Design Manual: School Construction in Malawi Frank McCabe MArch Advanced Architectural Design University of Strathclyde August 2015 Supervisor: Prof. Ashraf Salama 1
3.2.5 Roof and trusses 3.2.6 Finishes 1.1
Introduction
1.2
Who should use this manual
3.3
3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 3.3.7 aid 3.3.8 3.3.9 3.3.10
1.3 Primary schools as community hubs 1.4
Malawian context 1.4.1 Background 1.4.2 Demographics 1.4.3 Climate 1.4.4 Primary Education system
2.1
Classroom design Space standards Natural light Ventilation Temperature Furniture Classroom Layout Building as a learning Dust Acoustics Accessibility
3.4
Kitchen
3.5
Office, Staff Room & Storage
Community involvement
3.6
Play space & Outdoor Learning
2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3
3.7
Other resources
Before construction During construction After construction
3.7.1 3.7.2 3.7.3 3.7.4
Library Medical room School Hall Computer Lab
2.2
Site selection
2.3
Urban versus rural
2.4
Climactic considerations
3.8
Maintenance
2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4
3.9
Safety and security
4.1
Water
4.2
Sanitation
2.5
Orientation Solar design Rain Wind
Schedule of accommodation 2.5.1 Essential facilities 2.5.2 Additional facilities
2.6
Site layout
3.1
Material selection
3.2
Construction techniques 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4
4.2.1 Quantity of facilities 4.2.2 Design of facilities 4.3
Foundation Flooring Walls Windows and doors
Fig 01. Cover image, Balaka, Malawi (McCabe, 2015) 2
Electricity
Section 1 - Introduction 1.1 - Introduction
on what is feasible with school design in Malawi have been considered, including keeping costs low and keeping communities involved in the process.
Working towards international targets on universal primary education in Malawi will require a significant programme of school construction. Malawi currently has a shortfall of over 70,000 classrooms (National Statistical Office, 2012), a significant barrier to quality education. Around 20% of the existing stock are temporary structures and will soon need renovated or replaced (Theunynck, 2009).
Whilst it is recommended that the user goes through each section of the manual, it may be equally useful as a reference for design and construction standards.
1.3 – Primary Schools as Community Hubs Education is a major international development goal. The benefits of pursuing improved education are significant for both the individual and wider society. This manual suggests that improving education through a major increase in classroom construction is an opportunity for development beyond education.
The purpose of this document is to act as a good practice guide for organisations intending to construct school infrastructure in Malawi. Priorities: Improving upon the standard model of classroom construction Creating environments conducive to learning Increasing classroom stock quickly and efficiently Improving access to school, particularly in rural areas Designing schools that minimise barriers to quality education Including local communities at each stage, from planning to use of school resources
As a network of primary schools are constructed, these projects could also create access to other vital developmental resources, such as water and electricity. Schools therefore take the place of a national infrastructure as important utilities are dispersed through catchment areas. These community hub schools could also be used for adult learning, health clinics and cultural events. This manual is intended to lay out how this could be achieved through the design of these schools.
The document will take reference from extensive research on school construction strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa but will also tailor findings to the Malawian context. School
1.2 – Who should use this manual? This is not a guide for the implementation of a large scale school building programme but for the design of individual schools within such a programme. As such, the guide is relevant to both large and small organisations. The guidelines in this document outline the acceptable standards that each school should meet. This should be relevant to the Ministry of Education as well as NGOs, charities and other organisations constructing schools in Malawi.
Education Water Electricity Resources
Local Community
1.4 – Malawian Context
1.4.1 Background
Malawi is located in South East Africa and is landlocked, with an area of 118,484 square kilometres, 20% of which is water (World Bank, 2010). The capital city and largest city
Architects and designers who use this manual should consider it a framework within which a successful school design must fit. Constraints 3
is Lilongwe in the central region, the second largest city, and unofficial commercial capital, is Blantyre in the south. Mzuzu is the only major city in the north but is significantly smaller than Lilongwe and Blantyre. 1.4.2 Demographics The population is 16.8 million and has risen at a rate of 3% per annum since 2005 (World Bank, 2015). 82% of the population live in rural areas. The Southern region of Malawi is the most densely populated, with 5.9 million people (45% of the total population).The Central region has 5.5 million people (42%). The Northern region is the least urbanized and has the lowest hare of the population with only 1.7 million people (13%). 3% of the population are primary school age, although this is expected to rise (Fig. 3) (World Bank, 2010). Northern Region Central Region Southern Region
Rural Population Urban Population
Fig 02. Population distribution, Malawi (World Bank, 2010) Fig 04. Population density, Malawi (WFP, 2014) Figure 3: Trends and Projections of School-Age Populations (1998–2018) 4.5 4.0 3.5
Percent
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
3–5 year old (ECD) 6–13 year old (Primary) 14–17 year old (Secondary)
0.5 0 1998
2003
2008
2013
Year
Fig 03. Trends and Projections of School-Age Populations (World Bank, 2010) 4
2018
62% of the population live on less than $2 per day and 21% on less than $1 per day (World Bank, 2010). Malawi’s HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is 11.9%, higher than the African average of 6.7% (World Bank, 2010).
1.4.3 Climate
Fig 05. Average annual temperature (Malawi Meteorological Services, 2006)
Fig 06. Average annual rainfall (Malawi Meteorological Services, 2006)
Malawi’s climate is generally tropical but there are significant variations across the country. Local temperatures are closely related to altitude, with the hottest parts of the country around Lake Malawi and the Shire valley and the coolest around Mulanje, Zomba, Dedza
5
and Nyika (Briggs, 2013, p. 4). Malawi has three seasons, between November and March is the hot, wet season, between April and August are moderate and dry and between September and October are hot and dry (Briggs, 2013, p. 4).
infrastructure is yet to recover and facilities are generally poor. Only 35% of those enrolled go on to complete their primary schooling, at least partly due to the number of incomplete schools (Schools that do not have grades 1-8) (World Bank, 2010, p. xxi). Primary school in Malawi consists of eight years or ‘standards’ and should begin at six years old. After their primary education pupils sit the Primary School Leaving Certificate Examination (PSLE), which determines their eligibility for secondary school.
1.4.4 Primary Education System Primary school fees were abolished in Malawi in 1994, in the wake of the first democratic elections since independence in 1964. The following academic term an additional 1 million children enrolled in primary school (Chimombo, 2005, p. 157). Malawi’s school
Figure 7: Access Rate to Each Grade (2007) 100
100% 97% 88%
80
76% 66%
60
Percent
52% 46%
40
35%
17%
20
18%
12%
14%
0 std1
std2
std3
std4
std5
std6
std7
std8
F1
F2
F3
F4
Grade
Fig 07. Access Rate to Each Grade (World Bank, 2010)
Malawi Teacher Pupil Ratio (2005-2012)
1:71
2005
1:75
2006
1:78
1:78
1:80
1:80
2007
2008
2009
2010
Fig 08. Malawi Pupil Teacher Ratio (National Statistical Office, 2012) 6
1:76
1:74
2011
2012
Section 2 - Consultation & Planning 2.1 – Community Involvement
community contributing, but theirs should not be the only source of materials. 2.1.3 - After Construction
2.1.1 – Before Construction
If the school is to become a community hub then use of facilities is essential. As schools are generally only in use for eight hours each week day the construction of a school becomes more efficient with use in evenings and weekends. This can create potential issues of security that must be considered. Defined, sheltered, outdoor space can act as a versatile area for community events, without putting classrooms at risk of damage or vandalism.
Ensuring a good relationship between the local community and the school is vital. The way in which school infrastructure is designed and managed can play a key part in this. Community involvement should be considered from the earliest stages. It is also important to bear in mind that ideally teachers, if not local, will become a part of this community and should wish to play a part in community events. Communities should be involved in at least the following ways:
Potential uses include; o Adult literacy and numeracy
o Site selection and sourcing land
o Health clinic
o Design and scope of the project o Feedback through the duration of the process
o Micro finance
o Tendering (If local construction firms are available)
o Legal advice
o Advanced agricultural methods o Community meetings
o Partial funding
o Cultural events o Markets
2.1.2 – During Construction
Architects should seek to create versatile, flexible spaces that can accommodate such use, whilst prioritising the quality of the learning environment.
During construction the community can be reasonably expected to contribute in various ways, depending on circumstances. o Bringing water to site o Delivering building sand
2.2 – Site Selection
o Providing any other local building materials available
New school sites must be well surveyed. Any proposal should seek approval from district authorities.
o Keeping the site clean o Preparing food for construction workers
o Complete plans and sections of considered sites
o Unskilled labour - whether this is paid or unpaid should be part of initial consultations, although some form of reimbursement should be included
o Determine elevation of water table o Chart sun path and consider natural sources of shade and shelter o Determine likely access points to site for users and deliveries
With bigger construction projects it may be difficult to rely on community assistance. For example, if, to keep a project on schedule, several barrels of water are required within a short time, relying on the community would not be sensible and delivery to site should be arranged. This should not prevent the
o Determine the distance to the nearest school, hospital, trading centre and other resources to determine the required accommodation 7
o Sites must require a new school based on a study of school age population within a walking distance of 2km or 30 minutes if terrain is difficult
In rural areas additional considerations include: o Access to clean water o Sanitation strategy o Transportation of construction materials to site
30 min walk (2km)
Catchment Area Physical Barriers
2.4 – Climactic considerations
School
2.4.1 – Orientation Malawi’s prevailing wind is Easterly, from the Indian Ocean, minimise openings on Eastern facades to prevent driving wind and rain entering the classrooms. An East-West orientation, with windows facing North and South is preferable as the low morning and evening sun will not penetrate the classroom. Where this site does not allow for this consider extra measures such as extended roof overhang, blinds or shutters.
30 min walk (<2km)
Fig 09. Catchment Area o The size of the site must be sufficient for all classrooms, any additional accommodation and outdoor play space
N
o A source of natural fresh water is beneficial
3300
o Locate soil areas suitable for drainage
3000
E
05:06
o Avoid flood plains and sites prone to forest fire or other hazards
o Avoid areas around mosquito habitats such as areas of stagnant water or wetlands
17:17
W
o Determine constituent ratios of soil (gravel:sand:clay)
June 21st December 21st Sunset Sunrise
600
06:06
o Determine soil quality and loadbearing qualities
o Avoid forested areas to reduce deforestation
300
240
0
2100
800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100
18:10
1200 1500
S
Fig 10. Sun path Malawi
2.3 – Urban versus Rural sites
N
In urban areas additional considerations include:
E
o Maintaining space standards in dense areas o Conforming to city zoning legislation o Ensuring safe passage for pupils, particularly near busy roads
W Fig 11. Orientation Diagram 8
S
2.4.2 – Solar design Provide shading where possible to keep temperatures cool. Roof overhangs, window overhangs and planting can assist with this. Indirect sunlight is preferable to avoid glare. Consider louvered windows based on sun orientation.
2.4.4 –Wind When designing natural ventilation wind direction will influence intended inflow. Wind can also cause significant uplift on the roof. Strong winds also cause significant lateral loads and appropriate bracing and tensile reinforcement should be included. Well placed planting can partially mitigate this. Roof and any shutters should be securely tied down to prevent wind damage.
2.5 – Schedule of accommodation
Shade
The following is merely the accommodation that a school requires, for further details on space standards and design recommendations refer to section 3.3
Indirect Light
2.5.1 – Essential facilities
Fig 12. Solar Shading Diagram
Accommodation
Additional information
Classrooms
In rural areas these may be multi-grade. At least 1.2m2 per pupil
Flexible teaching space
This can be within a classroom. Essential for small group learning Male, female and staff. 1 WC with running water per 20 pupils For cooking and drinking water Size relative to expected enrolment Must be secure 5-10m2 per pupil
2.4.3 –Rain Levels of rainfall will principally affect the roof design. Pitched roofs are preferable due to heavy seasonal downpours. The pitch will affect the speed rain is shed and guttering should be appropriately designed to match this. Overhangs will protect the exterior walls but reduce levels of sunlight. Consider making use of rainwater through collection and storage.
WCs
Taps
Consider a site catchment area for surface drainage. This is an area that can store water such as a seasonal pond. This can be created from the excavated site filled with broken wastage materials such as bricks or stones. This improves site drainage and reduces flood risk.
Kitchen Storage space Outdoor play space Sports fields
Flexible sheltered space
Rainy season flood water store
Dry season
Fig 13. Retention pond Diagram 9
Keep sizes junior. Football and netball are particularly popular For community use out with school hours
2.6 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Site layout
2.5.2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Additional facilities Accommodation
Additional information
Library
This may be an additional room or dedicated space within classrooms Assists in lesson planning. 16m2 for up to 6 teachers with an additional 2.6m2 for additional teachers. Particularly helpful if the school will be used as a community clinic out with school hours. All schools must have a first aid kit
Staff room
Medical room
Community school garden Computer lab
Vegetable patch assists with agriculture lessons Can be dedicated room or appropriate space elsewhere
School hall
Should be flexible. For assemblies, drama, physical education etc.
The main entrance to the school is unlikely to be well defined, particularly in rural schools where boundary walls are rare. Some effort to create an entrance with a small wall, signage, paving or vegetation should be encouraged and public and community spaces should be adjacent. Avoid steep slopes or steps and consider accessibility across the site. Games areas and sports fields should be located a significant distance from classrooms to prevent noise disruption. Blocks should be arranged to define assembly areas and courtyards. This can also allow supervision from offices. Male, female and staff toilets should be separated visually and acoustically. Passive supervision from staff areas is to be encouraged. Toilet location should also be downwind from classrooms and issues of drainage should be carefully considered. Consider future expansion when laying out the site, particularly where classroom need cannot immediately be met. Allow space for future development.
Fig 14. School layout Diagram Private area Maintenance Access
Compost
Male WC
Incinerator
Sheltered Outdoor Learning
Classroom Block
Female WC
Washing area
Washing area Visual Barrier
Reception
Community Spaces
Main entrance
Administration Water Pump
Sports fields
Assembly area with flexible shelter
Community Kitchen
Staff Store
Community Garden
Potential Expansion
Office
Medical Room
Sheltered Outdoor Learning
10
Classroom Block Store
N
Section 3 – Design & Construction 3.1 – Material selection interlocking stabilised soil blocks
straw bale
earth bags
£80~
£65~
£65~
£65~
Quicker than typical reinforced concrete building.
Very slow due to long curing time and shuttering work.
Mortar-less blocks can be laid up to 5 times faster.
Similar to earthbag but faster as lightweight.
Faster than brick but additional plastering required.
Vulnerable to water and insects. Typicaly 30-40 years
Can last centuries if well constructed
Similar to burnt brick. 30-40 years
Similar to earthbag but dependant on plaster quality.
Extermely durable. Not subject to decompisition.
Low- every 10-15 years
Frequent Cracks
Frequent Cracks
Low - Regular Low - Regular waterproofing waterproofing
The most Earth requires commonly specific clay used material content. in Malawi.
Earth is available but brickmaking press is not common.
Available but most arable land used for maize, tea and tobacco.
Almost any earth can be used. Maize bags are available.
Basic masonry skills are common
Pressing training required.
Simple, but not common system.
Simple, but not common system.
Devastates Contributes to Very low forrests and deforestation. impact. contributes to flooding.
Uses arable land for construction
Very low impact.
clay fired brick rammed earth
typical cost/m2 £100~ construction speed
durability
maintenance availability of material
availability of skills
environmental impact
Building shuttering is highly skilled work.
Fig 15. 11
The list above is by no means exhaustive but if any material considered is judged favourably by these standards then it should be a viable option.
Standard system uses either poured concrete or burnt brick to 2m below ground line on top of a concrete footing. o Rammed earth trench foundation
o Is the material suitable in the local climate?
Rammed Earth Foundation
o Is the material available locally? o If not, will transportation be expensive? o Will the local community accept the material?
Concrete Screed Floor Damp Proofing
Rammed Earth
Hardcore
o If not, consider demonstrations through small scale projects o Are there opportunities for the local community to contribute with the construction?
Fig 17.
o Will the material contribute to deforestation
Earth stabilised with cement and compacted into a trench can make a sound foundation. This process is more time consuming than the standard system.
As a general principal, avoid cement where possible to reduce costs (although not to the detriment of structural stability) and reduce use of timber to prevent deforestation. It is also imperative to consider the lifecycle cost of the building rather than just initial costs. More durable materials are preferable to cheaper ones.
o Rubble trench foundation Rubble Trench Foundation
Concrete Slab Hardcore
Damp Proofing
Trench
3.2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Construction Techniques 3.2.1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Foundation
Fig 18.
Foundations tend to be one of the most expensive elements of a structure, due to the quantities of cement required. There are various alternative designs that can reduce cement usage. As structures tend to be single story, shallow or slab foundations are usually optimum.
Rubble trench foundations are relatively simple and quick if appropriate materials are available. o Earth-bag trench foundation
o Standard concrete foundation Burnt Brick Wall
Standard Concrete Foundation
Earthbag Trench Foundation
Concrete Screed Floor Damp Proofing
Earth Bags
Gravel Bags
Hardcore
Hardcore
Fig 16.
Fig 19. 12
Concrete Screed Floor Hardcore
Damp Proofing
Similar to rubble trench, earth-bags with a high gravel content are used below the ground line to floor height.
o Rammed earth
3.2.2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Flooring Concrete slab is the most common floor system. These normally sit upon a layer of hardcore. Alternatives with stabilised earth are also possible. The floor level should be raised at least 500mm above the ground line to avoid water damage. Compacted Earth 500mm
Hardcore
Gravel Layer
Damp Proofing
Fig 22. Rammed Earth Wall o Interlocking stabilised soil blocks
Fig 20. Compacted Earth floor
Interlocking Blocks
Interlocking Blocks No Mortar required
3.2.3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Walls
Earth Earthbag Bags should be relatively simple building Concrete Trench Walls elements. Timber and steel frames are Screed Floor not options due to cost and deforestation. Foundation
External waterproofing required
Concrete frames are possible but expensive. Loadbearing wallsGravel are more viable. AsDamp Malawi Proofing Hardcore is in an earthquake zone a ring-beam is Bags required for lateral strength. (See 3.1 for more information on wall materials) Fig 23. Rammed Earth Wall Hardcore
o Burnt brick
o Earth-bag
Burnt Brick Cement Mortar
Earth filled bags
Internal plaster
Barbed wire every course
Steel reinforcement every 4 courses
Plaster required inside and out
Fig 21. Burnt Brick wall
Fig 24. Earthbag wall 13
3.2.4 – Windows & Doors Glass windows are rare due to cost and security issues. Framed windows and doors, of metal or timber, with shutters or blinds are preferable. Combining the lintel with the ringbeam is an efficient use of concrete. Windows and doors must be secure to prevent vandalism or theft.
Choices are limited for roofing materials in Malawi. Thatch is used in small rural houses but requires regular maintenance and skilled labour. Tiles are not common and expensive and also require expensive timber battens. By far the most common for school construction across the region is profiled metal sheeting. The roof is the element most exposed to the climate so a durable material should be used. Ideally this should be pre-treated and painted to increase durability. 3.2.6 – Finishes
Combined ringbeam lintel
Water tight wall construction can be left exposed externally. Plastering internally can improve the quality of indirect illumination, particularly if painted white. A wire mesh can improve the durability and application of plaster.
Metal window
Stucco or cement plaster is the most common and most durable system used in Malawi. This is cement, sand, lime and water. Earth plasters can also be used to varying ratios of cement, lime and earth. This will depend on the constituent ratios of available earth.
Fig 25. Window section 3.2.5 – Roof & Trusses
3.3 – Classroom Design
In general, steel or any other metal are too expensive and timber trusses are preferred. Pitched trusses tend to be more efficient than flat. In general trusses should be at 2.4m centres (the standard in Malawi). However structural testing should be carried out in advance.
3.3.1 – Space Standards Average classroom size in Malawi is relatively high at 77m2 (Theunynck, 2009, p. 21). The minimum area per pupil is 1.2m2. This leaves no additional room however for storage, library or flexible learning space. 1.4m2 per pupil is preferable. For the targeted maximum class size of 40 pupils, this requires class sizes of 48m2 – 56m2 (Theunynck, 2009, p. 21). Classrooms can also become too large, if pupils are too far from the chalkboard or teacher they will be less able to concentrate.
Due to limited availability of quality timber, often chords must be made from multiple timbers. Where this is the case ensure the connection is at the strongest point on the chord. Scissor trusses may be the most practical in this situation.
3.3.2 – Natural Light Levels of light directly influence pupil’s performance and effort should be made to maximise illumination. At least 12m2of windows should be included, as evenly spaced as possible to avoid dark corners (Hirano, 2009, p. 20). Additional lighting from transparent roof sheets should be considered, however these can cause glare.
tie trusses to ringbeam Fig 26. Truss diagram
Control of lighting is also important. Openable 14
3.3.4 – Temperature
shutters or louvres should be considered. These can also assist with driving wind and rain.
High temperatures in classrooms inhibit pupil concentration. Strategies to reduce temperatures include:
Ideally light should be indirect to avoid glare. South facing windows will let in soft, diffuse light. A well designed overhang or clerestory can assist with indirect illumination.
o Well-designed ventilation (See 3.3.3) o Planting on site can significantly reduce temperatures by evaporating water from leaves and reducing ground temperatures through shade. o Heat storage through use of thermally massive elements (Fig. 29) o Including a ceiling to reduce radiative heat transfer from metal roofs. This is more effective if ventilated. (Fig. 29) Day
Fig 27. Clerestory diagram 3.3.3 – Ventilation Ventilation is also a major influence on pupil performance. Classrooms must have sufficient air changes. Ensure intended air inlets are large and low and outlets are smaller and higher. This maximises pressure differential, encouraging airflow and cooling. Roof overhangs increase inward air pressure. Louvers and window overhangs can also effect airflow.
Night
Fig 29. Thermal mass diagram o Solar shading elements over windows and doors 3.3.5 – Furniture Classroom furniture should be included where possible, particularly for older pupils. However, as furniture takes up space in the class, where classroom space is limited it may be more valuable to have 60-80 pupils in a classroom with no furniture than 30-40 inside and 30-40 outside. Furniture to consider is as follows: o Pupil’s desk and chairs, appropriately sized. There are three main options (Fig. 30-31) o Teacher’s chair and desk with lockable drawer o Presentation space on walls
Fig 28. Ventilation diagram 15
o Chalkboard. Should be at least 6m2 and well illuminated. Boards require regular painting.
of a space at minimum costs. Using elements of the existing building, such as doors, windows and stairs, in creative ways as teaching aids. This can be a positive way to improve the learning environment at a low cost.
o Storage space. If shelves, keep low as an earthquake precaution.
3.3.9 – Acoustics Types of noise disturbance designers should seek to reduce are as follows: o External noises from roads, play areas etc. Well placed planting and vegetation can assist as well as intelligent site layout.
Small (std 1 - 3)
Medium (std 4 - 6)
o Noise transfer between adjacent classrooms. Buffer zones of storage etc. can reduce this.
765mm
450mm
400mm
625mm
350mm
715mm
Fig 30. Desk types
o Echoes and poor sound transmission within classrooms. Grass mats under furniture can help as well as sound absorbing panels.
Large (std 7 - 8)
Fig 31. Desk sizes
o Wind and rain, particularly on metal roofs. There is little that can be done about impact noise on roofs other than covering with an additional dampening material. One measures that can be taken is to include a ceiling of masonry or other sound dampening material.
765mm
3.3.6 – Classroom Layout 450mm
400mm
625mm
350mm
715mm
Classroom layout should be as flexible as possible to allow varied learning arrangements. Furniture choice will directly Small (std 1 - 3) (std 4 - 6) Large (std 7 - 8) affect flexibility.Medium Classrooms should allow for the following:
o Adequate circulation space, this should take into account wheelchair users
3.3.10 – Accessibility
o Whole class teaching
Ensuring schools are accessible to pupils with disabilities is simple and inexpensive:
o Group discussion
(Hirano, 2009)
o Small group teaching
(Theunynck, 2009)
o Individual assistance and teaching
o Consider the topography of the site and ensure routes are accessible across the school.
3.3.7 – Building as a Learning Aid The Building as a Learning Aid (BaLA) method is a way of maximising the educational value
o Avoid multiple levels and the need for flights of stairs. o Ensure door openings are at least 900mm o 1 Include ramps at no more than 1:10 /4 (Fig. 33). 1/8 1/1
61 /16
0
10
Level Optimum
0
0
20
90
0
30 0 0 4
0
0
0
60
50
70
0
80
Fig 32. BaLA diagram
1/2
<1:20 Accessible
Fig 33. ramp sizes 16
Max 1:10 Assistance required
> 1:10 Hazard
e
Optimum
Accessible
Assistance required
Hazard
o Some ambulant disabled people can navigate stairs more easily than ramps, ensure an option for either is available.
Kitchens should be of materials that are easy to clean and maintain. Clean water should be adjacent.
o Ensure floor surfaces are firm and slip resistant.
Ventilation is key in kitchen design to extract smoke and steam as well as keeping temperatures low. (see 3.3.3)
Max o 1:10 Ensure at least one> 1:10 latrine has
additional space and handles on inner Hazard walls (Fig. 34).
Kitchens are a great opportunity for community involvement. Community members can be employed to cook and distribute meals. The kitchen can also be used by the community for other events. This contributes to the sense of primary schools as community hubs.
Assistance required
o Provide clear signage for partially sighted pupils. Text should contrast to background. Signs should be next to doorways (1350mm high and on side of handle) and may include brail.
Kitchen facilities must include:
o Tactile flooring can help indicate routes around schools, changes in levels and entrances. Tactile surfaces should be 5mm above floor.
o Access to clean drinking water o Food preparation area o Area for cleaning dishes, pots etc.
1800mm
1500mm wheel chair turning circle
o Adequate ventilation and smoke extraction o Separate food storage area. This must be dry and secure.
1800mm
o Separate cleaning storage area. 1000mm
o Area for safe and efficient distribution 450mm 670mm of food. o Closable windows and doors (timber or grass shutters are acceptable) to reduce dust overnight.
3.5 – Office, Staff Room & Storage
1800mm 1000mm 450mm
670mm
Offices and storage are essential parts of school infrastructure. Offices allow teachers to prepare lessons and organise the school. Secure storage allows the school to hand facilities to the community for use out of hours without fear of theft or vandalism.
Fig 34. Accessible latrine
3.4 – Kitchen
Recommended office area is at least 13m2 and more if several teachers will be using. Office should be positioned to allow supervision of school grounds. Ensure sufficient natural light and ventilation. (Hirano, 2009)
School kitchens should be provided and serve meals for both pupils and community mothers. School feeding programmes can greatly assist with the high prevalence of malnutrition in Malawi. In Malawi the majority of school feeding programmes are funded by Mary’s Meals and the World Food Programme.
Staff areas should be a minimum of 16m2 for up to 6 teachers with an additional 2.6m2 for every additional teacher. (Hirano, 2009) Recommended storage area is 10-15m2. This should be lockable and in a safe, dry location. The location should be easily monitored.
The size of the kitchen will depend on the number of pupils. Ensure good levels of natural light (see 3.3.2). 17
3.6 – Play Space & Outdoor Learning
or other space with a curtain or temporary wall. Ensure secure storage for first aid kit and supplies.
Sufficient area must be included for play – at least 5-10m2 per pupil. General outdoor space for games is required as well as sports pitches. The most popular school sports in Malawi are football and netball. Sports pitches in particular are an opportunity for community involvement. Communities can contribute to maintenance and use pitches outside of school hours.
Medical rooms must have hygienic, easily cleaned surfaces. Orthogonal forms are preferred to prevent gathering dust. Ensure stable temperatures and sufficient natural light. Ideally medical rooms will be private but allow some teacher supervision. 3.7.3 – School Hall
o Pitches must be level and smooth
A school hall should be flexible and multipurpose. Expected uses are, assembly, physical education, music, drama, social events and community meetings. Size will depend on school roll and intended use. The hall should not be used for general circulation. Avoid noise transfer from the hall to classrooms, consider buffer zones or avoiding shared walls.
o Shaded areas and vegetation is beneficial Outdoor learning can be very flexible. This may be sheltered space near the classroom or a defined courtyard area. A community garden can assist with agriculture lessons and improve techniques across the community.
If a hall is desirable but not possible due to the cost of an extra building, consider a sheltered outdoor area or canopy.
3.7 – Other Resources Planners must consider the benefit of additional resources carefully, particularly when essential facilities are not met elsewhere. In some cases additional facilities may be included through the flexible use of essential facilities such as classrooms. Designers should consider multi-use spaces.
Fig 35. Extendable canopy
3.7.4 – Computer Lab Computer labs are very rare in Malawi, even in secondary schools. Perhaps counterintuitively, successful computing teaching can be achieved without computers. Textbook based programmes and lessons on subjects such as binary numbers, algorithms and networks can be useful, although a dedicated space is not necessary.
3.7.1 – Library Storing educational and reference material is important, whether this is in a dedicated space or within a classroom. Reading spaces should be well lit without glare. A school library is said to improve literacy results by 10%. This may be an indicator of a wealthy school rather than the positive impact of a library however. (Theunynck, 2009, p. 153).
3.8 – Maintenance
Libraries may be a beneficial community facility and aid in adult teaching programmes.
Regular maintenance of schools is essential and can prevent costly future renovation and repair. Durability of building materials will influence the need and skill required for maintenance. Communities should be involved in maintenance but will require external funds.
3.7.2 – Medical Room A dedicated medical room can assist if a school is to be used as a part-time clinic with traveling consultants. If no dedicated room is possible consider segregating and area of office 18
Maintenance
Interval
Floor screed; repairs.................... Plaster, internal/external repairs............................................. Painting walls................................ Painting doors, windows and trusses............................................ Painting blackboard...................... Locks, hinges, bolts; replace..... Roofing screws, fix and replace............................................ Doors; replace...............................
20% area, 5 years 10% area, 5 years 50% area, 2 years 100% area, 5 years 100% every year 100%. 5 years 25%, 5 years 50%, 10 years
Fig 36. Maintenance schedule (Theunynck, 2009)
3.9 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Safety & Security Key safety measures that should be taken are: Solution Fire
Maintain firebreaks between buildings Plan adequate escape routes Locate kitchen some distance from other buildings
High winds and earthquakes
Ensure roof, trusses and shutters are adequately fixed to the main structure Include a ring-beam for lateral strength Tall furniture should be securely fixed
General concerns
Ensure walking surfaces are smooth and slip resistant Avoid sharp edges on furniture, building corners and columns
Site security should also be considered. o Ensure visitors cannot enter school grounds without supervision o Ensure teachers can see inside classrooms from outside to aid supervision o Define site boundaries with a wall or planting
19
Section 4 – Water & Electricity Water source options
Technical brief
Rainwater harvesting
Bacteriological water quality
Situation in which technology is most applicable
High
Good if spring catchment is adequately protected
Reliable spring flow required throughout the year
Low
Medium/high – depending on method used to abstract water. Water can be abstracted from the sand and gravel upstream of the sand dam via a well or tubewell
Good if area upstream of dam is protected
Can be constructed across seasonal river beds on impermeable bedrock
Low – local labour and materials used
Low
Medium/high – depending on method used to abstract water. Water can be abstracted from the sand, gravel or soil upstream of the subsurface dam via a well or tubewell
Good if area upstream of dam is protected
Can be constructed in sediments across seasonal river beds on impermeable bedrock
Infiltration galleries
Low – a basic infiltration gallery can be constructed using local labour and materials
Low
Medium/high – depending on method used to abstract water
Good if filtration medium is well maintained
Should be constructed next to lake or river
Rainwater harvesting
Low – low cost materials can be used to build storage tanks and catchment surfaces
Low
Medium – dependent on size of collection surface and frequency of rainfall
Good if collection surfaces are kept clean and storage containers are well maintained
In areas where there are one or two wet seasons per year
Hand-dug well capped with a rope pump
Low
Medium – spare parts required for pump
Medium
Good if rope and pump mechanisms are sealed and protected from dust. Area around well must be protected
Where the water table is not lower than six metres – although certain rope pumps can lift water from depths of up to 40 metres
Hand-dug well capped with a hand pump
Medium
Medium – spare parts required for pump
Medium
Good if area around well is protected
Where the water table is not lower than six metres
Tubewell or borehole capped with a hand pump
Medium – well drilling equipment needed. Borehole must be lined
Medium – hand pumps need spare parts
Medium
Good if area around borehole/tubewell is protected
Where a deep aquifer must be accessed
Gravity supply
High – pipelines and storage/flow balance tanks required
Low
High
Good if protected spring used as source
Stream or spring at higher elevation – communities served via tap stands close to the home
Borehole capped with electrical/ diesel/solar pump
High – pump and storage expensive
High – fuel or power required to run pump. Fragile solar cells need to be replaced if damaged
High
Good if source is protected
In a small town with a large enough population to pay for running costs
Direct river/lake abstraction with treatment
High – intake must be designed and constructed
High – treatment and pumping often required. Power required for operation
High
Good following treatment
Where large urban population must be served
Reverse osmosis
High – sophisticated plant and membranes required
High – power required for operation. Replacement membranes required
High
Good
Where large urban population must be served
Household filters
High – certain filters can be expensive to purchase/produce
Filters can be fragile. Replacement filters can be expensive or difficult to source
Low
Good as long as regular maintainance is assured
In situations where inorganic contaminants are present in groundwater sources or protected sources are not available
SODIS (solar disinfection)
Low – although clear bottles can be difficult to source in remote areas
Low
Low
Good
In areas where there is adequate sunlight – water needs to be filtered to remove particulate matter that may harbour pathogens before SODIS can be carried out effectively. SODIS is not appropriate for use with turbid water
Water sourc
Running cost
Yield
Low or medium if piped to community
Low
Sand dams
Low – local labour and materials used
Sub surface dams
Spring protection
= most preferable
Capital cos
= preferable
= least preferable
Fig 37. Water source options (Water Aid, 2013) 20
9
4.1 – Water
Handwashing
A source of clean drinking water is essential and must be able to meet the demands of the school roll and the community. Type
Minimum quantity/ pupil/day (litres)
Potable
2
Non-Potable
10
Minimum of 1 washing point for every 50 pupils
(Reed & Shaw, 2008) 4.2.2 – Design of Facilities Qualities of toilet facilities should be as follows:
(Hirano, 2009)
o Solid walls (not temporary)
If new, ensure water source is tested for quality. Schools should have multiple water points including one main community source.
o Lockable door o Cubicles should be large enough for children to comfortably enter and squat o Floors should be of concrete or other, easily cleaned, durable, material
4.2 – Sanitation
o Walls should be lined to 1m o Access should be provided for emptying and maintenance
Promoting good sanitation is schools is essential. Not only for the immediate positive effects but to create good sanitation habits into adulthood.
o Handwashing facilities should be included
Privacy and security should be considered when locating latrines. Separate genders and pupils from staff.
o Urinals should be of durable materials that are easy to clean (a roof is not essential on urinals)
In general, pit latrines are the most appropriate solution.
o Location should be at least 15m from water pump A separate area should be included for girls washing. A closed bin for soiled materials used for menstrual hygiene should be included. A small incinerator on site can safely and hygienically dispose of these. Ideally the school should keep fresh materials.
4.2.1– Quantity of Facilities Girls
Minimum of 4 cubicles (including 1 accessible cubicle). An additional cubicle for every 25 girls.
Tippy tap tap Water container
Girls facilities must include a washing and changing area Boys
Minimum of 4 cubicles (including 1 accessible cubicle).
Soap
An additional cubicle for every 50 boys. Urinals
Foot pedal controls flow without touching container
1m of urinal for every 50 boys
Gravel base prevents puddles
Fig 38. Tippy tap tap (Reed & Shaw, 2008) 21
Light enters solar flue and attracts flies
Hot air rises in the flue along with flies, smells and moisture
Minimal light enters cubicle Dark metal finish heats up and dricevs the solar flue
Cold air is sucked into pit with smells and flies
Access door to empty pit
Liquid infiltrates into ground
Fig 39. VIP Latrine (ARUP, 2001)
Start
yes
Does the school have a reliable, piped water supply? no
Do you want to install a flush toilet?
yes
Seek specialist advice
no yes
Does the area flood regularly?
Seek specialist advice
no no
Can you dig a pit 3-5m deep? yes
no
Can you dig a pit 1.5m deep?
Seek specialist advice
yes
Will the side walls of a pit allow small amounts of liquid to escape?
no
Seek specialist advice
yes Will the side walls of a pit collapse if not supported?
Will the side walls of a pit allow small amounts of liquid to escape?
yes
no
Seek specialist advice
no Will the pit be emptied using a machine?
yes
yes
no Construct a partially lined deep pit latrine
Construct a fully lined deep pit latrine
Fig 40. Latrine flow chart (Reed & Shaw, 2008) 22
Construct a shallow pit latrine
4.3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Electricity Less than 10% of Malawiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population have access to electricity (World Bank, 2015). Electricity access can improve the local economy and the quality of education in a number of ways: o
Tanzania Zambia
Increased working hours (after dark)
o Access to online information and resources
Mzuzu
Lake Malawi
o Improves working opportunities (efficient technologies rather than manual work) o
Communication improvements
o
Increased studying time
o
Access to evening classes at schools
Mozambique
Access is particularly poor in rural areas however there is potential here for off grid renewable energies (Brent & Kruger, 2008).
Lilongwe
Mozambique
Viable sources of, small scale, renewable energy in Malawi include, wind, solar PV and biomass. The optimum type will depend on the nature of the site and the local climate.
Zomba Blantyre Power lines High Medium
Power Plants Hydro
Thermal <10MW
10-100MW
>10MW
Fig 42. Electricity lines map bicycle wheel bicycle dynamo
piston from shock absorber
tractor fan bicycle frame pulleys
bicycle chain ring rubber belt Metal support pipes bamboo poles
copper wire
flattened pvc pipe
Fig 41. Low tech wind turbine (Kamkwamba, 2010) 23
10
1000
0 2002
500
1984
1987
1990
1993
1996
1999
20
1500
yields
1984
1987
1990
Poverty in
2000
500
10 1993
1996
1999
0 2002
Water Access
Drinking Water
Washing Facilities
Sanitation
Irrigation
Impact of electrification on hours of homework
Fertiliser
Agriculture
<1 hour
1-2 hours Increased Attendance
School Meals
>2 hours
Fig 43. Water access electrified non-electrified
ervices and basic literacy can be of electricity, access to energy quality and availability of educational likelihood that children will attend and cleaner and affordable energy options ild-friendly environment that ance and reduces the significant d in Malawi. For example, cleaner and hance access to clean water, heating/cooling, and energy for
alawi is less than 10% and in rural rovision of energy across the country against poverty is hardly in question, d, however, is. Whilst national nts would be the most efficient, the ailable. Thus a series of small scale nd primary school catchment areas lawi has potential for both solar pv and ar pv would be more appropriate as the ficient wind consistently.
Cereal yiel
20
1000
ple in Malawi do not have access to clean drinking in rural areas. On top of this 90% do not have tation facilities. There is a close correlation vailability of clean water in a country and the poverty. etting the importance of water cannot be aking water available in schools will not only dance but improve pupilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s concentration and ead of many diseases. Equally, one of the biggest emale school attendance is a lack of clean, s. ection may be suitable in certain areas of Malawi s not consistent enough throughout the year for most efficient method of providing water. Whilst e as the main source of water rainwater cheap supplementary technology. For year round er communities will require either a hand dug well depending on the site conditions. Without an ey it is impossible to say which of these would be o Galafa. end to become the community focal point and on within a school could bring uneducated adults environment for the first time.
rgy
yields
1500
Poverty in
Cereal yiel
2000
Solar PV
chargeable lamps
Lighting
Charging Station
increased homework hours
mobile phones & internet access
A+ Improved performance
Communication
Fig 44. Electricity access
24
List of Figures Figure 01 McCabe 2015 Cover image - Matititsi, Malawi [photograph]
Figure 10 McCabe, 2015 Sun path diagram Malawi [Diagram] Figure 11 McCabe, 2015 Orientation Diagram [Drawing]
Figure 02 World Bank, 2010 Population distribution, Malawi [Graph] Washington DC: World Bank
Figure 12 McCabe, 2015 Solar Shading Diagram [Diagram]
Figure 03 World Bank, 2010 Trends and Projections of School-Age Populations [Graph] Washington DC: World Bank
Figure 13 McCabe, 2015 Retention Pond Diagram [Diagram]
Figure 04 WFP, 2011 Population density map [Map] geonode.wfp.org Accessed 16/08/15
Figure 14 McCabe, 2015 School Layout Diagram [Diagram] Figure 15 McCabe, 2015 Material selection matrix [Table]
Figure 05 Malawi Meteorological Services, 2006 Average annual temperature [Map] www.metmalawi.com - Accessed 16/08/15
Figure 16 McCabe, 2015 Standard concrete foundation [Drawing]
Figure 06 Malawi Meteorological Services, 2006 Average annual rainfall [Map] www.metmalawi.com - Accessed 16/08/15
Figure 17 McCabe, 2015 Rammed earth foundation [Drawing]
Figure 07 World Bank, 2010 Access Rate to Each Grade [Graph] Washington DC: World Bank
Figure 18 McCabe, 2015 Rubble trench foundations [Drawing] Figure 19 McCabe, 2015 Earthbag foundations [Drawing]
Figure 08 National Statistical Office, 2012 Malawi Pupil Teacher Ratio [Graph] Zomba: National Statistical Office
Figure 20 McCabe, 2015 Compacted earth floor [Drawing]
Figure 09 McCabe, 2015 Catchment Area [Diagram]
Figure 21 McCabe, 2015 Burnt brick wall [Drawing]
25
Figure 22 McCabe, 2015 Rammed earth wall [Drawing]
Figure 35 McCabe, 2015 Extendable canopy [Drawing]
Figure 23 McCabe, 2015 Interlocking stabilised soil block wall [Drawing]
Figure 36 Theunynck, 2009 Maintenance schedule [Table] Washington DC: World Bank
Figure 24 McCabe, 2015 Earthbag wall [Drawing]
Figure 37 Water Aid, 2013 Water source options [Table] www.wateraid.org - Accessed 16/08/15
Figure 25 McCabe, 2015 Window section [Drawing]
Figure 38 Reed & Shaw, 2008 Tippy tap tap [Diagram] Loughborough: WEDC
Figure 26 McCabe, 2015 Truss diagram [Diagram]
Figure 39 ARUP, 2001 VIP Latrine [Diagram] London: Thames and Hudson
Figure 27 McCabe, 2015 Clerestory diagram [Diagram] Figure 28 McCabe, 2015 Ventilation diagram [Diagram]
Figure 40 Reed & Shaw, 2008 Latrine flow chart [Diagram] Loughborough: WEDC
Figure 29 McCabe, 2015 Thermal mass diagram [Diagram]
Figure 41 Kamkwamba, 2010 Low tech wind turbine [Diagram]
Figure 30 McCabe, 2015 Desk types [Drawing]
Figure 42 McCabe, 2015 Malawi power lines [Map]
Figure 31 McCabe, 2015 Desk sizes [Drawing]
Figure 43 McCabe, 2015 Water access [Diagram]
Figure 32 McCabe, 2015 BaLA diagram [Drawing]
Figure 44 McCabe, 2015 Electricity access [Diagram]
Figure 33 McCabe, 2015 Ramp sizes [Drawing] Figure 34 McCabe, 2015 Accessible latrine [Drawing]
26
Bibliography Books Architecture for Humanity, 2006. Design Like You Give a Damn: Architectural Responses to Humanitarian Crises. London: Thames and Hudson. Briggs, P. (2013). Malawi. (6th, Ed.) London: Bradt. Ching, F. 2014. Building construction illustrated (5th ed.). New Jersey: Wiley. Chung, C., 2002. Using Public Schools as Community-Development Tools, Cambridge, MA: Joint Center for Housing Studies. Geiger, O., 2011. Earthbag building guide. Crestone: Geiger Institute of Sustainable Building. Hannula, E.-L., 2012. Going Green: A Handbook of sustainable housing practices in developing countries, Nairobi: UN-HABITAT. Keable, J. & Keable, R., 2012. Rammed Earth Structures A Code of Practice. Warwickshire: Practical Action. Lehman, D., 2003. Bringing the School to the Children : Shortening the Path to EFA, Washington DC: World Bank. Lepik, A., 2010. Small Scale Big Change. New York: MOMA. Rael, R., 2009. Earth Architecture. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Ruskulis, O., 2009. School buildings in developing countries, Rugby: Practical Action. Smith, C. E., 2007. Design for the Other 90%. New York: Smithsonian, Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum. Thompson, A. (2008). Schools. In D. Littlefield (Ed.), Metric Handbook: Planning and Design Data (3rd ed.). Oxford: Architectural Press.
Journal Articles Barrett, P., Zhang, Y., Moffat, J. & Kobbacy, K., 2013. A holistic, multi-level analysis identifying the impact of classroom design on pupil’s learning. Building and Environment, Volume 59, pp. 678 - 689. Brent, A. C., & Kruger, W. J. (2008). Systems analyses and the sustainable transfer of renewable energy technologies: A focus on remote areas of Africa. Renewable Energy, 1-8. Chimombo, J., 2005. Quantity Versus Quality in Education: Case Studies in Malawi. International Review of Education, Volume 51, pp. 155-172. Coester, D., 2015. Welcome to the Global Village. Leading Architecture and Design, Issue Feb/Mar 2015, pp. 14-16. De Raedt, K., 2014. Between ‘true believers’ and operational experts: UNESCO architects and school building in post-colonial Africa. The Journal of Architecture, 19(1), pp. 19-42. Gustavsson, M., 2007. Educational benifits from solar technology - Access to solar electric services and changes in children’s study toutines, experiences from eastern province Zambia. Energy Policy, Volume 35, pp. 1292-1299. Harvey, P. A. & Reed, R. A., 2006. Community-managed water supplies in Africa: sustainable or dispensable?. Community Development Journal, 42(3), pp. 365-378. Kirk, J. & Sommer, M., 2006. Menstruation and body awareness: linking girls’ health with girls’ education.. Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), Special on Gender and Health, pp. 1-22. Laurete, A., Lehmann, C. & Tsukada, R., 2009. Raindrops for Education: How to improve water access in schools?. The International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth, Volume 99, p. 1. Lawson, H., 2009. Lessons learnt: Malawi schools project; Architects: John McAslan & Partners. Architect’s Journal, 230(19), pp. 28-31. Lawson, H. & Glenday, J., 2010. Hearts and minds. Urban realm, Volume 2, pp. 74-83. Mwambene, J. B., Muula, A. S. & Leo, J. C., 2013. Prevalence and correlates of hunger among primary and 27
secondary school children in Malawi: results from the 2009 Global School-based Health Survey. Malawi Medical Journal, 25(2), pp. 45-49`. Sommer, M., 2010. Where the education system and women’s bodies collide: The social and health impact of girls’ experiences of menstruation and schooling in Tanzania. Journal of Adolescence, Volume 33, pp. 521-529. Uduku, O., 2015. Designing schools for quality: An international, case study-based review. International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 44, pp. 56-64.
Reports Bruce, N., Perez-Padilla, R. & Albalak, R., 2002. The health effects of indoor air pollution exposures in developing countries, Geneva: World Health Organization. Bundy, D. et al., 2009. Rethinking School Feeding: Social Safety Nets, Child Development and the Education Sector. Washington DC: World Bank. Earthman, G., 2004. Prioritization of 31 Criteria for School Building Adequacy, Baltimore: American Civil Liberties Union Foundation of Maryland. Foster, V. & Shkaratan, M., 2011. Malawi’s Infrastructure: A Continental Perspective, Chicago: The World Bank. Hirano, S., 2009. child friendly schools infrastructure standards and guidelines, Kigali: Rwanda Ministry of Education. Knapp, E. & Noschis, K., 2010. Architectural Quality in Planning and Design of Schools: Current issues with focus on Developing Countries. Lausanne: Comportements. Knapp, E., Noschis, K., Pasalar, Ç. & (Eds.), 2007. School Building Design and Learning Performance with a Focus on Schools in Developing Countries. Lausanne: Comportements. Lehman, D. et al., 2004. The Rural Access Initiative: Shortening the Distance to Education for All in the African Sahel.. Washington DC: World Bank. Mulkeen, A. G. & Higgins, C., 2009. Multigrade Teaching in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington DC: World Bank. Nannyonjo, H., 2007. Education inputs in Uganda: An Analysis of Factors Influencing Learning Achievement in Grade Six, Washington DC: World Bank. National Statistical Office, 2012. Statistical Yearbook 2012, Zomba: National Statistical Office. Reed, B. & Shaw, R., 2008, Sanitation for Primary schools in Africa, Loughborough: WEDC Sanoff, H., 2002. Schools Designed with Community Participation., Washington DC: National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities-NCEF. Theunynck, S., 2009. School Construction Strategies for Universal Primary Education in Africa: Should Communities Be Empowered to Build Their Schools?, Washington DC: The World Bank. Uduku, O., 2010. Designing school buildings as development hubs for learning: Final Project Report for EdQual Project, Bristol: University of Bristol. UNDP, 2015. The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015, New York: United Nations. UNESCO, 2015. Fixing the Broken Promise of Education for All: Findings from the Global Initiative on Outof-School Children, Montreal: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. UNESCO-IBE, 2010. World Data on Education: Malawi vii Ed. 2010/11, s.l.: UNESCO. UN-HABITAT, 2009. Interlocking Stabilised Soil Blocks: Appropriate earth technologies in Uganda, Nairobi: UN-HABITAT. Varanda, F., 2004. 2004 Site Review Report: Primary School, Gando, Burkina Faso, Geneva: Aga Khan Award for Architecture. World Bank, 2010. The Education System in Malawi, Washington D.C.: The World Bank. World Food Programme, 2006. World Hunger Series 2006: Hunger and Learning, Rome & Stanford: World Food Programme & Stanford University Press.
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Online Sources A4AC, 2014. The Legson Kayira Community Center & Primary School / Architecture for a Change. [online] Available at: www.archdaily.com/567576/the-legson-kayira-community-center-and-primary-school-architecturefor-a-change - [Accessed 17 Aug. 2015]. Vidal, J., 2015. Malawiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s solar power revolution starts by bringing schoolchildren out of the dark. [online] the Guardian. Available at: www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/aug/10/malawis-solar-power-revolutionstarts-by-bringing-schoolchildren-out-of-the-dark - [Accessed 17 Aug. 2015]. The World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2015. Population growth [Data file]. Available at: data.worldbank. org/indicator - [Accessed 17 Aug. 2015]
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Design Manual: School Construction in Malawi Frank McCabe MArch Advanced Architectural Design University of Strathclyde August 2015 Supervisor: Prof. Ashraf Salama
30