stormwater systems and transforming these into leisure places for citizens to enjoy. The city has dedicated a budget of DKK 9.8 billion on climate adaptation and this includes: roads and pipes for stormwater specifically designed to lead rain towards lakes or the harbour; roads for delaying rain designed to store and delay the water resulting from heavy cloudburst; and open spaces meant to store large quantities of water. One of the city’s policies is always to increase livability and provide green public places. So climate change is a challenge in our city but it is also an opportunity to have more green and blue areas in the city. The Østerbro Climate Quarter is a good example. By designing the streets in new ways, the project has freed an area of 50,000 sq meters to become thriving urban spaces with street trees and rain gardens. Public engagement with more than 10,000 residents resulted in 170 citizen-led projects which provided the best local solutions to absorb, recycle and siphon away rainwater. Then there is Vesterbro, which is an old working-class neighbourhood which demonstrates environmentally-sound urban renewal. It was one of the first areas where the city experimented with solar panels, recycling and thought deeply about how people use the dense city and achieved results such as minimizing waste generation by 60 per cent.” Source: Cheam, J. 2016. Copenhagen, Denmark: How to create livable, climate resilient cities. Eco-business. 9 September. http://www.eco-business.com/news/how-to-create-liveable-climate-resilientcities/

Case 5 EU: EU response to the European Drought 2003 The EU is reacting to the increased risk of drought with the following initiative and formal communication to Member States. The EU describes the issue of drought as follows: “Over the past thirty years, droughts have dramatically increased in number and intensity in the EU. The number of areas and people affected by droughts went up by almost 20% between Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

1976 and 2006. One of the most widespread droughts occurred in 2003 when over 100 million people and a third of the EU territory were affected. The cost of the damage to the European economy was at least € 8.7 billion. The total cost of droughts over the past thirty years amounts to € 100 billion. The yearly average cost quadrupled over the same period. Water scarcity and droughts are therefore not just a matter for water managers. They have a direct impact on citizens and economic sectors which use and depend on water, such as agriculture, tourism, industry, energy and transport. In particular, hydropower which is a carbon neutral source of energy, heavily depends on water availability. Water scarcity and droughts also have broader impacts on natural resources at large through negative side-effects on biodiversity, water quality, increased risks of forest fires and soil impoverishment.” This Communication led to the 2012 Water Scarcity and Droughts Policy Review. http://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52012DC0672&from=EN

Based on the periodical Follow-up results, assessment of the River Basin Management Plans and further information which has not been addressed so far, a Policy Review for water scarcity and droughts has been completed in November 2012, which is part of the "Blue Print for Safeguarding European Waters" adopted by the European Commission on 14 November 2012. The review concludes that the overall objective of the Water Scarcity & Droughts (WS&D) policy - to revert the WS&D trends - has not been achieved, even if progress has taken place in implementing the 7 policy instruments identified in the Commissions Communication from 2007. The WS&D policy has to some extent been considered as self-standing by Member States and a stronger focus on quantity issues in the implementation of the WFD is critical. In the next implementation cycles of the WFD this need to be ensured along with further integration of water quantity issues into sectoral policies. The majority of measures applied by Member States target pressures, state and impacts and only very few measures target key drivers. The identified policy gaps and concrete options to address them are considered in the Commission Communication 'Blueprint to Safeguard Europe's Water Resources' with a view to integrating water quantity issues more fully into the overall policy framework. http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/adaptation/what/docs/swd_2013_132_2_en.pdf

Case 6 Barcelona, Spain: Costs of Barcelona Drought 2007-2008 This case study is included because of this useful economic appraisal of the costs of the 2007 drought in Barcelona. 15 They summarise the study as: “The drought affecting Catalonia between 2007 and 2008 was the most severe of the last century and serves as a case study for the assessment of the economic costs of such an event. The main focus is the drought affecting the so-called Ter-Llobregat system which serves the Metropolitan area of Barcelona and where most of the population is concentrated (approximately 5.5 million people). The 2007-2008 drought is a good illustrative case study due to its extreme severity and the availability of economic information both on the impacts (damages) and the measures taken. Besides, important communication campaigns were put into place and led to significant reduction of the demand and the set-up of mechanisms for public participation for future water management. Direct costs of the affected sectors, indirect costs of the Catalan economy and non-market welfare losses due to the worsening of the environmental quality and restrictions on water supply to households due to scarcity conditions are reported here.

Julia Martin-Ortega and Anil Markandya, 2009, The costs of drought: the exceptional 2007-2008 case of Barcelona BC3 WORKING PAPER SERIES. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

The total losses are estimated in 1,661 million Euros (for a one year period), almost 1% of the Catalonian GDP. The results of this study point out the need for further research on the estimation of the costs of drought (especially at the European level) that needs to be embedded into the assessment of the costs of adaptation to climate change. Map of Barcelona and Catalonia

Source: Source: Julia Martin-Ortega and Anil Markandya, 2009, The costs of drought: the exceptional 2007-2008 case of Barcelona BC3 WORKING PAPER SERIES; and Catalan Water Agency www.gencat.cat/aca

Case 7 EU: EU Floods Directive EU Flooding – Case Study – EU Floods Directive The EU is taking significant action on flooding; 16 They provide the following background: Between 1998 and 2009, Europe suffered over 213 major damaging floods, including the catastrophic floods along the Danube and Elbe rivers in summer 2002. Severe floods in 2005 further reinforced the need for concerted action. Between 1998 and 2009, floods in Europe have caused some 1126 deaths, the displacement of about half a million people and at least €52 billion in insured economic losses. Catastrophic floods endanger lives and cause human tragedy as well as heavy economic losses. Floods are natural phenomena but through the right measures we can reduce their likelihood and limit their impacts. In addition to economic and social damage, floods can have severe environmental consequences, for example when installations holding large quantities of toxic chemicals are inundated or wetland areas destroyed. The coming decades are likely to see a higher flood risk in Europe and greater economic damage. The Strategic EU Initiative is the EU Floods Directive, Directive 2007/60/E, on the assessment and management of flood risks, which entered into force on 26 November 2007. This Directive now requires Member States to assess if all water courses and coast lines are at risk from flooding, to map the flood extent and assets and humans at risk in these areas and to take adequate and coordinated measures to reduce this flood risk. With this Directive also reinforces the rights of the public to access this information and to have a say in the planning process. The Directive was proposed by the European Commission on 18/01/2006, and was finally published in the Official Journal on 6 November 2007. Its aim is to reduce and manage the risks that floods pose to human health, the environment, cultural heritage and economic 16

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/flood_risk/index.htm Other documents and information on implementation and current status are available from this web-link. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

activity. The Directive requires Member States to first carry out a preliminary assessment by 2011 to identify the river basins and associated coastal areas at risk of flooding. For such zones they would then need to draw up flood risk maps by 2013 and establish flood risk management plans focused on prevention, protection and preparedness by 2015. The Directive applies to inland waters as well as all coastal waters across the whole territory of the EU. The Directive shall be carried out in coordination with the Water Framework Directive, notably by flood risk management plans and river basin management plans being coordinated, and through coordination of the public participation procedures in the preparation of these plans. All assessments, maps and plans prepared shall be made available to the public. Source: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/flood_risk/index.htm

2.1.3

River Basin Management Approaches

Integrated river basin management (IRBM) is at the intellectual heart of the EU and Chinese approaches to water management, however, the maturity of approach and extent of application differ. The illustration in Figure 10 shows a generic river basin. This takes into account the high quality water catchment at the upper reaches of the basin. This is usually suitable for public supply with minimum treatment and tends to be captured in reservoirs for security of supply. As the rivers flow through the basin, human activity, towns and industry impact on river flows and water quality. Major towns and cities tend to be in the lower reaches of the river system and without protection become unusable and may cause flooding and environmental degradation. Management measures must be taken across the river basin to optimize water resources and increase water security. Isolated measures to improve water security cannot be successful without taking account of what happens upstream and downstream. Integrated river basin management adopts a holistic approach to protecting the whole body of water, its source, tributaries, its main rivers, lakes, and groundwater, through a coordinated strategy involving all the interested parties in decision-making. The river basin approach is acknowledged in Europe as the best way to manage water. ď&#x192; Tool WM 1

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Figure 10: River basins management deals with upstream and downstream situations

Source: UK Environment Agency.

Case 8 Cardiff, UK: How a polluted bay became one of Europe’s best waterfronts This city’s bayfront is often packed with people: families boarding tour boats, office workers enjoying a waterside lunch, theatergoers out strolling before a performance, and fans of the TV show Doctor Who emerging from tours of the BBC studios where the series is made. It wasn’t always this way. … Just 30 years ago, Cardiff Bay was dead — both environmentally and economically. For decades, the two rivers that feed into the bay — the Taff and the Ely — had been so black with coal dust, sewage and industrial waste that no fish could survive. Nearby mines that once exported one-third of the world’s coal through Cardiff’s port had shut down. So had steel factories, put out of business by cheaper foreign competition. Cardiff, whose center lies a mile inland, turned its back on the decrepit port and befouled bay. But over time, the Welsh capital has gone to great lengths to clean up both its water and its waterfront. Tourists and locals alike now swarm the dockside known as Mermaid Quay, while salmon once again swim in the bay and run up the rivers to spawn. Cardiff Bay is no longer seen as an embarrassment. Rather, it’s an amenity to paddle on, eat by and live near — a new locus for residential, commercial and retail development for a growing city-region of 1.4 million people.

Rivers in the Welsh capital once ran black with coal dust. Now, they form a clean lake that has become the revitalized Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

heart of the city. (Matthew Dixon/Shutterstock)

How that transformation happened is an instructive story for any city struggling with polluted waterways. It’s also a reminder of how urban regeneration over the long run requires public and private forces to come together around a common goal. In 1987, the UK Government created the Cardiff Bay Development Corporation under the chairmanship of Sir Geoffrey Inkin, who had served on the council of a nearby county. He was backed by an 11-person board with members from local administrations, academia and the private sector; Michael Boyce, the chairman of Cardiff City, served as CEO. The Secretary of State for Wales tasked the Corporation with upgrading infrastructure and implementing a development strategy, with a mandate to engage the private sector. The infrastructure needs were huge. For example, the Corporation spent £14 million (roughly US$34 million in today’s dollars) on diverting sewage that used to outfall directly in the bay. The water company Hyder built a new sewage treatment plant at a cost of £118 million ($US283 million today). But the biggest project — and the real key to the area’s revival — was out at the mouth of Cardiff Bay where its waters meet the sea. This is where the Corporation built a great dam, known as Cardiff Bay Barrage. Opened in 1999, the 1.1-kilometer (half-mile) barrage essentially seals off the freshwater bay from the saltwater sea. Before, large tides left vast mudflats exposed twice a day, stranding any boats in the smelly muck. The barrage created a permanent lake that became quite clean as environmental standards were raised and enforced.

The Cardiff Bay Barrage (left) created a freshwater lake that has become home to much waterfront development. (Cardiff Harbour Authority).

The barrage includes a long rock and sandfill embankment, rising to a maximum height of 20 meters (66 feet). It contains three locks to admit vessels and five sluices to control the water level inside and keep most of the seawater out. Two fish passes allow salmon and trout to migrate between the sea and the rivers. Atop the dam, hundreds of people daily use a walk-andcycle path that connects Cardiff to a suburb called Penarth. The barrage also improves Cardiff’s defenses against flooding and sea-level rise. “If a lot of rain is forecast, we drop the bay to allow the water to come in,” says David Hall, an environmental officer with the Cardiff Harbour Authority, which operates the barrage. When I spoke with Hall Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

recently, water in the bay was at 4.5 meters, or about 15 feet. “But everything in the bay is designed to be allowed to rise another four meters above that level,” he says, “to take account of high astronomical tides and a 1-in-100 year storm event at the same time.” To clean up the bay, the strictest environmental standards were applied — and still are. Diverting raw sewage to be treated before reaching the bay helped a lot in this regard. So did a UK law that set specific requirements around oxygen levels in the waters, a move intended to help fish and their prey. About 12 km (7 miles) of specially laid underwater pipes regularly pump compressed air into the water through more than 100 diffusers. Cardiff’s transformation isn’t complete. Levenson notes that a rail link and a key road link remain unfinished. But it’s a far cry from the scenes of polluted desolation that gripped this place a generation ago, or the hard-drinking “rough dockers” that worked the port here generations before that. “There’s a lot more that can be done in terms of leisure and tourist attractions, and more residential accommodation,” Levenson says. “It’s not finished yet, but I am very proud of what has happened.” Source: Thorpe, D. 2016. How Cardiff turned a polluted bay into one of Europe’s best waterfronts. Citiscope. 9 September. http://citiscope.org/story/2016/how-cardiff-turned-polluted-bay-one-europes-bestwaterfronts?utm_source=Citiscope&utm_campaign=7e43e2709aMailchimp_2016_09_09&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_ce992dbfef-7e43e2709a-118049425

2.1.4

EU Water Framework Directive

The EU water directives underpin much of the water resource protection regulation activity across Europe. Member States can choose how they implement this provided the minimum requirements are met. Permitting is one of the core tools used to ensure compliance with EU and domestic standards. In 2000, the European Union took a ground-breaking step when it adopted the Water Framework Directive (WFD)17. It introduced a new legislative approach to managing and protecting water, based not on national or political boundaries, but on natural geographical and hydrological formations: river basins. These are known as River Basin Districts. IRBM needs clear coordination and collaboration between administrative authorities and stakeholders within the river basin. The main aim of EU water policy is to ensure that throughout the EU a sufficient quantity of good quality water is available for people’s needs and for the environment. Since the 1970s, through a variety of measures, the EU has worked hard to create an effective and coherent water policy. In 2000 the Water Framework Directive (WFD) established a legal basis to protect and restore clean water across Europe and ensure its long-term, sustainable use. The general objective of the WFD is to get all water — for example, lakes, rivers, streams and groundwater aquifers — into a healthy state by 2015.

EU Water Framework Directive CIRCA http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-framework/iep/index_en.htm

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2.1.5

River Basin Management and Links to Spatial Planning

Maintaining water security requires a long term vision and should be integrally linked to spatial planning for urban and regional development in both developing as developed areas. Water resource management is a fundamental element of development planning and should be designed into infrastructure projects at an early stage, taking into account the social and economic development opportunities improved water resources can bring. Modelling can test future development scenarios and identify options that could optimize decisions. However, there must be a balance between spatial planning and the availability of water. Planners must realize that the availability of water is not endless and this may be one of the most limiting factors impacting on city and industrial development. Dialogue must be maintained on these issues and options to minimize impact developed. In some cases optimization of water can bring design innovation in building and in water saving societies. The concept of eco-cities has developed from this dialogue. Ultimately the availability of water will be limiting and the water planners and regulators may have to say no to further water exploitation in water scarce areas. In the UK the Environment Agency has final say, subject to appeal to Ministers. This is usually via the refusal to grant a permit or by imposing environmentally protective conditions in permits that may render the industry uneconomic. Industry then has to decide whether a new installation is viable or not. Case 9 EU: Integrated Catchment and Water Quality Management The main sources for river pollution are untreated urban and industrial wastewater discharges entering a river and its tributaries through pipes as point sources. A certain amount of pollution also enters the river directly from the surrounding land, either as wet weather runoff or by seeping through the ground, this is diffuse pollution. In Europe over the last century industrialisation and urbanisation followed a cycle of increasing pollution followed by measures to identify and treat point sources of pollution and so establish a regulated balance between development and the environment. In Europe most villages, towns, cities and industries now have treatment of their wastewater before discharge to rivers and great improvements in water quality have resulted. However, as pollution from point sources has reduced so the contribution of pollution from diffuse sources in the catchment – agricultural and urban surface runoff – becomes more apparent. So, now, in Europe we are paying more attention to this and developing systems for monitoring, analysing and regulating the interaction between rivers and their catchment in a more integrated manner. Poor water quality generally has two components  

direct pollution such as organic matter (BOD / COD), ammonia and toxic chemicals (e.g pesticides and metals) Nutrients – Nitrogen and Phosphorous – which, though harmless in themselves, lead in the environment to excessive algal and plant growth which then cause secondary pollution and release of toxic chemicals

Effectively dealing with the water quality and pollution problems requires an understanding of the sources of the pollution, how it moves and decays in the environment, how this relates to relevant environmental standards and how investment can be planned to build infrastructure and change behaviour to allow people to live prosperously in the river basin while maintaining a healthy river and ecosystem. In the EU, the water framework directive (WFD) sets out the way in which member states need to define and monitor their rivers and lakes and then prepare plans and set objectives for infrastructure investment programmes that will achieve “Good Status” in the water bodies. This is through 6-year-cycles of river basin planning. Integrated Water Resources Planning – the EU Water Framework Directive. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

The EU Water 60

Framework Directive is an example of the implementation in policy and law of integrated resources planning at local, national and European Union levels. There is a process set out in EU Directives (and implemented in member state law) to undertake cyclical planning over 6 year periods to define the river basins, setup monitoring and undertake analysis to prepare a time bound action plan to make investment in infrastructure and then to review through the process of adaptive management and repeat. The EU Water Framework Directive

Source: Atkins, based on EU Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC

This process is supported by stakeholder engagement â&#x20AC;&#x201C; both with member state policy makers and with the mass of people who will be affected in each river basin. Implementation of integrated resource management also requires regulatory processes such as permits for abstractions and discharges which have formal procedures based on monitoring, data analysis and reporting. The whole process is enforced at local levels through courts who can prosecute breach of permits and at member state level by the Commission which can hold states, who have not implemented the directives in a timely manner, to be in infraction and impose significant national fines. In the EU and USA these processes are defined in legislation and enforced through environmental courts and economic regulation 18. Each member state has translated these principles into their own laws and developed processes for implementation. A key part of this process is how to process the data to formulate strategic plans for the enforcement of regulations through permits. GIS systems and modelling can be used to do this, there is a proposed process of using data and models to enforce regulation and achieve objectives.

In China these processes may be politically as well as judiciary led and enforced. For example in China for integrated water resources management there are processes set out in policy documents such as the 2011 No.1 policy document on water reform, the enforcement of which is through the party cadre assessment system, the annual performance assessment of senior officials by the Communist Party of China (CPC). Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

Data and models to formulate strategy to achieve objectives

Source: Atkins

In the UK there is a system of national monitoring of the hydrological, biological, chemical and morphological quality of rivers and lakes with regular field measurements and results stored in databases linked to geographical information systems. These data can be linked to other geographical information about the catchments such as the land uses and the pollution sources (point and diffuse) and the river hydrology. Models, incorporating established formulations of how water flows and chemicals react in the environment and interact with the biology and physical conditions, connect this data to be able to simulate the water quality and then to reliable predict the likely changes from any given change in conditions. The standard modelling system used in the UK now is the Source Apportionment GIS system (SAGIS). This covers England and Wales with 18 models and can track the impact of each pollution source as it is transported to the river, diluted in the river flow and mixes and reacts with other chemicals and impacts on water quality objectives19. Key elements of Source Apportionment GIS system (SAGIS) Covering England and Wales

Source: Atkins

This can be used to show how a pollutant from one source impacts on the achievement of river objectives downstream. 19

SAGIS was jointly developed for UK Environment Agency over many years with contributions from WRC, Atkins, AMEC, CEH, ADAS and others. Documentation and some feature development was sponsored by the UK Water Industry research organisation. Further details: http://www.catchmentbasedapproach.org/best-practice/use-data/sagistool Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

Sample output from SAGIS showing the concentration and sources of Phosphate on a River compared to objectives.

P Good Standard

P High Standard

Source: Atkins

SAGIS is able to generate a simulation of the water quality in the river based on years of data for many different chemical species and put this into the context of the standards and objectives. Consideration can be given to the effects of rivers and estuaries / tidal influences where appropriate.

Existing WW02 project Different source inputs and interaction between catchments, rivers, lakes, estuaries and coastal New WW02/346 project components Tap water

Angling Birds Water balance Sediment Antifoulant Aquaculture

Industry

Live stock

Industry

Arable

Erosion

Urban runoff

Runoff

HW runoff

Service

Domestic

WwTW

CSO

OSWwTS

Mines

SAGIS Export Coefficient Database Loads

SAGIS for rivers Incorporated

Input to Estuarine model

Load & Concentration

Loads

SAGIS for estuaries Load & Concentration

Loads

SAGIS for coastal Load

SAGIS for lakes Source: Atkins

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Example output of river estuary and coastal SAGIS models with pie charts showing sources of pollution

Source: Atkins

The understanding of how much pollution comes from where can be coupled with knowledge of what measures can be taken to reduce these sources and how much they will cost. For example costs of upgrading wastewater treatment works to tertiary treatment to meet higher discharge standards or installing different industrial pollution control measures. The SAGIS model can be used by the government regulators to set the discharge permit conditions applied to each treatment works or industry and estimate the cost of achieving these. There is an additional module that works with SAGIS called Farmscoper that can calculate the effect of different changes in farming practice, such as livestock manure management, buffer strips on field edges, reduced chemical fertiliser use on reducing the runoff of different pollutants and the associated costs. All of these different options can be fed into solver algorithms to find optimal solutions with costs to achieve a set environmental standard or to identify the best environmental improvement that can be achieved for a given level of investment. This function is also available through additional modules. The optimiser can also quantify the technical and financial uncertainty associated with different strategies.

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Cost optimisation of SAGIS showing the Cam and Ely Ouse catchment in compliance with water quality objectives for different levels of investment Current Status:

Cost benefit of range of levels of measures Percent status

100% 50%

High Good Moderate Poor Bad

Cost benefit

Status with measures:

Source: Atkins

Conclusion European experience of river basin water quality management and utilisation of modelling systems can provide tools that can allow for the better optimised investment to meet river water quality objectives. This can be applied at the river basin level by central government regulators, it can also be applied to small urban sub-catchments to address the problems of urban “Black Rivers” and plan how to make such rivers clean and how much this will cost. The European approaches would need to be adapted to the different regulatory and data conditions in China as China struggles with the challenge of improving the water quality of rivers during the process of industrialisation and urbanisation. 20

Preliminary work to achieve this has already been done under the EU-China River Basin Management Programme.

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3 WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION 3.1

Sector Context and Policy Analysis

This section will look at the clean water elements of water management and supply to households and industry. It will include the abstraction of water from the environment (surface water and groundwater), the provision of pipe networks to deliver the water and the steps necessary to ensure high quality water to households and industry.21

3.1.1

Water Allocation and Supply Demand Balance

Water is a scarce resource and must be closely governed to ensure optimal and equitable allocation. This is usually done by government ministries, or their agents on behalf of society, using water laws and regulations. The EU sets minimum water standards across the EU in order to optimize water resources. This is governed by the EU Water Framework Directive 22 (EUWFD) focusing on a river basin management approach. The demand for water from cities, and households, continues to increase. Modern standards and lifestyles demand more water for washing, showering and cleaning. Understanding how this water is used is critical if demand is to be reduced. Mechanisms to influence water use will be discussed, including water efficient housing and appliances, and economic instruments such as water pricing. In addition, heating water in households is one of the largest energy demands, so reducing hot water use significantly reduces energy consumption. The important concept of ‘supply – demand balance’ will be introduced, Figure 11. Water supply is limited by environmental factors, geography, geology and climate. These limit water availability and although new resources may be found these are scarce and expensive. Water availability is generally on a downward trend. Resources must be balanced by controls and incentives to manage within the resource – so called demand management. Water strategies for cities need to take account of this in forward looking long-term water plans. Tool WM 1

21 22

This section will also cover some financial aspects of water funding. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-framework/index_en.html

Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

Figure 11: Water Supply Demand Balance

Source: Martin Griffiths

The contribution of water and eco-city design to the supply demand balance should be considered and evaluated as part of the project justification and benefits assessment. In optimum applications of these concepts water savings and could get as high as a 30% reduction. However this is rarely quantified or assessed and impacts may be much less. However, research is needed to optimize impact and reduce pressure on scarce water resources. Figure 12 shows how this might be visualized and how high quality approaches might drive innovation and enhance the contribution to supply demand balance Figure 12: Water Supply Demand Balance with potential eco-city impacts

Source: Martin Griffiths

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3.2

Standards - Public Health – Drinking Water

The primary aim of water supply networks is public health. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the EU make it clear that access to safe drinking-water is essential to health, a basic human right and a component of effective policy for health protection. Water is essential to sustain life, and a satisfactory (adequate, safe and accessible) supply must be available to all. Improving access to safe drinking-water can result in tangible benefits to health. Every effort should be made to achieve drinking-water that is as safe as practicable. Source WHO Drinking Water Guidelines. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/GDWQchap1rev1and2.pdf

The WHO, set out a Framework for Safe Drinking Water which is essential to consider for all who run and operate drinking water networks and water supply. The basic and essential requirements to ensure the safety of drinking-water are a “framework” for safe drinking-water, comprising health-based targets established by a competent health authority, adequate and properly managed systems (adequate infrastructure, proper monitoring and effective planning and management) and a system of independent surveillance. A holistic approach to the risk assessment and risk management of a drinking water supply increases confidence in the safety of the drinking-water. This approach entails systematic assessment of risks throughout a drinking-water supply—from the catchment and its source water through to the consumer—and identification of the ways in which these risks can be managed, including methods to ensure that control measures are working effectively. It incorporates strategies to deal with day-to-day management of water quality, including upsets and failures. In this respect, climate change in the form of increased and more severe periods of drought or more intense rainfall events leading to flooding—can have an impact on both the quality and the quantity of water and will require planning and management to minimize adverse impacts on drinking-water supplies. Climate change also needs to be considered in the light of demographic change, such as the continuing growth of cities, which itself brings significant challenges for drinking-water supply.

3.2.1

Standards – Drinking Water Quality

The WHO publishes Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality23 that are followed in Europe. The EU sets similar such standards through the EU Drinking Water Directive, The Drinking Water Directive (Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption) concerns the quality of water intended for human consumption24. Equivalent or tighter standards are applied through Member State laws and regulations. The EU Drinking Water Aims are: High quality, safe and sufficient drinking water is essential for our daily life, for drinking and food preparation. We also use it for many other purposes, such as washing, cleaning, hygiene or watering our plants. World Health Authority, 2011, Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality –Fourth Edition http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/gdwq3rev/en/ 24 The Drinking Water Directive (Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption) concerns the quality of water intended for human consumption http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:1998:330:0032:0054:EN:PDF 23

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The European Union has a history of over 30 years of drinking water policy. This policy ensures that water intended for human consumption can be consumed safely on a life-long basis, and this represents a high level of health protection. The main pillars of the policy are to:

   

Ensure that drinking water quality is controlled through standards based on the latest scientific evidence; Secure an efficient and effective monitoring, assessment and enforcement of drinking water quality; Provide the consumers with adequate, timely and appropriately information; Contribute to the broader EU water and health policy. 25

Within these Drinking Water Guidelines, standards are set for a range of essential parameters deemed necessary to ensure minimal risks for society. The UK Drinking Water Inspectorate26 regulates the quality of drinking water in the UK, which is supplied by the UK privatized water companies. The legal standards in the UK are consistent those which are set in Europe in the Drinking Water Directive 1998 together with national standards set to maintain the high quality of water already achieved. The standards are strict and include wide safety margins. They cover:  micro-organisms  chemicals such as nitrate and pesticides  metals such as lead and copper  the way water looks and how it tastes. The following tables provide a quick overview of Microbiological and Chemical standards. Table 1: Drinking Water Microbiological Parameters MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Part I: Directive requirements Parameters Concentration Units of or Value maximum Measurement Enterococci 0 Number/100ml Escherichia coli (E. coli) 0 Number/100ml

Parameters

Point of compliance Consumers’ taps Consumers’ taps

Part II: National requirements Concentration or Units of Value maximum Measurement

Point of compliance Service reservoirs* and Coliform bacteria 0 Number/100ml water treatment works Service reservoirs Escherichia coli (E. coli) 0 Number/100ml and water treatment works Note: * compliance required as to 95% of samples from each service reservoir. Source - UK Drinking Water Inspectorate, 2010, Advice Leaflet, What are the Drinking Water Standards? http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/standards.pdf

25 26

EU Drinking Water Web Page http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-drink/index_en.html UK Drinking Water Inspectorate - http://www.dwi.gov.uk/

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Table 2: Drinking Water Chemical Parameters

Source - UK Drinking Water Inspectorate, 2010, Advice Leaflet, What are the Drinking Water Standards? http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/standards.pdf

The quality of water abstracted from the source, either surface water or groundwater, impacts on the level of risk and the levels of treatment required. The EU seeks to control this through the Drinking Water, Abstraction Directive and the Groundwater Directive. Both are being updated by the EU Water Framework Directive. Increasingly concern is being raised about new and emerging micro-pollutants. Some are known as endocrine disruptors and derive from synthetic estrogens used for birth control and others from industrial chemicals and plastics. Other pharmaceutical products excreted from humans are also being detected. Research continues into the risks posed by these substances and steps are being made to reduce risk, such as installing activated carbon filters on drinking water treatment plants. Risks are higher in low-flow river situations and in contaminated groundwater, where water is recycled and reused to varying degrees.

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3.3 3.3.1

Technologies Conventional Water Supply Networks

Once abstracted from surface water or groundwater it is then passed through a drinking water treatment works and then into the supply networks. The schematic diagram below shows this water supply process and network. Figure 13: Water Supply Network – Schematic Diagram

Source: Stewardship Through Education - http://steonline.org/

3.3.2

Management of Water Supply Networks

The management of water supply networks to supply clean drinking water is critical. Water pipes become contaminated by the bio-films and are usually leaky – the leak can happen in from the ground and out from the pipes. The bio-film issues are usually controlled by the addition of chlorine or a similar disinfectant. Chlorine addition is a difficult process to get right. Enough chlorine needs to be added to protect to the end of the network. However too much causes taste and odor problems at the consumer tap. Ammonia is sometimes added to increase the residence time. In extreme case water networks need to be cleaned out, often with the use of ‘pigs’ or other devices used to scour out the contamination. A key rule for water networks is to maintain positive pressure at all times, this ensure that water leaks out and contamination cannot leak in. If pressure loss occurs in a UK water pipeline a series of tests and checks are automatically instigated to protect consumers. The WHO have produced a useful guide – WHO, 2104, Water safety in distribution systems27. The WHO recognizes that: ‘The integrity of well managed distribution systems is one of the most important barriers that protect drinking-water from contamination. However, management of distribution systems often receives too little attention. Distribution systems can incorrectly be 27

WHO, 2104, Water safety in distribution systems http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/Water_Safety_in_Distribution_System/en/ Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

viewed as passive systems with the only requirement being to transport drinking-water from the outlets of treatment plants to consumers.’ The WHO has evaluated the areas of risk as shown in Figure 14. Figure 14: Water Supply Networks -Waterborne outbreaks associated with distribution systems in the USA, 1981– 2010, by (a) system fault and (b) causative agent.

Source WHO, 2014, Water safety in distribution systems.

3.3.3

Drinking Water Treatment Process – Treatment Plants

Drinking water treatment works are deigned and operated to provide the standards of water set by the WHO and the country domestic/national standards. For high quality upland water or groundwater, simple filtration and possible disinfection are all that is required. For a poor quality lowland water significantly more treatment stages may be required. Processes usually include, wide screening, followed by sedimentation, possibly with coagulation to settle fine silts. Some sort of sand filtration usually follows prior to disinfection. In lowland UK for example, a carbon filtration stage is the norm. This reduces taste and odor issues, usually derived from algal biomass in the abstracted water. In addition, carbon filtration also provides protection against many micro-pollutants, including pesticides, estrogenic substances and pharmaceuticals. New threats are encountered from time to time and cryptosporidium has proved difficult to remove from drinking water. Cryptosporidium is a protozoan parasite that infects a wide range of animals, including humans. Infection results in a diarrheal disease called cryptosporidiosis which is more common in young children but it can affect anyone. A number of outbreaks have been discovered in recent years and as a result water treatment works have been significantly reengineered to prevent cross-over and build-up of cryptosporidium through backwashing. In some countries and jurisdictions, fluoride is added to drinking water to prevent tooth decay. In some geographic regions fluoride is present naturally. There are some ethical and social issues surrounding this which prevents wide scale addition in recent years.

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Figure 15: Process Diagram for drinking water treatment plant

Source: Stewardship Through Education - http://steonline.org/

3.4

Indicators – Water Supply

If assessment against standards is to be achieved then it is essential to maintain high quality databases against key parameters. Monitoring programs must be in force for operational reasons and for assessment against standards. Quality assurance methodologies must in place to ensure the quality of data, including high quality laboratory facilities. This may be done through operator self-monitoring and reporting, or though regulatory monitoring programs and check monitoring. Compliance assessment and reporting is essential, to the operator and to the public/customers.28 In the UK all environmental and drinking water assessment information is in the public domain and annual reports are published.29

For environmental monitoring: Real Time (GIS supported) data disclosure – to be used for public data sharing (i.e. citizens’ information) like in air quality data, eventually also to be extended to other environmental sectors like the water sector (for instance water bodies, rivers, lakes etc.) and waste water management. 29 UK Drinking Water Inspectorate annual reports can be found at http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/about/annual-report/index.htm 28

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3.4.1

Indicator â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Drinking Water Quality and Compliance with Regulations

The UK Drinking Water Inspectorate have published a report which uses indicators to assess the position after 25 Years of drinking water regulation 30 The report provides a useful summary against a range of key indicators. Drinking water quality standards are set out in regulations and must be met at the point where consumers draw off water for use. In England, the regulations for public supplies are the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000. The equivalent regulations for private water supplies are the Private Water Supply Regulations 2009. Most of the standards derive from the European Drinking Water Directive 98/83/EC. Water companies and local authorities take and analyze a prescribed number of samples, and drinking water inspectors check the results independently. Inspectors assess whether the actions taken by water companies and local authorities in response to any failures, operational events or consumer complaints are appropriate and sufficient to prevent a recurrence. Where improvements to water supplies are needed, this is confirmed in the form of a legal notice that must be complied with by the water company or by the relevant person in the case of a private water supply. Figure 16: Water Supply Achievements in England

Source: Drinking water quality in England The position after 25 years of regulation July 2015 A report by the Chief Inspector of Drinking Water http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/about/annual-report/2014/sum-eng.pdf

Drinking water quality in England The position after 25 years of regulation July 2015 A report by the Chief Inspector of Drinking Water. http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/about/annual-report/2014/sum-eng.pdf Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

3.4.2

Indicator Drinking Water Quality

In 2014 the water companies in England carried out 3,853,350 tests, for which there is a numerical standard that must be complied with, either at the consumer’s tap or the point where water leaves a treatment works, treated water storage reservoir or tower. Only a tiny fraction (0.04%) of these tests failed to meet the standards in 2014 and this compares very favorably to the situation when the regulatory regime was first introduced 25 years ago as illustrated in Figure 17. Figure 17: Compliance with Numerical Standards

3.4.3

Indicator – Drinking Water Customer reports of dirty water to Water Companies

Discoloration of water is often reported by customers and can be an indicator of iron or manganese contamination at treatment works or in pipe systems. These are not normally a public health issue, but may indicate other risks. In the UK capital expenditure has been targeted to reduce these events. Figure 18 charts the reduction in complaints and shows the benefits of these improvements. This can be seen from the decline in consumer reports of ‘dirty tap water’ from 87,517 to 47,986 a year between 2006 and 2014.

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Figure 18: – UK Drinking Water Customer reports of dirty water to Water Companies

3.4.4

Indicator – Drinking Water – Microbiological Indicators

Microbiological indicators are important to assess public health risk and to address potential contamination. Samples are assessed against the standards given in 17 above. The point of drinking water compliance is where water is drawn off from taps by consumers and, since 2004, testing has taken place daily at randomly selected consumer taps for 51 parameters that have numerical standards. Sampling frequencies are determined by the size of the population in the water supply zone. In 2014, nearly all (99.95%) of these consumer tap samples met all the standards. Figure 19 shows the percentage failure rate against standards. Figure 19: Percentage failure rate of E.coli and Enterococci tap water samples 2005–2014

3.4.5

Indicators - Leakage and ‘non-revenue’ water loss

All water networks leak, some badly, losing up to 50% of the water. Old networks are particularly vulnerable to this. London is a good example where many of the pipes have been in place for hundreds of years. More than half of Thames Water’s water mains are over 100 years old; around a third are over 150 years old. Leakage rates were high but substantial programs have been put in place to reduce these losses. Figure 20 shows the past position and indicators/targets set by the UK Economic Water Regulator, OFWAT Figure 20: Thames Water leakage and future targets

Source: UK Ofwat statement on Leakage Performance – Thames Water https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CC0QFjACahUKEwik 6of92e_IAhUGVRQKHV1wDJw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ofwat.gov.uk%2Fcontent%3Fid%3Da7e4cc3b-7a73-11dda611-336f22024594&usg=AFQjCNGjfuiZLrm0T2q0xAPYMm_YlKXnEw&sig2=xmkTiba8WQcZYyyNpi7P5A

It is not always economical to mend all leaks as this becomes a ‘diminishing return’. Operators must aim for a sustainable economic level of leakage. This is where the cost of doing so is less than the cost of not fixing the leak. The cost of not fixing a leak includes environmental damage and the cost of developing new water resources to compensate for the water lost through leaks. This approach is called the sustainable economic level of leakage and gives consumers the best value for money. A joint Environment Agency, OFWAT, 2008, report on Leakage Target Setting – A frontier approach31, provides a useful overview. The technology of leak detection is improving as are the engineering options for mending water mains. This means that the economic leakage level will change and thresholds need to be reviewed periodically. Leakage is often referred to in terms of lost revenue. Most losses are through leakage, but also due to criminal interception of water mains and illegal connections. These are important in terms of damage to the network and possible contamination of drinking water downstream.

31Environment

Agency, OFWAT, 2008, report on LEAKAGE TARGET SETTING - A FRONTIER APPROACH http://www.ofwat.gov.uk/regulating/casework/reporting/rpt_com_leaktgtapp.pdf Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

The communication and understanding of leakage indicators is important and Figure 21 is taken from a UK government report on - Environmental Statistics – Key Facts 201332

Figure 21: UK Leakage statistics

Source: Defra Statistics report 2013, Environmental Statistics – Key Facts http://data.defra.gov.uk/env/doc/Environmental%20Statistics%20key%20facts%202012.pdf

3.5 3.5.1

Best Practice – Water Supply Best Practice - Water Safety Plans

Water Safety Plans are increasingly a key element of reducing risks to drinking Water in Europe. They have been derived from the World Health Organization (WHO)’s 2005 document, Water Safety Plans Managing drinking-water quality from catchment to consumer 33 The UK Drinking Water Inspectorate strongly supports the World Health Organization’s initiative in promoting water safety plans as the most effective means of consistently ensuring the safety of a drinking water supply. The Drinking Water Inspectorate have produced a useful guidance document intended to give an outline of the process of constructing a water safety plan and a basic structure for what it should contain. It is entitled A Brief Guide to Drinking Water Safety Plans34 Defra, 2013, Environmental Statistics – Key Facts https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/153698/Environmental_Statistics_key_fa cts_2012.pdf 33 WHO, 2005, Water Safety Plans Managing drinking-water quality from catchment to consumer , WHO/SDE/WSH/05.06 http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/wsp170805.pdf 34 DRINKING WATER INSPECTORATE, 205, A Brief Guide to Drinking Water Safety Plans. http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/stakeholders/guidance-and-codes-of-practice/Water%20Safety%20Plans.pdf 32

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A Water Safety Plan (WSP) is the most effective way of ensuring that a water supply is safe for human consumption and that it meets the health based standards and other regulatory requirements. It is based on a comprehensive risk assessment and risk management approach to all the steps in a water supply chain from catchment to consumer. The primary objectives of a water safety plan in protecting human health and ensuring good water supply practice are the minimization of contamination of source waters, the reduction or removal of contamination through appropriate treatment processes and the prevention of contamination in the distribution network and the domestic distribution system. These objectives are applicable to all water supply chains, irrespective of their size or complexity. A WSP should ideally be developed for each water supply chain. For very small supplies this may be quite challenging and it would be acceptable to use a generic or model WSP for small water supply chains that are similar in nature with guidance on application to individual systems. Such generic or model WSPs could be based around a specified packaged technology. However, for all other water supply chains a WSP should be developed specifically for each system. Clearly WSPs can vary in complexity depending on the water supply chain. Figure 22 shows the key components of a water Safety Plan.

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Figure 22: Flow diagram giving the key components in the preparation of a water safety plan

Source: Drinking Water Inspectorate. 2005. A Brief Guide to Drinking Water Safety Plans. http://dwi.defra.gov.uk/stakeholders/guidance-and-codes-of-practice/Water%20Safety%20Plans.pdf

Existing good water supply management practices form an integral part of WSPs, but they may not include hazard identification and risk assessment and management or be tailored for each specific water supply chain. A WSP is essentially a framework of hazard identification, risk assessment, risk management including the control measures, monitoring and incident and emergency plans and the associated documentation for each stage in the water supply chain. The water supplier is the key player in a WSP but other stakeholders have significant roles.

3.5.2

Best Practice - Water Sources

The normal convention is for water to be abstracted from a river or groundwater source. Water may be stored in reservoirs, either in-stream or pump-storage. Novel water storage mechanisms are in place, such as aquifer recharge and ‘groundwaterbubble’ variations on this. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

Water resources can be supplemented by technological sources, such as desalination and novel water capture mechanisms. Most are either very expensive and energy intensive to operate and would not be considered unless extreme water shortages are experienced, such as in oil rich and desert middle eastern countries, or for contingency only use, such as in London. Water is increasingly recycled, but full recycling into drinking water is still rare. It is technically feasible, but public opinion is generally against direct recycling into drinking water systems. Singapore is developing systems, with very high levels of treatment. Recycling water from wastewater treatment works, to provide a lower grade of water for street washing and garden watering is common, especially in China. This can take pressure off the use of high quality drinking water, however, economies should be made and water must still be used efficiently. Water for street cleaning, does not go back into rivers, so environmental pressures need to be considered through the overall supply, demand evaluations. Roof water and rain water capture is a more effective way of adding to available water resources. It is generally relatively uncontaminated and can provide local additions to drinking water, after minor treatment to overcome contamination in the storage facility. Tool WM 1

3.5.3

Best Practice - Non-conventional water supply networks

Since drinking water has become a finite resource, the generation of water from non-conventional sources such as rainwater harvesting or recycling of water, i.e. the use of renewable and sustainable resource, will assume a new dimension in the future development of eco-cities. Rapid urbanization and climate change have impacted the quality of water resources and the regularity of supply and access.35 Demand-side issues involve more than just the provision of potable water: with increased population comes increased demand for water especially in the agriculture and industry sectors. Tool WM 1 The conventional systems referred to ubiquitous in most cities and improvements and retro-fitting can be difficult and costly. However in new cities and development areas alternative options might be considered. Tool WM 1 There are a number of issues to be considered when introducing additional water supply systems.

1. Several parallel pipe network systems may be needed, for clean drinking water, roof water and recycled water (grey water). 2. There are real risks of cross connection bringing public health risks. 3. Costs and maintenance increases. 4. Plumbers and operations staff need to be trained to reduce risk of cross contamination 5. Grey water will deteriorate in storage and pipes and may require treatment and maintenance. 6. May require multiple billing and customer engagement. Tool WM 1

Danish Water Forum & State of Green 2015. Rethinking Urban Water for New Value Cities. Copenhagen. http://www.rethinkwater.dk/sites/default/files/wp_rethinking_urban_water_for_new_value_in_cities_v2.0_0.pdf

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Water – Resource Efficiency

Source: DGNB. 2015. Efficient energy and resource use in urban districts. https://issuu.com/manufaktur/docs/131204_dgnb_quartiere_en

3.5.4

Rain and roof water supply

Rain water capture and roof water capture and storage can be a key theme in eco-house and eco-city design. Generally, the quality of this water is good at the point of collection. However, it can deteriorate in quality in storage and some form of treatment will be required if this is to achieve drinking water quality. However, for secondary use such as toilet flushing and car washing the quality may be fine;it should be supplied in a separate pipe system to the drinking water.

3.5.5

Grey Water Supply

Collecting slightly contaminated – or ‘grey-water’ from showers, sinks and washing machines is possible. However, this has a high organic and microbiological content. This requires significant treatment before reusing in households. In storage it will become anaerobic and smelly. Household grey water reuse systems have had a mixed history in Europe and few systems are cost effective. They require significant maintenance and can cause public health and nuisance issues. There is the risk of miss-connection with drinking water and a number of health issues have been reported due to plumbers miss-connecting on maintenance visits to eco-homes, because they were not properly trained and pipe labelling becomes confused.

3.5.6

Domestic Water Efficiency

An important component of achieving water use reductions and sustainable water demand is to achieve an understanding of water use by families and individuals.

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Overall water use is going up as modern societies have greater access to water and water using appliances. People take more showers and wash and change their clothes more frequently. 3.5.6.1 Water Use – Figures The World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 2006, overview publication – Water Facts and Trends, provides an insight into water issues and trends worldwide.

Source: http://www.unwater.org/downloads/Water_facts_and_trends.pdf

In the UK every person uses approximately 150 litres of water a day, a figure that has been growing every year by 1% since 1930. If you take into account the water that is needed to produce the food and products you consume in your day-to-day life (known as embedded water) you actually consume 3400 litres per day. The USA has the highest consumption at about 550 litres per person per day (although this estimate seems high and other quoted figures suggest around 250 litres per person per day). China still has moderate water consumption at around 80 litres per person per day, but expect significant variation within the population according to lifestyle, wealth and societal backgrounds. Figure 23 shows the average water use, per person, per day, around the world.

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Figure 23: Average Water Use per Person per Day

Source - http://www.data360.org/dsg.aspx?Data_Set_Group_Id=757

3.5.6.2 Water Price mechanisms to reduce usage Water pricing strategies can be an important tool in reducing water use and ensuring that citizens understand the value of water. Figure 24 shows the cost of water in many countries across the globe. There is significant variation and many countries do not pay a realistic price for water. Politicians cannot resist intervening in water price thinking that it is a good opportunity to reduce cost and gain favour. However, this does not help in deducing demand. In fact it is generally the poorest in society that pay the most for water, often from un-authorized suppliers. The EU, through the WFD, establishes a key principle that all EU countries should move towards establishing ‘a full cost of water services’. This is the cost of abstracting water, treating it, pipe networks into the house and sewerage networks out. Also, the cost of water treatment before discharge. The capital and revenue cost, plus borrowing costs must be taken into account in this ‘true cost of water service’.

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Figure 24: Example water costs from around the world.

Source: Global Water Intelligence. https://www.globalwaterintel.com/global-water-intelligence-magazine/tariff-survey/

From the figure it can be seen that Australia, Germany and UK have high costs that closely reflect the true cost. Australia’s may be higher because of the water shortages that are prevalent in the country. UK has a formal and transparent price setting process for its privatized water companies. Denmark has taken the deliberate decision to charge significantly more than the true cost of water services in order to reduce demand. This is an interesting development and Denmark has reduced domestic water consumption significantly as a result of this initiative36. The EU-funded SWITCH (Sustainable Water Improves Tomorrow’s Cities Health) project has launched the concept of Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) which explicitly proposes a combination of new paradigms in water management. These shall cover rain water harvesting, recycling and reuse of grey waters, and elements of low-impact development (LID), what in China is called the “Sponge City” concept. Tool WM 1

It should be noted that China’s business and domestic water price is far below a real cost, providing no incentive for water saving. 36

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Water Concepts in Traditional Cities and the Cities of the Future

Source: Jefferies, C., Duffy, A. 2011. SWITCH Transitions Manual. http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/outputs/pdfs/W1-3_GEN_MAN_D1.3.4_SWITCH_Transition_Manual.pdf

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3.5.7

Water Use in domestic situations and housing

Figure 25: UK Water use in the home – itemized figures

Source: Water Use – Waterwise, 2013, Water the Facts http://www.waterwise.org.uk/data/resources/25/Water_factsheet_2012.pdf

Case 10 United Kingdom: Engaging water customers in water saving Ofwat, the UK Economic regulator for water has produced a useful document encouraging water customers to save water, entitled “Push, Pull, Nudge”. How to save customers save water, energy and money37.

Source: OFWAT. 2011. How can we help customers to save water, energy, money? file:///C:/Users/Administrator/Downloads/Push,%20pull,%20nudge%20How%20can%20we%20help%20customers%20save%20water,%20energy%20and%20mo.pdf

OFWAT. 2011. How can we help customers to save water, energy, money? file:///C:/Users/Administrator/Downloads/Push,%20pull,%20nudge%20How%20can%20we%20help%20customers%20save%20water,%20energy%20and%20mo.pdf Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

It utilizes marketing techniques to get the message across. messages.

Box 2 below conveys the key

Box 3: Push, pull and nudge There are different ways to encourage consumers to use water more wisely. We have grouped them into three categories. Push is about setting standards for water-using devices. This includes the regulations that apply to water fittings and new homes. The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), and the Department for Communities and Local Government (CLG) are responsible for these regulations, but the European Commission has an important influence too. Pull is about rewarding customers for using water wisely. The most obvious way to do that is to charge customers for what they use, so that they pay less if they use less. About 60% of household customers in England and Wales do not have a water meter, which means that they do not pay according to how much they use. Defra and the Welsh Assembly Government set the policy and legislative framework for metering. For those customers who have a meter, the level and structure of their charges can have an important influence. The companies are responsible for setting charges, subject to our approval. Nudge is about understanding consumer behavior and using it to promote change. It draws on best practice in advertising and marketing to encourage consumers to change their waterusing habits. It is something that Government, the regulators and those providing services to consumers can all use. Source: OFWAT. 2011. How can we help customers to save water, energy, money? file:///C:/Users/Administrator/Downloads/Push,%20pull,%20nudge%20How%20can%20we%20help%20customers%20save%20water,%20energy%20and%20mo.pdf

3.5.8

Water Efficient Products

Water efficient products are constantly changing, with some products well established and others just emerging. Some products are only suitable for the visit-and-fix approach because they require the assistance of a plumber; others can be sent to households with instructions for selffitting. 3.5.8.1 Waterwise Marque The Waterwise Marque, Figure 26, is awarded annually to products which reduce water wastage or raise the awareness of water efficiency. 65 products have now been awarded the Marque across a broad spectrum of products including dishwashers, showerheads, water storing gels for the garden, toilets and urinals, drought resistant turf, domestic water recycling products, water butts, a waterless carwash, tap flow restrictors, a shower timer and devices to reduce the amount of water used when flushing your toilet, amongst others.

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Figure 26: Waterwise Marque - Water Appliances and Water labelling .

Source: Waterwise http://www.waterwise.org.uk/pages/the-waterwise-marque.html

The Bathroom Manufacturers Association (BMA) Water Efficient Product Labelling Scheme (Scheme) aims to encourage the installation of water efficient products within the domestic and commercial markets, maintaining individual choice at the same time as reducing the amount of water used. The Scheme was launched in September 2007 and now embraces over 600 registered products, across the five categories. It is now supported by 18 well known major brands in the marketplace. Being able to compare and assess water usage is important and the European Water Label is a scheme that provides easy access to a database of bathroom products, showing their water use per minute, allowing direct comparison between products. 38 Figure 27: The European Water Label

Source: Bathroom manufacturers association, Website http://www.europeanwaterlabel.eu/

The European Water Label can be found at http://www.europeanwaterlabel.eu/ and the Figure 27 below shows the home page and link. Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

3.5.9

Best Practice - UK Waterwise – an NGO approach

This is a useful NGO promoting water efficiency and water saving.39 Figure 28: Waterwise a UK Water Efficiency NGO

Source: UK Waterwise website, http://www.waterwise.org.uk/

Case 11 United Kingdom: Water Efficient House of the Future – Waterwise 2014

A key challenge to improving domestic water efficiency is motivating house builders and householders to install and use the water-efficient devices and appliances that are available. To tackle this challenge, Waterwise and the UK Water Research and Innovation Partnership (UKWRIP) held a workshop bringing together academics and professionals from a range of relevant industries. Given that water-efficient technology is well-developed and readily available, the discussions were focused upon three challenges: Financial, technological/ logistical, and behavioral/ aspirational. The Summary of findings suggested that: ‘The prospect of financial savings through improved water efficiency is not a strong motivator because water is a relatively small cost compared to other, or overall, household expenses – and the financial return on investment is usually long term. Clearly we need to better understand the drivers for adopting water efficiency among

It can be found at http://www.waterwise.org.uk/ The Waterwise home page is given below in Figure 28 and can be referenced to assess a wealth of material on water saving. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

households, home buyers, tenants and landlords. A key conclusion was that environmental and cost benefits are more likely to be achieved by promoting the desirable qualities of water-efficiency measures, such as good design and the latest technologies; ensuring water efficiency is framed as aspirational. Another key finding was the mixed and often poor level of knowledge and know-how about existing technology and resources, including among suppliers and installers (and, anecdotally, estate agents), which can lead to a lack confidence in the promotion and installation of them. There is a clear need to make information more straightforward and accessible, and to provide training for plumbers, installers, builders and developers around water efficiency.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Source: The Water Efficient House of the Future project and case study held in 2014. http://www.waterwise.org.uk/news.php/70/water-efficient-house-of-the-future

Case 12 Swindon, UK: Planning Effective Water Efficiency Initiatives Case Study Waterwise, 2012 - Swindon, UK A further useful case study, promoted by Waterwise can be found in Planning Effective Water Efficiency Initiatives, Learning from the Evidence Base, Save Water Swindon and Tap into Savings. Drawing on the lessons from two large-scale water efficiency retrofit initiatives, as well as other projects included within the Evidence Base, this short guide identifies eight key elements to consider when planning a home visit programme in which water saving devices are fitted.

- It is important to give enough time to considering the project setup, decisions made at the very beginning will have an impact throughout the lifetime of the initiative. - Partnership working brings benefits in terms of budget, knowledge and resources; however water efficiency planners should not overlook potential hurdles - The type of initiative, the products on offer, the recruitment methods used and the messages employed, all need to consider the target audience There is no ideal recruitment package or method that will lead to a successful project. In order to increase the likelihood of successful recruitment, the methods should be tailored as far as possible to the scope and target audience of that project. Choosing the right products means that not only can you maximize the water savings at the time of the project, but those water savings will continue into the future The home visit is a great opportunity to raise awareness of water efficiency, so ensuring that installers are knowledgeable and enthusiastic is key Good record keeping is important to successfully delivering a project. It can aid understanding of how aspects such as recruitment have worked, and identify potential issues A retrofit is an ideal opportunity to help households start taking care with the water they use, or become more efficient. A home visit should be viewed as an initial step in

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changing water using behaviors During 2010 and 2011, the Tap into Savings programme helped residents in three different areas around England save water, energy and money. Over 4,500 home visits were carried out in social housing and surrounding neighborhoods. During these visits, free water and energy efficiency devices were fitted and advice provided. The programme was funded by Defra and involved a number of partner organizations: Waterwise, Global Action Plan, KR Social Research, Anglian Water, Severn Trent Water, Sutton and East Surrey Water, Environment Agency, Braintree District Council, Coventry City Council, Reigate and Banstead Borough Council, Greenfields Community Housing, Raven Housing Trust and Whitefriars Housing Group. Source: Waterwise, 2012, Planning Effective Water Efficiency Initiatives, http://www.waterwise.org.uk/resources.php/51/planning-effective-water-efficiency-initiatives

3.6 3.6.1

Outlook - Drinking Water Outlook - Improvement of EU Drinking Water Legislation

The EU Commission40 has performed a public consultation on the quality of drinking water in the EU in order to assess the need for improvements on EU drinking water legislation. The consultation is one of the actions announced in the response of the Commission to the European Citizens' Initiative ’Right2Water’(Communication (2014)177 final).This consultation may lead to a review and possible revision of Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human consumption (Drinking Water Directive). To date, the Commission has made the following progress: Revision of technical annexes: The Commission worked in close consultation with Member States, experts and stakeholders on a revised text for Annexes II and III. On Monday 20 April 2015, the Drinking Water Committee gave a positive opinion to adapt these Annexes to scientific and technical progress. The amendments will give in the future an opportunity to monitor drinking water parameters at more appropriate frequencies. The new Annex II provides an option to perform the drinking water monitoring in around 100,000 water supply zones in Europe in a more flexible way, provided a risk assessment is performed ensuring full protection of public health. It follows the principle of ‘hazard analysis and critical control point’ (HACCP) used already in food legislation, and the water safety plan approach laid down in the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. These amendments will allow a better and more problem-oriented monitoring of small water supplies. The new monitoring and control system allows to reduce unnecessary analyses and to concentrate on those controls that matter.

EU Current Activity – Drinking Water http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-drink/review_en.html

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3.6.2

Outlook - Assessing Benefits

The assessment and quantification of benefits is a new and emerging field. For many years engineers have been able to assess the costs of engineering work and water sector initiatives. Assessing the benefits is much more difficult. Some benefits can be quantified, some elements cannot, and should not be monetized! However, decision makers and economists often require cost/benefit assessments. The lack of meaningful benefit assessment makes this difficult. Significant effort is now being made to assess benefits and this is discussed below. It is an ongoing process. However, there are a number of methods available to assess the benefits of environmental and water restoration projects. Many of these have been developed for WFD programs and flood infrastructure, but they can also be adapted for eco-city developments. 3.6.3

Outlook - Assessing the Benefits of Eco Cities

A CIRIA Research Project, RP993, Demonstrating the multiple benefits of SUDS – A business case (Phase 2), Draft Literature Review (October 2013) provides a useful overview. It can be found at http://www.susdrain.org/files/resources/ciria_guidance/ciria_rp993_literature_review_october_2013_.pdf Box 3 provides an introduction. Box 4: CIRIA Research Project, RP993, Demonstrating the multiple benefits of SUDS This review is intended for those who have an interest in understanding, using, or promoting the multifunctional benefits of Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS). It has been written with the intention of being accessible to as wide a range of interested parties as possible and although it presumes a basic knowledge of SuDS, it introduces a range of benefit assessment approaches and tools that are in use or under development presuming limited prior knowledge on the part of the reader. Source: http://www.susdrain.org/files/resources/ciria_guidance/ciria_rp993_literature_review_october_2013_.pdf

3.6.4

Ecosystem Services approaches to assessing benefits

Other approaches include concepts such as Ecosystem Services. The UK National Ecosystems Assessment 2011, is a useful starting point41. The benefits that we derive from the natural world and its constituent ecosystems are critically important to human well-being and economic prosperity, but are consistently undervalued in economic analyses and decision making. Ecosystem and ecosystem services are constantly changing, driven by societal changes – demographic, economic, socio-political, technological and behavioral – which influence demand for goods and services and the way we manage our natural resources.

UK National Ecosystems Assessment 2011, is a useful starting point, http://uknea.unepwcmc.org/Resources/tabid/82/Default.aspx Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

Figure 29: UK National Ecosystems Assessment, 2011

Source: UK National Ecosystems Assessment 2011, is a useful starting point, http://uknea.unepwcmc.org/Resources/tabid/82/Default.aspx

The report provides the following definition of Ecosystem services Ecosystem Services Definition Ecosystem Services are the products such as goods & services that come out of the ecosystem. These can be food, water purification, and spiritual experience. The combination of these goods & services contributes to human well-being in terms of health, wealth & happiness Definitions from the UK National Ecosystems Assessment 2011

There is considerable potential for economic assessment of these issues. Most is beyond the scope of the position paper, but this should give some initial insights that can be followed up in the future with the assistance from economic experts.

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4 WASTE WATER TREATMENT 4.1

Sector Context and Policy Analysis

Wastewater treatment is sometimes referred to as the ‘dirty water’ side of the water management business. It includes the collection of wastewater from households and industry into sewerage networks, the management of the networks and the treatment of the dirty water at sewage treatment works, before discharging the treated effluent back into the environment. Surface water from urban development is sometimes combined with the dirty water in ‘combined sewerage systems’. This may have engineering, cost and treatment advantages, according to circumstance. However, with the growth of cities and increases in impermeable areas, combined sewerage systems can cause problems with overflows of contaminated water into watercourses – so called combines sewer overflows (CSOs). Increasingly surface water and dirty water systems are being separated and new developments will often be designed with separate systems. Increasingly dirty and clean water systems, and flood alleviation measures are being planned and developed in an integrated way. This is because we are increasingly aware that all interact, especially in extreme situations. The European Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive Adopted in 1991, the European Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (91/271/EEC) addresses the need to protect Europe’s groundwater, rivers, lakes and seas from the impacts of poorly treated wastewater. The Directive requires that all wastewater generated in areas with a population equivalent in excess of 2000 must receive at least secondary treatment. In addition, cities identified as being in vulnerable, or ‘sensitive’, areas face more stringent treatment requirements. The Directive is closely related to the European Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) which requires that all waters in the European Union achieve good ecological status by 2015. Despite being introduced almost 20 years ago, the Directive continues to pose a significant challenge for cities throughout Europe. In particular the more stringent treatment requirements for big cities located in ‘sensitive’ areas are still a major issue and 50% of the load from these cities is still being discharged without adequate treatment. (5th Commission Summary on the Implementation of the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive) Further information on the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive can be found at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-urbanwaste/index_en.html Source: SWITCH. Training Kit – Integrated Urban Water Management in the City of the Future. Module 5-Waste Water Exploring the Options. http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/

Approaches such as sponge-city, eco-city and Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) offer options to work with city planners to arrive at optimal and more sustainable solutions. However, in most cases, especially when applied to existing cities, these are in addition to conventional drainage infrastructure. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

There will always be a need to ensure public-health with the proper collection and treatment of sewage though large base remover sewage treatment plants; environmental sanitation and development of sewerage networks. As piped water becomes available in households, there is a consequential need to dispose of the waste water. Also, in the developed world, the majority of households have water closet based toilet systems, utilizing water to wash away human excreta. This brings significant public health benefits, by physically separating the handling and removal of contaminated faces from other household activities. As cities develop, more and more households have inside toilets. This removal of human waste is known as environmental sanitation and encompasses disposal and treatment of waste waters. This requires an integrated management approach at neighbourhood or city level. At the household level there is of course also the safe management of human excreta, which includes the provision of toilet facilities, in combination with education and behavior change promoting hygienic practices (e.g., hand washing) to reduce fecal–oral diseases. The waste water is known as sewage and the collection systems are sewers, or sewerage networks. The collection of this sewage in urban situations is usually via centralised sewerage networks. Initially this sewage is removed from households and discharged into nearby watercourses, creating significant public health risk, especially if this is near a drinking water abstraction points. Other environmental pollution and damage occurs, especially if there is little dilution. As cities develop, the next step is usually to add a municipal sewage treatment works on the end of the sewage network to treat the sewage before discharge. This treatment can be progressively improved to reduce the public health risks and environmental impact. 4.1.1

Water for sanitation

Water is an essential ingredient for sanitation practices, while waste water collection is required to enable capture, treatment, and disposal of waste in appropriate manner. It will ensure water sources are not contaminated and environments not degraded. For a holistic approach to water and sanitation, there needs to be simultaneous development of water supply and a (centralized) sewerage system or means of (decentralized) collection of wastewater (septic tanks/septage system). Consideration must also be given for the type of facilities which are to be introduced, centralised or decentralised. Population, density, topography, the natural environment, and potential cost of the investment are factors that will influence this decision. Tool WM 2 4.1.2

Rates of household connection to sewerage networks

The development of city water infrastructure can be gauged by the %age of households connected to municipal sewer. In European cities the rate of connection will be around 100% households connected. In rural areas, the rate of connection will be less, because some remote houses may be connected to septic tanks or to small private treatment plants. In UK overall connection is 96%. The United Nations 42 have produced the following international overview of connections to sewerage systems, Figure 30.

United Nations Website - http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/wastewater.htm Data from: UNSD/UNEP Questionnaires on Environment Statistics, Water section. Eurostat environment statistics main tables and data base.http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/environment/introduction). OECD Environmental Data Compendium, Inland Waters section. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

Figure 30: Population connected to wastewater/sewerage networks

Source: United Nations - http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/wastewater.htm

4.1.3

Centralized versus decentralized systems

Many cities have become oriented towards ¨high-tech¨ solutions of centralized collection and treatment systems. Water supply on the one hand, and waste water collection (sewerage system) and treatment are two sides of the same coin. Urban areas which lack the necessary infrastructure to collect, treat, and dispose of wastewater face numerous human and environmental health problems. Environmental sanitation is necessary for proper management of urban environments and to improve and protect human health as well as the natural environment. The majority of cities focus on centralised water supply and sewage collection networks. These are an essential part of city infrastructure and these major water supply and waste removal systems are the backbone of public health provision. These centralised systems are usually developed and operated by municipalities, but in some countries these are privatized and operated by commercial organizations, with water charges being raised by the water companies to fund the provision. The trend is still to agglomerate water and sewage networks in order to optimize operation and reduce water charges. This is still the preferred model and commercial and competitive methods show this to be the case. However, new research and thinking is challenging this and in some cases, especially for new suburbs and developments, decentralised models are being tried and can show efficiency, especially in eco-city contexts. The reality is likely to be in mixed centralised and decentralised options, each complementing water sensitive city designs. However, for big cities the core infrastructure will remain for the foreseeable future and will be essential to maintain public health – the essential underlying consideration. Tool WM 2 4.1.4

Inadequate collection of waste water

If sewerage networks are undersized or badly maintained then blockages and overflows occur. At worst this can cause sewer flooding and the backing up of sewage into households. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

Inadequate collection of waste water has a very strong impact on the natural environment. More so, the discharge of untreated effluent and industrial waste has strongly detrimental effects on the biology of watercourses and their ecosystem. Contaminated freshwater sources, degraded aquatic environment, and eutrophication through excessive nutrient discharge are all outcomes of poor wastewater and surface water management. Coupled with these challenges, inadequate drainage and preparedness for heavy rain events often means that wet season and instances of high rainfall are compounded by poor or absent solid waste management and exacerbate the challenges that cities face in managing water resources, as it impacted by through localized flooding, contamination of water resources (through effluent combined fresh water). The EU-funded SWITCH project has recommended a strategic and broad scenario for dealing with waste water through decentralised approaches, assuming that these practices will lead to substantial gains in water resources: Decentralization and Cluster Management of Waste Water

Source: Jefferies, C., Duffy, A. 2011. SWITCH Transitions Manual. http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/outputs/pdfs/W1-3_GEN_MAN_D1.3.4_SWITCH_Transition_Manual.pdf

4.2

Technologies Waste Water Treatment

4.2.1 Technologies - Modelling sewer systems performance and size Sewer systems are modelled to ensure adequate sizing to ensure that they can cope with demand, now and in the future. This also allows capital and operating costs to be optimized. Simplistically, sewer systems need to accommodate dirty water flows from their catchments. However, in wet weather, flows increase due to rainwater and infiltration. In the past sewers were designed to 3 times dry weather flow. Flows greater then this were discharged into

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watercourses via storm water overflows, causing pollution problems in wet weather – especially from combined sewers. New sewer models allow optimization of design and operation to reduce spill frequency and to ensure that receiving water status is maintained. The Foundation for Water Research Urban Pollution Management model 43 , version 3, is a good example. UPM3 is in the public. The following Figure 31 provides an overview Figure 31: Urban Pollution Management – Planning Procedure

Source: Foundation for Water Research, 2012, (UPM3) http://www.fwr.org/UPM3/

4.2.2

Technologies – Waste Water/ Sewage Treatment Works

Sewage treatment works are an integral part of city infrastructure. They are connected to sewerage networks and must be engineered to treat the flow arriving from the sewerage catchment. They are designed to treat to specified numeric standards of flow and quality, taking into account the strength and quality of the sewage arriving, and the requirements of the receiving aquatic environment. Figure 32 shows a simplified sewage treatment processes which are described below.

The Foundation for Water Research, 2012, Urban Pollution Management model, version 3, http://www.fwr.org/UPM3/ Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

Figure 32: Simplified Sewage Treatment Works Processes

Source: Severn Trent Water Website - https://www.stwater.co.uk/content/conMediaFile/775

The following is a Severn Trent Water company description of the sewage treatment process relates to the figure above and is as follows: Stage 1: Catchment area/ Sewerage System Sewage not only comes from our homes but is also produced by offices, shops, factories and other industries. Together with rain water that runs off roofs and roads, sewage is washed, flushed, or drained into sewers. Only industrial waste that is not damaging to the sewers and the people who occasionally work in them, and that which can be treated effectively at sewage treatment works is accepted. The underground network of sewers that collects all this waste water and transports it to the sewage works is known as the sewerage system and the area it covers is the catchment area. Stage 2: Inlet and Screening The sewage arrives at the inlet and the sewage treatment process begins with screening. This removes debris (such as rags, sticks, plastic, cans and bricks) which could damage downstream equipment or block pipes. The sewage then passes through channels or chambers which are designed to slow the flow rate and make sure that any grit sinks to the bottom and is taken out before it damages pumps or interferes with other treatment processes. Organic matter remains in Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

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suspension and passes forward to the primary tanks. Because the rate at which sewage arrives at a treatment works varies - especially during heavy rainfall – excess flows are diverted at the inlet into storm tanks and returned later when capacity is available. Stage 3: Primary Treatment This initial settlement stage is designed to separate out heavier organic matter and any floating material. Effective operation at this point is vital to protect downstream treatment stages. Large circular or rectangular tanks continuously receive incoming screened crude sewage and are used to create relatively still conditions in which heavier materials sink to the bottom of the tank as primary sludge and fats float to the top to be removed by a scraper mechanism. Sludge is removed regularly from the base of the tanks by a system of scrapers and is then pumped away for further treatment and energy recovery where possible. The remaining light organic solids and dissolved material is carried forward in the general flow to the next stage as settled sewage. In most cities there is a need for base removal capability by conventional sewage treatment works. Mostly this is achieved by the progressive development of municipal infrastructure and tightening public health and environmental standards. London, for example has three major sewage plants, as well as a few smaller plants for smaller sewer catchments. Stockholm has one of the most advanced wastewater treatment plants in the world, designed to treat to the highest standards. It is constantly being optimized and improved. Stage 4: Secondary Treatment This is a biological stage where we use bacteria and other micro-organisms to break down most of the remaining organic matter in the settled sewage into water, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. We provide the bacteria with ideal conditions in which to ‘work’ and they grow using the organic matter as their ‘food’. Surplus bacteria are regularly removed. Filter beds are filled with specially selected stones or similar media which have a large surface area and provide an excellent habitat for bacteria to grow without blocking the flow of liquid and air around them. Settled sewage is broken down by the bacteria as it percolates down through the media. This robust yet simple technique imitates natural breakdown of waste and is energy efficient but requires a large land area. Activated sludge treatment is more flexible but energy intensive. Activated sludge tanks are kept continuously mixed with air either bubbled through the mixture or supplied by violent agitation at the surface. Settled sewage is continuously fed to the tanks and mixes with treatment bacteria which are continuously reclaimed from the treatment process. The process can be adapted to reduce phosphorous or nitrogen release in the final effluent. Both types of treatment depend on settlement tanks immediately after the biological stage to separate out the bacteria that have grown and thus leave water suitable for direct discharge to the river or tertiary treatment. Stage 5: Tertiary Treatment The standard of final effluent we discharge to a watercourse is determined by the standards set by the Environment Agency. Where there is a need for a very high quality discharge we will install additional organic matter and/or nutrient removal technology. In Severn Trent Water the most common forms of tertiary treatment for large works are sand filters and reed beds for smaller Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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works. Nutrient removal can be achieved by chemical or biological processes and is becoming more frequent where treatment works are being asked to meet the demands of growing local populations. Stage 6: Sludge Treatment Treating sewage always produces sludge. Sludge contains organic material and valuable nutrients suitable for improving soil structure but requires further treatment before it is safe to use on land. We do this by ‘digesting’ the sludge in enclosed tanks. Our digestion processes use bacteria to break down the sludge and destroy any potentially dangerous pathogens. To work effectively the bacteria/sludge mix needs to be kept at the right temperature and in an atmosphere without oxygen. The process produces biogas, water and treated sludge. When digestion is complete we reduce the volume of the sludge by centrifuging out a lot of the water to produce a ‘cake’ for recycling to farm land and restoration sites. Stage 7: Energy Recovery The biogas produced when we digest sludge contains methane which we can burn to recover energy. Usually there is more biogas than is needed for heating the digesters and, wherever possible, it is used to generate electricity. Many of our sewage works with digesters are now able to export this surplus renewable energy to the national grid. At two of our sites the sludge produced cannot be recycled to land because of contaminants from industrial discharges and we have to burn the sludge in incinerators to reduce its volume. When burnt, sludge produces heat which we use to minimize our incinerator fuel costs. Case 13 EU: Producing Energy from Wastewater. The beautiful Seine River has been cooling buildings in Paris for more than 20 years. Architectural highlights like the Louvre Museum and the Banque de France rely on a 52 kilometer network of pipes that provides the perfect indoor temperature for Mona Lisa and Co. The Paris underground network is one of the largest district cooling systems in the world. It helps the city mitigate extreme urban heat while saving 500,000 cubic meters of drinking water. Highly efficient. This is just one of many examples of how cities are getting better at producing and utilizing renewable energy. Smart energy systems can now integrate renewable energy cost-efficiently. However, water and wastewater management still account for 8% of global energy consumption according to the UN. This naturally leaves room for improvement. One energy-producing wastewater plant in the Danish municipality of Aarhus has already seized this opportunity – it now produces 90% more energy than it uses. Every waste water treatment plant can do the same.

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Image: REUTERS/Henning Gloystein

A typical European municipality still uses between 30-40% of its total electricity consumption on water treatment. This is a high cost to any municipality, and is money that could instead be spent on things like education or infrastructure. Aarhus proves it is possible not just to reduce that amount significantly, but to actually turn the water management plant into a surplus enterprise. Source: Warming, M. and Panzer, J. 2016. We’re heading for a water crisis. Could Denmark save the day? Weforum 30 August. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/08/were-heading-for-a-water-crisis-could-denmarksave-the-day/44

Stage 8: Sludge Recycling Sludge has always been recycled to agricultural land. Many of the first sewage treatment works were known as sewage farms. Sludge contains nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous in slow release form and organic matter for conditioning the soil. Modern methods of treatment and strong environmental controls enable us to provide a safe and valuable service to farmers and those looking to restore damaged land. We usually supply digested sludge cake from treatment centers by lorry direct to the field where it is spread by agricultural equipment before being ploughed in. Tool WM 2

See also: Boggaram, V., and Goswami, S. 2017. From Waste to Watts: How Sewage Could Help Fix India's Water, Energy and Sanitation Woes. World Resources Institute. 22 March 2017. http://www.wri.org/blog/2017/03/waste-wattshow-sewage-could-help-fix-indias-water-energy-and-sanitationwoes?utm_campaign=wridigest&utm_source=wridigest-2017-04-04&utm_medium=email&utm_content=learnmore

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Case 14 Stockholm, Sweden: Wastewater Treatment Plant

Henriksdal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is located on the boundary between Stockholm and Nacka, approximately 2km from Slussen, Sweden. It currently serves approximately one million people in Stockholm and Huddinge, including Haninge, Nacka and Tyresö municipalities. Operated by Stockholm Vatten (the Stockholm Water Company), the facility is one of the world's biggest underground WWTP and covers a total area of 300,000m³ with 18km of associated tunnels and a wastewater treatment capacity of roughly 250,000m³a day. The sludge produced from the plant is treated at the neighbouring facility in Sickla. Stockholm Vatten has proposed a major expansion and renovation for the WWTP in order to meet the city's growing population and enable the city to close down the Bromma WWTP, which is causing an obstruction to create more homes in western Stockholm. The project will enable the city to meet the effluent requirements set under the Baltic Sea Action Plan (BSAP) and EU water directive. Integrating GE's proprietary LEAPmbr technology, the WWTP will be the world's biggest facility implementing the membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology when the project is realized in 2018. Construction works on the SKr5.94bn ($689.5m) are scheduled to start in 2016. Source: http://www.water-technology.net/projects/henriksdal-wastewater-treatment-plant-stockholm/

Case 15 EU: Sludge to power – Converting Human Waste to Energy Disposal to landfill is wasteful of a potentially useful resource and as well as using up limited space in the landfill site, causes multiple management problems at the site related to stability, leachate generation, odour, vermin and landfill gas production. There is a need and opportunity for major expansion in sludge treatment facilities in China. This maybe in the form of separate regional sludge treatment facilities or in combination with municipal solid waste treatment. In Europe sludge treatment tends to be closely coupled with wastewater treatment facilities and the businesses that manage these. However, Sludge is not just a problem in need of disposal, it is also a raw material and resource that can be converted to useful products such as energy and fertiliser / soil conditioner. This is something in common with the wet components of municipal solid waste, food processing waste and some agricultural waste. These materials can be combined and biologically digested to yield gas; dried and combusted to yield heat; or part dried and then put through gasification or pyrolysis to produce both gas and heat. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Where gas is produced it can be used for process heating; electrical generation in an engine or turbine; it can be purified and used as transport fuel or, with enough processing, even put into the gas grid. Though there are thousands of sewage sludge digestion and biogas plants in Europe, properly integrated urban waste management schemes are rarer. When looking for a way forward for China there is the opportunity to consider more integrated solutions that have higher financial rates of return to the operators. These approaches will allow Local government to let Public Private Partnership contracts that will allow the construction of infrastructure for low carbon and sustainable solutions that are financeable in the long term even where public finances are severely indebted. Anaerobic Digestion vessels â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the principle means of sludge treatment and energy recovery

Source: Atkins

Examples from Europe. The following are examples drawn from Europe illu Starting parts of integrated urban waste management solutions. They combine the water, waste, wastewater and treatment cycles with energy, industry and transport networks to build means of recovering and reusing energy to achieve dramatic improvements in resource efficiency. As the technologies and financing and regulatory environments develop so the ability to implement ever more effective integrated solutions increases, working towards a circular economy. Baltic Biogas Bus45. The biogas methane from sludge digestion is often burnt in a gas engine and used to produce electricity, but the value of that methane used as a transport fuel is much higher. The exhaust emissions of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) powered busses are much less polluting than those from Diesel busses. In Stockholm, Sweden most of the Bus fleet has now been converted to run on either CNG derived from Biogas produced by sewage sludge digestion or on ethanol produced from wood processing waste and some imported sugar cane waste. Anaerobic digestion processes are at the heart of turning waste materials into valuable fuels. The scheme includes the Kappala plant in Stockholm producing Biogas by sewage sludge digestion and the Hendriksdal plant which also takes the organic portion of household waste and sewage sludge for co digestion in an AD plant. The Biogas produced from these and other plants around Stockholm are put through purifiers and scrubbers and then compressed to make suitable for use as vehicle fuels. As the system has expanded over the last decade so more sources of Biogas have come on line including landfill gas and anaerobic digestion of farm wastes. The bio gas is used not just for vehicle fuels but also for industrial and domestic heating. Demand exceeds supply and it has been necessary to plan connection of different sources and distribution points. Biogas has a different composition from Natural Gas and so it is necessary to either construct a separate Biogas Grid or to process the gas more highly to put into the natural gas network. New processing facilities employing a Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) process were installed at Sofielund plant early 2015 and a second 45http://www.balticbiogasbus.eu/web/Upload/Supply_of_biogas/Act_4_6/Production%20and%20supply%20of%20bioga

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process was under construction at Hendriksdal plant as of late 2015 capable of treating 3000 m3/h of Biogas46. The crude cost of using Biogas as a fuel for the bus fleet is about 8% higher than diesel (2012 prices) 47 but the environmental benefits of Biogas mean it can be considered a net zero carbon fuel. When able to interconnect with the Natural gas grid so the value and utilisation of the resources becomes higher. Similar schemes have been initiated around Sweden and now 60% of public buses nationally use fuel from biogas, bioethanol or biodiesel 48. In the UK pilot biogas to public vehicle fuel pilots have been put in place in the cities of Bristol and Bath49. Example of a Bio-Bus in Bath – fuelled with methane recovered from sewage sludge

Source: Atkins

Advanced Sludge processing. Sewage sludge is a difficult material to handle and to treat. It is a complex living mass of highly variable composition potentially containing chemical contaminants such as heavy metals and a wide range of pathogens. Before re-use the dangers in the sludge must be reduced. For chemical contamination such as heavy metals it is generally impossible / very uneconomic to separate them out and so if detected measures must be taken in the sewer catchment to prevent discharges in the first place. For the Pathogenic organisms these will always be present and before sludge can be used in any context where it would be in contact with the environment, such as spread on land, it must be processed to kill pathogens by a chemical or thermal process. Anaerobic Digestion is the main means of treating sludge to stabilise it and to release energy as methane (Biogas), however, this is not a very efficient process. In order to achieve greater integrated use of sludge, a favoured solution is thermal hydrolysis of sludge followed by anaerobic digestion. Thermal hydrolysis (THP) is a two-stage process combining high-pressure boiling of waste or sludge followed by a rapid decompression. This combined action sterilizes the sludge and makes it more biodegradable, which improves digestion performance. The process also improves the physical structure of the sludge making it easier to dewater and so increase loading rates to digesters. Sterilization destroys pathogens in the sludge so that the residue can meet stringent requirements for application to agricultural land. The main processes in use are the CambiTHP™ process 50 and Veolia’s Exelys™ process 51. An

http://european-biogas.eu/2015/11/17/viessmann-biogas-purification-technology-helps-to-make-cng-fuel-fromsewage-sludge/ 47 As 1. 48 http://www.waterworld.com/articles/wwi/2015/10/stockholm-accelerates-sludge-to-cng-plans-with-new-project.html 49 http://www.geneco.uk.com/ 50 http://www.cambi.com/Products Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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example of the application of this process in the UK is the Esholt treatment works in Yorkshire 52. Thermal Hydrolysis plants are getting established in China with CAMBI plants under construction at 5 plants in Beijing operated by Beijing Drainage Group 53. The final residue from digesters where sludge has been pre-treated with THP can be dewatered to 35 to 40% dry solids by physical methods (such as centrifuges, belt or filter presses) and forms a high quality organic agricultural fertiliser and soil conditioner. Anaerobic Digestion can also be applied to other waste streams such as household, food processing or agricultural waste in isolation or mixed with sewage sludge. In all cases thermal pre-treatment can be considered. Thermal Pyrolysis Another route for the treatment and energy recovery from sludge and organic solid waste is thermal Pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is the high temperature decomposition of carbon based material in the absence of oxygen, whereby the outputs are syngas (a highly combustible gas largely comprising carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane) along with bio-char (a charcoal-like material that is a potential fuel source in its own right). It has significant potential commercial and environmental benefits over other combustion technologies that may be applied to sludge 54. Pyrolysis may be used on raw sewage sludge or on various municipal, food or agricultural waste components. It can also be applied to the dewatered sludge following THP and anaerobic digestion. Despite great potential for the release of energy in the waste cycle, pyrolysis as a process is still in the development phase with plants processing solid and industrial wastes in operation but as yet no full scale plants in operation processing sewage sludge or mixes. Further strategic investment could bring this technology to commercial scale. Co-Incineration Wastewater sludge, generally as dried pellets, can be co-combusted in coal-fired power stations and cement kilns. In power stations, sludge can contribute <5% by weight of the fuel input with minimal impact on operation. Dried sludge has a calorific value similar to a low-grade brown coal. Sludge cake is “dried” prior to firing using the spare water evaporation capacity of the power station required to dry the coal. Very little infrastructure is required in the power station compared with building similar thermal treatment technologies in dedicated sludge plants. The main challenges are in transporting the sludge to the Power Station and regulation regarding combustion of sludge being classed as a waste disposal process unlike burning coal, which can lead to unnecessary administrative complications. Low Grade Heat and sludge drying. There are major physiochemical and thermodynamic barriers to overcome to separate the water from the sludge. Without separation of the water the energy from combustion, gasification or pyrolysis of the organic material in the sludge will be entirely consumed in the evaporation of the water in it. There are various sludge dryer solutions available that require the input of energy in the form of natural gas to supply the heat for drying 55. They are also difficult and unreliable to operate. Therefore either low energy separation techniques are needed or a very low cost source of energy can be used to dry the sludge. Where there is access to a thermal pyrolysis of combustion process to release energy from the organic components of the sludge the removal of the water represents an opportunity to utilise low grade heat to concentrate energy into a recoverable form. Power Plants and many industrial processes produce vast amounts of hot exhaust gasses or hot water from cooling processes. It is difficult to extract such energy for useful purposes. However the evaporation of the water from sludge can represent a means of effectively concentrating that energy in a manner that 51

http://www.veoliawatertechnologies.co.uk/waterandwastewater/municipal/SludgeTreatment/Continuous_thermal_hydrolysis_Exelys/ 52 http://www.waterprojectsonline.com/case_studies/2012/Yorkshire_Esholt_2012.pdf 53 https://www.globalwaterintel.com/news/2014/36/cambi-cashes-beijings-haste-biowaste, http://www.cambi.com/Media/Press-Releases/Cambi-Awarded-Contracts-in-Beijing, 54 http://energy10.co.uk/info/pyrolysis-technology.html 55 For example Andritz High temperature http://www.andritz.com/products-and-services/pf-detail.htm?productid=5210 or Low temperature drying systems http://www.andritz.com/en/pf-detail?productid=5201 and example of applications https://www.andritz.com/index/separation/se-references.htm Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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can make it accessible. Increasing the Dry solids content of a typical Sludge from 25% to 75% dry solids will increase the energy yield from its combustion more than 6 fold, from around 1500 to 9750 kJ per kg. There are various technologies available for using waste heat, concentrated with heat pumps to evaporate the water in sludge and so achieve 75 to 80% dry solids cakes which are then a concentrated energy source56. Solar energy can also be used for this purpose, though large areas would be required, this can be better as a combination of drying beds heated by recovered hot water inside greenhouses to gather solar energy as well. (An example of such can be seen in China at Ningjin treatment works in Shandong.) Sludge Drying system Ningjin, China,

Note: Greenhouse with floor heated by hot water from heat pumps taking energy from the warmth of sewage treatment works effluent. Source: Atkins

Conclusions In Europe there is a progression to increasingly integrated sludge management strategies. For example in the Thames water region it is anticipated that in the 10 years from 2008 there would be an increase in the proportion of sludge treated by energy recovery processes from about 40% to about 60% of the total sludge, with a corresponding proportional reduction in sludge sent to land. Thermal hydrolysis is applied to increase the energy recovery yields and produce smaller volumes of higher quality products to send to land. Solutions integrated with solid waste management and the implementation of pyrolysis, gasification and co-incineration will become more developed and widespread57. There is also inclusion of the use of waste heat in the sludge drying systems to use the cycle as a means of capturing otherwise wasted energy58. As illustrated in Sweden by integrating the sludge digestion and the transport fuels systems higher value can be derived from the biogas products produced. Such integrated solutions can find rapid adoption in China if the appropriate regulatory, financial and contractual structures and incentives can be put in place. There are many large public private partnership contracting companies in China who can partner with EU technology providers to provide municipal governments with integrated wastewater, waste and energy management infrastructure. Over the last 5 to 10 years there has been a massive investment in wastewater treatment capacity in China. Most major towns and cities now have sewerage leading to treatment plants. In recent years the standards for treatment have been raised to full secondary treatment and increasingly to tertiary treatment with nutrient removal. As higher quality effluents are produced so the amount of waste sludge produced increases. In most cases sludge treatment is not a contractual requirement of the plant operator. They are required to collect and dewater the sludge to 20 to 25% dry solids so that it can be safely transported by truck to a suitable disposal point operated by the 56

For Examples from SUEZ http://www.aqualogyuk.com/Wastewater-and-Sludge/Low-Temperature-Sludge-andBiomass-Drying-Solution and STC http://www.secadolodos.com/73010_en/Heat-pump-technology-for-thermal-sludgedrying/ 57 http://www.thameswater.co.uk/about-us/6001.htm and Thames “Draft Strategic Proposals for Sludge Management”, 2008 58 http://wpt.iwaponline.com/content/9/2/179 Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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local government. For the most part the disposal is to landfill or occasionally by land spreading or advanced treatment such as digestion or incineration.

4.2.3

Technologies – Phosphate Recovery from Sewage Treatment

There are also recent developments in phosphate recovery from sludge, though processes like struvite production and recovery. Case 16 United Kingdom: Thames Water - Struvite/Phosphate recovery Phosphorus, the diminishing key ingredient in fertilizer used to grow the world's food supply, is to be extracted from sewage on a commercial basis for the first time ever on British soil. A £2m nutrientrecovery reactor, the first of its kind in Europe, is now producing sanitized fertilizer, purer than any other, from the unique vintage of wastewater coming out of Slough in Berkshire. This sustainable source of phosphorous, the key ingredient in fertilizer, whose price has increased by 500% since 2007, is a welcome alternative to mining phosphate rock from dwindling, non-renewable reserves. A state-of-the-art nutrient recovery facility will remove struvite, a compound containing phosphorus and ammonia, from sewage at Slough sewage works in Berkshire and turn it into premium-grade, slowrelease fertilizer. If left untreated struvite settles as scale on the inside of sewage pipes and valves, narrowing them like furred arteries, increasing pumping and maintenance costs, and in some cases blocking pipes completely. The new plant will solve this problem. The £2m Slough project, a partnership between Thames Water and Ostara Nutrient Recovery Technologies, is timely because mineable reserves of phosphorus are running out - down to 6% in North America, 1% in Russia and 39% in China - and experts predict these non-sustainable stocks will last only for about another 30 years. Mining the nutrient is also very carbonintensive. The phosphorous extracted from Slough wastewater, a sustainable source, forms crystalline pellets which can be spread as fertilizer on crops, lawns, and gardens. The nutrient recovery facility will be built by Ostara, a company based in Vancouver, Canada, whose slow-release fertilizer, Crystal Green, is sold in America and has just received Environment Agency approval for sale in the UK. Source: Thames Water Press release November 2013 http://www.thameswater.co.uk/media/press-releases/17393.htm

Additional information on this process can be found in a Cranfield University, Summary Report on Struvite its role in phosphorus recovery and recycling59.

4.3 4.3.1

Standards – Waste Water Treatment Design standards for sewage treatment works and networks

The EU outlines the minimum standards for sewerage systems and sewage treatment works through the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive60. It is a fundamental guide to determine acceptable minimum standards for sewage systems.

Cranfield University, July 2005, Struvite its role in phosphorus recovery and recycling, Summary Report, Scope Newsletter, No 57. http://www.phosphorusplatform.eu/images/download/ScopeNewsletter%2057%20Cranfield%20Struvite%20conference .pdf 60 EU, 1991, Council Directive 91/271/EEC concerning urban waste-water treatment Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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4.3.1.1 EU Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive The EU Council Directive 91/271/EEC concerning urban waste-water treatment, was adopted on 21 May 1991. Its objective is to protect the environment from the adverse effects of urban waste water discharges and discharges from certain industrial sectors (see Annex III of the Directive) and concerns the collection, treatment and discharge of:

  

Domestic waste water Mixture of waste water Waste water from certain industrial sectors (see Annex III of the Directive)

This is illustrated in the figure 33 below: Figure 33: EU Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive overview of process and links to receiving waters.

Source: Defra, 2002, UK Implementation of the EC Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive https://www.gov.uk/...data/.../pb6655-uk-sewage-treatment-020424.pdf

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Four main principles are laid down in the Directive:    

Planning Regulation Monitoring Information and reporting

Specifically the Directive requires:     

The Collection and treatment of waste water in all agglomerations of >2000 population equivalents (p.e.); Secondary treatment of all discharges from agglomerations of > 2000 p.e., and more advanced treatment for agglomerations >10 000 population equivalents in designated sensitive areas and their catchments; A requirement for pre-authorisation of all discharges of urban wastewater, of discharges from the food-processing industry and of industrial discharges into urban wastewater collection systems; Monitoring of the performance of treatment plants and receiving waters; and Controls of sewage sludge disposal and re-use, and treated waste water re-use whenever it is appropriate.

Member states increasingly set emission standards that are tighter than these minimum standards. These are usually set to meet ‘river needs’ or the increased requirements of the Water Framework Directive. These standards are set using discharge permits which closely specify numeric requirements for performance. The numbers are determined by mathematical modelling of receiving water objectives. Models such as SIMCAT are used to determine cost effective options within river catchments. The publication ‘Regulation for Water Quality’ 61 , provides an extensive overview of these permitting and modelling processes. Additional requirements to reduce the concentrations of nitrates and phosphates in the environment are driving the progressive removal of these from sewage treatment processes. Chemical and biological removal techniques are being developed and are in use in most large treatment plants. Increasingly phosphate removal and reclamation is being used and innovative methods such as struvite concentration and recovery enables scarce phosphate to be recovered commercially.

4.3.2

Standards - Microbiological and bathing water

Microbiological standards from sewage treatment works are often specified especially to protect bathing waters. The EU Bathing Waters Directive 62 and its more recent revisions, set microbiological standards for the bathing waters themselves, and by direct link, standards for treatment plants discharging to bathing waters. Most bathing waters are for marine waters with touristic bathing. However, these are increasingly being set for urban areas where citizens like to swim and take water borne recreational activities. The city bathing areas in Copenhagen and Munich are good examples. They were very expensive to build and have high operational costs; however city mayors believe that the benefits to citizens and to tourist economy exceed the cost. 61Foundation

for Water Research, 2014, Regulation for Water Quality. http://www.fwr.org/WQreg/ 2006, DIRECTIVE 2006/7/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 15 February 2006, concerning the management of bathing water quality and repealing Directive 76/160/EEC 62EU,

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Case Study below provides an overview. Case 17 EU: EU Bathing Water Directive Bathing water policy is one of the success stories in EU water policy and important to protect human health and the environment.

Since the 1970s, the EU has had rules in place to safeguard public health and clean bathing waters. The revised Bathing Water Directive (BWD) of 2006 updated and simplified these rules. It requires Members States to monitor and assess the bathing water for at least two parameters of (faecal) bacteria. In addition, they must inform the public about bathing water quality and beach management, through the so-called bathing water profiles. These profiles contain for instance information on the kind of pollution and sources that affect the quality of the bathing water and are a risk to bathers' health (such as waste water discharges). In this light, the Commission introduced a symbol on bathing water classification in 2011. The BWD also complements other environmental policy: the Water Framework Directive, under which bathing waters are one of the Protected Areas the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), in contributing to reaching "good environmental status" by 2020. Information to the public: the bathing water report Every year the Commission and the European Environment Agency publish a summary report on the quality of bathing water, based on the information provided by Member States. The report tracks the water quality at more than 21 000 bathing sites across the EU, Switzerland and Albania. Source: EU Europa website, Bathing Waters http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-bathing/index_en.html

4.3.3

Standards – Monitoring Bathing Water Compliance

Monitoring is an essential component of setting and assessing standards. The monitoring for Bathing Water Quality is essential for management of infrastructure and to inform the public of potential risk when swimming in the sea. Water quality and microbiological assessments are displayed on bathing water beaches. This has become an expected requirement of holiday beaches, alongside lifeguard and amenity instructions. Box 4 below gives an indication of monitoring requirements. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Box 5: Monitoring requirements and assessment methodology for bathing water quality in the 2014 season The monitoring requirements under the New Bathing Water Directive are: • taking of a pre-season sample (taken shortly before the start of the bathing season); • a minimum of four samples per season (three samples are sufficient if the season does not exceed eight weeks or if the region is subject to special geographical constraints); • a minimum of one sample per month (if, for any reason, it is not possible to take the sample at the scheduled date, a delay of four extra days is allowed. Thus, the interval between two samples should not exceed 31 + 4 days). The conditions described above must be met for all bathing waters. If these rules are satisfied, the bathing water is categorised as 'sampling frequency satisfied'. If at least one monitoring requirement is not fulfilled the bathing water is categorised as 'sampling frequency not satisfied'. In such cases, bathing water can still be quality assessed if at least four samples per season (three samples if the season does not exceed eight weeks or the region is subject to special geographical constraints) are available and are more or less equally distributed throughout the season. Assessment of bathing water quality is possible when the bathing-water sample dataset is available for four consecutive seasons. Bathing waters are accordingly classified to one of the bathing-water quality classes (excellent, good, sufficient, or poor). Quality assessment is not possible for all bathing waters. In these cases, they are instead classified as either: • 'not enough samples': not enough samples have been provided for the 2014 season or throughout the whole assessment period. • 'new': classification not yet possible because bathing water is newly identified and a complete set of samples is not yet available. • 'changes': classification is not yet possible after changes affecting bathing water quality have been implemented. • 'closed': bathing water is closed temporarily or throughout the bathing season. (There are also some Transitional Rules which are not included here.) Source: European Environment Agency, 2015, European bathing water quality in 2014 http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/european-bathing-water-quality-in-2014

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Case 18 Berlin, Germany: Switching Digital Control Technology in a Waste Water Treatment Plant

“The Future Begins now. During its 20-year service life, Teleperm M enabled the reprocessing of 220 million m³of wastewater per year at the Berliner Wasserbetriebe wastewater treatment plants. The 104 automation systems have now been converted to the Simatic PCS 7 process control system, thus ushering in a new era at one of Europe’s largest water supply and waste disposal companies. Every day, Berliner Wasserbetriebe supplies almost four million people with fresh water and removes and treats wastewater. The company supplies 585,000 m³ of drinking water to households, industrial plants, and businesses every day. And with the aid of 150 pump stations, a 9,500 km sewer network transports 600,000 m³of wastewater every day to six wastewater treatment plants for purification so that it can be returned to the cycle of nature. For more than 20 years, the sewage treatment plants were successfully automated with the Teleperm M system from Siemens. Then, over a period of seven years, a major project migrated the 104 Teleperm M automation systems to the latest Simatic PCS 7 process control system. The aim of this project was to modernize the technical foundation of the process control technology so that all the plants would run on a uniform, largely standardized platform. The company wanted the technological content of the old software to continue being used, in an automated manner and preferably without reprogramming. The existing control and monitoring system also needed to be compatible. Special emphasis was placed on ensuring that the ongoing operation of the wastewater treatment plants would be disrupted as little as possible during the migration and that under no circumstances would the automated operation be interrupted for more than eight hours. The project requirements specified in the call for tenders in 2006 were therefore demanding. Berliner Wasserbetriebe carefully examined all tenders. In the end, Siemens was awarded the commission for the migration in 2007. Carefully planned migration. The project began in 2007 with the first automation systems at the OWA Tegel surface water treatment plant and the Stahnsdorf wastewater treatment plant. To increase operational safety, the actual migration of each automation system was divided into several stages: First, the software assets were analyzed, optimized, and prepared for the automatic conversion by Berliner Wasserbetriebe. Then the software version was migrated at Siemens. In the next stage, the project team replaced the central modules of the process control system and installed Simatic PCS 7 / Teleperm modules as an interim solution. This enabled operation with the existing Teleperm I/O devices to continue. The team then replaced the Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Teleperm I/O devices with Simatic ET 200 systems and installed new distribution boards. “We had very little time available during which we could interrupt operation for the exchange,” says Uta Pachaly, who is responsible for the process control technology of wastewater treatment plants at Berliner Wasserbetriebe and was also the project manager for the migration. “Then gradually – drive by drive – we switched everything back on again, and after three to six hours the plant was back in operation.” This tight schedule required the teams to be well prepared and to exercise great care, as one of the steps required for each migration was the manual reconnection of up to 10,000 connections. The necessary preconditions had already been created in an earlier project, from 2003 to 2005, during which previously different operating and monitoring systems in the control stations of the five wastewater treatment plants and OWA Tegel were unified and standardized. “Because of the uniform operator interface prepared for the migration in the earlier phase, the employees in the control room did not see this migration on the monitors – plant operation was exactly the same after the migration as before,” explains Pachaly. Following a successful transition at the first plants in 2008, work was completed at the Schoenerlinde wastewater treatment plant in June 2010, followed by the Wassmannsdorf and Ruhleben plants. Sustainable Result. Beginning in 2007, plant documentation was created using the Sigraph documentation system. This documentation can now be maintained and carried forward with minimal effort. The result is a modern process control solution at OWA Tegel and the five wastewater treatment plants that is based on standardized hardware and software. The project was extremely successful, and the Berliner Wasserbetriebe staff particularly praised the management of the automated program conversion as well as the adherence to schedule and the outstanding partnership with the engineers on the Siemens project team. The CEO of Berliner Wasserbetriebe, Joerg Simon, put it in a nutshell at the celebration marking the completion of the project: “Everything is new and no one has noticed.” It is hard to imagine a more satisfactory result for a migration.” Source: http://www.siemens.com/customer-magazine/en/home/industry/smart-water/future-now.html

Case 19 Valencia, Spain: Smart Water Management - Providing utilities and residents with data to cut water usage Innovation in a Nutshell. A major city is using smart metering technology to repair leaks, catch fraud, and influence residents to reduce their water consumption. Program Elements. • Smart water meters send daily or hourly information on water usage to the utility. • The utility uses this granular data to identify water leaks and fraud, as well as providing information to water users about their consumption. • Utility employees no longer need to visit homes to read the water meter and are therefore reassigned to more valuable tasks. Benefits. • Enables the utility to spot and repair leaks that previously went unidentified. • Enables the utility to identify fraudulent water usage that previously went under the radar. • Empowers homeowners to understand and minimize their own water usage. • Reduces billing complaints and low value-added utility employee work tasks. Source: NYU – Wagner, Centre for an Urban Future. 2016. Innovation and the City. New York. pp. 26-27. https://nycfuture.org/research/innovation-and-the-city-2016

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4.3.4

Standards - Sludge treatment and reuse

Sewage sludge is a by-product from sewage treatment. The higher the treatment standards, the greater the volume of sludge produced. In the past sludge was seen as a waste product that needed disposal, often in landfill. However the value of the sludge as an agricultural fertilizer or soil conditioner is now recognized. If the sludge is to be recycled, then it must be regarded as a product where quality control is imperative, especially to ensure no contamination by dangerous or persistent chemicals. The first line of defense is trade effluent control – the control at source of any potential contaminants. Microbiological content is also critical and sludge must be treated to remove any potential pathogens that could enter the food chain. This in combination with strict regulations restricting which crops can be grown on sewage sludge – (i.e. not salad crops). The UK utilises a Safe Sludge Matrix63 to control use and ensure quality – Figure 34. This was developed in a cooperative basis by the British Retail Consortium (representing food quality in supermarkets), the UK Water Industry, government and ADAS the agricultural advisors. Figure 34: UK Safe Sludge Matrix

Source: Safe Sludge Matrix, 2001. http://adlib.everysite.co.uk/resources/000/094/727/SSMatrix.pdf

Sludge is treated by anaerobic digestion to achieve these standards. Methane gas is recovered and can be used to power the sewage treatment process. Sludge is then dried and conditioned to optimise the product for farmers. Contaminated sludge may not be suitable for reuse, this is usually incinerated, providing heat for electricity generation.

UK Safe Sludge Matrix, http://adlib.everysite.co.uk/resources/000/094/727/SSMatrix.pdf

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4.4

Indicators – Waste Water Treatment

It is important to maintain records of compliance against standards of effluent treatment and for this to be in the public domain. This maintains momentum for environmental improvement and pressure for municipal and industrial dischargers to meet permit conditions. 4.4.1

Indicator – Compliance with the EU Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (UWWTD)

Compliance against the UWWTD standards is one indicator used across Europe. Member States must report this to the EU. The reporting requirements under Section 16 of the Directive can be found at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/waterurbanwaste/implementation/reportingrequirements_en.htm There are now seven UWWTD implementation reports available to regulators and the public, the latest published in 2013. They can be found at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/waterurbanwaste/implementation/implementationreports_en.htm Figure 35 is from an interactive map provided by the European Environment Agency (EEA) showing compliance against the Directive. The map reflects the most recent available information at the EU-level on implementation of the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive in EU 27 based on data reported by the Member States (for reference years 2011 or 2012) in 2013. Figure 35: Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive – Interactive Map

Source: European Environment Agency, 2013, http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/uwwtd/interactivemaps/urban-waste-water-treatment-maps-1

The ultimate indicator of compliance against the European Water Directives is the State of the Environment Reports compiled by the EEA.

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4.4.2

Indicator - Wastewater Treatment in European Cities

The level of treatment in European cities is shown in Figure 36. Figure 36: The pie-chart summarizes the type of treatment applied in the wastewater treatment plants of 586 big cities - 2011 data.

Source: European Environment Agency, European Environment, Sate and Outlook 2015 http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/number-of-eu15-agglomerations-of-more-than-150-000-p-e-bytreatment-level-situation-on-1st-january-1

4.4.3

Indicator – Bathing Water Quality

Significant expenditure has been made to implement the EU Bathing Water Directive. The quality of the bathing waters and the ability to indicate bathing water/microbiological quality is a core indicator. Data is collected in accordance with the Directive and is reported to the EU and the EEA. The EEA report, European Bathing Water Quality 201564 assesses bathing water quality in 2014. It indicates where the quality of bathing water is expected to be good in 2015. The report was compiled using information from more than 21 000 bathing waters in the 28 EU Member States. The report also covers bathing waters in Albania and Switzerland. The report is a joint production of the European Environment Agency (EEA) and the European Commission. Figure 37 shows this improvement.

European Environment Agency, EEA Report No 1/2015, European Bathing Water Quality 2015, http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/european-bathing-water-quality-in-2014#tab-data-visualisations Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Figure 37: Percentage of coastal bathing waters in the European Union per compliance category

Source: European Environment Agency, 2015, European bathing water quality in 2014 http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/european-bathing-water-quality-in-2014#tab-data-visualisations

4.5

Outlook – Waste Water Treatment

From the EU perspective, the focus is on continually improving methods and regulation that continuously drives innovation and new technologies. This focusses beyond just waste water treatment and the projected trajectory and targets are shown in Figure 42.

4.5.1

Outlook - The EU Future Environment Targets

Overall the EU sets future targets in line with the evidence from the EEA and according to the EU’s 7th Environmental Action Programme (see below) 5. Increasingly this follows an integrated approach, looking to optimise between Air, Land, Water and Waste, whilst preserving scarce natural resources.

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Figure 38: Long-term transition/intermediate targets related to environmental policy

Source: European Environment Agency, http://www.eea.europa.eu/soer-2015/synthesis/report/1-changingcontext

Box 6: The European Union's 7th Environment Action Programme Three interrelated thematic objectives should be pursued in parallel, as action taken under one objective will often help to contribute to the achievement of the others: 1. to protect, conserve and enhance the Union's natural capital, 2. to turn the Union into a resource-efficient, green and competitive low-carbon economy, 3. to safeguard the Union's citizens from environment-related pressures and risks to health and wellbeing. Achieving the above mentioned thematic objectives requires an enabling framework that supports effective action â&#x20AC;&#x201D; they are thus complemented by four related priority objectives: 1. 2. 3. 4.

to maximise the benefits of Union environment legislation by improving implementation, to improve the knowledge and evidence base for Union environment policy, to secure investment for environment and climate policy and address environmental externalities, to improve environmental integration and policy coherence.

Two additional priority objectives focus on meeting local, regional and global challenges: 1. to enhance the sustainability of the Union's cities 2. to increase the Union's effectiveness in addressing international environmental and climaterelated challenges. Source: 7th Environment Action Programme (EU, 2013).

4.5.2

Outlook - Micro-pollutants, osteogenic substances and pharmaceuticals

There is increasing concern about micro-pollutants; many arise from sewage treatment plants and industrial processes. Osteogenic substances arise from many synthetic chemicals present in sewage, particularly from the contraceptive pill which is very stable once it leaves the human body. Pharmaceutical products such as paracetamol, and other drugs pass quickly through the body and are found in sewage effluent. New substances are being discovered and the risks evaluated. These include nanoparticles such as silver used in clothing and new particles used in cosmetics. Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

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These micro-pollutants have impacts in river systems, especially where high quantities of sewage effluent are present. This is getting worse as river flows are reduced by over-abstraction and a changing climate. The sub-lethal effects on human health and the environment and are giving rise to concern and the EU advises that a precautionary approach, Box 6, should be taken. Box 7: The Precautionary Principle – EU definition The precautionary principle is detailed in Article 191 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (EU). It aims at ensuring a higher level of environmental protection through preventative decisiontaking in the case of risk. However, in practice, the scope of this principle is far wider and also covers consumer policy, European legislation concerning food and human, animal and plant health. This Communication establishes common guidelines on the application of the precautionary principle. The definition of the principle shall also have a positive impact at international level, so as to ensure an appropriate level of environmental and health protection in international negotiations. It has been recognised by various international agreements, notably in the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement (SPS) concluded in the framework of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Recourse to the precautionary principle According to the Commission the precautionary principle may be invoked when a phenomenon, product or process may have a dangerous effect, identified by a scientific and objective evaluation, if this evaluation does not allow the risk to be determined with sufficient certainty. Recourse to the principle belongs in the general framework of risk analysis (which, besides risk evaluation, includes risk management and risk communication), and more particularly in the context of risk management which corresponds to the decision-making phase. The Commission stresses that the precautionary principle may only be invoked in the event of a potential risk and that it can never justify arbitrary decisions. The precautionary principle may only be invoked when the three preliminary conditions are met:  identification of potentially adverse effects;  evaluation of the scientific data available;  the extent of scientific uncertainty. Precautionary measures The authorities responsible for risk management may decide to act or not to act, depending on the level of risk. If the risk is high, several categories of measures can be adopted. This may involve proportionate legal acts, financing of research programmes, public information measures, etc. Common guidelines The precautionary principle shall be informed by three specific principles:  the fullest possible scientific evaluation, the determination, as far as possible, of the degree of scientific uncertainty;  a risk evaluation and an evaluation of the potential consequences of inaction;  the participation of all interested parties in the study of precautionary measures, once the results of the scientific evaluation and/or the risk evaluation are available. In addition, the general principles of risk management remain applicable when the precautionary principle is invoked. These are the following five principles:  proportionality between the measures taken and the chosen level of protection;  non-discrimination in application of the measures;  consistency of the measures with similar measures already taken in similar situations or using similar approaches;  examination of the benefits and costs of action or lack of action;  review of the measures in the light of scientific developments. Source: EU, Europa website. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=URISERV:l32042&from=EN

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4.5.3

Outlook - Energy capture from sewage networks and treatment plants

Digested sludge has been used to produce methane to power treatment works for many years. The processes are being progressively improved and optimized, in terms of the quality of the methane produced and the efficiency of the engines used to burn the methane. Sewage, water treatment and water pumping are energy intensive process so any methods to optimize this are important. These include, pump design, real time control systems and heat and energy recovery systems. The concept of carbon neutral STW is being developed, although none have yet reached this status. Significant development is continuing and this will be a major driver for future work, in terms of carbon reduction and cost saving. 4.5.4

Outlook – Diffuse Pollution Control

One of the major challenges for environmental regulation is in addressing the sources and causes of diffuse pollution. Conventional engineering and permitting-based regulation works well for point sources of pollution, but has been ineffective at addressing diffuse sources such as pollutant runoff from agricultural practice, forestry, and urban hard surfaces. It is clear that behaviour change is needed on the part of the people and organisations responsible for generating the diffuse pollution, often in complete ignorance of the impact their activity creates. While in the EU there has been great progress in reducing point source pollution over recent decades, non-point / diffuse pollution, especially of nitrate and phosphorous from agricultural land, has generally remained stable or become worse. Awareness of this issue is often low with the majority of farmers not realising that they are major contributors to surface and groundwater pollution. There are often significant time lags between the application of fertiliser, pesticide or manures / sludge to land and its transport to rivers by surface or sub-surface routes. These will be dependent on weather, with site specific factors also affecting the pathways of pollutants to the receiving water. In addition, pollutant run off from cities and town is a significant problem. Section 5 below will investigate options and good practice developments, focussing on Sustainable Urban Drainage, Water Sensitive Urban Design and integrated drainage solutions. It is certain that no single tool will deliver effective diffuse pollution control and that a variety of measures will be needed. The most directly acting are likely to be financial – taxes, levies, or subsidies – aimed at particular activities. But these are likely to generate resentment in some sectors of society, and may distort markets, leading to knock on environmental, social or economic problems. Over the long term, innovation, education and instilling in the general population a higher appreciation of the value of a clean environment, are likely to be the most effective means of securing improvements. When activities that currently lead to diffuse pollution become seen as being seriously anti-social, the perpetrators of such pollution are far more likely to change their ways.

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5 SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE AND FLOOD CONTROL 5.1

Sector Context

Drainage and flood control is an important element of the water sector. 65 Using future scenarios to develop robust policies The future is very uncertain and cannot be predicted. It is therefore important to develop policies that can cope with a range of different outcomes – and which can adapt flexibly as the situation evolves. The greater the uncertainty, the greater the need for flexibility. UK Foresight Report, 2004, Future Flooding

5.1.1

EU Floods Directive

The core European policy position on flood risk is the EU Floods66 Directive provides a common approach to flood risk across the EU. It entered into force on 26 November 2007. This Directive requires Member States to assess if all water courses and coast lines are at risk from flooding, to map the flood extent and assets and humans at risk in these areas and to take adequate and coordinated measures to reduce this flood risk. With this Directive also reinforces the rights of the public to access this information and to have a say in the planning process. The Directive was proposed by the European Commission on 18/01/2006, and was finally published in the Official Journal on 6 November 2007. Its aim is to reduce and manage the risks that floods pose to human health, the environment, cultural heritage and economic activity. The Directive requires Member States to first carry out a preliminary assessment by 2011 to identify the river basins and associated coastal areas at risk of flooding. For such zones they would then need to draw up flood risk maps by 2013 and establish flood risk management plans focused on prevention, protection and preparedness by 2015. The Directive applies to inland waters as well as all coastal waters across the whole territory of the EU. The Directive shall be carried out in coordination with the Water Framework Directive, notably by flood risk management plans and river basin management plans being coordinated, and through coordination of the public participation procedures in the preparation of these plans. All assessments, maps and plans prepared shall be made available to the public. Member States shall furthermore coordinate their flood risk management practices in shared river basins, including with third counties, and shall in solidarity not undertake measures that would increase the flood risk in neighbouring countries. Member States shall in take into consideration long term developments, including climate change, as well as sustainable land use practices in the flood risk management cycle addressed in this Directive.

State of Green. 2015. Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems. Copenhagen. https://stateofgreen.com/files/download/8247 66 EU, 2007, Directive 2007/60/EC on the assessment and management of flood risks http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32007L0060 Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Background from EEA67 Between 1998 and 2009, Europe suffered over 213 major damaging floods, including the catastrophic floods along the Danube and Elbe rivers in summer 2002. Severe floods in 2005 further reinforced the need for concerted action. Between 1998 and 2009, floods in Europe have caused some 1126 deaths, the displacement of about half a million people and at least €52 billion in insured economic losses. Catastrophic floods endanger lives and cause human tragedy as well as heavy economic losses. Floods are natural phenomena but through the right measures we can reduce their likelihood and limit their impacts. In addition to economic and social damage, floods can have severe environmental consequences, for example when installations holding large quantities of toxic chemicals are inundated or wetland areas destroyed. The coming decades are likely to see a higher flood risk in Europe and greater economic damage. 5.1.2

EU Flood Action Programme

Aligned with the Floods Directive is the EU Flood Action Programme68. This preceded the Floods Directive and was important in shaping the approaches. This defines flood risk management as shown in Box 7. Box 8: What is flood risk management? Flood risk management aims to reduce the likelihood and/or the impact of floods. Experience has shown that the most effective approach is through the development of flood risk management programmes incorporating the following elements: 1. Prevention: preventing damage caused by floods by avoiding construction of houses and industries in present and future flood-prone areas; by adapting future developments to the risk of flooding; and by promoting appropriate land-use, agricultural and forestry practices; 2. Protection: taking measures, both structural and non-structural, to reduce the likelihood of floods and/or the impact of floods in a specific location; 3. Preparedness: informing the population about flood risks and what to do in the event of a flood; 4. Emergency response: developing emergency response plans in the case of a flood; 5. Recovery and lessons learned: returning to normal conditions as soon as possible and mitigating both the social and economic impacts on the affected population. Source: EU, 2004, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Flood risk management - Flood prevention, protection and mitigation http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52004DC0472

European Environment Agency, Disasters in Europe: more frequent and causing more damage http://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/natural-hazards-and-technological-accidents 68 EU, 2004, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Flood risk management - Flood prevention, protection and mitigation http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52004DC0472 Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Water sensitive urban design

Source: www.susdrain.org, cited from https://www.pinterest.com/pin/520306563181368780/

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Source: Australia Water Senstive Urban Design https://www.pinterest.com/pin/189221621821993258/

Case 20 Berlin, Germany: Sponge City- Preparing for a hotter climate â&#x20AC;?Heat waves and rainstorms will become common in northern Germany as climate change deepens. Experts envision heat- and flood-proofing the city of Berlin by making it into an "urban sponge," with green roofs and wetlands. More trees and sidewalk awnings to provide shade; living rooftops covered in moss and grasses; light-coloured buildings that reflect rather than absorb heat; special heat-resistant road surfaces to prevent tarmac melting on very hot days; urban wetlands and more permeable surfaces to absorb and store water during heavy rainfall. Those are some of the most important among dozens of specific climate adaptation interventions a consortium of experts has recommended in a new report. The measures are Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

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meant to make the city of Berlin more resilient and liveable in the face of climate changes expected in coming years and decades. The experts' urban design ideas were solicited by the Senate of Berlin, the city's governing body, and published this week under the unwieldy moniker "StEP Klima KONKRET." The city has, since 2007, gradually developed substantial expertise in modelling how Berlin's cityscape will be affected by climate change. Now, it's pushing for tangibles moves towards long-term adaptation. Climate changes will hit some countries much harder than Germany, but northern Europe won't be exempt from tough impacts. In 2003, an extreme heat-wave lasting weeks caused numerous deaths in Germany. In years since, devastating floods were caused by days of unusually heavy rain in various parts of the country. Such events were highly unusual during the 20th century, but by the mid-20th century, as global warming gathers pace, they're expected to be commonplace. The cityscape as a water-sponge. Heike Stock, the municipal official in charge of the program, told DW that water management will be key to mitigating the effects of climate change on the urban environment. "We've been using the term 'Stadtschwamm,' or 'spongecity'," Stock said. "The key is to avoid sealing up too much of the ground surface with concrete or tarmac. Wherever possible, we want water-permeable surfaces. For example, parking areas and median strips can be resurfaced to allow water absorption into the ground."

Building owners are encouraged to "regreen" the inner courtyards typical of Berlin apartment buildings. Rooftops planted with mosses or grasses can also absorb water, and then release it through evaporation later on. That results in an evaporative cooling effect, in the same way that sweat evaporating from the skin cools an overheating athlete. "We also want to see more features like ponds, ditches and urban wetlands, as well as parks and green-spaces, including inner courtyard gardens and green strips along roads, capable of absorbing a lot of water during heavy rainfall events," Stock said. The goal is to retain rainwater within the cityscape, so that part of it evaporates and the rest of it releases gradually, rather than in an abrupt rush, into Berlin's rivers and lakes. That helps prevent flooding of basements and sewer systems, and it also protects water quality in the capital's many lakes and rivers. Rapid runoff causes all kinds of urban dirt to get swept into surface waters. Even natural materials like pollen and flowerbuds dropped from urban trees can cause fish kills when they're swept into lakes, by overloading them with nutrients and using up the oxygen in the water, Stock explained. Will real estate developers implement the recommendations? The "StEP Klima Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

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KONKRET" report's recommendations don't have the status of regulations, so they're not binding on developers - though the proposed measures do have to be "considered" in development plans, Stock said. "The city will use its powers to negotiate agreements with real estate developers over the details of projects subject to planning permissions to encourage climate-adaptive features like green rooftops," she said. "We really want to avoid new buildings that aren't adapted to a hotter climate, which would result in people installing electricity-hungry air-conditioning units during summers in future." In addition, green building design competitions, citizen engagement strategies such as the city's existing, very successful tree-planting sponsorship programmes, and various subsidy programs will help encourage take-up of the recommended design features. Retrofitting will be key. Although Berlin's population is in a period of sustained growth, the city wants to prevent urban sprawl. That means further increasing the density of residents per square kilometer, even as the city strives to maintain or improve liveability as well as resilience in the face of climate change. New multifamily housing in Berlin KĂśpenick. Is it climate-proof?

Greening new building construction is part of the solution, but given that most of the city's land already has high-density buildings or roads on it, most of the opportunities will lie in retrofitting existing buildings. The problem is that putting a planted garden on top of a building, for example, is significantly more expensive than a conventional roof. But Stock said that a business case can be made for green rooftops nonetheless. "In cases where a building's roof is getting tired and needs to be replaced anyway, it can be a smart business move to replace it with a combination of solar panels, planted green surfaces, and a deck accessible to the residents," Stock said. "That enhances the value of the property and makes it more attractive to renters or buyers." Source: Sponge City: Berlin plans for a hotter climate. Deutsche Welle 22 July 2016. http://m.dw.com/en/spongecity-berlin-plans-for-a-hotter-climate/a-19420517

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Case 21: Stuttgart-Ostfildern, Germany: Prototype Drainage Project in Clay Soil Area Scharnhauser Park

The project's relevance lies in the fact that it is a standard project unique to this scale in Baden-Württemberg where the management of all rainwater and flood water is done with absolute safety on the ground level and not internally with typical flood protection pipe systems. Components of the flood protecting system include strategies to protect the side streams and the greater scale watershed of the Neckar river. Moreover, the design provides microclimate mitigation, biodiversity, and various ecosystem services. In fact, this project is the first implemented project of this kind of water management in the landscape in an area with only clay soils. Typically in a project you need to balance the sealing and earthworks destroying the green spaces, and you have to rebuild a natural area to balance the impact of the new development in terms of ecological footprint. However, in this case, the idea is to overlay landscape design with water functions and have one seamless integrated system. Stuttgart is an expanding urban centre in southern Germany. A disused army base offered the opportunity to create a new town (district), Ostfildern, along the local city rail link. The main challenge was how to keep rainwater run-off at the same rate after development as before, as the site lies close to a tributary feeder to Stuttgart’s main river, the Neckar, and is on steep, heavy clay hill. Client:

City of Ostfildern, Stuttgart

Urban Planners:

Wolfrum + Jansson

Expertise:

Water sensitive design, parks, green roofs, streetscapes

Design:

1995 – 2004

Construction:

1996 – 2004

Area:

150 ha / 370 acres

GPS:

48°43’12” N / 9°16’12” E

urban

The Scharnhauser Park, created a decade ago, is the largest district in Baden-Württemberg near Ostfildern, and the largest redevelopment area on the outskirts of Stuttgart in the 21st century. This former Allied Forces camp in Germany was redesigned as a project to rebuild the barracks area and turn them into a functional settlement on the outskirts of Stuttgart. The same project is located in an area with no particular quality of habitation and Main stormwater management corridor

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

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This area was a "unique land parcel" of 150 acres for houses very close to the train station with a direct link to Stuttgart, where there are many opportunities for employment. This redevelopment was helped by the State Garden-show in Stuttgart; it provided subsidies and permits for its construction. Bird’s eye view of the development - detail of main park area

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl has attempted to integrate along with the design of open spaces qualitative solutions to the major flood problems in the area. As part of a typical barrage area, the Scharnhauser Park is surrounded by residential buildings in a functional layout, and their facades and construction are also functionally dry. Little interest in architectural details and aesthetics is available as this is an area of economic habitation on the outskirts of Stuttgart. The most striking thing is that the above system operates on clay soil, which is only slightly penetrated by rainwater, augmenting floods in adverse weather conditions. Main park area in a 20 year flood event

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

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of parks and open spaces, the incorporation of green roofs and the redevelopment of roads and pavements. Atelier Dreiseitl has put sustainable water management, stylish rainwater management and the modern development of anthropogenic landscape architecture with landscape performance principles at the centre of its design. Stormwater management masterplan

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl, with a small budget, focused on basic water management and flood prevention, water pooling and water retention in case of larger floods. The master plan aimed at a reduction of runoff and slow recharge of underground natural water reservoirs. The design is centred on slow water retention and drainage on the surface of the park. Continuous visible hydrographs and integrated trenches are elements of the vocabulary of landscape architecture in this case, while at the same time this element is characteristic of successful landscape performance in anthropogenic landscapes. Residential Community and liveable environment

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

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Entrance Plaza - Residential green space with playground and earthwork balance on-site: Stormwater management details

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl, Dimitra Theochari

The biggest challenge for this project was the development of a system to contain the runoff before and after the regeneration of the area. This problem was greatest in this area because it is located on a steep hill with sloping ground very close to a tributary of Neckar which is the central river of Stuttgart. Detail of main park area

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So urban design needed to be inspired by a pioneering and economic rainwater management methodology that holds all water on the surface of the city, creates attractive details and road cuts, while retaining and filtering water in a range of multifunctional parks, terraces and streets full of trees. This solution is ecological, offers shelter to birds, small animals and insects and is very attractive for child play. The elderly live with their families in a splendid green environment that makes a positive contribution to the river basin management around Stuttgart. The urban layout is inspired by an innovative and cost-effective rainwater management system which keeps rainwater on the surface in attractive streetscape detailing, and retains and filters run-off in a series of stepped technical multi-purpose parks and tree boulevards. Residential drainage system next to bike lanes and residential streets

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

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Case 22: Stuttgart, Germany: Arkadien Winnenden - Residential Community

This is a pilot project for the city of Winnenden near Stuttgart for decentralised stormwater management adjacent to a river, and as a result the flood protection of the development was taken into account. At the same time, Studio Dreiseitl provided flood area within the community to balance the impact of the new development of the existing river floodplain. Finally, the intention was to create a liveable community with direct access to clean water; the new established lake on the site have a role for microclimate mitigation and flood retention while providing biodiversity and various ecosystems. One of the most picturesque landscape residential communities in Baden-Wuerttemberg which has been awarded with the 2003 Immobilien-Award, the highest honour given by the National German Real Estate Association. Client:

Strenger Bauen + Wohnen

Expertise:

open space, landscape, water design, High density residential design, including low-income

Design:

1999 - 2001

Construction:

2001 - 2002

Area:

1,5 ha / 3.7 acres

GPS:

48°54‘05“ N / 9°08’05” E

In the first decade of the new millennium, Western Europe is starting to see a trend in property development, away from mass quantity and towards quality and environmentally responsible construction. This is not through altruism on the part of development companies, but rather recognition of a market demand. Arkadien Asperg is an urban village nestled within the congested conurbation of Stuttgart, and responds to this increasing demand for high quality, individual living space. Commissioned by the property developer Strenger, the architectural concept was conceived by Eble Architects. As a harmonious compliment to the warm and consciously Mediterranean-style architecture, Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl designed an ensemble of outdoor spaces which significantly contribute to a healthy and pleasant living environment and the overall sustainability of the development. The project design criteria called for unique architecture, user-friendliness and a high degree of innovation and cost-effectiveness. Environmental resource protection, like rainwater harvesting, was also high on the priority list. A vision of an „urban village“, where density and privacy can coexist, guided the design process. The community centre, the village square and fountain are the social centre of the site, located in the middle of the open space. Unity in design, as well as extensively planted green spaces, always in communication with the surrounding architecture, shapes this generous complex with a distinctly Mediterranean touch. All the rainwater falling on the rooftops is collected in cisterns. This grey water is then used for irrigation, toilet-flushing and laundry. Paved channels deposit rainwater directly in the creek. The water in the main cistern, which can hold 60m3 is mainly used to supply the creek. Cisterns of 4m3 are spread around individual houses for private use.

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Water-Sensitive Urban Design Index Wheel for Arkadien Winnenden Project

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Bird’s eye rendering on the development of Arkadien Winnenden

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

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competitive rate for the area; - A Community Feeling: A beautiful and friendly environment fosters a great community spirit. An abundance of both large and small shared public space is balanced by private outdoor space in the form of gardens, terraces and roof gardens; - Industrial Regeneration: The area was an abandoned factory which left severe soil contamination in places. An innovative technique was developed to remediate soil on site and recycle it as subgrade; - Water Sensitive: An ecological infrastructure approach means that rainwater is harvested in a central lake and cleansed through natural plant processes before being released to the nearby ecologically restored creek; - Load-Bearing Plant Substrate: An innovative load-bearing plant soil substrate was used to plant up individual parking spaces so that they could be seamlessly tucked into gardens, giving a new twist to the term “parking”; - 85 kWh: All homes are highly energy efficient with a rating of kWh 85 according to the German EnEv 2009 and supplied by two local combined heat and power plants; - Social Regeneration: Winnenden‘s poor reputation has been rejuvenated thanks to this happy and attractive new neighbourhood; - Healthy Materials = Healthy People: Despite the proximity of a new hospital, no risks were taken on the construction materials. Priority was given in every instance to non-toxic, and where possible native, locally-sourced materials; - Shared Circulation Concept: Despite the clear pedestrian atmosphere, the site is fully accessible for vehicles, with parking options in an underground garage, carports, and individual parking spots and limited street parking; - Pedestrian Streetscapes: Streets are shared space with a clear, pedestrian feeling. Kids can play safely while the forgivable convenience of driving up to your own front door is accommodated; - Ecological Restoration: The use of native plants and the creation of new habitats means a new home for urban nature. Green roofs are a no-brainer; - Flood Protection: The central retention lake, flood meadows and the reduction of impermeable surfaces from 95% to 30% means that the site is actively contributing to the reduction of flooding in the local urban catchment; - Recycled Materials: Existing concrete was chipped and reused on site. Recycled granite pavers are used in combination with less expensive materials to create high quality streetscapes.69 Within the spatially tight confines of 2 hectares, space was found for a central village plaza by locating parking in an underground garage. Through paving details and reduced traffic speeds, pedestrians are given right of way over cars. A fountain on the central square is like a fireside ‘hearth’, used by neighbours to meet there informally in the evenings and kids who hang out after school. The plaza itself is used for street parties and other village events. A diversity of semipublic and private spaces harmonizes a wide variety of passive housing types. Situation before and after the project – the water body at the heart of the settlement

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

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Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

A stream meanders through semi-private community spaces. It has a natural bank, and at more public points of play-elements: a stainless steel weir and Archimedes Screw. The stream is fed with rainwater and is an enjoyable highlight of the extensive stormwater management system. Rainwater is also harvested from individual house roofs and collected in 14 decentralized cisterns. The water is recycled for irrigation, toilet flushing and washing machines. Other stormwater run-off is collected in surface drainage details which contour roads and sidewalks. The planted dry stone walls, use of natural stone, wooden structures and generous informal planting accompany the stormwater features throughout and are part of the vocabulary of green detailing which lends ‘garden city’ flair to the housing estate. Water Sensitive Urban Design in Arkadien Winnenden

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Today, Winnenden is a small city with a picturesque historic city centre with wooden frame houses, old pubs and charming wine bars. Its 28,000 inhabitants are connected to the nearby Stuttgart by a regional commuter train. The local Nusser Company, a producer of garden furniture and mobile structures, relocated, leaving behind a brownfield site near the city centre. The City Planning Department wanted something exceptional for this important central site and selected the developer Strenger. In 2006, a process began of transitioning the site into ‘Arkadien Winnenden’, a green valley with residential units and a lovely creek with naturalised banks and a stream corridor. The ‘Arcadian’ concept includes a distinct design quality for open space that is similar to Asperg. Small neighbourhood squares and a central lake with a fountain plaza invite all Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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generations to enjoy the social community. Raingarden and retention pond

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Case 23 Germany: Smart and Multifunctional Infrastructural Systems for Sustainable Water Supply, Sanitation and Stormwater Management (INIS) - Research Program

The “Smart and Multifunctional Infrastructural Systems for Sustainable Water Supply, Sanitation and Stormwater Management” is supported and funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF). It includes thirteen collaborative research projects which are being funded over a period of three years. “Building upon pioneering urban development and infrastructural concepts, these projects are investigating the application of innovative technologies and management instruments and thus making a contribution to the development of sustainable urban water infrastructures. Characteristic of these research projects are their interdisciplinary approach and the close cooperation between science and practice. Research activities are carried out with the participation of local practice partners in various model regions where specific challenges, issues and conditions can be taken into account. The results developed are thus representative in character and easily transferable to other regions. The research projects are accompanied by an independent integration and transfer project (INISnet).70” INIS Funded Projects in Germany.

https://nawam-inis.de/en/inis-projects accessed 26.09.2017

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Source: the INIS Report zwischenergebnisse_en.pdf

https://nawam-inis.de/sites/default/files/dokumente/publikationen/2015-nawam-inis-

The most significant projects of the INIS Initiative are the following: 

“KURAS – Concepts for urban rainwater management, drainage and sewage systems, adapting the existing urban infrastructures to climate change and other future changes, implementation and operationalization of these strategies and optimization of concrete measures for 2 case studies in Berlin;



SAMUWA planning instruments to adapt existing drainage systems to demographic and climate change for linking urban drainage to urban development and open space planning for a case study in Wuppertal;



KREIS - From disposal to supply: Linking renewable energy production with innovative urban wastewater drainage within the innovative HAMBURG WATER Cycle concept;



nidA200 - Innovative wastewater treatment: Sustainable, innovative and decentralized wastewater treatment systems, including co-treatment of organic waste based on alternative sanitary concepts - development of a decentralized pilot-scale wastewater treatment system in preparation for large-scale technological realization in outer suburbs;



NoNitriNox - Planning and operation of resource and energy efficient sewage treatment facilities with simultaneous reduction of environmentally hazardous emissions in Dusslingen;



TWIST++ – Transition pathways of Water InfraSTructure systems adapting to new challenges

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in urban and rural areas. The project is being carried out in three model areas: The city of Lünen, Wohlsborn-Rohrbach, Lippe/Westerholt; 

ROOF WATER-FARM - developing building-integrated water treatment technologies for the irrigation and fertilization of adapted building-integrated greenhouse farms and testing the hygienically safe usage of water and material flows. In addition to the technological development of a modular demonstration and test site in the Berlin inner-city residential complex Block 6.71”

KURAS (Urban Drainage). “Urban spaces need drainage and rainwater management concepts that guarantee safe disposal while also contributing to the solution of environmental problems closely linked to urban hydrology. The development of strategies to adapt the relevant urban infrastructure to cope with the consequences of climate change and other future changes is already well underway. How-ever, investigations that examine in greater depth the effective-ness and optimisation of concrete measures and their adjustment to institutional requirements are needed before the strategies can be implemented and put into operation. The KURAS project examines, describes and characterizes the effects of measures and actions aimed at adapting the urban wastewater and stormwater system. These investigations are extensive and cross-scale, with the aim of developing and demonstrating concepts for sustainable management of wastewater and rainwater. The effectiveness of the measures and combinations of measures investigated is being examined and represented via several different platforms. These include both experimental investigations as well as hydraulic models in the simulation program - Infoworks. The simulations are based on climate projections of the IPCC for the year 2050. The measures and actions proposed and examined for the model areas are to be based on the evaluation and modelling approaches developed in the project. Additionally, the participation of important stakeholders is also intended. The cooperation of the city of Berlin, the Berlin water utility (Berliner Wasserbetriebe), the district administrations responsible for the model areas and other important stakeholders have already been enlisted. A network linking experts and stakeholders in Berlin, Germany and abroad is an important aspect of the work. KURAS has been presented at an exhibition organised by the City of Berlin, at events such as the Berlin Water Workshop and the DWA Inspektions und Sanierungstagen [DWA Inspection and Rehabilitation Days], as well as at several national and international conferences72.” SAMUWA. “The urban water infrastructure is subject to changing framework conditions. These changes are the result of general trends in population, economic development and climate change, and of developments – such as the integration of rivers into local recreation spaces and the management of residential areas threatened by flooding – which are specific to certain cities. Urban drain-age, in particular, faces great challenges as a result. SAMUWA is strategically organised into four foci. In the first of these, ‘Ask the Future’, the Chair of Urban Development & Urban Scape at the University of Wuppertal (BUW) started by selecting pilot areas [in the cities of] Gelsenkirchen, Münster, Reutlingen and Wuppertal and examining them from the point of view of urban development. This research led to the creation of scenarios for urban and infrastructure development that take into account trends in society, the economy, land use, infrastructure and user behaviour. The Institute for Modelling Hydraulic and Environmental Systems at the University of Stuttgart is continuing development of the stochastic precipitation

Information from the report https://nawam-inis.de/sites/default/files/dokumente/publikationen/2015-nawam-inis-

zwischenergebnisse_en.pdf accessed 26.09.2017 72

https://nawam-inis.de/sites/default/files/dokumente/publikationen/2015-nawam-inis-zwischenergebnisse_en.pdf , pp. 24 -25

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generator NiedSim with the aim of generating spatially and time-based chronologically correlated synthetic precipitation time series73.” KREIS. “KREIS investigates and develops innovative concepts and pro-cesses for the supply of water and disposal of wastewater in urban areas, starting with an inner-city residential area of Hamburg. The German acronym KREIS stands for Linking Renewable Energy Production with Innovative Urban Wastewater Drainage. The project seeks to develop i.a. ways of generating electricity and heat from wastewater and biogas. The goal of KREIS has always been to provide scientific support for the large-scale implementation of the Hamburg Water Cycle® (HWC) in the district of Jenfelder Au. It supports planning and construction processes, the commissioning of technical systems through preparatory research and the development of methods for the integrative evaluation of economic, ecological and socio-logical aspects.” Hamburg Water Cycle® Project

Source: the INIS Report zwischenergebnisse_en.pdf

https://nawam-inis.de/sites/default/files/dokumente/publikationen/2015-nawam-inis-

An application will be made for funding to continue the scientific support for the demonstration project. In this ‘operational phase’, the focus will be on optimising and further developing the combined energy supply and wastewater disposal concept, as well as investigating economic feasibility, ecological evaluation and societal acceptance. The outcomes should com prise insights and experience that can be exploited directly in the Jenfelder Au district and are also transferable to similar projects of the HAMBURG WATER Cycle® at home and abroad74.” Hamburg Water Cycle® Test Site

73 74

https://nawam-inis.de/sites/default/files/dokumente/publikationen/2015-nawam-inis-zwischenergebnisse_en.pdf, p. 26 https://nawam-inis.de/sites/default/files/dokumente/publikationen/2015-nawam-inis-zwischenergebnisse_en.pdf , pp. 10-11

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Source: INIS Report zwischenergebnisse_en.pdf

https://nawam-inis.de/sites/default/files/dokumente/publikationen/2015-nawam-inis-

nidA200. “The nidA200 project is solving the need of need, especially in rural areas, for decentralised waste-water treatment systems by developing a sustainable concept for decentralised wastewater treatment. The introduction of alternative sanitary systems, cotreatment of urban organic waste and use of algal mass cultures can lead to very comprehensive wastewater treatment with high energy efficiency and maximum nutrient recovery, especially of phosphate. Realisation at scale is planned for peripheral populated areas and for specific properties (hotels, residential homes, hospitals). Modelling and simulation as established tools for the design and optimisation of conventional wastewater technical plants can also be applied to decentralised concepts like nidA200. The separation of material streams, their separate, pollutant-load-specific treatment, the closing of cycles and recycling/recovery all play a central role. Decentralised concepts at the planning stage can be constructed virtually and tested for transparency and plausibility. The nidA200 concept works with a module library that can be used to model the production of diverse wastewater types (e.g. brown, grey and yellow water). The topic of simulation/modelling will cover the modelling of biological purification processes by biomass under aerobic and anaerobic conditions (including algal biomass), the modelling of new technologies and processes (like sludge washing), the modelling of investment and operating costs and the energetic and ecological evaluation of an overall concept75.” NoNitriNox. “The operation of wastewater treatment plants for nutrient removal involves substantial costs and high resource consumption. The energy requirements (electricity) for wastewater treatment plants represent a significant item on the municipal energy bill. In consequence, many efforts have been made for several years now to minimise the energy demands of wastewater treatment plants. These include: •

Flexible process design and operation to maximise nitrogen elimination (denitrification) and

•

Adapted control concepts intended to minimise the energy needed for aeration, including reducing O2 set points, optimising O2 profiles, ammonium-based aeration, and nitrate-based

https://nawam-inis.de/sites/default/files/dokumente/publikationen/2015-nawam-inis-zwischenergebnisse_en.pdf, pp. 30-31

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intermittent aeration. Measurement facilities were prepared and simulation models of the two large-scale plants generated for verification of the activated sludge models at scale. The Steinlach-Wiesaz wastewater treatment association operates the treatment plant in Dusslingen, which has a design capacity of over 100,000 population equivalents. Based on the expected results, the expanded activated sludge model and the models of energy consumers can then be integrated into ifak e.V. Magdeburg’s planning tool SIMBA#. This will enable the design and optimisation of sewage treatment plants that meet typical specifications (nitrogen, phosphorus and car-bon elimination) with estimations of energy consumption and energy generation, and explicit quantification and evaluation of nitrite, nitrous oxide and methane emissions76.” TWIST++. “The necessity to adapt urban and rural water infrastructure systems in the face of the grad challenges is obvious. At the end of the transition pathway stand sustainable infrastructures with a high degree of flexibility and more efficient water, energy and resource use. In consequence, the collaborative research project TWIST++ is concerned with the development of new and sustainable concepts of urban water infrastructure systems, together with the relevant technical components; the development of a planning support and data maintenance system as well as the design of a serious game (simulation game), which also includes an evaluation tool to assess the sustainability of water infrastructure systems. The planning tools support renewal and conversion planning to make the transition from today’s infrastructure concepts towards innovative and more sustainable integrated ones. As an additional tool, the serious game offers an opportunity to get to learn about and understand such new infrastructure sys-tem concepts intuitively. Using these tools, sustainable concepts will be developed and assessed specifically for three model areas. The three TWIST++ model areas were Lünen in North Rhine-Westphalia (urban area with trade and industry, a population of 87,000, steady drop in population and falling demand for drinking water); Wohlsborn-Rohrbach in Thuringia (two villages in a rural area with district sewerage mostly in need of rehabilitation, population 500 and 200 respectively) and the former colliery Lippe-Westerholt in North Rhine-Westphalia (land development and conversion area of 32 ha). The very different areas were examined for baseline and boundary conditions plus possible future developments. The assessment method’s target system consists of five major groups of objectives. Based on the “List of Criteria for the Evaluation of Sanitary Systems” from the DWA-A 272 work-sheet, specific evaluation at total of 22 criteria was formulated. The criteria were tested for independence, indifference, congruency, and relevance and finally, appropriate indicators representing these criteria were defined77.” ROOF WATER-FAR. “The collaborative project ROOF WATER-FARM [in Berlin] examines new approaches to producing food in urban rooftop greenhouses and to providing these with sustainable supplies of treated water and nutrients from buildings. A concept is being developed and tested that uses single and combined processes for the hygienic use of rainwater, greywater and blackwater in conjunction with the cultivation of plants (hydroponics) and fish (aquaponics). The collaborative project is investigating the transferability and feasibility of the approach as a cross-sectoral infrastructure of urban food production and water management. It focuses on individual technologies, entire buildings and urban areas, and towns and cities as a whole. It simulates the effects on urban water management, the environment and the cyclical organisation of towns and cities. The project is also producing communications and training materials for specific target groups. The existing integrated water concept of building complex Block 6 in Dessauer/Bernburger Straße in the Kreuzberg district of Berlin offers suitable structural

https://nawam-inis.de/sites/default/files/dokumente/publikationen/2015-nawam-inis-zwischenergebnisse_en.pdf, pp. 32-33

https://nawam-inis.de/sites/default/files/dokumente/publikationen/2015-nawam-inis-zwischenergebnisse_en.pdf, pp. 18-19

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conditions for this project, which has been developed in cooperation by the building’s owner and the federal state of Berlin. Domestic wastewater from bathtubs, showers, washbasins and kitchens (greywater) is already being separately drained, processed to provide safe, hygienic process water and recycled for toilet flushing and watering the tenants’ gardens. Rainwater is collected and evaporated in the original constructed wetland wastewater treatment facility. ROOF WATER-FARM is continuing to develop this concept and is using the purified greywater as process water for the production of fish and plants in an on-site test greenhouse. In addition, a safe, hygienic process for obtaining a fertilizer solution from blackwater (toilet wastewater) is being developed, tested and evaluated.78”

5.1.3

Making Space for Water – Netherlands Example

The Netherlands have some very good examples of this and their Making Space for Water 79 Concepts are an important example. The following publication, Figure 39, on Water Management and Spatial Planning in the Netherlands is a useful entry point to their literature on this.

https://nawam-inis.de/sites/default/files/dokumente/publikationen/2015-nawam-inis-zwischenergebnisse_en.pdf, pp. 34

Water Management and Spatial Planning in the Netherlands http://www.ecrr.org/Portals/27/Publications/Water%20Management%20and%20Spatial%20Planning%20in%20the%20 Netherlands.pdf Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Figure 39: Making Space for Water

Source – Water Management and Spatial Planning in the Netherlands http://www.ecrr.org/Portals/27/Publications/Water%20Management%20and%20Spatial%20Planning%20in%20the%20 Netherlands.pdf

A more in depth article by Jeroen Warner, Kris Lulofs & Hans Bressers80, The fine art of boundary spanning –making space for water in the East Netherlands provides more information. It can be found at http://www.levenmetwater.nl/static/media/files/The_Fine_Art_of_Boundary_Spanning_Warner_et_al.pdf They make the point that regional water management boards in the Netherlands have defined a large number of projects that in turn make huge demands on the financial and administrative capacity of water managers. Besides the scarcity of space and the need for space for water challenges makes multi-functional solutions inevitable. Therefore the water managers need to combine multiple fields of interest and participation to complete each project, such as agricultural interests, regional economic development, natural values, water safety and water quality issues. To achieve these goals, water managers will often need to negotiate and strike alliances with actors in other policy areas such as spatial planning and local and regional economic development.

Jeroen Warner, Kris Lulofs & Hans Bressers The fine art of boundary spanning –making space for water in the East Netherlands http://www.levenmetwater.nl/static/media/files/The_Fine_Art_of_Boundary_Spanning_Warner_et_al.pdf 80

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Case 24 Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Resilient Rotterdam – Ready for the 21st Century

We must come together in a holistic way to face our challenges and take actions that can enhance resilience going forward. Some of our biggest challenges and transitions include: a changing economy driven more by sharing and technological innovation; a different climate resulting from predicted climate change; and changes in society and democracy driven by a move away from top-down hierarchy to a more bottom up approach with much greater levels of community and citizen involvement.

In 2030, Rotterdam will be a city where: • Strong citizens respect each other and are continuously developing themselves • The energy infrastructure provides for an efficient and sustainable energy supply in port and city • Climate adaptation has penetrated into mainstream of city operations and water has added value for the city and our water management system is cyberproof • The underground is being used in such a way that it supports the growth and development of the city • We have embraced digitization without making us dependent, and we have ensured a best practice level of cyber security • Self organization in the city gets enough room and a flexible local government supports if really needed • Resilience is part of our daily thinking and acting.

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Source: Gemeente Rotterdam. 2016. Rotterdam Resilience Strategy â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Ready for the 21st Century: Consultation Document. http://www.100resilientcities.org/page/-/100rc/pdfs/strategy-resilient-rotterdam.pdf

5.1.4

Integrated flood management, drainage and sewerage planning

The capacity of a city to cope with rainfall, drain effectively, and maximize opportunities for stormwater collection and reuse is essential for the long-term sustainability of cities. Drainage and flood water management is multifaceted and closely linked to adequate infrastructure. Inadequate drainage and flood control is most pronounced in urban areas that own rivers, and are located on or near floodplains or low-lying areas. Increasingly flood and drainage systems are being considered as integrated systems. In high rainfall, foul sewers, surface water drains and rivers all become impacted and flood water can back up sewer systems and infiltrate back through flood defences into homes and industries. 5.2 5.2.1

Technologies - Surface Water Drainage and Flood Control Drainage Strategy Framework, UK

A UK drainage strategy framework81 has been developed in response to a key flood enquiry that followed the 2007 floods in the UK and Europe. The document provides a useful overview of the issues and approaches that should be taken by local authorities and water companies or municipal drainage authorities. Box 8 summarises the approach that can be taken, Box 9: Attributes of a Drainage Strategy A Drainage Strategy should be accessible and understandable to customers, local authorities, developers, the Environment Agency (in England), Natural Resources Wales and other stakeholders that may be interested in what the water and sewerage company intends to do in the future. It will give confidence to all stakeholders that the water and sewerage company will deliver their duty of providing a public sewerage system that will deliver stated outcomes. The Drainage Strategy will encourage a more strategic approach that is less reactive and more proactive in providing what customers and environment requires.

Halcrow, 2013, Drainage Strategy Framework, Commissioned by the Environment Agency and Ofwat, For Water and Sewerage Companies to prepare drainage strategies. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20150624091829/http://ofwat.gov.uk/future/sustainable/drainage/rpt_com201 305drainagestrategy.pdf Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

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A Drainage Strategy should normally cover the drainage area containing public sewers serving a single wastewater treatment works, although in large cities it may be prudent to sub‐divide into smaller areas. Adjacent drainage catchments, impacting on the same receiving water, ought to be considered together. When planning to accommodate growth, allow for climate change and maintain or improve water quality (in rivers and the sea) it will often be necessary to consider the interaction of public sewers and wastewater treatment works. A Drainage Strategy should be developed by the water and sewerage company with a primary focus on its network of foul, combined and surface water sewers. However, the company should work with other organisations so that their role in controlling the demand on sewers is confirmed and the company plays its part in the resolution of wider drainage, surface water flooding and water pollution issues in the catchment. Source: Halcrow, 2013, Drainage Strategy Framework, Commissioned by the Environment Agency and Ofwat, For Water and Sewerage Companies to prepare drainage strategies. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20150624091829/http://ofwat.gov.uk/future/sustainable/drainage/rpt_com2 01305drainagestrategy.pdf

The Halcrow, 2013, document suggests that key elements of the drainage strategy should be shared if effective solutions are to be found. These are: 1. Provide a catchment description and map illustrating principal drainage and related water infrastructure (e.g. larger sewers, combined sewer overflows, wastewater treatment works, rivers and ordinary water courses). Explain how wastewater and storm water are collected and treated. 2. Describe company aims and outcomes and how these relate to the drainage system. Indicate the performance measures that will be used to monitor progress towards the achievement of outcomes. Report on current and historical patterns in performance measures for the catchment (e.g. number of flooded properties, number of pollution incidents, and frequency of combined sewer overflow operation). 3. Summarise the wider drainage issues in the catchment, their relation to the company’s assets and the organisations consulted in the development of the Drainage Strategy (e.g. describe areas of significant surface water flooding). 4. Describe and quantify any pressures in the catchment that will affect the achievement of outcomes – e.g. population change, urban creep, new development, climate change, asset deterioration, water consumption and environmental legislation. 5. Describe how the pressures identified will influence predicted future performance measures (a do nothing scenario). Show the rate of change over time and discuss any uncertainties. 6. Describe a short‐list of alternative strategies that are technically feasible and result in the achievement of outcomes for the catchment. Explain the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of alternative strategies considering societal benefits, whole life costs, programming, uncertainties, and the role of other organisations. Consider the perspectives of customers and other organisations (e.g. with reference to Local Flood Risk Management Strategies or River Basin Management Plans). 7. Explain the selection of a preferred strategy (with reference to SWOT analysis) and illustrate this in more detail with plans, timelines and images so that stakeholders understand what might be involved and how it will impact on them. A full disclosure of strategy appraisal is not necessary. The roles of other organisations should be agreed and described. 8. Explain how progress towards delivery of the Drainage Strategy and the achievement of outcomes will be monitored and reported. Figure 40 shows this in a graphical way.

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Figure 40: Integrated Sewerage Strategy for water and sewerage company. Drainage Strategy interactions with other strategies, plans and processes relating to flood and water quality management

Source: Halcrow, 2013, Drainage Strategy Framework, Commissioned by the Environment Agency and Ofwat, For Water and Sewerage Companies to prepare drainage strategies. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20150624091829/http://ofwat.gov.uk/future/sustainable/drainage/rpt_com201 305drainagestrategy.pdf

5.2.2

Technologies - Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems

There is a significant volume of literature available on the planning, design and operation of SUDS. Key documents and references are provided below. CIRIA 82 is the UK Construction Industry Research and Information Association, a key international building research and design organisation. It produces reports for the construction, planning water and environment sectors and specifically in the context of the position paper, on Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS). SUDS are a sequence of water management practices and facilities designed to drain surface water and to mimic natural drainage. Practices refer to improved land use planning and location CIRIA – UK Construction Industry Research and Information Association http://www.ciria.org/CIRIA/Home/CIRIA/default.aspx?hkey=b9b32704-f151-4cb8-83fc-c9da82a10893 82

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of potentially polluting activities, water harvesting, and improved urban design and building standards. Facilities refer to the use of permeable surfaces; green infrastructure such as wetlands, filtration and infiltration systems, swales, and detention basins; and underground storage. SDUS approaches can be summarised in the following sequence, given in Box 9. Box 10: SUDS management considers the following steps: 

Prevention: Considers site design, land use planning, and pavement and built area surfaces to reduce and manage runoff and pollution.



Source Control: Runoff managed as close as possible to the source—management techniques include the use of green roofs, rainwater harvesting, permeable paving, and filter strips.



Site Control: Runoff managed in a network across a site or local area through the use of swales, detention basins, etc. These public realm solutions also fulfil a multifunctional green infrastructure role.



Regional Control: Downstream management of runoff for whole site/catchment, such as retention ponds and wetlands.

Case 25 London, United Kingdom: Sustainable Urban Drainage Management (SuDs) in London - Assessment tools In Europe, the principles of Sustainable urban drainage (SuDs) and the evolution of water sensitive urban cities are oriented towards achieving better urban water management. In this case study on Sustainable Urban Drainage Management (SuDs) in London we present some approaches for the assessment of the capacity of urban areas, either already built or in the design phase, to be adapted to deliver better urban drainage responses and act as “Sponge Cities” for enhanced water resource utilisation and better water quality. This can also lead to the design and construction of functional green cities that are more pleasant to live in and so more highly valued by the residents. The use of urban drainage modelling systems for the assessment of sewer and storm drainage system performance and urban flood risk is very well established. There are a number of systems available for managing a geographical database of all of the drainage assets and using such data to construct computer models of the catchment and network of sewers and drainage channels that can simulate the responses to rainfall events and facilitate the design of infrastructure improvements, such as; new or larger pipes; storage tanks or overflows. These can ensure that specific targets for flood risk management and water quality management can be met for an urban district or whole city. In the UK it has been standard practice for several decades now to use such models at the core of drainage area studies in which infrastructure improvement needs and costs are planned for urban regions. These urban catchment models are often now coupled with river network models to develop integrated solutions. However, the solutions that come from this approach tend to be “Grey infrastructure” as in made from concrete, such as bigger pipes and drainage relief channels. Though effective in meeting immediate targets for drainage performance these grey infrastructure solutions do not normally contribute much to making the city more sustainable or achieving wider ecocity goals. This problem is well understood and the SuDs and Low Impact Development (LID) type of measures to manage runoff at source can address this but they face major institutional barriers to implementation that they require construction of the new green infrastructure over wide areas of the city on property that generally does not belong to the agency responsible for achieving the outcomes. For the common situation of a city faced with the need to improve its hydrological runoff and water quality response in order to meet water resources and flood management goals, whilst already experiencing overload of existing drainage networks the need is for a tool that can help to rapidly assess what type of SuDs Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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solutions might be implemented in the city, where, what will be their effective impact and what will be the cost. This information can then be used in cost benefit analysis to plan programmes of measures that will meet targets for known budgets. Atkins have developed the SuDs Studio tool to perform this function. This is a GIS based software tool that can be used to analyse the city and indicate the potential and costs associated with different SuDs solutions. This tool has been applied in a number of locations including to the whole Greater London Area. It is very important to understand that though very useful the technical tool is just one component of a wider and complex multidisciplinary process for stakeholder engagement, planning, design, financing, legal procedures and construction management that would lead eventually to implementation of solutions. SuDs Studio Introduction. Suds Studio is a tool to facilitate the wider SuDS Planning and Design Process. This GIS tool can be used to assess the potential of the city of city plan for the incorporation of SuDS Designs. The Tool works by undertaking GIS analysis of layers representing urban development aspects. SuDs Studio and the multidisciplinary SuDS Planning and design process

Source: Atkins

In the US Low Impact Development (LID) sets out similar goals and these have been drawn upon in the development of China’s Guidance on “Sponge Cities”83.

Guidance on Sponge City Construction. State Council. http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/201510/16/content_10228.htm Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Components of SuDs Studio GIS analysis system 1) Potential opportunities identified from polygon based dataset

基于数据集，从多边形识别潜在机会

2) Feasibility determined based on multiple criteria

Vector data – an inventory of the rural and urban environment

矢量数据 -—农村和城市环境的数据单

基于多重标准确定可行性

3) Hydraulic performance, water quality and cost assessment

水力性能、水质和成本评估

Environmental designations 环境指示 Source protection zones 源头保护区 Superficial deposits 表层沉积 Flood constraints 洪水限制 Geology & soil permeability 地质&土壤渗透性

4) Scenario testing to identify preferred set of SUDS measures

Land use 土地利用 Topography 地形

方案测试以确定优选的SUDS措施

Source: Atkins

Scoring systems in SuDS Studio

Source: Atkins

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Indicative cost estimates for installing and maintaining SUDS are derived Application of SUDs Studio to the Greater London Authority (GLA) Area. Greater London is a major city with a drainage system that has developed over hundreds of years and in many areas during storms is incapable of effectively conveying away the run off as required. As a result 39 million tonnes of storm sewage overflow into the river Thames and its tributaries each year. The solution could be to build more and bigger sewers and storm drains, to modify the catchments to reduce runoff or a combination of the two. A study was commission by the Greater London Authority to assess the potential and costs for SUDS type solutions. The SUDs Studio tool was used to carry out a rapid assessment in 3 months over the summer of 2015. Aims of GLA Study:  

Inform the London Sustainable Drainage Action Plan Produce a map of opportunities for retrofitting sustainable drainage measures across London using SuDS Studio  Estimate the attenuation provided across London by sustainable drainage measures  Determine the cost effectiveness of various sustainable drainage measures: o Capital and operational cost o Reduction in Runoff o Impact on flood risks  Rank options  Inform strategic network modelling by Thames Water Thames water who are responsible for Sewerage in the Greater London Area, provided an assessment of the available capacity in the network in different areas of London based upon their InfoWorks drainage modelling programme. London Pipe full capacity by borough and modelled drainage district

Source: Atkins

Based on the runoff from all areas the potential solutions were considered for the whole area of London.

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Calculated runoff from Catchments in London

Source: Atkins

The types of solution considered are illustrated in the table below, and the outputs of the Suds Studio analysis of their potential locations is shown.

Potential SuDs Solutions Solutions

Examples

Location London

application

Greater

Green Roofs

Water Butts

Down pipes from roofs connected to small tanks. Water stored and used for garden watering.

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Tree Pits

Rain Garden

Permeable Paving

Gravel Paving

Soakaways / Infiltra-tion Trenches

Ponds

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Swales

Wetlands

Source: Atkins

The solutions were combined and the most dominant and effective solutions for each area selected. Identified Dominant solutions for SuDs in Greater London

Source: Atkins

The system estimated the capital costs for installation, the maintenance costs of operating for 30 Years and the total run-off reductions. From this it may be seen that to install SUDS in all available locations would have a significant impact on runoff volumes, reducing by some 34 million m 3 per year but would be very expensive more than £11 Billion. This may be compared with the proposed Thames Tideway scheme which by completion with capture some 39 Million tonnes of water per year that spill from sewer

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overflows into the Thames and is projected to cost in the region of £5 billion 84. Implementing the SuDs solutions will be a very complex process, with requirements to gain access to the land and properties and to install the solutions with appropriate legal contracts and covenants. It is estimated that this would take more than 30 years to implement, compared to 7 to 8 years for the construction of the tideway scheme. However, there do remain areas in London where localised flooding issues and under capacity can be better tackled by the application of SuDs Solutions rather than major new sewers. The next stages of the process are to select the priority locations where the benefits of SUDS solutions will be sufficient to recommend them as the best means to meet objectives. Also, in the longer term, with climate change and further development in London the need for the implementation of SuDs solutions will increase. Similar tools can be adapted to the urban forms and sustainable drainage options in China. These can be used in combination with Drainage network models to plan and design an optimal balance between Green and Grey infrastructure when designing Chinese ecocities. In combination with other water resource storage and re-use technologies this can also become a component of planning “Sponge Cities”. An eco-city should be an urban development that manages sustains and replenishes its water resources in a manner comparable with a natural ecosystem. This means that the construction and functioning of the city should not deplete or pollute water resources and that while managing drainage and flood risks flooding risks within itself it should not increase flood risks in downstream areas. This is not the case for conventional urban development forms which do radically alter the hydrology of developed areas, greatly increasing downstream flood risks and causing serious problems of pollution. China’s “Sponge Cities” programme is about developing and implementing advanced techniques of urban planning, design and infrastructure that achieve the aims of creating an eco-city with respect to water management.

5.2.3

Technologies - Planning for SUDs – Making it happen

The CIRIA document – Planning for SUDS- Making it Happen85 provides an excellent overview of SUDS. The guidance is primarily intended for use by those people involved in the planning and development process requiring independent and digestible information on the delivery of SUDS. It is aimed at 

Spatial Planners



Architects and designers



Developers



Drainage engineers



Highway engineers



Landscape architects

The guidance seeks to support the delivery of high quality SUDS which are integrated with developments. Tool WM 3 The guide contains case studies and uses symbols to identify benefits. These benefits are highlighted in the Figure below.

http://www.thameswater.co.uk/about-us/2833.htm download “Why does London need the Thames Tideway Tunnel?” Source: CIRIA, 2010, C687, Planning for SUDS – Making it Happen http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/Planning_for_SuDS_ma.aspx 84 85

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Figure 41: Key benefits associated with SUDS

Source: Source: CIRIA, 2010, C687, Planning for SUDS – Making it Happen http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/Planning_for_SuDS_ma.aspx

Good planning of a site requires consideration of surface water from the start. Delivery of SUDS is easier if they are planned and designed to be fully integrated into the urban environment. The CIRIA report outlines a key ‘management train for development and assessment of SUDS. Figure 42 provides a diagrammatic overview of this process. This thought and testing process is useful in developing options and optimising outcomes. This is fundamental in achieving a successful SUDS scheme, as it uses drainage components in sequence to incrementally manage pollution, flow rates and volumes. The SUDS management train encourages the control of surface water as close to the source as possible on site and close to the development, rather than being transferred and managed in larger components downstream. This improves pollution management, contributes to the overall development and can help reduce the land take of water in the whole catchment. A number of key learning points are identified through the SUDS management train: 

There are a number of SUDS components that are flexible and can be adapted to any site



Managing surface water at source using the SUDS management train is important to realising multiple benefits



Planning land use to provide surface water over-land conveyance routes and storage



Urban designers, landscape architects, highway engineers and other stakeholders play an important role in delivering this approach and ensuring benefits are realised

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Figure 42: SUDS Management Train

Source: CIRIA, 2010, C687, Planning for SUDS – Making it Happen – Page 30. http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/Planning_for_SuDS_ma.aspx

This Planning for SUDS paper provides a number of case studies. Case 26 Hampshire, United Kingdom: Residential Use of SUDS

Location

Elvetham Heath, Hampshire

Type of development

Residential

SuDS used

Soakaways, detention basins, a pond and swales

Background Elvetham Heath is a residential development in Hampshire that integrated SuDS. The main reason for using SuDS was because the development was close to a site of special scientific interest (SSSI) immediately downstream. The drainage strategy was to use soakaways to drain areas of high ground, swales for conveyance in the flattest areas and shallow detention basins for attenuation and to encourage infiltration to reduce the amount of runoff. A retention pond is used as a regional control immediately upstream of the nature reserve, and it also incorporates several proprietary SuDS engineering components. Thames Water adopted the drainage system but Hart District Council carries out operation and maintenance of all landscaped SuDS schemes as well as other public area landscaping, based

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on a commuted sum paid by the developers. Research into the residents responses at the site suggest that the local community has high regard for the scheme, which is reflected in the positive values of properties close to open water.

Source: Source: CIRIA, 2010, C687, Planning for SUDS – Making it Happen – Page12. http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/Planning_for_SuDS_ma.aspx

The case below is of a new motorway service station in the UK. This SUDS approach improves drainage and provides water quality benefits. Case 27 Worcestershire, United Kingdom: Motorway Service Station

Location

Hopwood M42, Worcestershire

Type of development

Mortoway service area

SuDS used

Filter trenches, filter strip, swale, wetland and pond

Background The motorway service area (MSA) comprises a building surrounded by coach and car parking and a dedicated HGV park with a centrally located fuel filling area. The MSA is enclosed in a series of planted banks and falls northwards to the Hopwood Stream, which eventually flows to the River Arrow. The site comprises 34 hectares, of which 25 are wildlife reserve. A stormwater ditch draining the A441 divides the MSA into two sub-catchments, the HGV park and the remainder of the MSA. Runoff from the HGV park is directed to a tributary of the Hopwood Stream via the wildlife reserve to enhance a pre-existing wetland and help sustain base flow in the watercourse. Open wetland systems are protected by pre-treatment components including filter strips, treatment trenches or separators to reduce pollution or silt loading and prevent catastrophic damage in the event of Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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spillage. The site is above naturally occurring arsenic in the ground and the wetland basins are lined completely where designed to treat runoff or partially where a retention volume is required in the pond feature. Areas considered to pose a pollution risk to the environment have used the SuDS management train to ensure good water quality and deal with unforeseen spillage events. The HGV park and the fuel filling area, coach park and service yard potentially pose a serious pollution risk and have an extended management train.

Source: Source: CIRIA, 2010, C687, Planning for SUDS – Making it Happen – Page 31. http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/Planning_for_SuDS_ma.aspx

5.2.4

Technologies – Retrofitting SUDS

The CIRIA Document Retrofitting to Manage Surface Water 86 introduces a framework for the assessment and retrofitting of SUDS. The following Figure 43 summarises the approach and the full report is structured according to this logical framework, providing detailed guidance on how to undertake each segment.

CIRIA, 2012, C713, Retrofitting to Manage Surface Water http://www.susdrain.org/resources/ciria-guidance.html

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Figure 43: Framework for Retrofitting SUDS

Source: CIRIA, 2012, C713, Retrofitting to Manage Surface Water http://www.susdrain.org/resources/ciriaguidance.html

Retrofitting SUDS may seem more difficult than new build situations, however in established towns and cities careful design and building of SUDS may bring significant benefits. This guidance document from CIRIA provides a framework for assessing and optimising the use of SUDS. It also provides options and ideas with the use of case studies and real experience from the UK and elsewhere. As urban areas are regenerated and the need to reduce flood risk has been recognised, there is an opportunity to manage surface water in a different way. The move away from a traditional approach of using pipe based below ground systems, to one that uses a wide range of management measures can be made. Taking this approach means that the urban areas are enhanced to create better places to live. This will deliver a wider range of benefits than previously experienced. No space is useless. Many opportunities to retrofit measures can be exploited if conventional thinking is challenged and an innovative approach to manage surface water is adapted. Each space can be maximised so they have a dual function, such as play areas doubling up as a shallow retention basin. Box 10 shows what retrofit measures might look like.

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Box 11: What Retrofitting measures could look like

Source: CIRIA, 2012, C713, Retrofitting to Manage Surface Water http://www.susdrain.org/resources/ciriaguidance.html

The final chapter of this CIRIA retrofitting report contains 22 detailed case studies from the UK and round the world. Some have been noted below, but reference to the full document is recommended Case 28 Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Managing surface water in regeneration project As part of an urban regeneration project, surface water is managed on the surface using source control (basins and wetlands)  this helps to reduce the peak flow from the development as well as improving the water quality going into the watercourse  this example shows how the measures have been designed to complement the architectural style of the buildings to provide a coherent and attractive urban landscape. Source: CIRIA, 2012, C713, Retrofitting to Manage Surface Water http://www.susdrain.org/resources/ciria-guidance.html

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Case 29 St Ives Cornwall, United Kingdom – Managing flows from a large car park area 

In St Ives in Cornwall, UK a car park and green space of 2.5ha was known to contribute to downstream flooding. The car park and green space is shown in the figure



The scheme was designed to a 100 year return period storm event and allowance for climate change. Measures included infiltration devices, an exceedance swale and underground geocellular storage.

Source: CIRIA, 2012, C713, Retrofitting to Manage Surface Water http://www.susdrain.org/resources/ciriaguidance.html

Case 30 The Netherlands: Different Measures to Improve Drainage 

examples of urban regeneration programmes in The Netherlands where different types of measures have been built as an alternative form of drainage



on the left, bioretention areas have been built that take runoff and help to improve the water quality before it is discharged locally



on the right, flows are managed on the surface (similar to many Victorian terraced housing with channels under the footpath). The rain water from the roof comes down into a channel that directs the flow to the road. The road then carries the flow away using a shallow rectangular channel in the middle of the carriage way. The road has a reverse camber. There is no below ground surface water drainage

Source: CIRIA, 2012, C713, Retrofitting to Manage Surface Water http://www.susdrain.org/resources/ciriaguidance.html

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Case 31 London, United Kingdom: Multi Value Benefits of Mayes Brook Restoration87 

the Mayes Brook runs through Mayesbrook Park. Over time the park has become progressively run down, with areas unused and the children’s playing area has become uninviting



the lakes within the park have become polluted over time, and the brook has become hard channelled with local encroachment the scheme has involved restoring the brook channel and a 1ha floodplain that will help manage flood risk as well as creating new habitats



the restoration scheme provides multiple benefits including improving the park for recreational use, water quality, biodiversity and reducing flood risk locally to properties as well as downstream



an ecosystems services approach was taken to assess the benefits. Benefits of seven to one are predicted, even with several benefits not monetised.

Source: CIRIA, 2012, C713, Retrofitting to Manage Surface Water http://www.susdrain.org/resources/ciriaguidance.html

5.2.5

Technologies - River Restoration

An important aspect of eco-city design is to optimise and improve natural watercourses through river restoration projects. This can be achieved by removing former concrete channels and culverts and replacing them with softer eco-engineered profiles and river banks. The Rivers Restoration Centre (RRC)88 is based in Cranfield University in the UK. The RRC is an independent and impartial, not-for-profit organisation holding significant information on river restoration techniques and case studies. The RRC is not a consultancy and it does not bid or competitively tender for work against consultants or contractors. In this way RRC maintains its impartiality, and instead supports the work of these commercial organisations by providing expert advice and support. 5.2.6

Technologies – River Restoration Overview89

Why restore Rivers? Rivers and their catchments provide a wide range of natural, economic and societal services. However, many activities such as channelization, culverting, damming, abstraction, urbanisation, pollution, dredging and intensive agriculture can negatively impact the environment and the services rivers provide. Figure 44 shows the pressures that rivers are

Everard, Shuker and Gunell, 2011, The Mayes Brook restoration in Mayesbrook Park, East London: an ecosystem services assessment, Environment Agency London https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/291020/scho0610bsow-e-e.pdf 88 Rivers Restoration Centre http://www.therrc.co.uk/about-us 89 This overview has been taken from the Rivers Restoration Centre website: http://www.therrc.co.uk/about-us Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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subjected to and the services that rivers provide. These services can be enhanced and restored with sensitive rivers restoration projects. River degradation has led to an extensive loss of habitats and additional pressures on the aquatic and terrestrial species that use them. It also affects the quality of our drinking water, resilience to climate change and ability to store and hold back flood water. Damage to river systems has been so extensive that an urgent need has emerged, not only to conserve, but to restore these systems. Best practice river and catchment restoration can deliver multiple benefits including improvements to water quality, biodiversity, water supply security and reductions in flood risk and pollution. Figure 44: Pressures and Services Provided by River Systems

Source: Rivers Restoration Centre, http://www.therrc.co.uk/why-restore

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Restoring at different scales: River restoration can be carried out at different scales and working with many different issues (such as morphological, hydrological, biological, chemical and socio-economic). The enhancement of river environments originally began with addressing issues of severe water pollution and the conservation of target species. But, changes in attitude towards environmental management eventually led to more integrated river restoration schemes with multiple benefits. Below are a few examples of the most common measures within river restoration. River restoration and climate change. There is clear evidence both globally and in the UK that climate is changing and that this is having an effect on the water environment. Particular risks include increases in rainfall intensity, river flow variability, and water temperatures (putting for example salmonid fish at risk). River restoration is an important measure to mitigate against the effects of climate change. Heavily modified rivers are often less resilient and have lost their ability to hold water in both droughts and floods. Managing existing pressures on the water environment is key to building climate resilience. Priorities within river restoration to cope with future climate conditions include the reconnection of watercourses to their floodplains to help manage flood risk as well as drought. Riparian tree planting can provide shade and help manage water temperatures whilst broader catchment measures can improve soil structure and soil carbon, reduce over-abstraction and manage nutrient inputs. 5.2.7

Technologies - Manual of Rivers Restoration Techniques

The authoritative River Restoration Centre (RRC) Manual of River Restoration Techniques 90 provides detailed examples of innovative and best-practice river restoration techniques. First issued in 1997, it now includes 64 case examples from 35 sites across the UK, and updates on how these techniques have worked. An example is given in the two case studies, below.

River Restoration Centre, Manual of River Restoration Techniques http://www.therrc.co.uk/manual-river-restorationtechniques Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

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Case 32 Coleshill, United Kingdom: Restoring Meanders to Straightened Rivers – New channel meandering through open fields

Source: River Restoration Centre, Manual of River Restoration Techniques http://www.therrc.co.uk/manual-riverrestoration

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Case 33 Coleshill, United Kingdom: Restoring Meanders to Straightened Rivers – New Channel meandering either side of existing channel

Source: River Restoration Centre, Manual of River Restoration Techniques http://www.therrc.co.uk/manual-riverrestoration-techniques

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5.2.8

Technologies - UK Environment Agency, Thames Region, River Restoration Case Studies

The UK Environment Agency – Thames Region have produced a report giving 25 Case Studies of river restoration work in London and the south east of England91. The map below, Figure X, provides an index to the studies and the full document can be obtained via the River Restoration Centre at http://www.therrc.co.uk/publications/enhancing-environment-25-case-studies-thamesregion Figure 45: River Restoration Case Studies – Thames Region and London

Source: Environment Agency, 25 Case Studies of river restoration work in London and the south east of England http://www.therrc.co.uk/publications/enhancing-environment-25-case-studies-thames-region

The report includes a number of case studies and is a useful reference guide. A case study, 17, on the Tidal Thames in central London is of interest. It highlights a high profile site restoration in central London. The redevelopment of a derelict gas works was undertaken to facilitate the Millennium Dome, a showpiece for the year 2000 celebrations. The concrete flood defences were softened to encourage increased biodiversity, whilst still maintaining and enhancing flood defence.

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Case 34 London, United Kingdom: Thames River Restoration – near Millennium Dome in central London Millennium site， Greenwich Peninsular The unique opportunity presented by the Millennium site has enabled the Environment Agency to demonstrate best practice approaches to flood defence works. Site History In the year 2000, Greenwich will host the Millennium Exhibition of the Greenwich Peninsular site. Bounded by the River Thames to the North and north east, the highly contaminated and largely derelict site has a total of 2,200 metres of river frontage. More than 1.1 million visitors are expected to visit the exhibition, which presents a unique opportunity for the Environment Agency to demonstrate a best practice model in urban flood defence work. The aim is to maximise the recreational and landscape potential of the site whilst preserving and enhancing the conservation options. Environment Agency Interests  Contaminated land from Source for the above two photos: https://de.images.search.yahoo.com/search/images;_ylt=AwrSbl9 previous industrial uses.  Poor condition of tidal defences luw1XvxQAyX4zCQx.;_ylu=X3oDMTByNWU4cGh1BGNvbG8DZ 3ExBHBvcwMxBHZ0aWQDBHNlYwNzYw-and threat of encroachment. ?p=Millennium+Site+Greenwich+Peninsular&fr=ush-mailn  Opportunity to promote innovative riverbank design.  Opportunity to promote access and education initiatives. Description of Scheme British Gas and English Partnerships have been working closely with the Environment Agency to create the best practice riverbank scheme at the Millennium site. A length of 1.24km of the existing river site frontage was known to be in bad condition with an estimated life expectancy of less than 5 years and would need to be replaced as part of any redevelopment. The Photo Source: URBED. 2009. Greenwich Millennium Village. Environment Agency encouraged the London. website: www.urbed.co.uk http://urbed.coop/sites/default/files/05%20TEN%20Group,%20 developer to provide an innovative flood Report%20of%20Meeting%205,%20Series%2005_Greenwich_ defence wall, incorporating some setting %2024%20March%202009.pdf back to create enlarged beaches, an ”ecological sculpture”, tidal terraces, timber fendering on vertical flood defence walls, beach replenishment/creation and improved Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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habitats for a potential multitude of wildlife. As part of the riverside scheme, education signage, riverside paths and cycle ways will be a permanent feature of the site. The design of the tidal defences incorporated retreating a 130m length inland to create an additional 10m of intertidal habitat; boardwalks for public access; viewing points; an area of salt marsh with a series of terraces over a width of 7m between the site and existing flood wall; planting of newly created habitats; and the use of timber fenders to improve the appearance of the wall and provide some habitat for animals and plants. The Millennium site is a unique illustration of the new approach to riverside design that the Environment Agency is striving to promote. Here the competing demands of a large scale commercial riverside development had to be effectively balanced with ecological considerations, providing a site which is both commercially and environmentally beneficial. The cost of the terrace flood defences is lower than traditional sheet pile walls and the land value of hte site has improved as a result of the ecological enhancements. Source – Environment Agency, 25 Case Studies of river restoration work in London and the south east of England http://www.therrc.co.uk/publications/enhancing-environment-25-case-studies-thames-region

5.3

Standards – Sustainable Urban Drainage

There are currently no fixed standards for the design, development, construction and maintenance of SUDS. However, there are a number of best practice guides that set out voluntary guidance and act a current best practice standards. 5.3.1

Standards - The Construction of SUDS

The CIRIA Site Handbook for the Construction of SUDS92 provides invaluable advice to reduce risk and optimise the construction of SUDS. It gives practical details of how to prepare construction sites and to reduce construction risks to the environment. It is highly recommended to engineers and planners who are going to build SUDS. For example, the Figure bekow exemplifies the requirements to reduce erosion control and loss of sediment into the local watercourses and wider environment.

CIRIA, 2007 – Site Handbook for the Construction of SUDS – CIRIA C698 http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/site_handbook_SuDS.aspx 92

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Figure 46: SUDS – Site assessment to reduce sediment loss during construction

Source: CIRIA - http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/site_handbook_SuDS.aspx

5.3.2

Standards – The Maintenance and Operation of SUDS

The operation and maintenance of SUDS is critical. Many failures of SUDS have been because of lack of maintenance, or concerns over operational costs and liabilities. Simple issues like outflows blocking with plastic bottles and litter can cause significant failure. SUDS need a different approach to the conventional concrete engineering solutions, where maintenance schedules lie outside normal corporate thinking and provision. CIRIA have produced a guidance paper on SUDS maintenance 93 , CIRIA RP992. The report recognises the importance of correct maintenance procedures and highlights the reasons for this as shown in Box 11 and Box 12 93

CIRIA RP992 The SUDS Manual Update: Paper RP992/21 http://www.susdrain.org/files/resources/SuDS_manual_output/paper_rp992_15_suds_planning_and_design_processe s.pdf Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Box 12: Why is a Maintenance Plan such an important part of a drainage submission? The purpose of Maintenance Plan is to ensure all those involved in the maintenance and ongoing operation of the SuDS system understand its functionality and maintenance requirements in terms of supporting long-term performance to the design criteria to which it was designed. A Maintenance Plan delivered as part of a drainage submission:  Confirms that the designer has taken maintenance into account within the design  Demonstrates the competence of the designer  Provides a guide to the adoption team as to what the maintenance requirements of the system are and how they can be met most efficiently  Provides a basis for costing long term maintenance budgets (and commuted sums, if required)  Provides a working document for use on site  Details procedures for dealing with emergency spillages, vandalism, etc. It should include the local Environment Agency or SEPA Emergency Hotline telephone number which should be called in case of spillages or other pollution incidents. The Maintenance Plan for the drainage system should be designed in cooperation with the adopting authority and the information therein should be presented and discussed verbally wiht all those involved in inspecting and maintaining the drainage systems. Source: CIRIA RP992, The SUDS Manual Update: Paper RP992/21. http://www.susdrain.org/files/resources/SuDS_manual_output/paper_rp992_15_suds_planning_and_design_proces ses.pdf

Box 13: What should a SUDS Maintenance Plan Include? The SuDS Maintenance Plan should cover and clarify the following issues:



   



A description of the site – concentrating on describing how the drainage system works in practice and what is trying to achieve. This is likely to include flow routes, sub-catchments, SuDS components, flow control freatures and outfall arrangement. It should also explain the visual and biodiversity aspects of a scheme as these can easily be compromised by inappropriate maintenance. A plan of the site that identifies runoff sub-catchments, SuDS components, critical water levels, control structures, flow routes (including exceedance routing) and outfalls. A plan clearly showing the extent of the adopted area along with easements and rights of way for access to carry out maintenance. If other parties are responsible for different parts of scheme, this should be clearly shown on the plan. The access that is required to each surface water managment component for maintenance purposes and a plan for the safe and sustainable removal and disposal of waste periodically arising from the drainage system. A review of the work to be undertaken based on regular day to day maintenance, occasional tasks and remidial work. Details of the likely maintenance requirements for each SuDS element are provided in the SuDS Manaual. Maintenance requirements for proprietary sytems should be provided by hte manaufacturer or supplier. The maintenance specification – detailing the materials to be used and the satandard of work required. A specification should describe how the work should be carried out and should contain clauses giving general instructions to the maintenance contractor.

Source: CIRIA RP992, The SUDS Manual Update: Paper RP992/21 http://www.susdrain.org/files/resources/SuDS_manual_output/paper_rp992_15_suds_planning_and_design_proces Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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ses.pdf

5.4

Best Practice - Surface Water Drainage and Flood Control

The Water Framework Directive and the Floods Directive are closely linked in implementation and guidance. The Water Framework Directive has a number of Common Implementation Strategy Guidance documents which contain significant amounts of information and best practice for use by Member States in implementation. The EU introduces this as94: The implementation of the Water Framework Directive raises a number of shared technical challenges for the Member States, the Commission, the Candidate and EEA Countries as well as stakeholders and NGOs. In addition, many of the European river basins are international, crossing administrative and territorial borders and therefore a common understanding and approach is crucial to the successful and effective implementation of the Directive. In order to address the challenges in a co-operative and coordinated way, the Member States, Norway and the Commission agreed on a Common Implementation Strategy (CIS)95 for the Water Framework Directive only five months after the entry into force of the Directive. The results of this work, for instance guidance documents, resource documents or key events related to different aspects of the implementation is available on CIRCA. Stakeholder engagement and communication is a key requirement of both linked Directives. Case 35 Copenhagen, Denmark：Why Copenhagen is building parks that can turn into ponds

Copenhagen's new Enghaveparken will have spaces that can host sporting events during dry weather and fill with water during heavy rains. (COWI, TREDJE NATUR and Platant) … The city has recently been hit by two so-called “100-year flood” events, first in 2011 and then again in 2014. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that this sort of 94

EU, Common Implementation Strategy Documents are at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/waterframework/objectives/implementation_en.htm 95 EU, COMMON IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY FOR THE WATER FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVE (2000/60/EC) http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-framework/objectives/pdf/strategy.pdf Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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extreme weather will become increasingly frequent in Denmark, with heavier downpours (as well as more periods of drought). Sea-level rise is a separate but related threat — according to research from the Niels Bohr Institute, the waters around Copenhagen could rise by up to 1.6 meters (more than 5 feet) in the next 100 years. Planning for this future, Copenhagen had to make a choice between two very different paths. The first option was to expand the city’s existing subterranean sewer and drainage system — its “gray” infrastructure.” This would mean doubling down on the 20th-century notion that the city could handle higher volumes of rainwater as it falls by burying more and larger pipes to handle the runoff. The second option was more of a “green and blue” system. Rather than funneling all stormwater at once through underground pipes, this option envisioned dealing with water at street level through a network of parks, cloudburst boulevards and retention zones. Copenhagen opted for a Climate Adaptation Plan that relies mostly on the latter approach. In November, the council unanimously approved plans for 300 surface-based solutions like those in Tåsinge Plads to be implemented over the next 20 years. Source: Cathcart-Keays, A. 2017. Why Copenhagen is building parks that can turn into ponds. Cityscope 21 January 2016. http://citiscope.org/story/2016/why-copenhagen-building-parks-can-turnponds?utm_source=Citiscope&utm_campaign=08723afb14Mailchimp_2017_05_22&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_ce992dbfef-08723afb14-118049425

5.4.1

Communication and Engagement in local flood risk management

Communication and consultation is seen as very important in all aspects of water management. The EU Water Framework Directive sets some clear criteria that have been adopted across the EU. There is a specific common implementation strategy No 8, Public Participation in relation to the Water Framework Directive96.

EU Guidance document no 8 Public Participation in relation to the Water Framework Directive https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/0fc804ff-5fe6-4874-8e0d-de3e47637a63/Guidance%20No%208%20%20Public%20participation%20(WG%202.9).pdf%20b Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Figure 47: Public Engagement in the WFD Process

Source: EU Guidance document no 8 Public Participation in relation to the Water Framework Directive https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/0fc804ff-5fe6-4874-8e0d-de3e47637a63/Guidance%20No%208%20%20Public%20participation%20(WG%202.9).pdf%20b

These principles have been developed and improved specifically for the communication and engagement in flood infrastructure development and SUDs proposals. The CIRA document Communication and Engagement in local Flood Risk Management – C75197 and C752 provides useful guidance and experience. Figure 48 shows the cover of this CIRIA publication.

CIRA document Communication and Engagement in local Flood Risk Management – C751 http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/c751.aspx 97

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Figure 48: Communication and Engagement in local flood risk management, CIRIA

Source: CIRA Document Communication and Engagement in Local Flood Risk Management – C751 http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/c751.aspx

The Guide is designed to help planners and implementers of flood infrastructure communicate effectively with communities. It introduces the framework for communication and engagement given in Figure 49. Using this framework will enable a robust communication strategy or plan to be put in place. The framework will facilitate building awareness, skills and resources in the local community, developing multiple benefits, building and reinforcing partnerships, ownership and stakeholder support. It promotes a proportionate approach to communication and engagement relative to the likely scale of the intervention. The report goes into significant detail on how this can be developed. Figure 49: Framework for Communication and Engagement in Flood Risk

Source: CIRA document Communication and Engagement in local Flood Risk Management – C751 http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/c751.aspx

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The figure above picks out some of the key communication issues highlighted in the CIIA report, and shows how this information may be helpful. When the Communication and Engagement Guide will be helpful, CIRIA 751 This guidance is here to help. It is not meant to be prescriptive nor definitive but it does draw together vast experience and ideas that have been tried and tested. This guide can be used at several stages of managing local flood risk including: 1 Building engagement and awareness. 2 The preparation of a local flood risk management strategy (LFRMS) or a surface water management plan (SWMP). 3 Recovery after an event. 4 When any LFRM project or scheme is being planned. 5 When a new development is planned that might influence flood risk. 6 Partnership working situations (eg SWMP) to provide commonality and fairness of approach. 7 Benchmarking activities. The guide will also be useful in identifying, engaging and working with people likely to be affected by flooding or integral to its future management. Many of the skills necessary for good communication and engagement may already exist within your organisation (see Section 3.2), so investigate what support is available before getting started. Regardless of whether you are new to LFRM and/or communication and engagement, this guide should support your role as an ‘intelligent client’ to co-ordinate communication and engagement in local flood risk management (LFRM). Source: CIRA document Communication and Engagement in local Flood Risk Management – C751 http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/c751.aspx

The report contains a number of useful case studies such as the development of a wetland park in Dagenham, East London. It points out the key issues and lessons learnt. Case 36 London, United Kingdom: Development of a Wetland Park in Dagenham Background Beam Parklands is a 53 hectare multifunctional wetland park for east London sitting in the floodplain of River Beam. Green space regeneration, habitat creation, and the desire to enlarge and renew the existing flood storage influenced the vision for the project. It is an exemplar partnership project combining FRM with habitat creation, improved access to public open space and recreation. The challenge It was important to make the most of the extensive but degraded floodplain and improve the quality and use of the parkland for the deprived local communities of Dagenham. Key challenges were to communicate the value of the park and the potential for enhancement, understand the aspirations of those that use the park and improve local quality of life. Overcoming the challenge A consultation and community engagement strategy was developed to involve schools, businesses and local residents to explore opportunities for improving the parkland. A variety of engagement methods were required tailored to the diverse stakeholders and communities affected. Activities undertaken include: Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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       

onsite public consultation, including exhibition boards and feedback forms information leaflets and newsletters distributed to households in the local area exhibition stands at the Dagenham Town Show guided site walks for local schools before, during and after construction activity days for children, generating involvement in the design of recreation opportunities workshops community planting events ceremonial opening of the park.

Outcomes  Effective communications strategy enabled hard to reach groups to be engaged.  Engaging children in the design and delivery of the parklands.  Multiple benefits for the local community and environment (enhanced biodiversity, high quality green spaces,  greater community cohesion).  Fostered knowledge of the natural environment and encouraged natural play.  Encouraged community ownership of the park to minimise vandalism and anti-social behaviour. Lessons learnt  It was important to identify the full range of stakeholders, their interests and potential use of the parkland.  66 Stakeholder management skills were essential to the success of the project, particularly given the multiple funding  sources secured.  66 It was necessary to use a variety of engagement methods to obtain input from the diverse communities and interested stakeholders affected by the project.  Informal and playful engagement with schools and children was essential in obtaining feedback from children, representing one of the main user groups of the site.

Source: CIRA document Communication and Engagement in local Flood Risk Management – C751 http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Fee_publications/c751.aspx

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5.5 5.5.1

Lessons Learnt - Surface Water Drainage and Flood Control Learning Lessons from the 2007 Floods in the UK

There was a flood event in the UK and across much of Europe in 2007. It was unusual because it was a surface water flooding event, or pluvial flood, resulting from excessive and torrential rain over a very short time frame. The important report giving rise to this integrated sewerage strategy was the UK Pitt Review 98, 2008, Learning Lessons from the 2007 Floods, written in response to a UK flood. Box 13 gives the key recommendations from the Pitt Review Box 14: The Pitt Review - High Level Recommendations, following the flooding in 2007 The floods of last year (2007) caused the country’s largest peacetime emergency since World War II. The impact of climate change means that the probability of events on a similar scale happening in future is increasing. Therefore, the Review calls for urgent and fundamental changes in the way the country is adapting to the likelihood of more frequent and intense periods of heavy rainfall. We have searched for practical solutions to highly complex problems and thought carefully about the public interest. Our recommendations are challenging and strong national leadership will be needed to make them a reality. ● We believe that there must be a step change in the quality of flood warnings. This can be achieved through closer cooperation between the Environment Agency and Met Office and improved modelling of all forms of flooding. The public and emergency responders must be able to rely on this information with greater certainty than last year. ● We recommend a wider brief for the Environment Agency and ask councils to strengthen their technical capability in order to take the lead on local flood risk management. More can be done to protect communities through robust building and planning controls. ● During the emergency itself, there were excellent examples of emergency services and other organisations working well together, saving lives and protecting property. However, this was not always the case; some decision making was hampered by insufficient preparation and a lack of information. Better planning and higher levels of protection for critical infrastructure are needed to avoid the loss of essential services such as water and power. There must be greater involvement of private sector companies in planning to keep people safe in the event of a dam or reservoir failure. Generally, we must be more open about risk. ● We can learn from good experience abroad. People would benefit from better advice on how to protect their families and homes. We believe that levels of awareness should be raised through education and publicity programmes. We make recommendations on how people can stay healthy and on speeding up the whole process of recovery, giving people the earliest possible chance to get their lives back to normal.

It has changed the UK response to floods and flood emergencies significantly. Figure 50 shows a high level graphical view of its contents and lessons learnt.

Pitt Review, 2008 http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100807034701/http://archive.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/pittreview/_/media/asset s/www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/flooding_review/pitt_review_full%20pdf.pdf Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Figure 50: Pitt Review 2008, Scope and lessons

Source: Pitt Review, 2008 http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100807034701/http://archive.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/pittreview/_/media/asset s/www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/flooding_review/pitt_review_full%20pdf.pdf

Outlook – Sustainable Drainage

5.6 5.6.1

National Standards for Sustainable Drainage

The UK Government is currently working closely with the Environment Agency, Local Authorities and House Builders to develop a set of National Standards for sustainable drainage. The standards will reflect the need to reduce flood risk from surface water, improve water quality, improve the environment, and also ensure that the SUDS systems are robust, safe, and affordable and that requirements are predictable. The National Standards will set out the requirement for the design, construction operation and maintenance of SUDS in England and Wales. The standards will apply to domestic and commercial developments and redevelopments which require approval by the SAB. They will set out guiding principles that will help developers and local authorities. These principles include: 

considering drainage at the earliest stages of site design



SUDS can be multifunctional spaces



SUDS should follow the management train



Rainwater should be managed as close to its source as possible



Connection to foul sewer is not permitted.

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Draft National Standards99 for sustainable drainage systems - Designing, constructing, operating and maintaining drainage for surface runoff have been consulted upon by the UK government. The principles of the standards will be that: A proposed drainage system does not comply with these National Standards unless it is designed so that: a. Surface runoff is managed at its source where it is reasonably practicable to do so; b. Surface runoff is managed on the surface where it is reasonably practicable to do so; c. Public space is used and integrated with the drainage system, where it serves more than one property and it is reasonably practicable to do so; d. Design is cost-effective to operate and maintain over the design life of the development, in order to reduce the risk of the drainage system not functioning; e. Design of the drainage system accounts for the likely impacts of: 

climate change; and



changes in impermeable area;

Over the design life of the development, where it is reasonably practicable to do so. There is ongoing discussion on the need for statutory standards for SUDS, or whether they can remain as voluntary best practice guidance.

DEFRA, 2011, National Standards for sustainable drainage systems - Designing, constructing, operating and maintaining drainage for surface runoff https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/82421/suds-consult-annexa-nationalstandards-111221.pdf Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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6 PERSPECTIVES FROM CHINA 6.1

Sector Overview and Policy Analysis

The Water sector is governed by various ministries and institutions. The legal basis for the water sector is the existing urban planning legislation of the People´s Republic of China (PRC), and other guidelines of the Ministry of Housing, and Urban-Rural Development (MoHURD), particularly those pertaining to eco-city development. The relevant legal reference documents are:  Urban Planning Law. 1984. In 2008 updated as “The Urban and Rural Planning Law of People’s Republic of China”; latest revised in April 2015.  Land Management Law. 1998. And based on the law, the detailed Enforcement Regulation has been developed, and undergone revisions for several times. The latest is the 2014 version.  Environment Protection Law. 1990. Latest revised in 2014 and applied since 2015.  MoHURD. March. 2013. The 12th 5-Year Plan on the Green Building and Green Ecological Districts.  CCPCC and State Council. March, 2014. National New-type Urbanization Plan 20142020.  State Council. April, 2015, Suggestions on Enhancing Eco-civilization.  CCPCC and State Council. 2016. Central Government Guideline on Urban Planning.  CCPCC and State Council. 2016. The thirteenth Five-Year Plan (2016-2020) Specifically to the water sector, the following legal instruments apply:  Law for Water Pollution Prevention. 1984. Significantly revised 1996 and 2008. Undergoing revision again  MoHURD. 2014. Guidelines for the Sponge City (Low-Impact-Development).  State Council. 2015. Guidelines for Promoting Sponge City Construction (usually referred to as “File No. 75)”.  State council. 2015. Action Plan for Urban Water Management (usually referred to as Water Ten Point Plan) Policy Direction from the 13th Five Year Plan. The Government´s pronouncement of the Five Year Plan objectives has stated three key objectives:  Increased efficiency of energy resources development and utilization; effective control total aggregate of energy and water consumption, construction land, and carbon emissions. The total emissions of major pollutants shall be reduced significantly.  City development shall be in accordance with the carrying capacity of resources and the cultural context. Green planning, design and construction standards shall be applied.  Support reduced emission standards, and implement demonstration projects of ¨near-zero¨ carbon emission. New Urbanization Policy 2016. Following the Central Urban Work Conference (20-21 December 2015) the Communist Party of China Central Committee and the State Council issued a roadmap for city development. Its key points regarding water management are as follows100: - Build comfortable and livable environment. Until 2020, in all cities above prefecture level, waste water shall be 100% collected and treated; for water deficient cities, the reclaimed water rate shall reach 20%.

100

Extracted and translated from: http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2016-02/21/content_5044367.htm)

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China Development Bank Capital (CDBC) Policy for Green Urban Development. The CDBC´s policy document for Green Urban Development states several principles for the green building sector:  Water Efficiency: All buildings must have 100% adoption of cost-effective water saving appliances, and green spaces surrounding buildings must adopt low water-use plants. All water consumption should be metered and at least 20-30% of water supply must be recycled from either wastewater or rainwater. 101  Smart Technologies can advance green development: Save water through IoE technology and other water saving technology. Cities can improve water efficiency through smart storm and flood control equipment and water re-use. 102 Relationship between Smart and Green Guidelines Smart Guidelines

Relevant Green Guidelines

Relationship

Relevant Smart Technologies

Smart Governance

Water

Using data to manage water in an urban area can greatly improve efficiency by detecting leaks or identifying the most inefficient water users.

Smart Water Management

Source: China Development Bank Capital (CDBC). 2015. 6 Smart Guidelines. CDBC´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft). http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Six-SmartGuidelines.pdf

6.1.1

The Water Challenges Facing China

Water shortage. Rapidly advancing urbanisation mean numerous challenges for water supply, waste water treatment and flood management. China does suffer from a severe shortage of fresh water. The Chinese Ministry of Water Resources has reported that two thirds of of China’s 669 cities are suffering from water shortage; 110 cities are facing ‘severe’ shortage. Although the vast majority (about 75%) of fresh water resources are used in agriculture, the proportion of fresh water used in urban areas has been on the increase with industrial growth, continued urbanisation, and higher urban densities. Significant quantities or water also used for horticulture of green spaces in urban areas. Thus, the issues that need to be addressed are: (i) water use efficiency (e.g. water saving household devices); (ii) alternative water supplies (e.g. desalination, aquifer recharge, and river bank filtration); (iii) water systems maintenance and retrofitting of distribution systems and treatment of waste water (e.g. advanced wastewater treatment technologies, sludge treatment, decentralised waste water management, waste water reuse, resource recovery). The McKinsey Report, 2009103, provides a useful overview of the challenges facing China in water and other sectors. They summarise the urban water issues as follows in Box 14. 101

China Development Bank Capital (CDBC). 2015. 12 Green Guidelines. CDBC´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft). http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/12-GreenGuidelines.pdf 102 China Development Bank Capital (CDBC). 2015. 6 Smart Guidelines. CDBC´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft). http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Six-SmartGuidelines.pdf 103 McKinsey Global Institute. 2009. Preparing for China´ s Urban Billion. http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/urbanization/preparing_for_urban_billion_in_china Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Box 15: Extract from McKinsey Report – Water MGI’s research finds that urban demand for water will increase by between 65 and 100 percent over the next 20 years as the economy grows and as urbanization continues at rapid rate. The principal driver for this increase will be tripling in residential water use. The shape of china’s urbanization will also have a significant impact on water demand and the investment needed to satisfy this demand. In a super cities scenario, urban water demand would double by 2025 and china will have to invest an estimated 1.1 trillion Renminbi in its water-supply infrastructure. In a town-ization scenario, urban water demand would increase by 70 percent from 2005, significantly less than under super cities. The amount China would need to spend on its urban water supply infrastructure would vary even more significantly - by 40 percent between super cities and town-ization. Source: McKinsey Global Institute. 2009. Preparing for China´s Urban Billion. http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/urbanization/preparing_for_urban_billion_in_china

Water Stress on the Rise

China’s Yellow River. Photo by Lauren Parnell Marino/Flickr ¨Water stress levels in many parts of China are very high, due to low levels of water supply and very high levels of demand. And new research shows the situation is worsening. Using the baseline water stress metric developed for WRI’s Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas, we compared water stress in China between 2001 and 2010, the latest year for which catchment data are available. This analysis paints a much more accurate than previous analyses, using detailed freshwater withdrawal data from more than 300 prefectures and high spatial resolution grid data. We found that the percentage of land area in China facing high and extremely high water stress increased from 28 to 30 percent, meaning 678 million people now live in highly water-stressed areas.

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Water stress is defined as the total annual water withdrawals (municipal, industrial and agricultural) as a percent of the total annual available surface water. High values indicate more competition among users - a value above 40 percent is considered as “high water stress,” and above 80 percent as “extremely high.” Overall, water stress across 54 percent of China’s total land area worsened from 2001 to 2010, while 8 percent of the country’s total land area, an area slightly larger than the U.S. state of Texas, moved into a higher category of water stress.

What’s Driving Increased Water Stress? There are several reasons behind the worsened water stress situation for these catchments, but industrialization and urbanization are two of the biggest. Industrial water withdrawals increased in all provincial divisions except Beijing. For example, one catchment in the Yellow River Basin—where water stress increased by 55 percent—is near one of the country´s national coal Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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bases. Extraction and refining of coal is a very water-intensive process. In the Pearl River Delta, one of the major economic zones in China on the southeastern coast, industrial GDP increased 4.8 times, while urban population grew by 56 percent from 2000 to 2010. In Guizhou Province in the southwest, industry grew significantly while the urban population increased by 22 percent from 2001 to 2010. Some local governments have taken action to promote more water-efficient industrial practices. For example, since 2006, Shandong province has shut down inefficient paper-making and steel factories, and as a result, industrial water withdrawal per unit of output dropped by 12.49 percent between 2001 and 2008. Other Chinese provinces should consider similar approaches in order to rein in industrial thirst and more efficiently utilize existing water resources. Most areas in China also experienced an increase in domestic withdrawals, mainly due to population growth and improved standards of living. In catchments with increased domestic water withdrawal, more than 80 percent saw an increase in domestic water withdrawal per capita. With income growth, more families can afford household appliances like dishwashers and washing machines, and live a higher-consumption lifestyle. For example, the number of washing machines per 100 households increased from 90.5 to 96.92 during the 10-year period studied. The number of shower water heaters per 100 households increased from 49.10 to 84.82. While some catchments saw decreased domestic water withdrawal, this is because they’re located in areas so arid and dry that people have been forced to move to other locations. For example, a catchment in Inner Mongolia had a population of 4,730 in the year 2000 and a population of zero in the year 2010. A Bright Spot in China’s Water Story While industrial and domestic water withdrawals increased overall, agricultural water use decreased in most areas. Total irrigation water withdrawal in 2010 decreased by 3 percent compared to 2001, which is quite significant given that the effective irrigation area increased by 11 percent during the same time. The drivers of the decrease included both policy prescriptions and deployment of water-efficient farming equipment. In China’s Five-Year Plan for 2006-2010, the government set a goal of stabilizing irrigation water use by 2010. Land areas equipped with water-saving irrigation technologies increased by 40 percent from 2003 to 2010.

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Moving Toward a Water-Secure Future Worsening water stress is already a cause for concern in China, and the threat is growing. Water stress in Ningxia Province, for example, is projected to increase by 40-70 percent by 2040 due to climate change’s effect on available surface water and the influence of socioeconomic factors. China has already seen how strong water policies can lead to a decrease in water stress in the agricultural sector. Depending on each catchment’s unique water use and water stress situation, government and corporate policies can support more efficient and sustainable water use by: encouraging cultivation of less water-intensive crops; improving water-use efficiency in waterintensive industries like coal mining and electric power production; and promoting more waterconserving lifestyles amongst consumers. China may be facing mounting water threats, but it can start reversing course with the right policies and management practices.¨ Source: Jiao Wang, Lijin Zhong, Iceland, C. 2017. China’s Water Stress Is on the Rise. World Resources Institute. 10 January. http://www.wri.org/blog/2017/01/chinas-water-stress-rise?utm_campaign=wridigest&utm_source=wridigest-2017-0111&utm_medium=email&utm_content=learnmore

Integrated nature of water management. Dealing with the water sector implies that all available resources need to be considered, allocation water from different sources to the most appropriate uses. The McKinsey report suggests that urban water use will increase significantly in supercities as shown by Figure 51. Figure 51: Water demand in China’s super-cities

Source: McKinsey Global Institute. 2009. Preparing for China´s Urban Billion. http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/urbanization/preparing_for_urban_billion_in_china

The McKinsey Report concludes that: ‘Water Use is very likely to be a severe challenge, particularly for the Mega-cities in the North that will need water transfer projects to meet their needs. However, it is fair to note that most water consumption will still be in agriculture.’ The Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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McKinsey Study has demonstrated that urban water use is only 4.1% of the overall water available. The challenge will not be the matching of demand and supply, but rather the geographical imbalance 104 . The Ministry of Water Resources estimated the annual water availability per person as 2,000 m3 which is only about 25% of the world’s per capita average105. Due to continued population growth, the per capita availability of water is expected to drop to 1,700 m3 by 2030, due to continued population growth106. China could save up to 40% of its water if water-saving measures were introduced, for instance dealing with leakages in the distribution system. On a per capita basis, China’s water availability of 2,114 m3 per person (2003-2007) is very low, suggesting the potential for water stress as demand for usable water rises with growth in population and per capita income. Water pollution has further contributed to water shortages. To deal with the water shortages, the need to recycle water through more reliable and cost-effective waste water and sewerage treatment, and more appropriate sewerage wastewater charges107108 is essential. Despite impressive investments in water supply and wastewater treatment – as much as US150 billion in 2005-2010 alone, more than 400 of its 657 cities already suffer from a water shortage, and more than 110 cities are experiencing severe water shortage109 110. During the last decades, the majority of urban development in China have been horizontal urban expansions (‘greenfield development’), expanding cities into agricultural land. The dispersed urbanization and the relatively low density of this urbanization has caused a need for longer piping networks, higher pumping costs, and increased energy demand for maintaining pressure in expanded water networks. How to address water shortage is a central issue for cities while living standards and consumption levels are on the rise. Water scarce cities often rely on ground water sources, while pumping and treatment costs have gone up. At the same time, water levels have gone down, and pollution levels have gone up.

104

McKinsey Global Institute. 2009. Preparing for China´s Urban Billion. http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/urbanization/preparing-for-chinas-urban-billion 105 Gleick, P. 2011. China and Water. Gleick, P. et al, The World’s Water 2008-2009, Vol. 7, Pacific Institute. http://www.worldwater.org/data.html 106 Danilenko, A., Ikegami, T., Kriss, P., Baeumler, A., and Libhaber, M. 2012. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Water and Wastewater Utilities, in: Baeumler, A., Ijjasz.Vasquez, Mehndiratte, S. (Eds.). 2012. Sustainable Low-Carbon City Development in China, Directions in Development – Countries and Regions. World Bank. Washington. pp. 347-366. www.siteresources.worldbank.org/.../low_carbon_city_full_en.pdf 107 Shalizi, Z. 2008. Water and Urbanization, in: Yusuf, S. and Saich, T. (eds.). 2008. China Urbanizes – Consequences, Strategies, and Policies. World Bank. Washington. pp.157-179. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAECOPRO/Resources/30876941206446474145/China_Urbanizes_Complete.pdf 108 It needs to be noted that China’s efforts to combat water pollution seem to be thwarted by poor data. See: Liu Qin. 2016. Clear as mud: how poor data is thwarting China’s water clean up. 18 May 2016. http://www.chinadialogue.org.cn/article/show/single/en/8922-Clear-as-mud-how-poor-data-is-thwarting-China-s-waterclean-up 109 Danilenko, A., Ikegami, T., Kriss, P., Baeumler, A., and Libhaber, M. 2012. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Water and Wastewater Utilities, in: Baeumler, A., Ijjasz.Vasquez, Mehndiratte, S. (Eds.). 2012. Sustainable Low-Carbon City Development in China, Directions in Development – Countries and Regions. World Bank. Washington. pp. 349-353. www.siteresources.worldbank.org/.../low_carbon_city_full_en.pdf 110 Lintao’s water crisis is a warning for other cities. 19 May 2016. http://citiscope.org/citisignals/2016/lintaos-watercrisis-warning-other-chinese-cities?utm_source=Citiscope&utm_campaign=65fcfbcb18Mailchimp_2016_05_20&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_ce992dbfef-65fcfbcb18-118049425 Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Water and Sanitation Results in 2015

Water

Improved water source

Sanitation Improved sanitation

Urban (56% of the population)

Rural (44% of the population)

Total

98%

93%

95%

87%

64%

76%

Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water and Sanitation 2015 estimates for China. http://www.wssinfo.org/

Residential water demand could increase between 1.6 to 2.3 times over the next 20 to well above 50% of the overall water demand. Assuming that water tariffs remain constant in real terms, improving water efficiency in real terms would offset industrial demand as the economy grows 111. While urban water use will remain a fraction of the overall water available, the water stress is being felt in the water basins due to distribution imbalances and the impacts of pollution112. Fushan River: China’s Teflon Toxin Problem The problems of pollution abatement in China, are well illustrated by the case of the Fushan River. “The Fushan River is the main shipping route in Changshu, an industrial center in Jiangsu province. ‘Fushan’ means ‘Fortune Mountain,’ but locals have dubbed it ‘Fluorochemical Mountain.’

Jiang Mei for ChinaFile/The Intercept

Standing on a concrete bridge above the Xiaoqing River, a farmer named Wu shook his head as he gazed down at the water below. Wu, who is 61, used to be able to see all the way to the bottom. And he and others in Cuijia, a village of about 2,000 in China’s Shandong province, used to swim at this very spot. There were so many turtles he could easily stab one with his forked spear, he recalled on a steamy Saturday in July. To catch some of the many fish, he simply threw a net into the water, he said, moving his arms as he spoke in a gesture that has 111

McKinsey Global Institute. 2009. Preparing for China´s Urban Billion. p. 438. http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/urbanization/preparing-for-chinas-urban-billion 112 Tough love: China gets serious about water pollution. 2 September 2016. http://www.sustainablecitiescollective.com/charles-arthur/1239512/tough-love-china-gets-serious-about-waterpollution? Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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survived in his muscle memory long after most of the fish have disappeared. The Xiaoqing flows 134 miles through the major cities of Zibo, Binzhou, and Dongying in Shandong province. Tens of millions of people depend on it. In Jinan, which is close to the river’s origin, human and livestock waste and runoff from fertilizers and pesticides have caused the water to stink in recent years. But downstream from Jinan, waste from factories has compounded the river’s problems. Directly translated from Chinese, the word “Xiaoqing” means “clean and clear.” But here in Cuijia, the water is neither. From the bridge, you can see debris and garbage swirling atop the forceful rush of brown. Occasionally, bits of plastic and something that looks like Styrofoam float by. But what may be most dangerous in the Xiaoqing River isn’t visible: perfluorooctanoic acid, or PFOA, long used by DuPont in the production of Teflon, among other products, and linked to cancer and other diseases. Because Cuijia lies downstream from a factory that emits more PFOA than any other industrial facility in the world, levels of the chemical at various points near here are among the highest ever reported, “He had never heard of PFOA, he said, and didn’t know the exact causes of his village’s problems.” reaching more than 500 times the safety level the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recently set for drinking water. The plant, operated by a company called Dongyue Group, is the world’s biggest producer of Teflon and emits 350 pounds of PFOA every day, an amount that totals 63 tons in a single year, according to a recent estimate.” Source: Lerner, S. 2016. China’s Teflon Toxin Problem. Chinafile. 15 September. http://www.chinafile.com/features/chinasteflon-toxin-problem

Water Quality Proportion in top 10 River basins in 2012

Source: UN-Habitat. 2015. The State of China’s Cities 2014-2015. Beijing. p. 80. http://unhabitat.org/books/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%9F%8E%E5%B8%82%E7%8A%B6%E5%86%B5%E6% 8A%A5%E5%91%8Athe-state-of-china-cities/

It should be noted that China’s business and domestic water price is far below a real cost, providing no incentive for water saving. Water tariffs in China are exceptionally low, with a cost of $0.5/m3, which ranks very low in an international comparison.

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Household water and wastewater tariffs in China’s 10 largest cities compared with other major cities

Source: Global Water Intelligence 2008, cited in: World Bank. China 2030. Building a Modern, Harmonious, and Creative Society. Washington. p.243. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2013/03/17494829/china-2030-building-modern-harmonious-creativesociety

Water pollution in the Pearl River Delta: “The Pearl River Delta in south China’s Guangdong province is among the fastest growing regions in China, averaging above 13 percent since the early 1980s, mostly due to large inflows of direct foreign investment initially in low value-added manufacturing, and more recently in higher value-added manufacturing and, in a few cities, in services. The high economic growth came at a very heavy environmental cost. Investment in environmental protection failed to keep pace with the rapid economic advances. Consequently, the Pearl River, China’s third longest river, became highly polluted, with many of its tributaries worse than the lowest national surface water quality standard (Class V), and unfit as a drinking water source. Collected domestic wastewater was discharged to the river systems without treatment, except a few larger municipalities where only a portion of the wastewater was treated. In 2005, about 55 percent of the wastewater in Foshan Municipality was treated, while only 22 percent of the wastewater in Jiangmen Municipality was collected and treated. The Pearl River Delta area has been identified as possibly the biggest pollution hot spot in East Asia, with major impacts spilling over into the South China Sea. By addressing the largest pollution sources in one of the national and regional pollution hotspots, the series of Pearl River Delta projects represented an important step in assisting China tackle one of the most serious environmental challenges facing the country113.” Nature-based solutions. The EU has sponsored research on nature-based solutions as part of the EU innovation policy agenda. There is a growing awareness that nature can help to develop viable solutions which use and deploy the properties of the natural eco-systems, making them a new form of smart infrastructure systems, e.g. ‘engineering’ natural, ‘green’ and ‘blue’ solutions. 113

Through the First and Second Guangdong Pearl River Delta Urban Environment Project the government, with support by the Wold Bank, tried to introduce the reduction of pollution discharges entering the river system in the region from the municipalities of Foshan and Jiangmen. Under these projects, several improvements were in waste water treatment were introduced. See: Cleaning Up China’s Polluted Pearl River. May 26, 2016. http://citiscope.org/citisignals/2016/lintaos-water-crisis-warning-other-chinesecities?utm_source=Citiscope&utm_campaign=65fcfbcb18Mailchimp_2016_05_20&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_ce992dbfef-65fcfbcb18-118049425 Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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These ‘nature-based solutions’ are designed to bring more nature and natural features to develop cost-effective, sustainable solutions. Green infrastructure can contribute to cost reductions, to reduction in energy use, can help to reduce heat island effects (through green roofs, green walls, decreasing heating and/or cooling needs). Co-benefits include reduced air pollution, flood control, and recreation. An integrated eco-system approach can provide cost-effective solutions for urban sustainability and resilience114. The new terminology of “nature-based solutions” needs to be seen as another version of what has been known as “low-impact development”, or what is also known as “sponge city” development (see above) – term mostly used in China. Urban resilience. In China’s efforts to make urban infrastructure resilient and capable to mitigate the effects of climate change and extreme weather events have advanced. The National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) issued in 2013 the first National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, and has set clear goals to improve the country’s resilience to climate change vulnerability by 2020. In 2016, NDRC has announced the Urban Adaptation to Climate Change Action Plan. According to this, by 2020 the climate change indicators should be integrated with city development plans, and by 2030 the country’s ability to adapt to climate change should be greatly enhanced. Cities as prime actors in urban resilience. The cities will be the meeting point of top-down and bottom-up mitigation and adaptation initiatives. Climate services, technologies and knowledge of good practices will be key to support cities assume their important role to combat climate change impacts.

6.1.2

China Administrative arrangements - water

This is the responsibility of "cities" under complex arrangements that differ substantially from one city to the other. The term "City" has a dual and confusing meaning in China. It is used here to refer to the main urban area of a municipality, prefecture, or county. Cities are governed by a "leading group" under the leadership of a mayor, who is assisted by various "bureaus", or departments. Services are usually provided by municipally owned water bureaus and wastewater bureaus (sometimes referred to as utilities despite the relatively limited autonomy that these companies enjoy). Water and wastewater bureaus are typically separate from each other. In larger cities, services are further unbundled: There may be a separate raw water bureau that transports water from far-away sources and sells it to the municipal water bureau for distribution. Likewise on the wastewater side, larger cities may have several district drainage bureaus in charge of parts of the city, a wastewater bureau in charge of the main collectors, and a third bureau in charge of wastewater treatment. In some cities, the various companies are under the same "parent bureau", which may be the construction bureau or a water bureau, while in other cities the water bureau and the wastewater bureau report to different parent bureaus. Especially in smaller cities the county administration provides services directly. In Shanghai, the Water Division of the Shanghai Urban Construction Investment Development Corporation provides services. The Water Division includes a raw water bureau, five water

114

EU. 2016. Nature-based Solutions & Re-naturing Cities. Research and Innovation. Brussels. http://europa.eu/!BV74Vf. See also similar work by the Asian Development Bank: Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2016. Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities: Case Studies from the Greater Mekong Subregion. ADB. Manila. https://www.adb.org/publications/nature-based-solutions-building-resilience-towns-cities-gms

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bureaus, one sewage management bureau, three engineering bureaus and two construction bureaus. It serves 12 million people. In Beijing, a Water parent bureau was established in 2004, integrating the functions of formerly separate bureaus for water supply, sewerage, wastewater treatment, and water resources management. In Tianjin, the Tianjin Water Supply Group provides services. It recently divested itself from numerous side businesses to focus on its core business. Since 1997, it has cooperated with international companies such as Vivendi in a bulk water supply Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) contract. “Responsibility for water supply and sanitation policies at the national level is shared between five Ministries. Provincial governments play a relatively limited role in the water sector, providing some limited financing for rural water supply. Local government plays a major role, providing a substantial share of financing and owning water supply and sanitation companies that are the main service providers in urban areas. In smaller towns, local government sometimes provides services directly. Village committees operate water systems in rural areas. To a large extent, the institutional structure of the sector has been inherited from the period of the planned economy before 1978. There are overlaps in responsibilities between public institutions at the central and local level, as well as between various Ministries. There are also no clear definitions of what terms like "supervision" and "management" that are mentioned in the legislation mean, so that "often the departments in charge cannot tell the differences themselves"115. In order to understand the institutional responsibilities for water supply and sanitation in China, it may be helpful to provide a brief overview of the administrative divisions of China; there are: 

33 province-level ( 省级 shěngjí) divisions, including 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four municipalities (Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Chongqing), and two special administrative regions.

Also   

333 prefecture-level divisions (地级 dìjí). 2872 county-level divisions (县级 xiànjí) (sometimes called “districts”). 41,636 township-level (乡级 xiāngjí) divisions.

China also has 661 designated cities, which do not constitute separate administrative units. Each municipality, prefecture, and county includes urban and rural areas. 4 cities are capitals of municipalities, 283 cities are capitals of prefectures, and 374 are capitals of counties116. 6.1.3

Access to clean water and sanitation in China

Access to an improved water source and improved sanitation has increased significantly in China over the past two decades in parallel with economic growth. Between 1990 and 2008 alone more than 450 million Chinese gained access to an improved water source, based on estimates by the 115

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China; see also: Jiane Zuo and Lili Gan:Water and Sanitation Services in China: Current Problems and Potential Solutions, in: José Estaban Castro and Léo Heller (Editors): Water and Sanitation Services. Public Policy and Management, Earthscan, London, 2009, p. 311 116 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of the WHO and UNICEF that are based on household survey data. Access to an improved water source was 89% and access to improved sanitation was 55% in 2008. Having access to an improved water source, however, is not the same as having access to safe water. Many of those who have access to adequate infrastructure suffer from poor water quality due to faecal contamination; high levels of naturally occurring fluoride, arsenic, or salts; and growing industrial and agricultural chemical pollution. Furthermore, seasonal water shortages occur. Table 3: Access to Water in China Drinking water coverage estimates

China Piped onto premises Other improved source Other unimproved Surface water

Urban (%) 1990 2015 78 87 19 11 2 2 1 0

Rural (%) 1990 2015 11 55 45 38 35 5 9 2

Total (%) 1990 2015 28 73 39 22 26 4 7 1

Source: WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2015. http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/?tx_displaycontroller[type]=country_files

Table 4: Access to Sanitation in China

China Improved facilities Shared facilities Other unimproved Open defecation

Sanitation coverage estimates Urban (%) Rural (%) Total (%) 1990 2015 1990 2015 1990 2015 68 87 40 64 48 76 5 6 2 3 3 5 24 7 49 31 42 18 3 0 9 2 7 1

Source: WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2015 http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/?tx_displaycontroller[type]=country_files

According to two tables above about 120 million Chinese did not have access to an improved source of water supply, and about 477 million did not have access to improved sanitation. During the 11th and 12th Five-Year Plans China has added massively to the waste water treatment capacity. By 2015, some 90% of waste water treatment capacity has been reached through building some 6,500 waste water treatment plants in most of the 657 cities and 19,000 towns. ‘As this expansion proceeds, there is a benefit from focussing further on lower energy use treatment methods – particularly anaerobic treatments and local decentralised treatments117.”

6.1.4

Urban Drainage

“By the end of 2012, China cities’ sewage treatment capacity reached 117 million cubic meters/ day, and the sewage treatment rate reached 87.3%, 5% higher than in 2010. Nevertheless, there were still a lot of problems in some cities. For example, sewage supporting pipelines construction 117

Danilenko, A., Ikegami, T., Kriss, P., Baeumler, A., and Libhaber, M. 2012. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Water and Wastewater Utilities, in: Baeumler, A., Ijjasz.Vasquez, Mehndiratte, S. (Eds.). 2012. Sustainable Low-Carbon City Development in China, Directions in Development – Countries and Regions. World Bank. Washington. pp. 353-355. www.siteresources.worldbank.org/.../low_carbon_city_full_en.pdf Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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was lagging behind, facilities construction was unbalanced, some treatment facilities could not fully meet the new requirements for environmental protection, most sludge was not disposed harmlessly, and sewage recycling degree was low. The efficiency and effectiveness of facilities were to be improved. According to statistics, 639 cities in China had flood control works, of which the cities with the flood control standard less than that of 10 years frequency accounted for 15.6%, and of which 403 cities did not meet the flood control standards stipulated by the state. The drainage facilities were not complete, and rainstorm waterlogging was an increasing prominent problem. In 2012, 184 cities in China were water flooded or waterlogged, and the mega cities, such as Beijing, Chongqing and Tianjin, suffered the most118.” The “Regulation on Urban Drainage and Sewage Treatment (herein after referred to as the Regulation), released according to Order of the State Council (No. 641), came into force on January 1, 2014. The Regulation … standardizes the planning, construction, maintenance and protection of urban drainage and sewage treatment facilities, and defines the legal responsibility of the relevant action entities. The Regulation proposes that urban drainage and wastewater treatment should follow the principles of respecting the nature, overall planning, construction of supporting facilities, safety, and comprehensive utilization, to embody the concept of ecological civilization and sustainable development. In order to solve the funding gap, it is especially stipulated in the Regulation that the state encourages franchising and government procurement of services and some other forms to attract social capital to participate in the investment, construction and operation of urban drainage and sewage treatment facilities119.” 6.1.5

China Water Safety Plans

An excellent overview is given in the Asian Development Bank (ADB) report, Mainstreaming Water Safety Plans in ADB Water Sector Projects120, which also provides examples in China. The cover is shown for reference in Figure 52. Tool WM 1 Figure 52: Mainstreaming Water Safety Plans in ADB Water Sector Projects

Source: Asian Development Bank http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/152150/water-safety-plans-adbwater-projects.pdf

ADB provide the following summary of key points in Box 15 UN-Habitat. 2015. The State of China’s Cities 2014-2015. Beijing. p. 85. http://unhabitat.org/books/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%9F%8E%E5%B8%82%E7%8A%B6%E5%86%B5%E6% 8A%A5%E5%91%8Athe-state-of-china-cities/ 119 UN-Habitat. 2015. The State of China’s Cities 2014-2015. Beijing. p. 81. http://unhabitat.org/books/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%9F%8E%E5%B8%82%E7%8A%B6%E5%86%B5%E6% 8A%A5%E5%91%8Athe-state-of-china-cities/ 120 Asian Development Bank, 2014, Mainstreaming Water Saftey Plans in ADB Water Sector Projects http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/152150/water-safety-plans-adb-water-projects.pdf 118

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Box 16: Summary of Key points from ADB report • The World Health Organization (WHO) has been promoting Water Safety Plans (WSPs) since 2004. The WSPs are becoming the international good practice for assessing and managing public health risks from drinking water supplies. • A key conclusion from the pilot demonstration activity in Chongqing Municipality, People’s Republic of China (PRC) was that WSPs could be effectively integrated into the project preparation of Asian Development Bank (ADB) with careful scoping, planning, and evaluation. • Lessons from the pilot demonstration activity include selecting appropriate WSP guidance, identifying target water quality, and introducing the WSP concept early in the project. • Potential challenges for ADB-funded projects are mismatched WSP and project scopes, complex economic and financial evaluations of avoided public health risks, and long-term sustainability of the WSP. • Various trainings and reference materials are available to address general challenges of WSP implementation. Following completion of the ADB project and associated works, improved water supply system will cover double the population to 1.5 million persons by 2020. During preparation of the project, Chongqing municipal government and ADB agreed to pilot a water safety plan to systematically improve the quality of tap water, while enhancing resilience of the whole water supply system against adverse impacts. Source: Asian Development Bank. http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/152150/water-safety-plans-adb-water-projects.pdf

6.1.6

What is a Water Safety Plan?

This extract from the ADB Report, 2014, Mainstreaming Water Safety Plans in ADB Water Sector Projects. Tool WM 1 The WHO recognizes WSPs as a comprehensive framework to assure the quality of drinking water through systematic assessment and management of health risks. ‘The WHO also defines WSPs as management plans that are developed and implemented by water suppliers. These plans were introduced because the traditional curative approach was no longer reliable in addressing the public health aspects of managing the quality of drinking water. Action was taken only after results of adverse water quality tests, consumer notification of water quality problems, or even disease outbreaks.’ ‘Waterborne disease outbreaks can be avoided with a more preventive approach through WSPs, which encourage a fundamental shift in the way we manage water safety. A WSP is primarily a tool used to address the safety and quality of water, while its measures for control and improvement address the quantity of water and water security, including water resource management to minimize system losses.’

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Case 37 Chongqing: Urban–Rural Infrastructure Development Demonstration II Project The Wanzhou Yangliu water supply subproject is part of ADB’s Chongqing Urban-Rural Infrastructure Development Demonstration II Project. The water supply system in Wanzhou district currently serves about 750,000 people via 11 municipal public water plants. However, some of the plants are outdated and can only provide poor levels of service. The ADB loan will support the construction of a new water treatment plant with capacity of 200,000 m3 per day and associated infrastructures including water intake and sludge treatment facilities. Total subproject cost is approximately $59.4 million, of which ADB financing covers $21.5 million (36.1%). ADB’s support also covers capacity building for smooth water sector reform. These reforms plan to move from 11 small plants with 3 system operators to 3-4 centralized plants with 1 operator in Wanzhou district. (i.e. Wanzhou Water Supply Co. Ltd). Following completion of the ADB project and associated works, improved water supply system will cover double the population to 1.5 million persons by 2020. During preparation of the project, Chongqing municipal government and ADB agreed to pilot a water safety plan to systematically improve the quality of tap water, while enhancing resilience of the whole water supply system against adverse impacts. Source: Asian Development Bank. https://de.search.yahoo.com/search?p=Chongqing+Urban%E2%80%93Rural+Infrastructure+Development+Demonstra tion+II+Project&fr=ush-mailn

6.1.7

Public toilets China

In general, public toilets are maintained to a high standard in Chinese cities. These provide important facilities for washing and toilet, especially in older suburbs and hutongs where individual toilets are not provided. In some situations, both urban and rural in China, public toilets are provided but may not have sufficient water supply, are inappropriately located, are not maintained, and/or may not be suitable for use by women (particularly when dark). Similarly, many households that share one toilet may face similar problems with water supply and waste collection. Good sanitation practices are essential the environmental health performance of cities. India provides a poor example where public toilets are not maintained or not properly connected to mains sewers. This discourages use and populations tend to defecate in open ground. This is partially cultural practice, but the un-sanitary state of public toilets reinforces attitudes against their use.

Case 38 Qingdao, Shandong Province: Water-Energy Nexus in Qingdao Water and energy are inextricably interlinked and both have emerged as critical constraints for cities’ sustainable development. Energy production requires large amount of water, while alternative water sources (e.g. long distance water transfer and seawater desalination) often have significant embedded energy requirements. Choices in urban water supply can potentially increase a city's greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, as water and energy systems have historically been treated as separate realms, energy consumptions in the water system are often underestimated or ignored. Qingdao serves as an example, where the available water resource per capita at 313 m 3/h/year is only 12 percent of China's average, even lower than the Middle East country of Tunisia. Increased water supply from long distance transfer projects or desalination have been developed to accommodate surging urban population and economic development, but either tactic would raise energy intensity of the urban water system, undermining Qingdao's low carbon development strategy. The city authority must find ways to ensure sufficient water supply without increasing the urban water system's carbon footprint.

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Supported by the UK Foreign Commonwealth Office (FCO)´s Strategic Prosperity Fund and the Caterpillar Foundation, the World Resources Institute (WRI) and Atkins In collaboration with the Qingdao Development and Reform Commission, the Qingdao Water Supply Division, and the Qingdao Water Resources Bureau undertook a study to help Chinese decision makers better understand the impact of water resources policy options on energy and GHG emissions and ultimately incorporate energy considerations into water resources planning 121 . Qingdao is an excellent case study for the demonstration of this. The key outputs of this case study were to: • Evaluate the cost and energy requirements of water production from Qingdao's current and proposed source water, including local surface water, groundwater, transferred water, desalination and reclaimed wastewater. • Forecast of Qingdao's water demand in 2020,estimating associated energy requirements and GHG emissions under various source water allocation scenarios. • Review international best practices on energy management for the urban water system and summarize lessons for Chinese cities. • Develop a calculation tool to help decision-makers better estimate the energy demand of urban water supply, replicating to other coastal cities facing water-energy challenges. • Identify the pros and cons of all available water sources in Qingdao and provide recommendations to improve the city's sustainable and low-carbon source water selection and to match the right source to the optimal end users. Introduction to Qingdao. Qingdao is a coastal city located on the southern shores of the Shandong peninsula built around Jiazhou Bay and facing the Yellow Sea. It has a Population of about 8.7 million of whom 4.1 million live in the 6 districts of the main City region about 2.4 Million are in the city centres of the 4 outlying counties and 2.2 million are rural residents distributed mostly in the counties. The climate is monsoon influenced humid sub-tropical with summer days in the upper 20’s deg C and winter temperatures rarely falling below zero. Annual rainfall is about 688mm; however, there is large annual variation and more than 70% of rain falls in the months June to September. In the past water resources were obtained from local reservoirs and groundwater from which there is a potential 2.21 bcm available each year of which some 1.5 bcm is practically exploitable. With increased population, growing industry and irrigated agriculture these have become insufficient to meet the city’s needs and have been supplemented with transfers from the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers and with desalination. The following figure shows the distribution of and sources of the water resources.

121

World Resources Institute. 2014. Water Energy Nexus in the Urban Water Source Selection: A Case Study from Qingdao, Zhong Lijin, William Wen, Fu Xiaotian, S Spooner, WRI, 2014. http://www.wri.org.cn/en/publication/waterenergy-nexus-urban-water-source-selection-case-study-qingdao . see also a similar case: World Resources Institute. 2015. Environmental Energy-Economic Benefit Assessment for Sludge-to-energy: A case Study of Capturing Methane from Sludge in Xiangyang, Hubei Province. http://www.wri.org.cn/sites/default/files/_%E6%B1%A1%E6%B3%A5%E8%B5%84%E6%BA%90%E5%8C%96%E7% 9A%84%E7%8E%AF%E5%A2%83%E2%80%94%E8%83%BD%E6%BA%90%E2%80%94%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5% 8E%E6%95%88%E7%9B%8A%E8%AF%84%E4%BC%B0_S.pdf Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Qingdao location and water scarcity

LAIXI PINGDU

JIMO

CHENGYANG JIAOZHOU

HUANGDAO

LAOSHAN CITY CENTRE All Qingdao Local Surface River Transfer Local Groundwater Recycled Desalinated

City Laoshan Chengyang Huangdao Jimo Laixi pingdu jiaonan jiaozhou

Note: based on WRI Aqueduct model, river transfer routes and water consumption by source and district. Source: World Resources Institute. 2014. Water Energy Nexus in the Urban Water Source Selection: A Case Study from Qingdao, Zhong Lijin, William Wen, Fu Xiaotian, S Spooner, WRI, 2014. http://www.wri.org.cn/en/publication/water-energy-nexus-urban-water-source-selection-case-study-qingdao

The city is projected to grow further up to 2020 such that the water resources requirement will increase by about 40%. With the local resources already fully developed and exploited, this new demand will have to be met with unconventional sources based on long distance transfers, desalination and recycling. The City Authorities face choices in which resources to develop. These decisions could be made purely on economic grounds but the different sources also have important implications for Energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. Energy requirements and costs associated with each water source in Qingdao. The energy associated with different sources relates mostly to the amount of pumping required. Groundwater requires pumping out of aquifers and even for surface water, which may be supplied by gravity, pumping is required in the treatment. The poorer the quality of water the greater are the energy requirements for treatment. Long distant transfers also tend to require many pumping stages. For desalination the Reverse Osmosis process is based on high pressure pumping through membranes. The higher the salinity of the source the greater the energy required to produce fresh water. The result is that desalination as a source requires 10 times as much energy for treatment plant operation as surface water. When estimating the costs of sources the calculation also includes the costs of building and maintaining the infrastructure as well as cost of buying energy. Thus the long distance transfer water has higher costs in proportion to its energy use. The energy and cost associated with different sources in Qingdao are compared considering that the total resource required will rise from around 970 million m 3 per year in 2011 to about 1500 million m 3 per year by 2020.

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The Energy and the cost associated with different water sources for Qingdao and the approximate quantities available.

Source: World Resources Institute. 2014. Water Energy Nexus in the Urban Water Source Selection: A Case Study from Qingdao, Zhong Lijin, William Wen, Fu Xiaotian, S Spooner, WRI, 2014. http://www.wri.org.cn/en/publication/water-energy-nexus-urban-water-source-selection-case-study-qingdao

The information on the energy and costs associated with different potential sources was used to develop a range of scenarios to meet projected demand for 2020 in Qingdao. When considering the energy use associated with water in domestic urban settings it is also important to consider that far more energy is used in the home to heat and pump water than is used in getting the water to the home or conveying away and treating wastewater. To indicate the scale of this data related to this from the UK are presented in the following Figure.122 (no equivalent data were available for Qingdao but is expected to be on a similar scale). Thus energy savings in the domestic setting or the recovery and reuse of such Playing our part – reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the water and sewerage sectors, Ofwat, http://www.ofwat.gov.uk/publications/focusreports/prs_inf_emissions.pdf 122

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heat has greater potential for overall energy and GHG saving than efficiencies in the water utility sector. UK Energy use associated with domestic water

Water use in the home 89.2%

Supply 3.9%

Water Supply: Source abstraction and conveyance 0.4% Treatment 2.0%

Wastewater: Collection and treatment 6.9%

Distribution 1.6% After UK Environment Agency (2008)

Drawing on international best practice. Based on experience from the UK and elsewhere the study drew upon information about the energy use and GHG emissions associated with the water supply and disposal cycle. It is a regulatory requirement in the UK for water companies to report their GHG emissions associated with their operations and their planned new investments. There are various standard methods for this that have been developed and which could be adapted for application in Qingdao. The use of Sankey diagrams is an established method of understanding and illustrating the flows and transformation of energy or other resources through the resource extraction, processing, utilisation and disposal processes. Sankey diagrams analysis was applied to the water resources data available for Qingdao. However, Sankey diagrams only show the bulk picture for all of the data and in the case of the water energy nexus of a water resources network there are important spatial and geographical considerations for the network from source to treatment to demand centres and then to disposal. For Qingdao a Water energy nexus (WEN) tool was developed for the analysis of the network and the water and energy flows associated with each part to better understand the spatial variations associated with different scenarios. When seeking solutions for energy use reductions in the urban water cycle there is also international experience on pumping efficiency management, network pressure and leakage management and energy recovery from kinetic and heat energy in the water supply and wastewater collection systems and also recovery of chemical energy from sewage residues. Though these aspects were not considered in detail in the pilot studies they can be added easily to better understand the net benefits of different technical solutions in the context of the scenarios. Application of tools to the Qingdao water network. The data on the water resources of Qingdao as reported for 2011 were analysed by representing as Sankey Diagrams and using the Urban Water Energy Nexus Mapping tool.

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Sankey analysis of 2011 water resources situation of Qingdao Water Source

Intake

Type

Water Use

Disposal

Recycled

Industry

Seawater (Desal) Urban Residents

River Transfers

Recycled

Rural Residents

Local Surface Water

Return to Environment

Leakage Desal

Groundwater

Treated Drinking Water Agricultural Raw Water

Agriculture Irrigation Other Agriculture Environmental Flows

Consumption Evaporation

After Zhong, Wen, Xu, Spooner 2014 Water energy nexus in the urban Water source selection: a case study from Qingdao

WEN Tool map showing the water resources, water supply and waste water network of Qingdao Scaled by Flow volume for 2010

Yellow River SNT Yangtze Recycle

Intake

Raw Water

Reservoir WTW - Water Treatment Plant

Drinking Water

Supply District STW - Sewage Treatment Plant

Sewerage

Outfall

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WEN Tool map showing the water resources, water supply and waste water network of Qingdao Scaled by Energy use for 2010

Yellow River SNT Yangtze Recycle

Intake

Raw Water

Reservoir WTW - Water Treatment Plant (Red Desal)

Drinking Water

Supply District STW - Sewage Treatment Plant

Sewerage

Outfall

The Water Energy Nexus Tool can be used to illustrate how water and associated energy are utilised in the Qingdao network based on available figures for the capacities of the resources, treatment facilities, demand centres and wastewater treatment plant. This is based on preliminary data and covers most major components though not yet every facility in Qingdao. The following table shows the flows and the energy use associated with each node and link. A node, such as a well or treatment plant would use energy onsite while the links show how energy is used for moving water between sites. Specific energy use in each category of site – Treatment plant, supply pumps, sewer pumps – have been estimated from literature. Flows and Energy consumption at each node and link in the WEN Tool Model

Total Capacities From Yellow River From SNT Yangtze River Recycle GW Pumps Reservoirs Raw Water Supply WTW Desal Supply Total Supply District (Demand) Supply Network Leakage Sewerage Sewage Treatment Outfall

Flow Node m3/d 100,000 0 0 191,000 874,000 1,165,000 1,076,900 21,000

Link m3/d 100,000 0 0 191,000 1,060,800 1,076,897 21,000

Node kWh/d

0 66,850 874 0 215,380 105,000

Energy Link kWh/d 70,000 0 0 13,370 74,256 248,607 4,610

1,097,900 1,184,247 216,577 0 1,360,000 0

Total kWh/d 70,000 0 0 80,220 75,130 0 463,987 109,610 0

1,096,897

1,231,692 226,903

0 680,000 0

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246,338 680,000 2,269 205

Total Energy

kWh/d 10,000 kWh/year

1,727,555 63,056

Note: 2010 data There is not a complete flow and capacity balance between each part of the system as there are mismatches between the supply capacity at one point and the downstream point. There is also leakage and for wastewater additional capacity is required to account for storm water. Agricultural and direct industrial water use is not included in this model. Source: World Resources Institute. 2014. Water Energy Nexus in the Urban Water Source Selection: A Case Study from Qingdao, Zhong Lijin, William Wen, Fu Xiaotian, S Spooner, WRI, 2014. http://www.wri.org.cn/en/publication/water-energy-nexus-urban-water-source-selection-case-study-qingdao

Scenario Development. In Qingdao, not including desalination, the maximum water supply potential of all available water resources is 2.285 billion m3. Of this, the maximum available from local surface water and groundwater resources is 1.463 billion m3. The utilization rate for surface water must not exceed 40% if Qingdao wants to maintain its water use at a sustainable level, while for groundwater it must not exceed 50%. In that case, the local water supply potential will be 1.104 billion m3 (640 million m3 from surface water and 464 million m3 from groundwater). Therefore, for Qingdao to satisfy its 2020 demand for water, it must resort to water diversion, reclaimed water, and/ or seawater desalination. A range of scenarios were developed to explore how Qingdao might achieve these objectives based on prerequisites of (i) meet water use target (1.473 billion cubic meters by 2020 under the “3 redlines” water allocation policy); (ii) prioritize the exploitation of local water resources; and (iii) when considering water diversion, it is preferable to divert from the yellow river. Three scenarios were developed—one with a surface water utilization rate of 35% (current level, surface 35 scenario), one of 40% (keeping within sustainable exploitation and utilization limits, surface 40 scenario), and one of 55% (extreme condition, surface 55 scenario). Within these three scenarios we then created three sub-scenarios: one, which emphasizes seawater desalination, the second, which emphasizes reclaimed water, and the third, which emphasizes water diversion. In the desalination sub-scenario, we assume all of Qingdao’s proposed desalination capacities were in place while the amount of reclaimed wastewater and transferred water remain the same as 2015. Similarly, we assume half of Qingdao’s municipal wastewater was reused in the reclamation sub-scenario and more transferred water from the Yangtze were used in the transfer subscenario.

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Water source allocation scenarios for analysis of Qingdao energy and GHG emissions for 2020

The results of these scenarios are illustrated for energy use, selected Sankey diagrams, and an illustration of the spatial distribution of the increased in energy use based on the WEN Tool.

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Comparison of 3 Scenarios and sub-scenarios for energy use for 2020

Sankey representation of the 35-Desalination and Recycling scenarios for 2020

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WEN Tool map of Qingdao water network Scaled by Energy use for 35-Desalination Scenario for 2020

Yellow River SNT Yangtze Recycle

Red for Desalination Intake

Raw Water

Reservoir WTW - Water Treatment Plant

Drinking Water

Supply District STW - Sewage Treatment Plant Outfall

Sewerage

plants Baifa shown in displaced position for clarity

By 2020, if Qingdao keeps the current surface water utilization rate of 35%, total energy use will see a significant increase. The desalination sub-scenario has the highest growth in energy requirement (110% increase - more than double current Energy Use) while the reclamation sub-scenario appears to be the lowest of three. Accordingly, greenhouse gas emissions from the water sector showed a similar upward trend, with the reclamation sub-scenario bringing the lowest emissions, or 40% lower than the desalination sub-scenario. If Qingdao were to increase its surface water utilization rate to 55%, local surface water and groundwater were expected to provide 1.43 billion cubic meters of water, only 50 million m 3/year short from the total water demand. The scheme prioritizing water diversion will lead to a 34% increase in energy consumption compared to 2011 baseline level, while the reclamation sub-scenario and desalination sub-scenario show potential increase of 34.3 and 41%, respectively. The desalination sub-scenario is still the most carbon intensive solution, causing 5% higher greenhouse gas emissions than the water diversion sub-scenario or the reclaimed water scenario. To compare the energy consumption of above three scenarios, we find the more local surface water is used, the lower energy requirement of the water supply system. Given Qingdao’s elastic inter-annual variability, it’s critical to close the demand-supply gap by choosing the least carbon intensive type of unconventional water and balancing this against achieving sustainable water resource exploitation and meeting regulatory obligations. Conclusion The tools that have been developed can be used to give a basic understanding of the scale of long term Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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water – energy - GHG consequences of different choices for water resources development. The outline tools presented can then be used to explore in more detail the specific consequences of developing particular infrastructure and integrating this with the current systems to balance and meet demand in the future. This approach is readily replicable in other cities where the data are available.

6.2

Waste Water Treatment123

According to statistics, 639 cities in China had flood control works, of which the cities with the flood control standard less than that of 10 years frequency accounted for 15.6%, and of which 403 cities did not meet the flood control standards stipulated by the state. The drainage facilities were not complete, and rainstorm waterlogging was an increasing prominent problem. In 2012, 184 cities in China were water flooded or waterlogged, and the mega cities, such as Beijing, Chongqing and Tianjin, suffered the most124.” The “Regulation on Urban Drainage and Sewage Treatment (herein after referred to as the Regulation), released according to Order of the State Council (No. 641), came into force on January 1, 2014. The Regulation … standardizes the planning, construction, maintenance and protection of urban drainage and sewage treatment facilities, and defines the legal responsibility of the relevant action entities. The Regulation proposes that urban drainage and wastewater treatment should follow the principles of respecting the nature, overall planning, construction of supporting facilities, safety, and comprehensive utilization, to embody the concept of ecological civilization and sustainable development. In order to solve the funding gap, it is especially stipulated in the Regulation that the state encourages franchising and government procurement of services and some other forms to attract social capital to participate in the investment, construction and operation of urban drainage and sewage treatment facilities125.” Tool WM 2 Case 39 Xiangyang, Hubei Proince: Innovative Sludge-to-Energy Plant Makes a Breakthrough in China

Sludge to Energy Factory. This factory located in a quiet island of central China’s Xiangyang city probably won’t grab the attention. Its stainless steel complex and three-story office building look similar to any other. But don’t be fooled by appearances. The plant here holds a secret that has lured more than 100 Chinese mayors to pay their respects and uncover how they can replicate its success. On any given day, the factory eats up several hundred tons of human excreta and other waste – a smelly, hazardous slurry called sludge – and spits out enough clean energy to fuel 400 cars. In a country struggling with pollution from massive quantities of untreated sludge and seeking new sources of clean energy, policymakers want to get more sludge-to-energy projects up and running soon. Back in 2011, about 150,000 tons of sludge piled up here - basically toilet waste, all left by the previous compost project operator. Sludge in China contains low organic matter levels – about 40%~50% – due to sewage systems that include both municipal stormwater runoff and wastewater from households. In comparison, international sludge-to-energy plants frequently have material that’s up to 70% 123

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_upply_and_sanitation_in_China UN-Habitat. 2015. The State of China’s Cities 2014-2015. Beijing. p. 85. http://unhabitat.org/books/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%9F%8E%E5%B8%82%E7%8A%B6%E5%86%B5%E6% 8A%A5%E5%91%8Athe-state-of-china-cities/ 125 UN-Habitat. 2015. The State of China’s Cities 2014-2015. Beijing. p. 81. http://unhabitat.org/books/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%9F%8E%E5%B8%82%E7%8A%B6%E5%86%B5%E6% 8A%A5%E5%91%8Athe-state-of-china-cities/ 124

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organic matter. Organic matter is a key ingredient for producing methane, which can later be captured to generate power. After visiting almost all the sludge treatment plants in Europe, the team found out that adopting strategies such like preheating solid waste could help increase the levels of organic matter and boost energy production. But the technology to implement such a solution did not exist in China at the time, and the company did not want to rely on imports. So the team decided to develop their own equipment and learn the hard way. During the company’s first few years, dozens or even hundreds of pressure compensations have been tested already to look for the suitable one. An Extra Ingredient. It became a success thanks to some ingenious engineering and a surprising ally: Xiangyang’s restaurants. Since the project went online in 2012, not only has the plant treated all the aged sludge that piled high at the site, but it also handles fresh sludge and kitchen waste. Every day, sludge generated by the Xiangyang’s 2 million residents is delivered here by truck or pipeline. The plant mixes the sludge with kitchen waste collected from restaurants to increase organic matter, heats the mixture to temperatures as high as 130 degrees Celsius, and sends it through a process called codigestion. Two 20-meter high, silver-colored anaerobic digestion tanks inhale 450 tons of sludge and kitchen waste and exhale at least 12,000 m3 of methane. The factory then burns half of the methane to power its operation and processes the rest into compressed natural gas. The compressed natural gas is sold at a nearby gas station to local taxi drivers, helping to meet the city’s growing demand for cleaner-burning transportation fuels. What’s left from the solid waste is either sterilized to be used in fertilizer or converted into biochar, an alternative soil used for potted trees. The Xiangyang sludge-to-energy plant

Photo Credit: TOVEN.

An efficient way to get rid of sludge in the context of China. A case study has been conducted [by the World Resource Institute] on the Xiangyang sludge-to-energy project in 2013. The findings, published in December 2015, show that compared to other disposal methods, such as turning sludge into compost or burning it at incineration facilities, the methane conversion costs less while at the same time generating commercially viable products. Although the project’s revenue is not disclosed, it is profitable. The project demonstrates sludge-to-energy plants can be successful in China. Environmental benefits. The World Resources Institute report says compared with landfill and incineration methods for dealing with sludge, the plant could reduce greenhouse gas emissions more than 95% over the course of its lifetime. If 10% of the sludge generated in China last year was treated in the same way, it would have reduced greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to 380 million tons of carbon dioxide, roughly equal to Ukraine’s total Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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emissions in 2012. Until his company treated all the aged sludge in 2015, some of it was just 50 meters away from Han River, an important tributary of the Yangtze. Xiangyang is along the central route of China’s South-North Water Transfer Project, a multi-decade infrastructure project that will channel 44.8 billion m3 of freshwater annually from the Yangtze River in southern China to the more arid and industrialized north. Protecting these waters from sludge runoff reduces the treatment and energy costs to clean it – important savings in a country with growing water constraints. The island where the facility is located used to be a pariah for investment because of its rotten egg smell. But since the facility started operating, the pollution has begun to fade. Last year, investors from Hong Kong unveiled a $1.7 billion development plan for Xiangyang, the majority of which is intended for luxury resorts, golf courses, and marina clubs on the island. Spreading & Challenges. Before this project, none could be sure that such an effort could be financially and environmentally viable in China. At present, about 400 miles east of the factory, Hefei is putting together its first experiment converting municipal sludge into energy. Beijing has also rolled out a plan to tap into the energy potential of sludge, along with other cities such as Chengdu, Changsha, and Chongqing. As promising as this may sound, replicating the Xiangyang plant elsewhere remains a challenge. Experts say that it is conventional wisdom that converting sludge into energy is unprofitable in China, due to low organic matter levels, and it takes time for industry players to change their minds. A lack of supportive policies from the central government is another barrier. Unlike wastewater treatment, the regulation for sludge treatment does not come with a penalty and is therefore hard to enforce. Local policymakers have little incentive, in terms of their own promotion up the party ladder, to pay attention. Even though current regulations require at least 70% of sludge in Chinese cities to be treated, media reports, from Beijing to Shanghai continue to uncover evidence they are being ignored. In Wuhan, for instance, unsupervised dumping turned a piece of postcard-like forestland into quagmires the size of football pitches. Context in China. Sludge is a rising threat to China’s environment. As the number of wastewater treatment plants in the country has increased in response to water pollution, so has the volume of the resulting byproduct. According to recent estimates by Essence Securities, 35 million tons of sludge were produced by Chinese wastewater treatment plants in 2015, a 16% increase from the previous year. Municipal sludge is often dumped into landfills or even back into the environment untreated. According to one study by Tsinghua University, nearly half is used as fertilizer by farmers. If untreated, sludge can contaminate the soil, air, and groundwater. Toxic chemicals become part of the food chain, making their way onto dining room tables. For now, much of China’s sludge ends up in landfills, bumping up against the limit of increasingly scarce land resources and creating environmental hazards. In 2009, for example, huge quantities of sludge came bursting up from the ground in Shenzhen after landfilling put so much pressure on the water table it erupted. The pollution flowed into a nearby river and all the way to neighboring Hong Kong. Chinese leaders are aware of the problem. In 2015 the central government mandated prefecture-level cities make 90% of their Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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sludge toxic-free by 2020 – up from the current requirement of 70% – and employ proper disposal solutions. In the past, though, similar efforts have flopped. Chinese cities have tried to build sludge incinerators or burn the byproduct as an alternative fuel in coal-fired power stations. While helping to reduce sludge in the short term, such burning is expensive and requires a great deal of energy. Sludge has a high level of water content, even after dehydrating. In order to prepare it for burning, it requires a lot of additional energy to dry. Recycling nutrient-rich sludge into compost is not a quick fix either. China’s Ministry of Agriculture has banned sludge-generated compost from being used on farmlands due to concerns over heavy metal contamination. And while the country’s tree growers welcome the use of sludge, industry players say the market demand is limited.

Infographic: Siqi Han/China Environment Forum. Source: Coco Liu. 2017. Innovative Sludge-to-Energy Plant Makes a Breakthrough in China. 31 May. in: Newsecuritybeat. https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2016/05/innovative-sludge-to-energy-plant-breakthroughchina/

Source:

Hooks,

2017.

Managing

China's

sludge

mountains.

In:

Chinadialogue

September.https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/10080-Managing-China-s-sludgemountains?mc_cid=2d8204566a&mc_eid=5b102c48e6

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6.2.1

Water Pollution

In April 2015, the government declared that will wage a war against water polluting industries. This was declared in spite of fears that local governments and industries would oppose the move towards more environmental control of polluting industries, due to cost increases. This move will mean the levying of heavy fines for polluters, and the threat of eventual shut-down of industries. The government is convinced that positive impacts of greener and cleaner industries will eventually translate into a tremendous growth as the iron and steel making industries will become internationally competitive, and that benefits reaped could be in the order of 5.7 trillion RMB ($910 billion), in the industrial sector, and 3.9 million non-rural jobs126. The Action Plan for Water Pollution wants to contribute to make more than 93 % of water drinkable. Factories which are too weak to comply with these regulations will be shut down from 2016 onwards. From 2016 onwards, the government plans to establish a blacklist of polluters. The amount of black and smelly water in urban areas will be reduced to 10% by 2020, and should largely disappear by 2030, according to this Action Plan for Water Pollution. To reach these goals, outdated production capacity will be phased out in water polluting industries, the efficiency of water use will be increased, and market forces will be allowed to further optimize water consumption. The greening of the water sector is considered to become a possible additional engine of economic growth. The Challenge of China’s Water Pollution

Source: World Bank. China 2030. Building a Modern, Harmonious, and Creative Society. Washington-Beijing. p.235. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2013/03/17494829/china-2030-building-modern-harmonious-creativesociety 126

Nation wages war on water pollution. 10 most polluting industries targeted. in: Global Times. http://www, and: Water pollution targeted by new plan. In: China Daily. 17 April 2015. Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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6.2.2

Massive investment program for wastewater treatment

Over the past 20 years, China has engaged in what is possibly the largest program to build wastewater treatment plants in history. Despite the substantial achievements of this program, many challenges remain. As per the 13th Five-Year Plan, sewerage processing capacity in cities reached 91% in 2015, and it is projected to reach 95% by 2020. Tool WM 2 Case 40 Decentralized wastewater treatment and effluent reuse To help address water scarcity and pollution, China has set targets for wastewater treatment, re-use and recycling. But re-use and recycling from centralised facilities can be costly, due to the need for long transmission pipelines to a wastewater treatment plant and back. Under certain circumstances it can be more effective to collect wastewater from a community or enterprise, treat it on site and then re-use the water directly. The EU-China River Basin Management programme, in partnership with the Chinese Ministry for Environmental Protection and the Shaanxi Environmental Protection Bureau 127 analysed the steps and techniques for reducing water use, collecting and making dirty water re-usable in urban settings. The study conducted a review of available technologies around the world, the roles of different stakeholders in planning, financing, implementing and operating such schemes, reviewed the feasibility in 10 possible situation in Northern China before selecting two pilot projects for which feasibility studies and preliminary designs were prepared. The emphasis in the analysis was on the institutional challenges of implementing decentralised wastewater reuse rather than on the technical issues. Guidance documents were prepared to assist in the development and implementation of this approach more widely to urban water management. This urban water reuse is an important element of the overall “Sponge Cities” Concept being piloted in China. Background. Rivers and groundwater in Northern China face depletion because of the demands of fast economic development. In this arid region the scarce water resources are being polluted from agriculture, industry and municipal discharges, Water shortage and pollution is now restricting sustainable development of both urban and rural areas. The treatment rate of municipal wastewater in Northern China is generally less than 40%, in bigger cities the rate can be higher, but very little effluent is then re-used. There are a great many uses of water in a town that do not require fully drinking water standard supply. In the centre of the biggest cities it can become economic to construct pipelines to redistribute treated effluent to points of use, but in smaller cities or peripheral areas such infrastructure is rarely economic. Decentralized wastewater treatment plants are smaller and closer to those potential users, and so if effluent can be treated to meet the required standards it may be used for urban water features, maintaining green areas in towns, flushing toilets, street cleaning, agricultural irrigation etc. For communities of 300 persons or more, China’s Ministry of Environmental Protection has established special grant funding for community investment in decentralised treatment. The challenge is to identify suitable technologies and implement in communities with arrangements to ensure financial and operational sustainability. There are different models for decentralised wastewater reuse each with slightly different challenges and opportunities, technically, financially and institutionally. The main ones being for (i) self-contained communities such as universities or large work units re-using entirely in their own property; (ii) for urban neighbourhoods or residential communities collecting and re-using the water within a local area of the city which may be under the management of one or more owners or government agencies; (iii) Rural or village schemes – collecting the water from a commune and re-using mostly for irrigation; (iv) industrial – collected from various sources but with specific larger industrial users of recycled water to use for cooling or process water. The figure below illustrates a possible situation for decentralised wastewater reuse in an urban setting.

127

Study on the Feasibility of Decentralised Effluent Reuse, EU-China River Basin Management Programme report, T086, July 2012. www.cewp.org Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Decentralised wastewater reuse in an urban setting

Note: Main elements of decentralised wastewater reuse schemes (in this case black and grey water collection) is shown separated but may be combined in a single network. Source: Atkins

Potential applications and impact. The study concludes that a decentralised approach to wastewater treatment is suitable for areas where population density is too low for centralised sewerage and treatment to be economic, and yet too developed for rural technologies such as biogas units or composting latrines to be applicable. There are many examples of small-scale wastewater treatment technologies in the EU utilising the latest advances in membranes, anaerobic treatment, packaged plants and natural wetland systems. These technologies may be particularly applicable in Northern China, because of its water shortages, current lack of wastewater treatment infrastructure, and geographically dispersed communities. Although decentralized treatment is typically more expensive per unit of treated water, and requires a higher level of skills to operate, there are many advantages, such as more flexibility for local communities, water savings, and lower costs of wastewater collection and disposal. When payment for wastewater treatment and stricter criteria for discharge of wastewater to surface waters are introduced in China, decentralised wastewater treatment is likely to become even more attractive.

Cases Xian University is constructing a new campus for 36,000 students and 2,200 staff south west of Xian City. A 5000m3/d wastewater treatment plant has been constructed. It is proposed that a water reclamation plant be added to this. The water will be used for toilet flushing and irrigating the campus gardens. Reclaimed water will be much cheaper than municipal supply, giving pay back in 5.4 years. Greenland Eco City is a residential development in Changba district of Xian. It is proposed to construct a 400 m3/d package treatment plant to allow reclamation of wastewater for use in the ornamental water features and irrigation of gardens. This will pay back in 5.7 years and help meet government target of 40% recycling of water.

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Conclusions 1. There are many different technologies available to apply to the development of decentralised wastewater reuse schemes capable of producing high quality reusable effluent. The selection of appropriate technologies will depend on the particular requirements of each site in terms of the sources of water to by utilised, the quality required for the reuse purpose and the geographic and financial relations between the sources and the destinations of the water. When assessing the scheme the first priority should be in identifying the potential at every stage of the water cycle to apply the principles of Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. The pipeline system investment (to convey reclaimed water back to point of reuse) will have a significant investment impact and depending on the configuration of the scheme can be the most critical factor in financial viability. 2. Where water is to be reused or recycled a number of detailed codes and standards specify the particular standards that must be achieved for a particular end use. However, the corresponding enforcement of the relevant standards is a major issue with these types of projects. Compared to the monitoring of water quality and wastewater effluent standards, the monitoring of water reuse quality does not receive as much attention and this increases the risk of non-compliance for the project and makes water reuse and recycling targets more difficult to measure. 3. A scheme will only be viable and sustainable when the project owner has a strong incentive to properly construct and operate the project. This will happen where there is a positive economic return as a result of the reclaimed water being cheaper than taking from other sources, or where there is very strong regulation and enforcement requiring the reuse of water and limiting access to alternative sources, or where there are clear and enduring government subsidies to promote the scheme and keep it economically viable. 4. Storage and buffering of the treated effluent prior to use is an important element required to make a scheme viable by balancing supply and demand. This may be in open or sealed tanks and appropriate quality must be maintained during the storage period. This can combine with other urban water management schemes such as rainwater recovery. The pipe networks and storage required to connect sources of recycled water to customers for the water are critical to the success of the schemes and in many cases will need to overcome barriers of multiple owners of different parts of the required infrastructure. 5. Strong government promotion of Decentralised Wastewater reuse schemes will be required to achieve acceptance and widespread take up. Government policy will have to drive development of the human expertise and capacity to understand, design and operate such schemes and will also need to support the financing and institutional coordination processes to ensure projects are viable during the development phase. 

Staff training. Depending on the project nature, in lot of cases, the lack of construction and operational staff capacity could be a major challenge for the project owner. Therefore relevant staff training is very important to the success of a project.



Safety and monitoring. Need to consider relevant requirement for safety and monitoring in project’s early stages. Including clear system separation from normal tap water and risk of potential wrong connections, etc. Relevant regular monitoring for the raw water and product water will be important during operation. It is important to include budgeting considerations for these early on.



Construction contracting and operational management. As the nature of the investment project could be quite small individually project owners need to pay particular notice on the contract especially the guarantee period, spare parts and maintenance. At the time of the pilot studies (2011) most owners of decentralised wastewater treatment and reuse projects operated by themselves, BOT modes were not common at this scale nor was it common for large private companies to operate multiple sites. Since this time there has been more emphasis on rural and small community wastewater provision and larger companies are starting to operate multiple small sites in one contractual operation.

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The study produced recommendations on ways to develop the decentralized water reuse sector in China. This task is challenging given that water reuse involves many different sectors. The challenge for the government is to establish an appropriate institutional framework to define how the sector should be managed and where the responsibility for implementation should reside. This should include technical issues as well as policy, regulatory, standards, financing, cost recovery, and monitoring. Tighter monitoring of reused water quality is needed to ensure it meets the government’s quality standards, and enable the government to accurately measure its progress in achieving its own water reuse targets. Improved enforcement will result in an increase of similar projects and effluent standards. Consequently, these developments will help to create a market for water recycling and encourage private sector funding.

6.3

Surface Water and Flood Control

In recent years, heavy rains, floods and gradually evolved into a chronic disease of large and medium cities128. Today, 99% of Chinese cities are in the fast discharge mode. Rainfall on the hardened, impermeable ground only relies on fast discharge through pipes. When there are strong rains, quickly it is obvious that under-dimensioned pipes are not enough. Many of the cities do have serious shortcomings in water supply, but rain water is usually just quickly drained away. 129 For example in Shenzhen, the average annual rainfall is 1935 mm, concentrated in urban areas. There are 26 waterlogged points, with serious waterlogging problems. On the other hand, there exist severe water shortages. More than 70% of water has to be brought from areas outside the cities. Tool WM 3 Water sensitive cities: How developing cities can meet the challenges of the 21st century Developing countries, where infrastructure and institutions are not well established, are more flexible and conducive to contemporary urban water solutions. For this reason, cities in developing countries are well placed to leapfrog directly to a water-sensitive city, rather than follow the organic evolution of urban water infrastructure and institutions that we see in many cities in developed countries. Much of the financial investment required to transform cities in developed countries to more sustainable, resilient, water-sensitive cities can in fact be avoided when creating water-sensitive cities in developing countries. This is on the proviso that international aid and loan programs do not inadvertently impose developed-world traditional thinking, planning, and design of water systems onto these countries. Leapfrogging is simply about capturing and building on advancements and innovations in policies and technologies achieved in other places (typically the developed world) and avoiding the traditional evolutionary approach to infrastructure development and management. Promoting a leapfrogging pathway requires a shift in urban water infrastructure development strategies to embrace the notion that the management of sewage and stormwater as a resource can concurrently address sanitation and flood mitigation, while significantly enhancing the reliability of water supply services.

China’s Flood Control Project: a Bigger Role for Farmers and a Better Alert System. 24 August 2016. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2016/08/24/china-flood-control-project-a-bigger-role-for-farmers-and-abetter-alert-system 129 Gies, E. 2016. Cities are finally treating water as a resource, not a nuisance. ensia. 1 September. http://ensia.com/features/cities-are-finally-treating-water-as-a-resource-not-a-nuisance/ 128

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Promoting a whole-of-government approach to infrastructure investment and management, and integrating urban water services with spatial planning, are key catalysts for leapfrogging. One example is flood risk management and how a holistic approach to it can also provide greater water supply security to a city. Early planning and delineation of open spaces and blue/green corridors for safe passage of floodwater can avoid encroachment of urban development into these natural flood paths. Historically, encroachment into these pathways has increased the flood risk to inhabitants, and over time, leads to expensive flood mitigation retrofit works in builtup areas like straightening and concrete lining of urban drains and waterways. Ironically, some cities are now embarking on expensive retrofits to undo earlier flood mitigation works; converting concrete drains back to more naturalized waterways – another avoidable expense in a leapfrogging scenario. In this example of a leapfrogging scenario, green infrastructure is used to support decentralized water services. The delineated blue/green corridors become the focal points for local drainage and can be designed as infrastructure for:    

Treatment and storage of stormwater as a resource during smaller, lower intensity and frequent storm events. Community recreational purposes as parks and gardens. Enhanced amenity and ecological biodiversity. Food production.

A leapfrogging pathway will enable developing economies to skip over inferior, less efficient, more expensive or more polluting technologies, and proceed directly to the implementation of more integrated and sustainable approaches. This will enable developing cities to avoid the environmental, social and economic vulnerabilities that come from managing the water cycle in a fragmented way. Source: Wong, T. 2016. How developing cities can meet the challenges of the 21st century. ADB blogs. 19 October.https://blogs.adb.org/blog/how-developing-cities-can-meet-challenges21st-century

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6.3.1

Sponge City – Strategic Initiatives

China has developed a strategic initiative to reduce surface water flooding and improve water resource security. It is known as the Sponge City initiative.130 Guangzhou Central Park – incorporating water absorption technology, i.e. elements of sponge city design

Source: http://www.gooood.hk/view-image?id=367656

The sponge City initiative aims to show that urban drainage and water shortages could be turned around to harvest this wealth of the existing water resources. Thus, the concept of the sponge city, is an analogy of ecological water management: rainfall can be absorbed locally or nearby, be saved in storages, infiltrated, purified, and used water can be fed back into the groundwater after (decentralized) cleaning. The concept will allow improved regulation of the water cycle: in drought when water is in short supply, it can be released, and it can be stored when in oversupply. The construction of sponge cities implies a reversal of concepts. Traditional city-building has used too many hard surfaces with fast run-offs of water. At the time of rain, this relies on drainage infrastructure, pumping stations and other ”grey” facilities for drainage which mean to eliminated water excess rapidly, instead of being conducive to its usage. Eco-city development should give emphasis to soft surfaces (permeable surfaces), such as grass, rain gardens, sunken green spaces and other “green” measures to organize drainage to slow the draining and release, of water. It suggests decentralized control of the water and waste water. The physical implications of the ”sponge city“ concept would be a series of water bodies - rivers, lakes, ponds, green spaces, gardens, permeable pavements, and cavernous underground structures for water storage. While this concept may be feasible in new districts (“greenfield” development), in urban renewal (“brownfield” development) it is more complicated and costly to introduce, as observed by the China Academy of Urban Planning and Design. Nevertheless, 130

Source: Liu, C. 2015. China bets on 'sponge cities' to cope with flooding and drought. ClimateWire. 16 June. http://www.eenews.net/special_reports/drought_2012/stories/1060020275 Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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there exist ideas about the application of the sponge concept in historically grown built environments, through rain gardens, sunken green, combined roads-cum-green belts, permeable paving, and green roofs131. Box 17: The Need for Sponge City Development: South China Faces Worst Floods in Decades ”Worst Rain for 18 Years. The last time Wuhan suffered downpours on a comparable scale was in 1998, when monsoon rains affected 28 provinces and 223 million people, with around 3,000 losing their lives and causing 166 billion yuan (US$24.8 billion) in damage. This year’s rainfall has already broken that record. Data from Wuhan´s meterological authorities showed that between July 1-6, rainfall in Wuhan’s four main districts reached 932.6mm, 1087.2mm, 887mm and 833.9mm - as much as 549mm higher than 1998 levels in certain areas. This year, 1.7 million people across the province have been affected by floods or hailstorms, leaving 69 dead, 16 missing, and 27.07 - billion yuan’s worth of damage behind, according to the provincial civil affairs authorities. People living in poor housing in low-lying areas have been worst hit. Rescue teams have been working around the clock to seal bank breaches and strengthen dykes. Why is Wuhan So Badly Affected? Red flood alerts have been issued all along the Yangtze however Wuhan, capital of Hubei province and home to an enormous trading port, appears to be worst hit. In 2011 Zuo Shaobin, head of the city’s water authorities, made a commitment to upgrade the city’s drainage system, promising to invest 13 billion yuan into a comprehensive, high-capacity drainage system. In the wake of Wuhan’s recent devastation the public are demanding to know how that money has been spent. On July 6, the city’s flood command centre held a press conference, at which a drainage official explained that Wuhan is low-lying and built on drained marsh land. Others highlighted that the water levels in the Yangtze and Hanshui Rivers are higher than the city streets, meaning there is nowhere for rain falling on the city to go. But topographical conditions do not mask the fact that the city has suffered from a lack of planning and investment in defence infrastructure. One urban climatologist who preferred not to be named told china dialogue that: “Construction has reduced the city’s ability to absorb water; and lakes have been filled in, leading to more waterlogging.” According to a report from the Beijing news, the city’s lake area has shrunk by a third over the last 20 years due to rapid urbanisation and land reclamation projects by property developers. This has greatly reduced the city’s ability to absorb floodwater. But it is the residents who are suffering the most. Wang Bing of the Yangtze Rescue Volunteers said: “The rain is part of the reason but it’s mainly down to how the city’s been designed. It’s expanded so quickly they’ve only worried about what’s on the surface, not what’s underneath. It’s short-sighted!” The city’s water authorities admitted that design standards were too low and unable to cope with rain and flooding on this scale.” Source: South China Faces Worst Floods in Decades. Hundreds Are Killed and Tens of Thousands are Displaced From This Year’s Rainfall. 14 July 2016. http://www.chinafile.com/environment/south-china-faces-worst-floodsdecades

Department of Housing, Urban and Rural development, Promoting the ”sponge city” : The next big rain again will not “see the sea”, http://www.enews163.com/2014/11/03/department-of-housing-and-pushing-the-sponge-city-the-nextbig-rain-again-will-not-see-the-sea-89687.html 131

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Reduction of Flooding through ´Sponge City´Concept

The aerial photo taken on July 8, 2016 shows waterlogged communities near the Nanhu Lake in Wuhan, capital of Central China's Hubei province. Drainage of waterlogged areas near the Nanhu Lake is still underway. [Photo/Xinhua]

”When Wei Yingyan poured a bottle of water onto the ground at the Yuelai Convention Centre Park in Liangjiang New Area in the southwestern municipality of Chongqing, the liquid disappeared into permeable pavements within seconds. "During heavy rainfall, the water is soaked up by the porous bricks and flood-tolerant plants to prevent flooding," said Wei, urban design director of Chongqing Yuelai Investment Group. "We collect and store most of it, then use it for irrigation or cleaning." The park is a showcase for China's urban-planning efforts. In recent years, poor drainage systems and a rise in the number of extreme weather incidents have resulted in many cities experiencing heavy rain and flooding. Under UN standards, about half the 657 cities assessed by the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development are classified as "water scarce" or "severely water scarce". Yuelai New City in Chongqing was one of 16 "sponge cities" on a pilot list of climate-resilient urban designs released last year. Mountainous Chongqing is looking for ways to solve drainage problems in similar cities in western China.To prevent flooding, sponge cities store rainwater and release it during times of drought. Founded in 2010, Liangjiang New Area was the third national development and opening zone to gain State Council approval, after Pudong New Area in Shanghai and Tianjin's Binhai New Area. "Liangjiang is home to many pilot projects; one of them is the construction of a green, sustainable city," said Tang Zongwei, deputy director of the Liangjiang New Area Administrative Committee. "The area should have booming industries and a beautiful environment."

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Chongqing also helps protect the Yangtze River from polluted rainwater. "We store and reuse most of the water, so only a small amount is filtered and discharged into the river," Wei said. The hillside park has a layered underground drainage system that recycles rainwater before it is reused or discharged into the river. Yuelai Group will invest 4.3 billion yuan ($650 million) to build a 18.57-square-kilometer sponge city, said Xiong Jiran, the general manager. "It's not a big investment but it will produce huge benefits, both environmentally and commercially," he said132.”

6.3.2

Sponge City – Development and Implementation

The Sponge City concept has been developed by former Vice Minister of MoHURD, Dr Qiu Baoxing.133 He describes his views and approaches in an article entitled New Mindset134.” In this he advocates low impact development solutions for stormwater runoff and more sustainable solutions to water management in cities. These green initiatives are gaining traction in China and are labelled Sponge Cities. The first batch of the 16 'sponge cities,' including Zhuhai, Wuhan, Chongqing, Xiamen, Zhenjiang and others, will set up systems to allow rainwater to be stored and purified using a permeation system. Each of the 16 so-called 'sponge cities' is going to be allocated between 400 and 600-million yuan for their various projects every year135. These low impact initiatives develop and incorporate the core ethos of Eco-city design, Sustainable Urban Design and Water sensitive cities. They align directly with the aims of the Ecocities concepts discussed above. MoHURD has issued a ‘temporary’ regulation on 11 March

132

Tan Yingzi. 'Sponge cities' plan to reduce flooding. China Daily. 9 July 2016. http://m.chinadaily.com.cn/en/201607/09/content_26023668.htm 133 It is interesting to note that historical water architecture has existed in the desert region of Gujarat, India where huge water tanks acted as sponges during the seasons without rainfall (Indian Wells):

The water structures of Gujarat, an examination of the 19 th and 20th century historiography, in: Petruccioli, A. (ed.). 1984. Water and Architecture. Journal of the Islamic Environmental Design Research Centre. Rome. pp. 26-35. file:///F:/backup/d/China/EC%20Link%20Project%20GIZ%20IS/referencias/water%20management/Water%20structure s%20of%20Gujarat.pdf 134 The New Mindset – Interview with Qiu Baoxing, in: Green magazine. Chinese Society for Urban Studies. No.10, 2015, Beijing. pp. 25-31. http://weibo.com/greenmagazine 135 See ‘Sponge city’ initiative, China Daily, 20 July 2015. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/201504/20/content_20481352.htm Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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2016 requiring all cities to complete sponge city plans and to submit these for approval by end of October 2016136. Tool WM 3 Advanced cities like Tokyo, Japan have discovered the need for large scale underground water catchment infrastructure long time ago. This technology serves as an example of a major metropolitan investment. Tokyo Underground water storage

Source: Prof. Che Wu, powerpoint presentation at MoHURD event, Arxhan, October 2016

Case 41 China: The Sponge Cities Concept The Chinese sponge cities concept 137 embraces new urban planning and design approaches to: •

Incorporate softer “SuDs” type green features in cities to slow and reduce runoff and improve urban environment.

•

Soak up and store water to act as an enhanced resource for the city.

•

Combine drainage with wastewater reuse and water supply solutions enhance urban capacity and reduce environmental impact.

•

Link with urban river and lake restoration schemes to enhance catchment water quality and create more beautiful and liveable cities (with enhanced property values).

Tool WM 3

136

http://www.mohurd.gov.cn/wjfb/201603/t20160317_226932.html MoHURD. 2014. Technical Guide of Sponge City 海绵城市建设技术指南 . Beijing. See also other work of Atkins: Future Proofing Cities, DFID, UCL development planning unit, Atkins, 2012. www.atkinsglobal.com/fpc 137

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Low carbon urban water infrastructure Cooling water system

Recycled water

Water supply

Rainfall

Fresh water

Plants for rainfall Retention and storage

Flushing

Rainfall

Hot water for space heating

Evaporation Recovered from Groundwater

Green space

Residential district

Heat Exchanger Wastewater Decentralised Wastewater treatment

Rainfall water collection system

Sludge to energy recovery and reuse

Building

Water management systems

Irrigation Infiltrate to Groundwater

Urban

Road washing

Landscape supplement

Permeable pavers

Infiltrated into the Ground - storage

Stormwater management and recycling system

Source: Atkins. 2013. Eco-Low Carbon Urban Planning Methodology. 2013. http://www.atkinsglobal.com/enGB/group/sectors-and-services/services/future-proofing-cities/china

Diagrams to show interaction of the municipal water supply system with decentralised wastewater treatment and then how that interacts with the urban landscape and with urban features.

After Atkins ELC presentations

Source: Atkins 2013. The “Sponge Cities” concept includes not just external sustainable drainage features but also the recycling and reuse of wastewater in the city and the storage of this within the urban infrastructure to provide the “Sponge” element of the concept. This will also include the use of groundwater aquifers as a means of longer term storage and recovery of water resources in urban settings. This can be enhanced with artificial recharge schemes at the urban and regional scales.

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Options for Artificial recharge and recovery of groundwater in context of sponge cities Active Groundwater Recharge

Source: Atkins 2013

Water management in building

Source: Atkins 2013

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Neighbourhood level water management – water reuse and energy concepts

Source: Atkins 2013

Many challenges will still lie ahead in developing the detailed standards for “Sponge Cities” features and for the stakeholder engagement and new business models required to bring these successfully into operation and ensure that they are financially viable and well maintained. However, there are projects that incorporate some of the features and others underway that are implementing more “Sponge Cities” features as a part of overall low carbon planning. No fully-completed eco-cities or “Sponge Cities” yet exist that would illustrate achievement of the full ambitions of these principles.

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Case 42 Changsha, Hunan Province: Meixi Lake â&#x20AC;&#x201C; an eco-city in construction phase Meixi Lake is a new development for about 200,000 people being constructed around an artificial lake in the outskirts of Changsha in Hunan. The design of the urban layout incorporated Eco-Low Carbon planning approaches at the urban scale. This project was undertaken in 2011 to 2012 during the development and testing of the ELC planning guidance. Low Carbon Plan of Meixi Lake, Changsha, Hunan Province

Source: Atkins

The above planning intended to incorporate water reuse and energy recovery at building and urban scales. Water supply, wastewater and grey water networks were laid out with parallel ring mains. The greywater processing was connected with the local rivers and the lake to provide storage and additional resource utilisation. In addition to the water recycling and storage features heat recovery was also implemented. Heat pump technology using Ground, water bodies and sewage sources was incorporated to the urban design to provide a low-carbon heat source for the city. Solar thermal panels were also used for both domestic hot water and space heating, supplementing more traditional heat and cooling systems. The google Earth images of the development suggest that there is still a fair way to go before this development would reach the ultimate goal of sustainable urban drainage of having hydrological runoff characteristics comparable to the undeveloped state. Meixi Lake development April 2003 and October 2015

Source: Google Earth

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Shanghai Pudong Forest and Eco Park. Shanghai’s Pudong Forest Park the plan is to transform former intensive agricultural and industrial land into an ecological forest and wetland recreational park with high value residential areas. New developments are being planned and constructed which should enhance the ecological value of the area. These are planned to incorporate “Sponge Cities” principles.

Source: Atkins

Pudong forest park development plan

Source: Atkins, 2005 and google 2016.

Thus, the rivers and wetlands incorporate ecological river restoration features reverting from the simple drainage and dewatering functions that created the farmland out of natural wetlands, back to a managed wetland system, with rivers and ponds disconnected from their previous drainage function. However, through careful hydrological modelling the changes are designed to ensure that in times of high rainfall flood protection measures are still provided. The Museum, visitor centre and residential buildings collect and reuse wastewater while utilising the wetlands for storage and water purification.

Source: Atkins

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Other Examples of Sponge City Design

Source: Prof. Che Wu, Beijing University of Civil Enginerering and Architecture

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Case 43 Tianjin, China: Tianjin Cultural Park (TCP): Water Sensitive Urban Design and Sponge Cities

This project intends to reduce the flood risk of the existing drainage system of the city centre of Tianjin, while providing an economic and ecological solution for the stormwater management. At the same time, the city wanted the establishment of a monumental lake to provide character and identity in such a significant cultural area to become an attraction for citizens. On top of that, the lake takes the role of microclimate mitigation and flood retention, while providing biodiversity and various ecosystems. Tianjin is one of China’s top five cities, not just in size and population but also in terms of business investment. Located just half an hour south-east of Beijing by high-speed train, Tianjin is also close to the sea. The high-water table needs to be maintained to prevent seawater encroaching inland and the dry, harsh climate does not preclude flooding. Awards:

Iconic Award, urban planning 2013, MIPIM Asia Award Asia Bronze 2013, Certificate of Honour, Outstanding Design 2012

Client:

City of Tianjin WLA, GMP, KSP, Riken Yamamoto, HHD, Callison, ECADI, TVSDESIGN

Partner:

Rheinschiene

Engineer:

Polyplan

Expertise:

masterplan, water sensitive urban design, waterfront

Design:

2009

Construction:

2010-2012

Area:

90 ha / 222 acres

GPS:

39°05’11” N 117°12’29” E

In the design of the new cultural district, located between the new opera house and existing city hall, a main goal was to increase outdoor comfort and create dynamic, social pedestrian routes. The lake waterfront is aesthetic with dramatic views to the opera house and the exciting Museum, gallery and library frontage. Avenues of trees and planting shield the waterfront from the cold Mongolian winds while at the same time storing water for irrigation. The lake is a stormwater feature, a balancing pond which can effortlessly handle a 1 in 10 year storm event and buffer a 1 in 100 storm event. Generous tree plantings link subsurface, decentralised retention trenches which feed the lake via a cleansing biotope. The urban lake has its own natural biology and reduces temperature extremes. Its scenic beauty sets the scene for Tianjin’s most outstanding new cultural architecture, the Opera house and the surrounding museums.

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Construction phase of Tianjin Cultural Park area and Lake

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Promenade of Tianjin Cultural Park - Lake and Opera house in Tianjin Cultural Park

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Tianjin Cultural Park Lake Water Rotation Diagram

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

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In the Tianjin Cultural Park “most of the stormwater is considered as a superior quality source of water, which will be drained off into the centre lake after initial purification, retention and storage through massive decentralised channels and pipes. The rest of the stormwater should undergo a preliminary purification and should be detained in the ditch before being discharged into the municipal pipe network. That will decrease the pressure on the municipal network to a minimum. The strong stormwater flow exceeding the design standard can be discharged towards the lake or the municipal pipe via an emergency pipe in the ditch. The total area is 90.09 ha, divided into 22 Sub-catchment areas. The design frequency is selected as P=3a, the total retention volume is 7000 m3 which largely relieves stress on the municipal drainage network, and improves flood protection standard compared with frequency of 0.5~1a adopted by Tianjin at present. The volume of emergency overflow & deep drain into municipal systems (750L/s). The stormwater used for feeding the central lake helps to save a cost of 550 thousand RMB per year (cost of 2012). The peak outflow of the entire ground is reduced from 24.8m 3/s to 2.2m3/s. The flow of emergency overflow into the municipal system is 750L/s (10 years return period). The rainwater is reused for refilling the lake after purification, it saves 550,000 RMB per year. Promenade of Tianjin Cultural Park

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Lake Circulation And Purification System. The central lake will hold and disperse the incoming rainwater which cannot be drained away. The high dust content in the rainfall increases the organic input into the water; it can increase the lake’s trophic level, and provide phytoplankton with excellent condition for growing. This would result in rapid growth of algae and deteriorate the appearance of the central system, which, in the worst case scenario, could lead to the water overflowing and creation of strong smell. For this reason, a circulation and purification system guaranteeing the water quality has been devised. On the hand, the water will be treated before entering the lake. This will ensure that as a few nutrients as possible could find their way into the circuit. The phytoplankton heavily depends on these nutrients to grow and multiply; phosphor particularly plays a limiting role in this case. A phosphor concentration below 0.03mg P/l is thus aimed for. However, the rain already contains 0.3 mg/l, which highlights the importance of treating it before it enters the lake. The aim of water recycling and purifying is to reach class III in national quality standard for surface water. The centre lake will circulate and purify the lake water with a constant rate of 400m3/h through skimmers, pipe loop and the processing of cleansing biotope. Besides, the reclaimed water treatment equipment in the treating room will pre-treat the reclaimed water before flowing into the cleansing biotopes and the lake. Trophical control equipment will activate extra P-removal treatment besides the ecological purifying steps. The cleansing biotope is the key design component, including the design of the aquatic plants, filter substrates and pipelines.

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Lake Design. Morphology design of the lake was established and optimised by computer modelling based on the parameter of water volume balance, hydraulic dynamic calculation and eutrophication control. The target is to produce a three-dimensional graphic with natural selfpurifying capacity which is also well-merged with the form of embankment. Gentle sloping-down of the lake body facilitated the elaborate sealing layer. The normal water level of the lake is 2.2m with the highest 2,5m and lowest 2,1 m. Deepest point at the bottom of the lake is around 3m from lake surface.138” Bird’s eye rendering of Tianjin Cultural Park

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Case 44 ChangChun, China: Xin Kai River Masterplan - Watershed Study, River Design Masterplan and Flood Prevention and Control Scheme

The intention of this project is to enhance the quality of biodiversity and urban space with the ultimate target to attract new investors and families to move in the famous car city of Changchun. To achieve that, there was heavy focus of improving water quality after identifying the pollutants, source of pollution and essential treatment methods. In the first phase of the project we identified five pilot projects in distinct situation and with different characters and urban needs to show the potential river restoration options of the system. The XinKai River project is a landscape quality improvement and river restoration masterplan for a river site that is impacted by a watershed area of 539 square km that has been polluted by the car industry and other uses, and has currently been rehabilitated as a residential and mixed use city area. This project offered the unique opportunity to take water and sediment samples from critical areas of the river for testing and evaluation, and develop an environmental analysis masterplan where the sources of pollutions were located and identified.

138

Tianjin Cultural Center Design Report, Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

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Client:

ZhongBang ecosystem science & technology Co., Ltd

Partner:

Ramboll Environ Shanghai

Expertise:

urban planning, water quality assessment, water quality analysis, landscape architecture, river restoration, urban hydrology, park design

Design:

2016

Area:

River Length 69.9km, Impact Area 539 km2

GPS:

43°49‘27” N / 125°20‘5” E

The existing development lacks landscape and water quality, and therefore we chose the following key topics to develop a holistic ecological-security masterplan: water safety, water culture, water feature, water environment, water ecology and biodiversity. The design is influenced by the urban character of the areas including: a Car Cultural District, a Science and Education area, a Community and Family area, and an Eco-Protection Zone. Xin Kai River Project Area

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Ecological Restoration and Residential, Industrial, Campus and Other Zones of Xinakai River

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Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

A number of new parks were identified along the river and different themes were assigned to them providing opportunities for different kinds of urban and/or natural activities, but also areas for different ecological processes. The themes range from a nature education park including wetlands and wildlife habitat as well as recreation spaces, to an agricultural village park to a car technology campus park. Design principles: In this project there was great focus in water quality monitoring, identification of pollution and proposal of water cleansing strategies. The main design principle was distributed drainage and source controll. Decentralized rainwater and stormwater collection is one of the most important components of the ‘sponge city’ concept. This principle includes water being collected, delayed, detained or retained of surface of typical rain events and in this way reducing the stress of the downstream municipal pipelines, avoiding the need to update them to larger diameters and putting them deeper in the ground, while at the same time recharging the groundwater reservoir, and providing ecosystem services and spaces for ecology. Moreover, the second principle include the ecological rainwater source control area; this includes green roofs, rainwater gardens, ecological depressions and paving throughout the city can not only prevent waterlogging, improve water quality. At the same time the intention is to enhance the quality of biodiversity and urban space. This is developed in every of the zoom areas differently, according to the proportion of green space in the plot and the difficulty of implementation, the annual runoff control rate is 65% - 85%, and the weighted average annual runoff control rate is 80%. This of course takes under consideration the use of open space and it’s relation to adjacent uses.

Ecological Restoration as per Masterplan of XinKai river

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Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Ecological Restoration zone in the low area with many wetland pond design

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

The example above of the development of one six design nodes shows the water system of the rural area with a confluence of rivers. In this river area, the overall water quality and vegetation is Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

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improved with this system of wetland ponds, for water collection and cleansing. The corresponding remedial work to consider the following measures include: - Control of the rural areas sources of pollution from agriculture to the river stream, or inversely from polluted water to agriculture areas; - Appropriate access to the sewage treatment plant; - Control of concentrations of pollutants in the river water sources; and - Increased water quality due to the newly created wetlands. Another area of the masterplan includes the development of wetland areas in the Campus Area where the design priorities and intentions include the following: - Distinguish between two kinds of water quality: the Yongchun River main river water quality, and the water of the entire basin system; and - The combination of high water quality which creates high-quality outdoor public space, combined with outdoor office and outdoor products and other functions which reflect the modern eco-industrial park image. Campus development in dry season and a flood situation which shows the park and river as well protected

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

The Fuyu River Wetland Area shows the ecological purification process. The design intentions were: - River waters flow through a chain of purification wetlands and purification pools; - Gradually the water quality is enhanced, and ultimately resulting in a complete purification of the river; - Collect and purify the surrounding plots of rainwater runoff and add rich river water; - In the case of heavy rain, the floods are directly discharged into the lower reaches of the rich river through the flood channel and the submerged areas; and - The western side of the wetland chain can play a role in rain and flood retention, ensuring flood safety.

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Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Case 45 Beijing, China: Guo Rui - Exclusive high-end mixed use development with double system of water collection, cleansing and circulation This is a high profile project that focuses on liveable city solutions and quality living, with high ecological certification (LEED). Due to the high water scarcity in the larger Beijing area and Northern China, rainwater is an essential resource to be stored on-site and reused for irrigation and water-feeding features. The intention is to create a holistic system with catchment potentials with green roofs, collection of stormwater from roof-top and hard surfaces; slowly release outflow after detention while recharge groundwater by infiltration; pre-treatment and sedimentation; underground storage. Guo Rui Square is a new mixed use development in Beijing located in the rapid developing international district of Beijing Yizhuang Economic-Technological Development Area (BDA). Studio Dreiseitl developed in close collaboration with lead architect Fosters and Partners the project. It aims to push the boundaries of mixed use developments. The design demonstrates how a sustainable use of water can be embedded in contemporary landscape architecture and creates vibrant urban areas as well as a personal environment rich in experiences. Client:

Beijing Guo Investment

Partner:

Foster & Partners

Expertise:

Mixed-Lifestyle Development

Design:

2010-2012

Rui

Construction: 2016 Size:

90,000sqm2

Area:

90,000sqm2

Guo Rui Park area - high quality landscape, and integrated paths, green areas with water infrastructure

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Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Located in the heart of the site is a lake which is supplied by an underground stormwater system utilizing rainwater collected from the building roofs and within the park. Still Water Basins reflect the architecture and the surrounding. Water Jets animate public plazas areas while Cleansing Biotopes maintain of the high water quality and contribute to the overall outdoor comfort. Masterplan of Guo Rui

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Guo Rui - Land Use as per Masterplan

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Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

The rolling park landscape of the residential park provides a large variety of activity areas for its residents with space for individual recreation as well as group activities providing ever-changing vistas through the undulating park topography. The public areas provide a high quality setting for urban life; discovering artwork and water tables whilst strolling along promenades, gathering underneath tree canopies for a chat or participating in large scale events on the public plazas. Birdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Eye Guo Rui

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Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Landscape Design. The landscape design concept for Guo Rui square is to create a sustainable, high quality landscape adjacent to a dynamic new city neighbourhood. The proposed landscape offers comfortable, usable, and diverse outdoor spaces for residents, visitors, and working population. More importantly, site engages sustainable practices such as recycling water, natural water treatment, microclimate change, efficient irrigation to create new green city quarter. Users can experience a healthy live in this urban setting. Sustainable Stormwater Management. The stormwater design proposed a paradigm shift from the conventional way which drains water as soon as possible to public sewer, to a holistic system with decentralized tools which stores and reuses rainwater, restores natural cycle, and promotes community to a more ecological one. The goals for this project are the following: - Saving of water resource; - Reduce runoff peak flow and relieve flood risk of public sewer; - Water quality gets improved, algae get controlled; - Low carbon design following low carbon economy; and - One of key criterions of LEED certification. Rainwater Collection and Rotation Systems in Guo Rui

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Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Balancing Water and Ecological Footprint of the development in Guo Rui

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Design standard: The return Period adopted for designing stormwater management is 5 years. The water concept has been created for the catchment area shown in the graphic below. The overall catchment has been broken into sub-catchments in order to more easily manage stormwater run-off using a decentralized approach. Catchment Masterplan Guo Rui Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

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Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

Split System: There are two separate systems operating: - The Storage Water System that connects the green roofs with the storage tank and ultimately the lake; and - The circulation system that takes the existing water in the system and rotates it through the cleansing biotopes for treatment and quality control. Two separate systems for the functionality of the water system Guo Rui

Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl

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Sponge City Designs for Guangming New District, Shenzhen

Source: Songming Xu, Green Dream, Brilliant Future - The Exploration and Practice of Urban Ecological Construction in Shenzhen Guangming New District, presentation at CECA Launching Forum, International Green Building Conference, Beijing 31 March 2016.

Sunken lagoon park in Taiwan. In Tainan, Taiwan the Dutch architecture studio MVRDV is to replace a flooded shopping centre with a lagoon to create a "hip urban pool" and artificial beach. The plan is to transform the shopping centre into a park. The lagoon will stretch out towards the city's waterfront, opening up views that were formerly blocked by the China-Town Mall. Built in 1983, the shopping centre had become partially derelict and flooded. Proposed Sunken Lagoon Park in Tainan

Source: MVRDV unveils plans for sunken lagoon park in Taiwan. 15 November 2015. http://www.byouteitmagazine.com/#!MVRDV-unveils-plans-for-sunken-lagoon-park-in-Taiwan/cmbz/5649f8780cf2f51f323d6cd1

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Urban Water Environment in the Centre of the City: Seoul, South Korea

Cheonggyecheon Stream, a ribbon of water that flows through central Seoul, reclaimed and turned into an urban park. Jean Chung for The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/07/15/travel/what-to-do-36-hours-inseoul.html?em_pos=large&emc=edit_tl_20160715&nl=travel-dispatch&nlid=66310889&ref=headline&te=1&_r=0

6.4 6.4.1

Economic and Administrative Issues Water supply and sanitation – Cost Recovery Policy

It is the government’s policy to fully recover costs for water supply and sanitation through user fees, and that water tariffs should be volumetric. The Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development oversees financing for urban water and sanitation infrastructure as well as policies concerning the regulation of water and sanitation utilities. Some important policy papers it has issued are “Accelerating the Marketization of Public Utilities” (No.272 Policy Paper of the MOC, 2002), the “Measure on Public Utilities Concession Management” (No.126 Policy Paper of the MOC, 2004), and the “Opinions on Strengthening Regulation of Public Utilities” (No.154 Policy Paper of the MOC, 2005). However, there is no law concerning the regulation of public utilities or private sector participation in the sector. The Ministry of Health has obligations related to the promotion of rural water supply and sanitation.

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6.4.2

Relative costs of different methods of supplying water in China

Figure 53: shows the relative cost of water supply

Source: UNEP, 2011, Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, pp. 136. www.unep.org/greeneconomy

6.4.3

Private sector participation in water management139

Private sector participation in financing infrastructure and managing services is widespread. In 2007, there are over 50 water projects and well over 100 wastewater projects in China with private sector participation. The French firm Veolia alone has contracts that involve a total population of over 43 million inhabitants of whom over 27 million are served through full service concessions, among which the concession in Shenzhen is the largest. The company holds manages 22 municipal contracts and nine industrial contracts. The Israeli-Chinese Kardan Water International Group is also a major player in the Chinese water market. Notable Chinese companies engaged in the provision of water supply and sanitation services include the majority state-owned wastewater company Beijing Enterprises Water Group Ltd, the Hong Kong-based China Water Affairs Group, the state-owned financial services company China Everbright International, and the Beijing-based engineering and construction company Sound Global Limited. An econometric study by Chinese economists on the impact of private sector participation on the performance of urban water supply in 35 major cities over the period 1998 to 2008 found that "the 139

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China

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participation of foreign companies, but not domestic private companies, significantly improves water industry performance". Case 46 Shenzhen, Guangdong Province: The Shenzhen concession According to a study by the Asian Development Bank, the city of Shenzhen is leading the reform of local water management in China. Inspired by the experience of the water utility in nearby Hong Kong, it was one of the first cities in the country that has combined all waterrelated government functions into one government agency in 2001. Furthermore, regulatory and operative functions were separated. In 2003, the first concession for municipal public utilities in China was bid out in Shenzhen. The 30-year concession was won by the French firm Veolia and its Chinese partner Capital Water. Together with the State Council Committee for the Regulation and Management of State owned property, which holds 55% of the shares of a newly created Joint Venture called Shenzhen Water, Veolia holds 25% and Capital Water 20% of the shares. The Joint Venture was approved at the national level by the Ministry of Commerce. In 2009, Shenzhen Water was the largest water supply and sanitation enterprise in the country. The wastewater treatment sector in Shenzhen has developed rapidly since the reform of 2001. The sewage treatment rate in the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone has increased from 56% during pre-integration to over 88% in 2008, ranking first among large and medium-sized cities in China. The Asian Development Bank called the Shenzhen case "a model for market-oriented reform in the urban water sector". In 2008 the Shenzhen Water Group had expanded and invested in 17 water projects in 7 provinces. The $40 million equity stake of Veolia is covered by a 15-year MIGA guarantee to protect against the risk of expropriation. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China

6.4.4

Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) contracts140

The most common form of private sector participation in water supply and sanitation in China is through Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) contracts where the private sector is in charge of large upstream or downstream infrastructure without being directly involved in serving users. Experience with BOT contracts has been mixed. For example, the local government of Lianjiang had the 100,000 m3/day Tangshan water treatment plant built by SUEZ under a BOT contract in 1999. However, the water demand had been grossly overestimated, so that the plant lay idle while the local government had to pay for substantial minimum volumes without using them, which evidently pushed up tariffs. After lengthy negotiations, the local government finally bought back the plant in 2009. Public Private Partnerships in China´s Water and Sanitation Sector International water companies are working hard to gain access to the Chinese market as the nation's water sector increases the pace of its liberalization and opening. This comes as these foreign giants have basically become accustomed to the Chinese market after arriving here as strangers several years ago. France-based Veolia Water, one of the world's leading water firms, has invested nearly 10 billion yuan (US$1.21 billion) most of this over the past two years in the Chinese mainland's water 140

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China

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market, said Sophie Lamacq, managing director of Veolia Water South China Ltd. The huge firm became the first foreign company to invest in Beijing's sewage treatment sector when it successfully bid for a waste disposal project in the capital last September. … [T]he company spent US$400 million on a 45 per cent stake in the Shenzhen Water Group, the largest sum spent so far on a water project in China. [In 2004] Veolia Water bought the operating rights of two waterworks in Zunyi, a city of Guizhou Province, for 152 million yuan (US$18.3 million). Since its first co-operative project in China's waterworks in Tianjin in 1997, the French company has successfully won bids for 13 water projects across the nation, according to Lamacq. Although Germany's Berlin Water, the nation's leading waterworks operator, was not an early bird in the Chinese market, it has turned out to be one of the most active foreign players. It invested 290 million yuan (US$35 million) along with a Chinese partner in 2002 in a sewage treatment facility in Nanchang, the capital of eastern China's Jiangxi Province. It also signed a strategic cooperative framework agreement [in] September [2003] with the Jinan municipal government in eastern China's Shandong Province. Along with a Chinese partner, Berlin Water won the bid for a sewage treatment project in Hefei, the capital of eastern China's Anhui Province, with a combined offer of 480 million yuan (US$58 million), in return for operating rights lasting for 23 years. Berlinwasser Implementing BOT Water Treatment Project in Hefei, China

Source: Berlinwasser International. 2008. Summer School. http://www.alumni.tuberlin.de/fileadmin/Redaktion/ABZ/SS08/Internationales_Management_Wasser___Abwasser.pdf

Other leading water companies such as Thames Water and SUEZ have stepped up the pace of their entry to the Chinese market. According to a rough survey, more than 20 foreign water companies have invested US$60 billion in over 50 projects in China. "Overseas water companies' spending spree in the Chinese market began in 2002, when the Chinese Government allowed foreign investors to enter the public sector across the nation"... The potential of the US$24 billion Chinese water market to these foreign firms is considerable. … The water sector is expected to grow at an annual rate of 15 per cent in coming decades. … And the central government's market-oriented water pricing reform, carried out in recent years, has made the sector

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increasingly attractive. Although the government still has the final say on water prices, it has promised to mainly let the market decide and set prices at "a reasonable level141.â&#x20AC;? Wastewater treatment Plan in Hefei

Wastewater treatment Plan in Hefei

Source: F. Steinberg

6.4.5

Transition to commercial utilities142

In 2002, the Ministry of Construction issued a policy paper on the commercialization of public utilities. Subsequently, in October 2003, the central government decided that state-owned enterprises had to be separated from Ministries and/or provincial governments and had to be commercialized. Competitive bidding for contracts, private sector participation and commercial financing are important element in the transition to a market economy. In the 1990s, the first BOT contracts were signed for wastewater treatment plants. More than 200 wastewater treatment plants were built with some form of private sector participation in their financing and/or management, usually using the BOT formula. Early BOTs saw governments implementing the process without the benefit of financial, legal, and technical advisers, finding to their chagrin that the process becomes more complex in the absence of expert knowledge. Learning from the experience of past BOTs in the sector, local governments sought expert advice on bidding and public tender. In about 2000 for the first time, a BOT water project (Chengdu No. 6 Water Supply Plant) was awarded on the basis of transparent international competitive bidding, with support from the ADB. In 2004, a landmark international competitive bid for the entire water supply and sanitation system of Shenzhen was won by a joint venture including the French firm Veolia. 6.4.6

Potential privatisation models and bringing in inward investment

An OECD report143 reviewed the 2009 public utilities situation in China. It made recommendations for future water security and water provision. OECD on Water This chapter outlines some to the core challenges of water management in China, which include the fragmentation of the institutional and legal framework and the inefficient co-operation, both vertically and horizontally, among the different departments of government and the different layers at state, provincial and local levels. To understand and analyse how the Chinese authorities can solve these challenges, 141

Zhang Jin. 2004. Foreign water firms make a splash. China Daily. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/200411/23/content_393989.htm 142 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China 143 OECD. 2009. OECD Reviews of Regulatory Reform: China Defining the Boundary between the Market and the State. Chapter 7 Water. http://www.oecd.org/gov/regulatory-policy/42390089.pdf Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

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this chapter will consider the institutional and regulatory issues at river basin level that affect the allocation of water to different users for abstractions for irrigation, rural and urban domestic use, and industry. The chapter also seeks to address some of these points from the perspective of improving the regulatory systems, drawing on experience from OECD countries. Source: OECD. 2009. OECD Reviews of Regulatory Reform: China Defining the Boundary between the Market and the State. Chapter 7 Water. http://www.oecd.org/gov/regulatory-policy/42390089.pdf

The OECD report identifies the urban and major city challenges as: Comprehensive water supply, wastewater collection and a reasonable degree of wastewater treatment infrastructure are in place. Here the aim is to attain the value for money and capital and operational efficiency of the best examples from OECD countries. Capital maintenance will be an increasing challenge for water companies in major cities as older assets serving the city centre deteriorate and compete for capital investment with the need to extend services to non-core areas of the city and meet tightening environmental and service standards. The water utilities are generally financially independent companies or departments financed operationally by user fees; infrastructure investment is via municipal, provincial and state funds. There is a rapidly growing private sector providing investment and management services to municipal water utilities through a range of contractual and asset transfer methods. Overall massive investment in water services is required in China, especially in the second-level cities and in wastewater collection and treatment and pollution control. There is also a particular need for investment in sludge management to ensure that the pollutants removed from the wastewater do not re-enter the environment in an even more harmful form, but can instead be put to beneficial or at least harmless use. One of the key mechanisms for overcoming this may be the privatisation of water utilities. 6.4.7

Water Efficiency Measures

There are many different indicators for utility efficiency. In the case of China, some indicators, such as labour productivity, suggest a low level of operational efficiency, while other indicators such as non-revenue water - suggest a high level of operational efficiency. 6.4.8

Labour productivity144

Most water and sanitation utilities in China have a low labour productivity and are overstaffed. For example, many utilities in small towns in Henan province have more than 20 employees per 1,000 connections, while international good practice is less than 4 employees per 1,000 connections. In Chengdu, the utility employed 34 employees per 1,000 connections, while in Shanghai, the ratio was less than 6 employees per 1,000 connections. 6.4.9

Non-revenue water (NRW)

Non- revenue Water - consisting mainly leakage losses in the distribution network - are estimated by the Chinese Waterworks Association to be only 20% on average and less than 10% for the best utilities, which is very low by international standards. The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities estimated the nonrevenue water for a sample of Chinese water utilities at 27% in 2006 and 21% in 2001.

144

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One explanation for the relatively low level of NRW may be that most Chinese live in dense apartment complexes, which results in compact distribution systems. In some smaller cities, nonrevenue water remains relatively high. For example, average non-revenue water in small towns in Henan province is 38%.

6.4.10 Tariffs and cost recovery145 Cost recovery for water and sanitation services paradoxically is lower in urban areas, while it is higher in rural areas, despite the lower incomes of rural residents. Many urban water and wastewater utilities in China experience financial stress, because user fees are set well below cost recovery levels and government subsidies are insufficient to cover the resulting gap. In 2004, 60% of urban water utilities reported negative net incomes. The financial situation of wastewater utilities is expected to be even more precarious.Tariffs have increased by 50% since 1998 and now stand at 1.5 RMB/m3 or US$ 0.20/m3. These rates are insufficient to cover costs. Until the 1980s, urban water tariffs in China were very low and sewer tariffs were practically unknown. This has changed substantially since the adoption of National Guidelines on Urban Water Tariffs in 1988, which called for increased cost recovery and for the introduction of sewer tariffs. Subsequently, water tariffs have been increased substantially in many Chinese cities, particularly in the north where water is scarcest. However, according to the Ministry of Construction, water tariff reforms have not been effective enough to offer the necessary incentives to save water. While many cities now have sewer tariffs, in 2005, there were more than 150 cities across the country where no wastewater treatment fee was collected. China has a policy of universal metering, including metering of individual households in apartment complexes, where most urban residents live. Metering in urban areas is now relatively widespread with an average of 90% connections being metered. Some cities are experimenting with pre-paid debit cards that residents must put into their meters in order to receive service. Tariff structures are complex, with different tariffs for different categories of users and higher tariffs charged to industrial and commercial users than to residential users. Most water tariffs are linear, i.e. there is a single price per unit of water, although there are some increasing-block tariffs where the unit price increases with consumption. Urban tariffs are approved by Price Bureaus of cities, after considerable prior negotiation. Tariffs do not require approval from a higher level of government. For example, In Tianjin, where water tariffs had not been raised once between 1949 and 1985, they have been raised eight times until 2006. As a result, cost recovery has improved significantly. In Chengdu the average water tariff was US$ 0.14/m3 in 2001. Despite the relatively low water tariff the utility's revenues were twice as high as recurrent costs, allowing for a significant share of self-financing. In Shanghai, the average water tariff was only US$ 0.10/m3 in 2001. The utility did not even recover its recurrent cost and had an operating loss. 6.4.11 Financing Water Infrastructure in China In urban areas The World Bank estimates that urban water and wastewater infrastructure in China has been financed from the following sources in 1991â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2005:

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Water

Wastewater

Municipal governments

20-30% 40-50%

Domestic banks

20-30% 10-20%

State bond program

10-20% 20-30%

Private sector

10-20% 10-20%

China Development Bank

10%

International Financial Institutions 5%

5% 10%

Source: World Bank. 2007. Stepping up - Improving the performance of China's urban water utilities, by Greg Browder et al., Washington. p. 108.

In China, municipal governments provide their financing in the form of equity that typically is not remunerated. The other forms of financing require remuneration either in the form of interests on loans or profits on private equity. It should be noted that local governments in China are not allowed to borrow directly. Municipally owned utility companies, however, are allowed to borrow from the China Development Bank, other Chinese banks, the state bond program and international financial institutions. The State bond program is geared at less economically developed regions. The bonds are issued by the Ministry of Finance, and then distributed by the National Development and Reform Commission as long maturity, low-interest loans, which in some cases may be converted to grants. The major international financial institutions engaged in the sector are the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank, complemented by bilateral donors such as the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the German KfW. Implicitly, according to this estimate, the level of self-financing by water and wastewater utilities is zero. Nevertheless there clearly will be an upward pressure on tariffs, since 70-80% of water infrastructure and 50-60% of wastewater infrastructure is financed either through debt or private equity that requires a remuneration. The remainder is financed through municipal equity, which typically requires no remuneration and thus helps to keep tariffs low. Another mechanism to use debt finance are BOTs which are a popular financing mechanism for water and wastewater treatment plants and bulk water supply systems in China. Under BOTs, private entities undertake investments and recover their costs through fees for bulk water sale or wastewater treatment charged to the utilities. While the local government or utilities are formally not indebted through a BOT, the charges for the services are de facto similar to debt service charges.

6.5

Eco-City Key Performance Indicators

For the water management sector, the Sino-EU indicators have compiled a summary of relevant indicators which can become the basis for future sectorial monitoring.

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Table 5: Proposed Water Management KPIs 146

1 2 3

9 10 11 12 13 14

Water Management (Water Supply, Waste Water Treatment, Drainage and Storm Water Management) Current Indicator Category achievements / Indicators: indicative values Time frame for accomplishment Grade IV surface water quality Quality of water bodies [1] By 2020 standard GB 3838-2003 [1] Water quality at centralized source 100% [2] reaches standard [2] Water quality at user level [2] 100% [2] ` Services network coverage [1] 100% [1] By 2013 [1] Water from taps with drinking water 100% quality [1] immediate 100% [3] Drinking water Grade III standard [3] In buildings: adoption of cost-effective 100% [4] water saving appliances [4] By 2020 [4] Water leakages as per standard ≤8 % [5] CJJ92 [5] In water-scarce areas ≥25%: in areas Rate of reuse of reclaimed water (%) without water scarcity ≥15% [2] [2] ≥60% [6] Water deficient cities: ≥20% [7] ≤ 120 liters / day.pers.[1] Domestic water consumption [1] Not higher than the average of lower & By 2013 [1] upper limits of GB/T50331 [5] Water supply from non-traditional ≥50% [1] sources [1] 20-30%[4] By 2020 [1] Water supply from recycled ≥85% [18] wastewater or rainwater [4] ≥10% [5] Water permeability of surface areas [8] ≥50% [8] Wetland conservation [5] ≥80% [5] Sanitation coverage, waste water 100% [7] By 2020 [7] treatment [7] Grey water treatment and reuse 50% By 2020 Sponge city infrastructure contributes 30% of water supply By 2020 to water harvesting Drainage and sponge city measures 100% eliminate urban flood events

Sources: [1] World Bank. 2009. Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City: A Case Study of an Emerging Eco-City in China. Technical Assistance Report. Beijing. www-wds.worldbank.org/.../PDF/590120WP0P114811REPORT0FINAL1EN1WEB.pdf [2] Qiu Baoxing. 2012. Combine idealism and pragmatism – a primary exploration of setting up and implementing low carbon eco city indicator system in China [in Chinese], China Construction Industry Publisher. Beijing [3] Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP). 2008. Indices for Eco-County, Eco-City and Eco-Province. In: World Bank. 2009. Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City: A Case Study of an Emerging Eco-City in China. Technical Assistance Report. Beijing. www-wds.worldbank.org/.../PDF/590120WP0P114811REPORT0FINAL1EN1WEB.pdf. See also 2013 version. http://www.mep.gov.cn/gkml/hbb/bwj/201306/t20130603_253114.htm 146

These key performance indicators were prepared and compiled by the EC-Link Project. See: EC-Link. 2016. SinoEU Key Performance Indicators for Eco-Cities. Beijing (unpublished draft). Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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[4] China Development Bank Capital (CBDC). 2015. 12 Green Guidelines. CDBC´s Green and Smart Urban Development Guidelines. Beijing (draft). http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/12-GreenGuidelines.pdf [5] MoHURD. 2015 and 2016 versions. Appraisal Standards for Green Eco-City/District Planning (draft). Beijing [Unofficial Translation]. [6] CSUS. 2015. Zhuhai Indicator System for Livability. Beijing. [unpublished report]. [7] State Council, Government of People’s Republic of China. 2016. 13th Five Year Plan. Beijing. [8] MoHURD. 2005. National Standard for “Eco-Garden City”. In: World Bank. 2009. Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City: A Case Study of an Emerging Eco-City in China. Technical Assistance Report. Beijing. www-wds.worldbank.org/.../PDF/590120WP0P114811REPORT0FINAL1EN1WEB.pdf. See also 2010 version. http://www.mohurd.gov.cn/wjfb/201012/t20101228_201748.html

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7. FUTURE ISSUES AND WATER OPTIMISATION IN ECOCITIES No. Issue

Suggested Intervention

Assess risks and develop long term water strategic plan taking into account supply and demand balance and options to reduce risks. Linked to city masterplans.

Ensure future water security for city Consider key elements of Blueprint for Water Security

Also consider flood mitigation and the use of ‘making space for water’ options. Ensure water is not polluted and is fit for purpose through regulation (see 4 and 5 below). 2

Climate change adaptation strategy

Linked to the above, but taking into account changing weather patterns, sea level rise and population growth. Scenario planning approach should be developed.

Provision of high quality drinking water for all citizens – Probably the greatest potential public health improvement.

Overall assessment of current drinking water provision and infrastructure. Plan, cost and develop infrastructure plan for the city to provide this according to a phased plan. Assess benefits including public health improvements.

Adopt WHO minimum standards and EU Drinking Water Directive equivalent 4

Improvement and optimisation of dirty water systems – primary pollution control

EU Urban Waste Water Directive minimum standards

Provision of high quality sanitation for all – in homes and through public toilets in the interim. Assessment of current infrastructure and sewerage systems, especially combined sewer overflows and foul sewage discharges. Plan to stop all untreated discharges under normal operations. Assess municipal sewage treatment provision and future need, including enhancements to provide improved water resources and environmental clean-up.

Regulation and permitting of abstractions and industrial discharges.

Review condition of water resources, rivers etc. impacting on city, upstream and downstream, taking risk assessment and catchment based approaches.

Suggest using IMPEL regulatory model to achieve river, lake, groundwater and marine, water quality objectives and standards

Set up monitoring programmes of abstractions, discharges and receiving environment.

Use Chinese and EU environmental water standards as minimum targets. Aim towards Water Framework Directive ecological objectives 6

For new and redevelopment areas assess options for use of ‘sponge city’ – eco-city and SUDS options to complement core water infrastructure

Model options and scenarios and revise/implement permits. Monitor and enforce regulations and permits. Drive improvement programmes and ensure treatment plants are in place and operating.

Ensure new development plans incorporate sponge city concepts and water sensitive design. Use best design and operational practice as outlined in this and other reports. Consider in the context of improved lifestyle and bluespace opportunities. Assess and publicise benefits.

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Engage the key stakeholders and public in the decision making process

Use WFD engagement principles and build capability to engage.

There is increasing need to engage stakeholders in the water planning process. Engage other Ministries especially Ministry of Water Resources and Ministry of Environmental Protection as they have responsibilities for elements of water planning and delivery. Engage key business and property developers. Also community leaders and general public. Will need to develop knowledge and capability in the city planning department and key stakeholders to achieve this.

Understand and utilise economic tools and assessments. a. Full cost of water service b. Water Tariff structures c. Inward investment and privatisation options d. Assessment of benefits

There is considerable potential to utilise economic instruments and incentives to assist change. They must be used to complement good regulatory practice and to reinforce change. Water should be self-financing and a goal should be to move towards society paying full cost of water service. Water tariff structures can reduce demand and waste. Inward investment may help finance and mechanisms to assist in expensive and core infrastructure provision may be needed. Could consider privatisation and mechanisms (see Finance Section).

other

financing

Benefits assessment methods and understanding will assist in developing the business case, but not all can be monetised! 9

Environment, ecology, bio-diversity, River Restoration – leisure and recreation space, Tourism

Utilise and develop WFD capability and long term plan

The environmental protection and improvements to water resources should be considered. Biological and fish monitoring can be used as pubic focus for water resource improvement (eg salmon in River Thames in London). River restoration and ‘soft’ engineering will improve habitat potential for citizens and wildlife. Improvements to recreation, in and near water and possible bathing waters. Potential for property enhancement and tourism. Develop ecological monitoring and assessment capability.

Staff development building

and

capacity

The issues highlighted in this handbook will require new capabilities and approaches.

In order to make these improvements new skills and capability will be needed. Training existing staff and recruiting new skills will be important. EU may be able to assist in specifying need and opportunity.

Modification of best practice to suit the current Chinese situation will be needed and the EU may be able to assist.

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REFERENCES

WATER SUPPLY: ■ SWITCH (Managing Water for the City of the Future). Integrated Urban Water Management in the City of the Future. European Union. http://www.switchtraining.eu/ ■ Alliance to Save Energy. 2003. Watergy, http://watergymex.org/Watergy%20Toolkit/resources; ■ Riverlife. Sub-catchment planning for sustainable water management. http://www.waterforliveability.org.au/wp-content/uploads/IUWM-Planning-GuidelinesMarrickville.pdf ■ UNEP.2012. Application of Sustainability Assessments of Technologies. http://www.unep.org/ietc/Portals/136/Publications/Waste%20Management/IETC_SAT%20Ma nual_Full%20Doc_for%20web_Nov.2012.pdf ■ Water and Utility Partnership. 2003. Water and Sanitation for All Toolkit. A Practitioner´s Companion. European Commission - Water and Sanitation Program. http://otp.unescoci.org/training-resource/freshwater/water-and-sanitation-all-toolkit-practitioners-companion ■ WHO. 2000. Assessing the O&M of Water Supply and Sanitation in Development Countries. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/om/en/ToolsAssess.pdf ■ Water and Sanitation Program.2009.Guidance Notes on Services for the Urban Poor. The World Bank. http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/Main_Global_Guidance_Note.pdf ■ World Bank. 2010. Eco2 Cities. Washington. http://www.worldbank.org/eco2

WASTE WATER TREATMENT: ■ SWITCH (Managing Water for the City of the Future). Integrated Urban Water Management in the City of the Future. European Union. http://www.switchtraining.eu/ ■ Water and Utility Partnership. 2003. Water and Sanitation for All Toolkit. A Practitioner´s Companion. European Commission - Water and Sanitation Program. http://otp.unescoci.org/training-resource/freshwater/water-and-sanitation-all-toolkit-practitioners-companion ■ Water Supply and Sanitation Collaboration Council (WSSCC). 2010. Hygiene and Sanitation Software: An Overview of Approaches. http://www.wsscc.org/sites/default/files/publications/wsscc_hygiene_and_sanitation_software _2010.pdf ■ Water and Sanitation Program.2009.Guidance Notes on Services for the Urban Poor. The World Bank. http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/Main_Global_Guidance_Note.pdf ■ UNEP.2012. Application of Sustainability Assessments of Technologies. http://www.unep.org/ietc/Portals/136/Publications/Waste%20Management/IETC_SAT%20Ma nual_Full%20Doc_for%20web_Nov.2012.pdf

DRAINAGE AND FLOOD CONTROL ■ SWITCH (Managing Water for the City of the Future). Integrated Urban Water Management in the City of the Future. European Union. http://www.switchtraining.eu/ ■ CIRIA: Training Manual on Sustainable Drainage Systems (SUDS) http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/the_suds_manual.aspx ■ CIRIA: Planning for SuDS: Making It Happen. http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/Planning_for_SuDS_ma.aspx ■ CIRIA: Retrofitting to Manage Surface Water http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/Retrofitting_manage_surface_water.aspx

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■ Riverlife. Sub-catchment planning for sustainable water management. http://www.waterforliveability.org.au/wp-content/uploads/IUWM-Planning-GuidelinesMarrickville.pdf RECOMMENDED READING WATER SUPPLY: ■ McKinsey Global Institute. 2009. Preparing for China´s Urban Billion. McKinsey. http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/urbanization/preparing_for_urban_billion_in_china ■ Baird, A., and Esteban, T.A.O. Green Cities: A Water Save Future. In: Lindfield, M. and Steinberg, F. (eds.). 2012. Green Cities. Manila: Asian Development Bank. Urban Development Series. Manila. pp. 218-261. http://www.adb.org/publications/green-cities ■ Asian Development Bank. 2013. Asian Water Development Outlook 2013: Measuring Water Security in Asia and the Pacific. Manila. http://www.adb.org/publications/asian-waterdevelopment-outlook-2013 ■ R. Brown, N. Keath, and T. Wong. 2009. Urban Water Management in Cities: Historical, Current and Future Regimes. Water Science and Technology. 59 (5).pp. 847–855. ■ N. Carter, R. Kreutzwiser, and R. de Loe. 2005. Closing the Circle: Linking Land Use Planning and Water Management at the Local Level. Land Use Policy. 22 (2). pp. 115–117. ■ D. Grey, and C. Sadoff. 2007. Sink or Swim? Water Security for Growth and Development. Water Policy. 9 (6). pp. 545–571. IWA Publishing. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255592639_Sink_or_Swim_Water_Security_for_Gr owth_and_Development ■ D. Rodriguez, C. van de Berg, and A. McMahon. 2012. Investing in Water Infrastructure: Capital, Operations and Maintenance. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://www.zaragoza.es/contenidos/medioambiente/onu/950-eng.pdf ■ P. Gleick, M. Palaniappan, and M. Lang. 2008. A Review of Decision-Making Support Tools in the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Sector. http://www.pacinst.org/wpcontent/uploads/sites/21/2013/02/WASH_decisionmaking_tools3.pdf ■ World Bank. 2010. Eco2 Cities. Washington. http://www.worldbank.org/eco2 WASTE WATER TREATMENT: ■ C. Lüthi, A. Morel, E. Tilley, and L. Ulrich. 2011. Community-led Environmental Sanitation Planning: CLUES. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259941113_CommunityLed_Urban_Environmental_Sanitation_Planning_CLUES_Complete_Guidelines_for_Decision -Makers_with_30_Tools ■ C. Lüthi, A. Panesar, T. Schütze, A. Norström, J. McConville, J. Parkinson, D. Saywell, and R. Ingle. 2011. Sustainable Sanitation in Cities – A Framework f or Action. https://www.sei-international.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/SEISuSanA_sustainable_sanitation_in_cities_2011.pdf ■ World Bank. 2010. Eco2 Cities. Washington. http://www.worldbank.org/eco2 ■ M. Lindfield and F. Steinberg, eds. 2012. Green Cities. Manila: Asian Development Bank. http://www.adb.org/publications/green-cities ■ Woodrow Wilson International Centre for Scholars. Pacific Institute. 2008. A Review of Decision-Making Support Tools in the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Sector. Environmental Change & Security Program. http://www.pacinst.org/wpcontent/uploads/sites/21/2013/02/WASH_decisionmaking_tools3.pdf ■ Water Supply & Sanitation Collaborative Council. 2010. Hygiene and Sanitation Software: An Overview of Approaches. Geneva. DRAINAGE AND FLOOD CONTROL: ■ D. Balmforth, C. Digman, R. Kellagher, and D. Butler. 2006. Designing for Exceedance in Urban Drainage – Good Practice. London: Construction Industry Research and Information Water Management – EC Link Working Papers – Draft Version 1.5

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Association. http://www.ciria.org/Resources/Free_publications/Designing_exceedance_drainage.aspx ■ M. Lindfield and F. Steinberg, eds. 2012. Green Cities. Manila: Asian Development Bank. ■ World Bank. 2010. Eco2 Cities. Washington. http://www.worldbank.org/eco2

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ANNEXES Annex 1: Tool WM 1 - Water Safety Plans. Name:

Water Safety Plans

What this tool does: This tool supports decision makers in development of Water Safety Plans. Water Safety Plans are increasingly a key element of reducing risks to drinking water, ensuring drinking-water quality from catchment to the consumer. A Water Safety Plan (WSP) is the most effective way of ensuring that a water supply is safe for human consumption and that it meets the health based standards and other regulatory requirements. It is based on a comprehensive risk assessment and risk management approach to all the steps in a water supply chain from catchment to consumer. How does it work: The overall goal in water safety plans is the provision of safe, reliable and affordable supply of sufficient quantities of water for all. Components of Water Supply Services

Source: SWITCH. Training Kit – Integrated Urban Water Management in the City of the Future. Module 1- Water Supply - Exploring the Options. http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/

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Future Pressures on Water Supply

Source: SWITCH. Training Kit – Integrated Urban Water Management in the City of the Future. Module 1- Water Supply - Exploring the Options. http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/

There is a key difference between a conventional or an integrated approach. The integrated approach is supposed to achieve better performance:  Increased supply will be possible even in an environment of difficult demand.  Freshwater supply will in future consist of a mix of freshwater and alternative sources.  Improved treatment technologies will be used, and be complimented by control of pollution at source.

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Conventional or Integrated Approach to Water Supply

Examples of application: Additional benefits are: - More efficient treatment of drinking water: Control of pollutants and the use of natural systems (such as riverbanks) to produce water of drinking standard. - Economic savings: Reducing water demand results in less water to be treated and distributed. Savings in chemical and energy costs. - Environmental protection and enhancement: reduced demand will result in less water to be extracted from the natural environment. It will help to maintain or restore ecosystems and natural watersheds. - Improved services: Reduced demand and the use of alternative supplies relieve pressure on resources such as reservoirs and aquifers that may be scarce during dry periods. This reduces risks of water restrictions and supply interruptions for households, businesses and industry. - Reduced carbon emissions: managing demand and source pollution will result in less energy consumed for the abstraction, treatment and distribution of water. This reduces use of non-renewable energy. - Flood control: the collection of rainwater from roof surfaces for non-potable water supply reduced the volume of runoff that has to be managed by a cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s drainage system. Reduced downstream flood and erosion risks. - Reduced volume of wastewater: Low-flush toilets and greywater reuse for non-potable Water Management â&#x20AC;&#x201C; EC Link Working Papers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Draft Version 1.5

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purposes reduces the volume of wastewater to be collected sand treated. This improves the performance and economic efficiency of the waste water process. Greater resilience: Uncertainty surrounding future demand and availability of supplies complicate decision-making for water supply investments. Solutions that target demand reductions and the use of alternative sources rather than resource development and infrastructure expansion make it easier to cope with inaccurate forecasts and predictions.

Literature / further information: SWITCH. Training Kit – Integrated Urban Water Management in the City of the Future. Module 1- Water Supply Exploring the Options. http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/

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Annex 2: Tool WM 2 - Waste Water Options. Name:

Waste Water Options

What this tool does: This tool supports decision makers to make right choices for waste water treatment in their cities. There exist conventional centralized systems, and noncoventional decentralized systems. The comparison of the systems indicates that nonconventional methods can increase the potential for water-use for non-potable purposes, can make available sludge nutrients for fertilizer and biogas, and generate energy from waste water. How does it work: Conventional Waste Water Treatment

SWITCH. Training Kit – Integrated Urban Water Management in the City of the Future. Module 5-Waste Water Exploring the Options. http://www.switchtraining.eu/fileadmin/template/projects/switch_training/files/Modules/Module_reduced_size/Switch_ Training_Kit_Module_5.pdf

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Comparison of Conventional with Integrated Waste Water Treatment Options

The impact of the use of non-conventional methods to waste water treatment is: - Increased access to sanitation for all. - Water savings. - Flexibility to population growth and urbanization. - Recycling of plant nutrients. - Financial savings. - Employment generation. - Energy recovery. - More cost-efficient treatment through decentralized methods. - Urban biodiversity and amenity.

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Example: The sewage treatment process can be describes by the following stages: Stage 1: Catchment area/ Sewerage System Stage 2: Inlet and Screening Stage 3: Primary Treatment Stage 4: Secondary Treatment Stage 5: Tertiary Treatment Stage 6: Sludge Treatment Stage 7: Energy Recovery Stage 8: Sludge Recycling Simplified Sewage Treatment Works Processes

Source: Severn Trent Water Website - https://www.stwater.co.uk/content/conMediaFile/775

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Examples of Waste Water in the Urban Water Cycle

Source: SWITCH. Training Kit – Integrated Urban Water Management in the City of the Future. Module 5-Waste Water - Exploring the Options. http://www.switchtraining.eu/fileadmin/template/projects/switch_training/files/Modules/Module_reduced_size/Switch_Tr aining_Kit_Module_5.pdf

Literature / further information: SWITCH. Training Kit – Integrated Urban Water Management in the City of the Future. Module 5-Waste Water Exploring the Options. http://www.switchtraining.eu/fileadmin/template/projects/switch_training/files/Modules/Module_reduced_size/Switch_Tr aining_Kit_Module_5.pdf

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Annex 3: Tool WM 3 - Sponge City Planning. Name:

Sponge City Planning

What this tool does: This tool represent s an inter-disciplinary approach to low-impact development (LID) in cities. The management of rain waters, drainage and flood control through hydraulic engineering and ’water architecture’ has been labeled in China as the ’sponge city’ approach. It represents the intention to maximize the use of water, and to recycle and reuse it for non-potable purposes. This tool consists of a series engineering and architectural elements which are used at surface levels or as underground installation. Sponge City planning – as a ”water sensitive urban design ” – is a concept that aims to integrate urban water management, particularly storm water, into modern urban design and landscape planning. Storm water Flows and the Urban Environment

SWITCH. 2011. Training Kit – Integrated Urban Water Management in the City of the Future. Module 5 - Stormwater - Exploring the Options. http://www.switchtraining.eu/fileadmin/template/projects/switch_training/files/Modules/Module_reduced_size/Switch_ Training_Kit_Module_4.pdf

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How does it work:

The sponge city planning approach perceives stormwater as a resource: Water catchment or harvesting (”nonconventional water sourcing”) can increase the available water sources in urban areas. These waters can be utilized – after proper treatment – for potables usage. Otherwise, stormwater can be recycled and be reused for non-potable purposes for toilets, for gardens and public green areas. A set of physical design makes use of this resources for urban irrigation. Detention ponds and lakes can serve as catchment and storage areas.

Source: SWITCH (see below)

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Examples:

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Sponge City design solutions

Source:

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/347340189992714218/sent/

SvR Design company, Seattle https://www.pinterest.com/pin/519813981966838858/sen t/?sender=305682030866350581&invite_code=f3e94e5a

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Green Street Design

Low Impact Development Opportunities

Source: https://phillymotu.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/pwd_gree n_street_design_manual.png?w=300&h=267

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/AadVDWqLQ9UD9MHscdC Sqdy3a5GVnSVThC4u_YIce7ZQAcrxNuI48sY/

One Surprising Secret Weapon Against Natural Disasters? Landscape Architecture As extreme weather events become commonplace, landscape designers are helping cities lessen the impact. In an era when cities are ravaged by drought, flooding, wildfires, and more, infrastructure projects tend to get most of the attention when it comes to resiliency. But good landscape design can be powerful, too. This week, the American Society of Landscape Architects, or ASLA, published an online guide designed to help its members plan for, and even prevent, the worst.

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Low Impact Development: a design manual for urban areas

2011 AIA Institute. 2011. Low Impact Development: a design manual for urban areas. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/636203884829966848/sent/?sender=305682030866350581&invite _code=e3fc77e10f8bb35027d743c24ed3f081

ASLA 2016 Honor Award, General Design Category. Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park by Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl.[Photo: Lim Shiang Han] Source: Miller, M. 2016. One Surprising Secret Weapon Against Natural Disasters? Landscape Architecture. Fastcodesign. 22 September. https://www.fastcodesign.com/3063945/cities-secret-weapon-against-natural-disasterslandscape-architecture See also: American Society of Landscape Architects. The Dirt – Uniting the Built & Natural Environments. https://dirt.asla.org/2016/09/19/asla-launches-guide-to-resilient-design/

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https://www.pinterest.com/pin/509751251557860216/sent/?sender=305682030866350581&invite_code=186edd8b717 ad5a8f62aa2290e7dcabb

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Urban Water Square

http://www.urbanisten.nl/wp/?portfolio=singapore

Investments in Watersheds and Water Catchment

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Source: Zwick, S. 2016. Can Investments in “Green Infrastructure” Help Coastal Cities Survive Climate Change? 16 December. Treehugger. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/steve-zwick/can-investments-in-green_b_13674974.html

Literature / further information: SWITCH. 2011. Training Kit – Integrated Urban Water Management in the City of the Future. Module 5 - Stormwater Exploring the Options. http://www.switchtraining.eu/fileadmin/template/projects/switch_training/files/Modules/Module_reduced_size/Switch_Tr aining_Kit_Module_4.pdf

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