Laying the foundations for learning what role can architects play in achieving universal quality pri

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Laying the Foundations for Learning What Role Can Architects and Planners Play in Achieving Universal Quality Primary Education in Malawi? Frank McCabe MArch Advanced Architectural Design University of Strathclyde Dissertation August 2015 Supervisor: Prof. Ashraf Salama 1

Laying the Foundations for Learning What Role Can Architects and Planners Play in Achieving Universal Quality Primary Education in Malawi? Frank McCabe MArch Advanced Architectural Design University of Strathclyde Dissertation August 2015 Supervisor: Prof. Ashraf Salama

Declaration AB 2290 Masters 2014/15 MArch Architectural Design International M.Sc. Urban Design

Declaration “I hereby declare that this dissertation submission is my own work and has been composed by myself. It contains no unacknowledged text and has not been submitted in any previous context. All quotations have been distinguished by quotation marks and all sources of information, text, illustration, tables, images etc. have been specifically acknowledged. I accept that if having signed this Declaration my work should be found at Examination to show evidence of academic dishonesty the work will fail and I will be liable to face the University Senate Discipline Committee.�

Frank McCabe

Name:

_____________________________________________________________

Signed:

_____________________________________________________________

Date:

_____________________________________________________________

18/08/15

Department of Architecture Level 3, James Weir Building 75 Montrose Street Glasgow G1 1XJ

t:+ 44 (0) 141 548 3023/3097/4219

Head of Department: Professor Ashraf Salama

e: architecture@strath.ac.uk

The place of useful learning The University of Strathclyde is a charitable body, registered in Scotland, number SC015263

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Contents Significance, Aims & Objectives & Methodology..............................................................

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Malawi Map..............................................................................................................................

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01 - Introduction..................................................................................................

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02 - Can Architects Impact Change in Education?....................................

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03 - The Standard Model of School Construction.......................................

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04 - Addressing Existing Barriers to Quality Education............................

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05 - Proposed Classroom Design Strategies: An Analysis.......................

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06 - Primary Schools as Community Hubs.................................................

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List of Figures...........................................................................................................................

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Bibliography.............................................................................................................................

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Fig 01. Cover image, Michiru Primary, Malawi (McCabe, 2015) 4

Significance

The purpose of this study is to open a new dialogue on the topic of development architecture. Whilst international organisations recognise that achieving universal primary education will require an increase in infrastructure, there is little reference to how this should manifest architecturally. Although many architects and designers have proposed school designs in low income countries, they have thus far remained isolated projects, without major expansion.

Aims & Objectives

This thesis seeks to establish the role of the architect in achieving universal quality primary education, principally in Malawi. I will initially establish the correlation between the quality of the learning environment and learning outcomes and then ask how this may transfer to low income countries. I will then discuss the major barriers to achieving universal quality primary education and ask how architects may address them through design. Finally I will analyse existing proposed solutions in an effort to ascertain why they have not been expanded upon and what can be learned from them for future proposals.

Methodology

I will reference a wide range of academic sources as well as WKTY\ \OZY\^] YX ON_MK^SYX 9P ZK\^SM_VK\ ]SQXS MKXMO K\O Theunynck’s ‘School Construction Strategies for Universal Primary Education in Africa,’ which addresses some of the main issues with current designs and proposed solutions. /[_KVVc ]SQXS MKX^ S] ^RO AY\VN ,KXUt] \OZY\^ YX ^RO education system in Malawi, giving detail on the context of the proposal.

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01 Introduction “Architecture has helped to change the life of my community and has opened opportunities to hope.” (Kéré, 2013)

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01 - Introduction In September 2015 the international community will meet at a UN summit in New York to agree on the latest set of international development targets, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These will include a renewed target on education, replacing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of 2000-2015. The second MDG to, “Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling” (UNDP, 2015, p. 24), will not be met in Malawi. The international community continue to prioritise education as a development tool yet, aRSV]^ ]SQXS MKX^ Z\YQ\O]] RK] LOOX WKNO SX 7KVKaS WKXc MRSVN\OX ]^SVV NY XY^ RK`O access to quality education. Locally, in the isolated villages of rural Malawi, many parents set such great store by education that they send their children to walk several kilometres to attend the nearest school. Improving education in a country is a valuable goal in itself but improvements in education have also been proven to reduce poverty, child mortality, hunger and cases of HIV/AIDS and other diseases (Avenstrup, 2004, p. 24) (World Food Programme, 2006, p. 7). It is therefore profoundly disturbing that 58 million primary age children worldwide remain out of school and that, despite high enrolment, Malawi’s schools perform so poorly relative to comparable African nations (Fig. 3).

Number of out-of-school children of primary school age by region and sex, 2000-2012 SUB−SAHARAN AFRICA

100

SOUTH AND WEST ASIA

REST OF WORLD

World in 2000 99.8 million

Out−of−school children

13.6 million 80

60

11.3 million

22.2 million

World in 2012 57.8 million

Female Male

9.2 million

Female

9.2 million

Male

4.8 million 5.1 million

11.6 million 40 22.3 million Female

20 18.7 million 0 2000

2001

16.6 million

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2003

2004

2005

2006

Fig 02. Out of school children (Data - UNESCO, 2014) 8

13.0 million 2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2014 Ibrahim Index of African Governance: Education

Malawi 40th of 52 Nations Score / 100 > 70 56 - 69 51 - 55 40 - 50 30 - 39 < 30 (No data for Sudan due to the 2011 secession of South Sudan)

Fig 03. IIAG Education (Data - IIAG, 2014) “Progress has stalled: while access to education expanded considerably at the beginning of the 2000s, there has been little or no change in the global number of out-of-school children since 2007. The global primary out-of-school rate has stagnated at around 9% for the past seven years. As a result, the promise made to children in 2000— that they would all be able to complete a full course of primary schooling by 2015—has been broken.� (UNESCO, 2015, p. 13) The case of Malawi is not unique, with the majority of Sub-Saharan African nations severely stretched in their attempts to meet educational targets (UNDP, 2015, p. 25). Yet Malawi’s plight has been described as, “The perfect storm, a storm that brings together climactic disaster, impoverishment, the AIDS pandemic, and the long standing burdens of malaria, schistosomiasis and other diseases.� (Sachs, 2005, p. 10) It is therefore arguable that any development programme that can work in Malawi will have every chance of success elsewhere. If Architects hope to affect change in low income nations, Malawi is the ideal place to start. /N_MK^SYX aK] K UOc LK^^VOQ\Y_XN aROX 7KVKaS \]^ ROVN K W_V^S ZK\^c NOWYM\K^SM OVOM^SYX SX ## 2K`SXQ Y_]^ON ^RO PY\WO\ s:\O]SNOX^ PY\ VSPOt 2K]^SXQ] ,KXNK ^RO XOa Z\O]SNOX^ ,KUSVS 7_V_dSt] KQ]RSZ ZYVSMc aK] ^RO SX^\YN_M^SYX YP P\OO Z\SWK\c ON_MK^SYX With political point scoring the priority, the policy was implemented immediately, without adequate analysis of the existing education system’s ability to cope with the 9

SXM\OK]ON Z\O]]_\O YX \O]Y_\MO] 5KNdKWS\K <Y]O Z +^ ^RO LOQSXXSXQ of the 1994/95 academic year primary school enrolment surged from 1.9million to #WSVVSYX -RSWYWLY Z ! KXN ^Y ^RS] NKc 7KVKaS RK] cO^ ^Y ]_P MSOX^Vc expand its educational infrastructure and resources to deal with the increase. It is therefore unsurprising that there is a growing trend among architects and designers ^Y K^^OWZ^ ^Y ^KMUVO ^RO]O S]]_O] =YWO YP ^RO WY\O SX _OX^SKV SXMV_NO 0\KXMS] 5Âť\Âťt] 1KXNY =MRYYV SX ,_\USXK 0K]Y KXN 4YRX 7M+]VKX KXN :K\^XO\]t 7KVKaS =MRYYV] Z\YTOM^ ,_^ aRK^ \YVO NYO] ^RO K\MRS^OM^ RK`O SX SX^O\XK^SYXKV NO`OVYZWOX^) -KX K\MRS^OM^] RK`O KXc SX _OXMO YX ^RO LK\\SO\] ^Y ON_MK^SYX)

Fig 04. Francis Kere, Gando School (Ouwerkerk, 2013)

Fig 05. McAslan, Malawi schools project (Chagara, 2009)

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These projects join a large body of research on the optimum method for providing ON_MK^SYXKV SXP\K]^\_M^_\O SX VYa SXMYWO XK^SYX] >RO]O K\O ^cZS ON Lc =O\QO Theunynck’s (2009) “Five classroom technologies”, the classic classroom, the emergency shelter model, local materials and appropriate technology, prefabrication and the modern construction model. Despite numerous attempts at a ‘revolutionary’ new ]c]^OW ^RO MVK]]SM MVK]]\YYW NO]SQX \OWKSX] ^RO XY\W SX 7KVKaS Ka] KXN KVV 3] K Q\Y_XN L\OKUSXQ NO]SQX ]^\K^OQc ZY]]SLVO)

Fig 06. Standard Classroom Block (McCabe, 2015) This thesis aims to explore whether architects can contribute to international development through improving access to quality primary education. In order to fully KX]aO\ ^RS] [_O]^SYX ^RO S]]_O W_]^ \]^ LO MYX^Ob^_KVS]ON >RO PYVVYaSXQ MRKZ^O\ will ask if there is a role at all for the architect and whether design is relevant to the S]]_O YP [_KVS^c ON_MK^SYX >RO ^RS\N MRKZ^O\ aSVV O]^KLVS]R ^RO [_KVS^SO] KXN Ka] YP the standard design and explain the design constraints that allow it to persist. Chapter four will address some of the existing barriers to education within the established MYX]^\KSX^] SXMV_NSXQ MVK]]\YYW [_KVS^c [_KX^S^c KXN NS]^\SL_^SYX >RO P^R MRKZ^O\ aSVV LO KX KXKVc]S] YP Z\YZY]ON ]YV_^SYX] P\YW ]ZOMS M K\MRS^OM^ VON Z\YTOM^] ^Y more general systematic approaches, such as the emergence of new construction technologies, based on the framework outlined in the previous chapters. Finally I will ask whether a holistic approach to school design, including resources for communities and considering the primary school as a local hub, is an appropriate method to incentivise and improve local communities.

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02

Can Architects impact change in Education?

“Will the start of the twenty-first century be remembered as the golden era of socially conscious design?� (Architecture for Humanity, 2006, p. 53)

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02 - Can Architects impact change in Education? “Questions inevitably arise regarding the role of the architect at the beginning of the ^aOX^c \]^ MOX^_\c$ S] S^ OXY_QR ^Y ]SWZVc LO K ]O\`SMO Z\Y`SNO\ aRY aY\U] ]YVOVc ^Y P_V V commissions for clients who can afford such services? ‌How can architects use their training for the greater good?â€? (Lepik, 2010, p. 12) 7KXc K\MRS^OM^] _XNO\]^KXNSXQ ^RK^ ON_MK^SYX S] K UOc ^YYV SX ^RO QR^ KQKSX]^ QVYLKV poverty, legitimately seek to contribute their time and skills to the cause, but is there K \YVO PY\ ^ROW) -_\\OX^Vc ^RO WKTY\S^c YP ON_MK^SYXKV SXP\K]^\_M^_\O MYX]^\_M^SYX KXN planning in Malawi and other low income countries is done without the aid of trained architects. Governments and international organisations prioritise increasing the quantity of classrooms at as low a cost as possible, arguably at the expense of quality 5XKZZ O^ KV ! Z 2YaO`O\ K WY\O \O XON KZZ\YKMR SXMV_NSXQ ^RO K\MRS^OM^ may be valuable. “The question as to whether there is an interrelationship between the architectural / spatial quality of the educational environment and students’ learning performance is not only of importance to the improvement of educational facilities in Europe and North America but is also of great relevance to developing countries, where scarce resources need to be carefully spentâ€? (Knapp, et al., 2007, p. 7) The obstacles to achieving universal quality primary education are numerous and complex yet at least a few of these fall within the remit of the architect, the designer or the planner. The most obvious potential area for input is in the design of classrooms KXN ]MRYYV] + ]^_Nc Lc ,K\\O^^ O^ KV PY_XN ]SQXS MKX^ MY\\OVK^SYX] LO^aOOX the design of the learning environment with learning outcomes. Certain key principles YP NO]SQX NS\OM^Vc SX _OXMO K Z_ZSVt] ZO\PY\WKXMO ]_MR K] VO`OV] YP XK^_\KV VSQR^ ventilation and visual stimulation (Fig. 07). The study shows that classroom design and quality can account for up to 25% of variation in a pupil’s performance. This alone should be enough to bring architects into the process. “Classrooms that are dark, uncomfortable, crowded, noisy or where the teacher is a long way or at times hidden from the pupils can be a disincentive for pupils to learn or even to wish to continue with their studies. Design of schools from the viewpoint of the user is important to ensure that all or most of their needs are met.â€? <_]U_VS] # Z 3P K \OMOX^ SX _b YP NO]SQX Z\YZY]KV] PY\ =_L =KRK\KX +P\SMKX MVK]]\YYW] K\O KXc^RSXQ to go by, it seems as though many architects agree that their profession is relevant in the ]^\_QQVO KQKSX]^ ZY`O\^c 0\KXMS] 5Âť\Âťt] 1KXNY :\SWK\c =MRYYV 4YRX 7M+]VKXt] 7KVKaS Schools project and more recently the South African based Architecture for a Change’s Legson Kayira School, have all contributed to the dialogue. These will be further KXKVc]ON SX MRKZ^O\ `O 13

Impact of Classroom Design on Learning Natural d) /Foo WC ( s t en Sc g n ro St ht ylig Da

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Fig 07. Impact of Classroom on Learning ,K\\O^^ DRKXQ 7YPPK^ 5YLLKMc Donors may argue that involving architects will necessarily increase costs yet Knapp and Noschis (2010) argue that it could in fact lead to a reduction. Arguably, a cheap standard model classroom block that lasts 20 years is a poorer investment than a quality, architect designed block that lasts 40 years. When costs are considered over the life cycle of the building the case for keeping initial costs as low as possible becomes weak. “Ignoring the life-cycle cost approach in the planning of (new) educational facilities... is ]SWZVc S\\O]ZYX]SLVO ,c L_SVNSXQ uMROKZv aO K\O _XPKS\Vc YP YKNSXQ YX ^RO LOXO MSK\SO] K cost-burden which they simply cannot shoulder.� 5XKZZ 8Y]MRS] Z The input of architects is not an entirely new phenomenon, there have been many past attempts to change the way classrooms are built in low income countries. The 1960s and 70s saw increased interest in the ‘appropriate materials’ model. This involved using local materials and taking inspiration from vernacular architecture. An issue with this KZZ\YKMR aK] ^RK^ ^RO [_KVS^c YP ^RO XS]RON MVK]]\YYW YP^OX OXNON _Z ZYY\O\ ^RKX ^RO ]^KXNK\N WYNOV SX ^O\W] YP N_\KLSVS^c KXN XK^_\KV VSQR^ aS^RY_^ KXc ]SQXS MKX^ reduction in cost (Theunynck, 2009). 14

Fig 08. Appropriate Materials - Wattle and Daub Classroom, Kenya (Nakuru Children’s Project, 2011) In the 1990s, to cope with the million additional pupils after the abolition of school fees, Malawi experimented with temporary shelter style classrooms. The shelter model was made up of a concrete foundation, metal columns and a metal roof, with the intention that communities would later build the walls with local masonry. These were eventually rejected as they were considered ‘second-class’ structures by communities and few were ever completed (Theunynck, 2009).

Fig 09. ?X XS]RON =ROV^O\ -VK]]\YYW 1RKXK (Pencils of Promise, 2012) Industrial pre-fabrication is also intermittently proposed. Whilst this seems like a sensible solution that could quickly increase the quantity of classrooms, costs tend XY^ ^Y LO ]_P MSOX^Vc VYa >RO_XcXMU # Z ! >RO ]_ZZY]ON KN`KX^KQO ^Y Z\O fabrication is a reduction in labour costs yet in the majority of African nations labour is 15

abundantly available and inexpensive. There is also the issue of transportation, moving large sections of buildings, as opposed to cement and bricks, is an extremely challenging proposal on Malawi’s rural roads.

Fig 10. Prefabricated Shipping Container Classroom, South Africa (Tsai Design Studio, 2012) ““Innovative” technologies that were intended to lower the cost of school infrastructure and increase the volume have done neither. Yet, these technologies are continually resurrected at various times, mainly by donors, with the same results.” (Theunynck, 2009, p. 29) That designers have attempted to challenge the standard model for Malawian and Sub=KRK\KX ]MRYYV NO]SQX ]OOW] SXO`S^KLVO =_ZO\ MSKVVc ^RO S]]_O YP Z\Y`SNSXQ ON_MK^SYX to those in the world’s poorest nations is a design problem like any other, yet it is set within the complicated context of the politics of international aid. The simplest of changes to the status quo must be endorsed by the international community, the national government, the local community and the donor, each of whom have their own agendas and priorities. It is therefore understandable that the standard school model prevails and none of these new proposals have yet revolutionised classroom construction. Whilst architects certainly can contribute, fundamental change has yet to be realised.

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03

The Standard Model of School Construction: Malawi & Sub-Saharan Africa

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03 - The Standard Model of School Construction: Malawi and Sub-Saharan Africa “Primary schooling facilitates the attainment of other objectives of social policy, ZK\^SM_VK\Vc SX ^RO OVN] YP PO\^SVS^c MYX^\YV SWZ\Y`OWOX^] SX ROKV^R X_^\S^SYX VS^O\KMc KXN communication, and other strengthening of national culture.” (Solomon, 1985, p. 273) 27,920 9000

1,172

987

987

987

750

Classroom 1

Classroom 2

Classroom 3 9,460

8,000

Roof apex

Blackboard

910

1,000

1,500

Blackboard

1,000

750

1,000

Blackboard

1,000

750

230

Fig 11. Typical Standard Model Plan (McCabe, 2015) 3P K\MRS^OM^] RYZO ^Y SWZ\Y`O ON_MK^SYX SX 7KVKaS ^ROc W_]^ \]^ _XNO\]^KXN ^RO current approach to classroom construction. The most common classroom typology in Malawi, similar to much of Sub-Saharan Africa, is a rectangular form of two to PY_\ MVK]]\YYW] >RO]O K\O ^cZSMKVVc YP MYXM\O^O YY\ KXN PY_XNK^SYX WK]YX\c aKVV] concrete or metal windows, concrete ring-beam, timber trusses and a sheet metal roof. Sanitation facilities are generally built as a separate block at a distance from the classes

Fig 12. Standard Classsroom Block, Matititsi primary, Malawi (McCabe, 2015)

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and any administration areas are usually built in the same block as the classrooms (Theunynck, 2009, p. 30) (Uduku, 2010, p. 14). >RS] WYNOV PY\ MVK]]\YYW MYX]^\_M^SYX RK] XY^ MRKXQON ]SQXS MKX^Vc PY\ ]O`O\KV NOMKNO] despite the best attempts of several architects and donor organisations. The following MRKZ^O\ aSVV NS]M_]] ^RO WO\S^] YP ^RS] ]^KXNK\N NO]SQX K] aOVV K] ^RO Ka] KXN ^RO ]SQXS MKX^ MYX]^\KSX^] YX NO]SQXO\] ^RK^ RK`O NYYWON ZK]^ OPPY\^] K^ K XOa WYNOV classroom to failure.

Qualities of the Standard Model There are many reasons the standard model persists, the methodology is understood, the materials are available and the classroom block is widely accepted, even by isolated communities. The system of construction is so well established that it is not uncommon PY\ `SVVKQO] Y\ ]MRYYV] ^Y \O ]O`O\KV ^RY_]KXN L\SMU] SX KX^SMSZK^SYX YP ^RO QY`O\XWOX^ or a foreign donor arriving to build a new block.

Fig 13. Community brick kiln, Chikwawa, Malawi (McCabe, 2015) A well-constructed block can last several decades, withstand heavy rains and earthquakes and accommodate children who would otherwise be learning under a tree, ]Y aRc S] K XOa WYNOV XOONON K^ KVV)

Assessing the Standard Model as a Learning Environment uAROX 3 VYYU K^ ]MRYYV L_SVNSXQ] SX ]YWO NO`OVYZSXQ MY_X^\SO] ^YNKc ^ROc K\O NO XS^OVc ‘autocratic structures and certainly not suited to encourage the emergence and development of young individuals, of democrats who will respect others and actively engage in civil society. In some instances they would actually remind me of prisons, places of incarceration...” (Knapp, et al., 2007, p. 15)

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The previous chapter established the correlation between the learning environments and learning outcomes, the standard model leaves a lot to be desired in this respect. ASXNYa] ^OXN ^Y LO YP MYXM\O^O 0SQ VO^ SX SX]_P MSOX^ XK^_\KV VSQR^ KXN VO`OV] YP light cannot be controlled. Pupils must also cope with high temperatures in the dry season as heat radiates from the metal roof. This problem is confounded by the absence YP QYYN XK^_\KV `OX^SVK^SYX MVK]]O] W_]^ \OVc YX K L\OOdO aROX ^OWZO\K^_\O] ]YK\ 0SQ 16). There is no respite from poor climactic conditions in the rainy season either as the sound of the rains on the thin roof can make the teacher inaudible and any wind will drive the rain into the class. Clearly working in a dark, hot and sometimes even wet class are not ideal conditions for learning.

Fig 14. Typical classroom interior, Nambadwe, Malawi (McCabe, 2015)

Fig 15. Typical classroom window (McCabe, 2015)

Fig 16. Roof radiating heat (McCabe, 2015)

Construction Technology & Cost of the Standard Model The standard model also has issues with its construction system. Locally sourced bricks ^OXN ^Y LO SXMYX]S]^OX^ SX ]SdO ]RKZO KXN [_KVS^c KXN ^RO\OPY\O \O[_S\O WY\O WY\^K\ ^Y compensate (Fig. 17). Wastage can be up to 50% due to this lack of consistency in quality. (UNESCO, 2010, p. 280). Since the completed wall is not aesthetically pleasing, walls are 20

often rendered with a cement plaster, further increasing costs. The government funded version of the standard model uses concrete blocks rather than brick and therefore KV]Y _]O] K ]SQXS MKX^ KWY_X^ YP MOWOX^ .O]ZS^O ^RO OWZRK]S] YX UOOZSXQ ^RO MY]^ YP construction low and classroom numbers high, the cost of the standard model relies heavily upon the erratic price of cement.

Fig 17. High mortar ratio (McCabe, 2014)

Extensive use of local brick can also have a detrimental effect on the local environment. Firewood, cut for brick kilns, contributes to deforestation, particularly in the more NOX]OVc ZYZ_VK^ON ]Y_^R >RS] RK] ObKMO\LK^ON YYN \S]U SX ^RO 6YaO\ =RS\O `KVVOc 7STYXS 3dKNURKR # Z #" aRSMR ^RS] cOK\ ]Ka ]YWO YP ^RO aY\]^ YYNSXQ SX decades, further damaging the existing school infrastructure. The trenches left by excavating clay can leave pools of stagnant water, encouraging malarial mosquitos, and reduce arable land in a country that suffers from malnutrition. A UN-Habitat report refers to the process of producing bricks using this system in Uganda,

Fittings 4%

External Works 6%

Substructure 27% Wall Finishes 15%

Floor Finishes 2% External Windows & Doors 10% Roof 20% External & Internal Walls 16%

Fig 18. Typical cost breakdown (DEL construction, 2015) 21

u>RO VK\QO [_KX^S^SO] YP \OaYYN XOONON PY\ \SXQ L\SMU] MYX^\SL_^O] ^Y NOPY\O]^K^SYX which affects biodiversity. It contributes to air pollution, soil erosion and degradation, NO]O\^S MK^SYX YP ^RO VKXN]MKZO KXN \ON_MO] K`KSVKLVO P_OV ]Y_\MO] PY\ Y^RO\ R_WKX activities. In agricultural regions, these consequences are especially detrimental and MYX^\SL_^O ^Y ^RO PYYN M\S]S] KXN ]YWO^SWO] P_OV MYX SM^ Y`O\ ^RO VSWS^ON \O]Y_\MO] v ?8 2+,3>+> # Z Plainly continuing to build using burnt bricks is not sustainable, either economically or environmentally. With thousands of classrooms required in Malawi, building the required stock with the standard model could devastate Malawi’s environment. An alternative material is an essential ingredient of any new proposal.

Maintenance of the Standard Model While initial costs are as low as possible and highly scrutinised, life cycle costs are ill considered. Much of the existing classroom stock is in a poor condition and is in desperate need of maintainance. This burden is either left to the governments of poor countries, or is an added expense of donors. The contribution of an architect could decrease maintainence costs through the design of a more durable building, better suited to its local climate and context. “A cheaply built school could turn out to be a false bargain if subsequently there are defects to be put right, materials and components need to be replaced after a relatively short time, and there is a continuous need to undertake repairs and rehabilitation.� <_]U_VS] # Z

Fig 19. Termite damaged truss (McCabe, 2015)

Fig 20. Water damaged classroom (McCabe, 2015)

The choice of materials contributes to the short lifespan of the standard model. Thin metal roofs are prone to leaks and burnt bricks and untreated timber trusses are are ]_]MOZ^SLVO ^Y ^O\WS^O] KXN Y^RO\ SX]OM^] 0SQ # ,_^ Lc PK\ ^RO LSQQO]^ PKM^Y\ SX ^RO damage of the standard model is water. Drains, intended to take water from the base of the building, are prone to cracks and it is common to see water damaged walls, particularly on gables (Fig. 20). Government statistics on classroom numbers also include the 20% that are temporary structures and will need maintained or replaced as soon as possible (Theunynck, 2009). International pressure to ensure every child learns indoors guarantee new buildings remain the priority, for both the government and foreign donors, whilst existing stock crumbles and collapses over time. Whilst the standard model ticks boxes in terms of initial costs, architects could help provide a more durable solution. 22

Constraints on Designers It can be all too easy to criticise the existing model but it is important to bear in mind ^RO ]SQXS MKX^ MYX]^\KSX^] YX ]MRYYV ZVKXXO\] KXN NO]SQXO\] 3X KX SNOKV aY\VN XOa schools in Malawi could be constructed to the standard expected in high income countries. However, without a colossal investment, this is not possible and planners must work within a limited framework. >RO \]^ KXN WY]^ O`SNOX^ MYX]^\KSX^ S] MY]^ >RO MY]^ YP K ]SXQVO MVK]]\YYW SX 7KVKaS S] LO^aOOX   ! AY\VN ,KXU Z KXN KXc ]SQXS MKX^ SXM\OK]O YX ^RS] aY_VN \O[_S\O ]Y_XN T_]^S MK^SYX >RS] S] YL`SY_]Vc VSWS^SXQ YX aRK^ KX K\MRS^OM^ can be expected to do. The choice of construction is severely limited, steel trusses and glass windows are rarely seen. Similarly, burnt bricks are the cheapest widely used construction material per m2 (Fig. 21). Fuel and transport costs must also be considered and will vary from urban to rural schools. Malawi’s infrastructure is limited and moving WK^O\SKV] \OVSO] YX ^RO VSWS^ON \YKN XO^aY\U -Y]^ ]K`SXQ] SX _OXMO O`O\c NOMS]SYX YP ^RO ]MRYYV ZVKXXO\ KXN KXc \OKVS]^SM KV^O\XK^S`O W_]^ ^ aS^RSX ^RS] P\KWOaY\U Cost per m2 of wall construction (Rwandan francs) 20000

15000

10000

5000

0

Compressed earth blocks

Concrete blocks

Burnt Bricks

Fig 21. Cost per m2 of wall construction (Hirano, 2009) Community ownership is strongly recommended by most African governments as well K] SX^O\XK^SYXKV Y\QKXS]K^SYX] 2S\KXY # Z 5XKZZ O^ KV ! Z <_]U_VS] 2009, p. 2) (Theunynck, 2009, p. 116). Empowering the community is a key factor in any development project if it is to be well used and looked after. “Engaging local people, especially parents, in dialogue about the layout and facilities at the proposed school is important for the school to meet the needs of the local community and be looked after and cared for.� <_]U_VS] # Z 23

Communities are able to assist with the standard model in a number of ways; supplying locally procurable materials such as sand and bricks, providing unskilled labour, providing food for skilled workers, site clearing and excavation, maintenance and cleaning on completion and occasionally even some funds (Hirano, 2009, p. 14). This MKX LO MYX]SNO\ON K MYX]^\KSX^ K] KXc KV^O\XK^S`O Z\YZY]KV W_]^ KV]Y KVVYa K ]SQXS MKX^ community involvement. For example, a pre-fabricated structure limits the extent to which the community can contribute as there is less demand for unskilled labour and materials are imported. It is also essential to consider the available construction knowledge. That is not to say that a rarely used method will not be viable, but that implementation will require ]SQXS MKX^ ^\KSXSXQ ZK\^SM_VK\Vc SP ^RO MYWW_XS^c K\O ^Y LO SX`YV`ON 0Y\ SX]^KXMO highly sophisticated construction systems may require a substantial amount of teaching or even be beyond the infrastructural capacity of local contractors (Theunynck, 2009, p. 47). Finally politics, from international to local, act as a constraint on designers. For example, in 2011, the UK suspended all aid to Malawi in response to the country’s repeated failure to address concerns over economic management and governance (Wroe, 2012, p. 135). This naturally reduced the ability of NGOs reliant on government funding to construct schools. On a local level, traditional authorities and local chiefs MKX SX _OXMO Z\SY\S^SO] SX ^ROS\ K\OK O`OX \OTOM^SXQ K ]MRYYV KV^YQO^RO\ SX PK`Y_\ YP traditional practices. “Although he had four children of school-going age, none of them attended school. This chief represented traditional practices in the community. His rejection of the school was driving a deep wedge between the school and the community.” (Chimombo, 2005, p. 164) .O]ZS^O ]YWO ]SQXS MKX^ KN`KX^KQO] ^Y ^RO ]^KXNK\N WYNOV K XOa ]c]^OW S] \O[_S\ON if Malawi is to meet the demand on its education system without compromising on quality or devastating the environment. A better quality of learning environment should be a priority, as should a new, durable construction system. Although there are many SWZY\^KX^ MYX]^\KSX^] YX ]MRYYV ZVKXXO\] SP ^RO ]_P MSOX^ [_KX^S^c YP MVK]]\YYW] K\O ^Y be constructed, donors and the government must reconsider the standard model.

24

04

Addressing Existing Barriers to Quality Education Within the Relevant Design Constraints Access to ineffective schools with excessive class sizes, few teachers and no learning materials, where little is learned, is not meaningful access to education. (Lewin, 2009, p. 155) 25

04 - Addressing Existing Barriers to Quality Education Within the Relevant Design Constraints Despite twenty years of free primary education, many children in Malawi still do not complete their schooling. Although enrolment is high at 97.5%, primary school MYWZVO^SYX S] YXVc AY\VN ,KXU Z SS` 7KXc YP ^RY]O OX\YVVON ]^K\^ VK^O are malnourished or travel long distances and dropouts remain high due to costs, VKLY_\ NOWKXN] KXN OK\Vc WK\\SKQO KXN Z\OQXKXMc KWYXQ Y^RO\ S]]_O] 4YRKX]]YX 5KNdKWS\K <Y]O 7YcS Z /`OX ^RY]O aRY NY MYWZVO^O ^ROS\ ]MRYYVSXQ K\O YP^OX ^K_QR^ Lc _X [_KVS ON ^OKMRO\] SX ^OWZY\K\c MVK]]\YYW] Y\ outdoors (Theunynck, 2009). Malawi’s success in improving enrolment should be commended yet enrolment is only ^RO \]^ ]^OZ MRSVN\OX W_]^ LO KLVO ^Y K^^OXN KXN VOK\X aRSV]^ SX ]MRYYV KXN ^RO\O K\O WKXc S]]_O] ^RK^ WKUO ^RS] NSP M_V^ >RO PYVVYaSXQ MRKZ^O\ aSVV Y_^VSXO ]YWO YP ^RO existing barriers which cause children to dropout or compromise the quality of their education. These are the problems that designers must understand if they are to address issues of access and quality of education and go beyond the design of classrooms. The entire school environment must be considered if planners and architects are to improve education in Malawi.

Pupil classroom ratio Chitipa

ga

ron

Ka

Lack of School Infrastructure With a national pupil classroom ratio of $ 8K^SYXKV =^K^S]^SMKV 9P MO ^RO\O is clearly a demand for more classrooms in Malawi. In fact, without including replacement of temporary structures or renovations of dilapidated existing stock, a further 71,000 are required to meet the target ratio of 1:40.

Rumphi Mzuzu City Mzimba Nkhata Bay Likoma Island

Ntchisi

kota

Nkhota

Kasungu

Many classes are currently held outdoors, in temporary classrooms or other structures. Dedza Mangochi Lilongwe Generally overcrowded schools will take infant City Ntcheu 1:79 - 1:94 classes outdoors as senior pupils must have Machinga 1:95- 1:109 Zomba the best facilities to study for their exams. Blantyre Zomba City City 1:110 - 1:124 Lower classes are therefore more susceptible Mulanje Thyolo 1:125- 1:139 to weather, both the high temperatures of the Chikwawa 1:140 - 1:154 dry season and the heavy downpours of the 1:155- 1:169 \KSXc ]OK]YX XOS^RO\ YP aRSMR K\O LOXO MSKV ^Y learning and both severely limit attendance of Fig 22. Pupil Classroom Ratio pupils and teachers (Chaudhury, et al., 2006, .K^K 8K^SYXKV =^K^S]^SM] 9P MO p. 104). Thus, it is not surprising that many Mchinji

Dowa

Salima

Lilongwe

Balaka

Mwanza

ulu

be

Blantyre

Phalom

adz Chir

Neno

Nsanje

26

ZK\OX^] ]OXN ^ROS\ MRSVN\OX ^Y ]MRYYV VK^O\ ^RK^ ^RO YP MSKV ]^K\^SXQ KQO YP 7YcS p. 237). “Temporary and open air classrooms‌ have a negative effect on child retention within the whole primary cycle.â€? AY\VN ,KXU Z "

Fig 23. Typical temporary classroom, William village, Malawi (McCabe, 2015) Evidently a lack of classrooms is a notable barrier to education but Malawi’s schools also lack other infrastructure. A dearth of adequate toilets and sanitation plagues primary schools and is a particular problem for female pupils. “The lack of private and separate latrines and washing facilities in under-resourced schools presents an often unacceptable risk to a girl’s modesty, dignity and basic human rights. The absence of such basic facilities is a particular issue for girls who are menstruating and has been cited in studies across Africa and Asia, in particular, as a factor in girls abandoning their education� (UNESCO, 2015, p. 59) As many girls, having started school late, will reach puberty whilst still in primary ]MRYYV ]_P MSOX^ ^YSVO^ KXN ]KXS^K^SYX PKMSVS^SO] K\O K W_]^ ARSV]^ ^RO WKTY\S^c YP primary schools do have toilets few are appropriate for this purpose, lacking running water and a locked door. It is common for girls to miss school altogether for several days each month rather than attend during their menstrual cycle simply because facilities are inadequate (Sommer, 2010, p. 522). Similarly, female teachers will miss work, further VSWS^SXQ ^ROS\ Z_ZSVt] KMMO]] ^Y [_KVS^c ON_MK^SYX 5S\U =YWWO\ Z There are other types of accommodation that Malawi’s schools lack, from simple things like secure storage, to the more advanced such as libraries and science labs. Whilst these are also important facilities the priority must be to achieve a basic level of attainment for all of Malawi’s children. Permanent classroom buildings offer a year round space for learning and decent toilet facilities are essential for female pupil’s health and wellbeing. These are a must if Malawi is to achieve universal quality primary education. A lack of 27

accommodation is the barrier that architects and planners will feel most comfortable aS^R cO^ K ]SWZVO SXM\OK]O SX ^RO X_WLO\ YP MVK]]\YYW] aSVV XY^ LO ]_P MSOX^ +Xc intervention must take into account the myriad of issues that block access to quality education and attempt to mitigate them through design.

Fig 24. Typical toilet block, Michiru, Malawi (McCabe, 2015)

School Location “The lack of a nearby school is a problem for any child—boy or girl—undermining punctuality, attendance and learning, all precursors of school drop-out.” (UNESCO, 2015, p. 59) Not only does Malawi suffer from a lack of school infrastructure but existing structures are poorly distributed (Theunynck, 2009, p.11). In a country that suffers heavily from overcrowded classrooms, many structures are left empty or derelict. “Decision criteria are not well known outside the MoE, and allocation decisions can be WY\O OK]SVc SX _OXMON Lc ZYVS^SMKV SX^OX^SYX] \K^RO\ ^RKX \OVK^S`O XOON +] K \O]_V^ YP ^RO]O Ka] S^ ]RY_VN XY^ LO ]_\Z\S]SXQ ^Y XN ]MRYYV] ^RK^ K\O SXKZZ\YZ\SK^OVc VYMK^ON sometimes in the middle of nowhere, schools that are under- or oversized, and some populations that are better served than others.” (Theunynck, 2009, p. 25) The location of a school is a key factor in improving access to education. Parents are far more likely to send their children to a school within their own village (Fig. 27). Yet this S] XY^ \O OM^ON SX ^RO VYMK^SYX YP ObS]^SXQ ]MRYYV] >RO /N_MK^SYX .OZK\^WOX^ M_\\OX^Vc seems to favour a more centralised model, pooling resources and bringing in children from a wider catchment area. This is despite the fact that Malawi is a relatively densely populated country and the advantages of centralisation are less pronounced than in other states in the region. As Lehman (2003) states, the economy of scale in providing a few larger schools, rather than several small schools may even be a misconception as unit costs per pupil tend to plateau after around 200 (Fig. 26). 28

Reasons for delayed entry R e a so n s f o r d e l a y e d e n r o l l m e n t (%)

N u m b er o f children

Work/ domestic chores

Cost of school

School too far for young child

Other factors

Gender Female Male

8.3 5.41

15.33 18.44

41.26 36.04

14.34 15.49

285 289

Residence Rural Urban

7.05 5.71

16.67 20

38.76 37.14

14.55 20.59

539 35

Fig 25. Reasons for delayed entry (Moyi, 2010)

Expenditure per Student as a Function of School Enrollment 140

Lesotho Guinea

Chad Burundi

Unit cost (US$)

100

60

20

0

200

600

1000

School enrollment Fig 26. Expendature per student as a function of school enrollment (Lehman, 2003) u:VKXXSXQ PY\ ]MRYYV Z\Y`S]SYX S] YP^OX LK]ON YX ^RO K]]_WZ^SYX YP K `O USVYWO^\O catchment radius. This equates to a walk of between 45 minutes and an hour to and from ]MRYYV PY\ ^RY]O K^ K `O USVYWO^\O NS]^KXMO =YWO ]^_NSO] RK`O ]_QQO]^ON ^RK^ O`OX ^RS] NS]^KXMO S] K ]SQXS MKX^ LK\\SO\ ^Y ]MRYYV K^^OXNKXMO v 7_VUOOX 2SQQSX] # Z The physical distance to school is only one factor, there is also the cultural and time distance to consider (Lehman, 2003, p. 3). Even when the distance to school is only 2km, if the school is out with the village where a child lives, they are less likely to attend (Fig. 27), this is considered the cultural distance. Time distance is the physical barriers such as mountains, rivers and forests that increase the time it takes a child to walk to school, even when actual distances are short. ,Y^R YP ^RO]O W_]^ LO MYX]SNO\ON SX ]MRYYV location planning if effective catchment areas are to be created. 29

GER and Distance, Chad, western Sahelian region, 2002-2003 60% 50% 40% 30% boys

girls

20% 10% 0% village with school

0<1 km

1<2 km

2<3 km

Fig 27. Enrollment relative to distance (Lehman, 2003)

School planners may also consider the provision of teacher housing in new rural schools. Long journeys to work for teachers have a detrimental effect on their schooling (Mulkeen, 2006, p. 15). A teacher’s house can also act as an incentive for teachers to work in an isolated community, particularly after having trained in the facility rich city. Ensuring teachers have a safe home with space to grow crops and access to water is likely to encourage teachers to work in areas they have traditionally been reluctant to (Chaudhury, et al., 2006, p. 109). “Many teachers are anxious to avoid being posted in remote or “backward� villages. One practical reason is the inconvenience of commuting or of living in a remote village with poor facilities� ,KXO\TOO ._ Y Z # School planners must better organise new schools around need if the entire population are to have equal access to quality education. This will require more, smaller schools possibly organised into multi-grade classes where the population cannot sustain a full MVK]] SX OKMR Q\KNO 7_VUOOX 2SQQSX] # Z +\MRS^OM^_\KVVc ^RS] aSVV \O[_S\O constructing new schools rather than expanding existing. Designing these new schools will require consideration of cultural identity of rural populations as well as the practical issue of getting construction materials to isolated sites.

Malnutrition “School age is‌ a sensitive period in children’s development. Their fundamental capacity to learn is still being shaped, and hunger can prevent them from making the most of their opportunities to learn at school.â€? (World Food Programme, 2006, p. 43) Hunger and education are inextricably linked, malnourished children are less likely to complete their schooling and children whose parents did not complete school are more

Social development indicators in the SADC region

Average SADC countries Angola Botswana Congo, Dem. Rep. L esotho Madagascar Malawi Mauritius Mozambique N amibia S outh Africa S waziland Tanzania Z ambia Z imbabwe

Mortality Rate (Under 5Years-Old) 132 260 1 20 205 1 32 119 1 22 15 1 45 62 68 1 60 1 22 1 82 1 32

HIV/AIDS Prevalence Rate (15–49 years) 14.4 3.7 24.1 3.2 23.2 0.5 1 1 .5 0.6 1 6.1 1 9.6 1 8.8 33.4 6.5 1 7.0 20.1

Malnutrition Prevalence, Height for Age (% of Children Under Age 5) 33.8 45.2 23.1 38.1 46.1 47.7 49.0 1 5.0 41 .0 23.6 1 2.0 30.2 37.7 46.8 1 7.0

Fig 28. SADC Social development indicators AY\VN ,KXU 30

Adult Literacy Rate (15 Years and Older) 75.3 67.4 82.9 67.2 82.2 70.7 69.0 87.4 44.4 88.0 88.0 79.6 69.0 68.0 91 .2

% Urban Population 35.9 54.0 58.2 32.7 1 9.0 27.1 1 7.7 42.5 35.3 35.7 59.8 24.4 24.6 35.1 36.4

likely to be malnourished (World Food Programme, 2006, p. 39). If this cycle is to be broken, intervention is required. In Malawi the problem is particularly acute, 42% of MRSVN\OX _XNO\ `O K\O ]^_X^ON N_O ^Y WKVX_^\S^SYX AY\VN ,KXU 2_XQO\ N_\SXQ pregnancy and infancy is especially damaging as this can cause irreversible damage to cognitive development into adulthood (World Food Programme, 2006, p. 39). ,OMK_]O YP ^RO Z\O`KVOXMO YP R_XQO\ WKXc ZK\OX^] NOVKc ]OXNSXQ ^ROS\ MRSVN\OX ^Y school by several years as they seem younger due to stunting (Moyi, 2010, p. 237). When malnourished children do make it to school their lack of energy makes concentration NSP M_V^ KXN ^ROS\ ]_]MOZ^SLSVS^c ^Y SXPOM^SYX KXN NS]OK]O SXM\OK]O] KL]OX^OOS]W P_\^RO\ diminishing their academic performance (Mwambene, et al., 2013, p. 45). Providing school meals is a simple part of the solution to Malawi’s hunger problem, and thus its education problem. A school feeding programme can improve pupil ZO\PY\WKXMO K] MRSVN\OX RK`O WY\O OXO\Qc KXN MKZKMS^c PY\ VOK\XSXQ ,_XNc O^ KV # p. 23). It can also act as an incentive to attendance, particular for children from poorer PKWSVSO] ^RK^ aY_VN Y^RO\aS]O XY^ LO PON N_\SXQ ^RO NKc ,_XNc O^ KV # Z “The role of school feeding programmes in preventing and mitigating hunger in Malawi cannot be over-emphasized. Yet there are thousands of children in Malawi, especially those residing in poverty stricken areas, who have no access to basic education, commonly owing to malnutrition, anaemia and mental disorders caused by hunger.� (Mwambene, et al., 2013, p. 45) The case for providing school meals is overwhelming but this is an issue with a less obvious role for the architect. Whilst the inclusion of a kitchen in the design is essential there is also an argument for introducing school gardens to add a practical element to agriculture lessons. The latest farming techniques could be taught to children and potentially, as with India’s green revolution of the 1950s and 60s, increase yields across the country through improved education (UNESCO, 2015, p. 58). The role of architects is to design schools that allow for such education and innovation whilst keeping in mind the unique needs of each community.

Water & Electricity “After long walks to school many children arrive hungry and thirsty, with little energy left to pay attention.� (Laurete, et al., 2009, p. 1) The importance of water is widely understood and access to it is clearly essential to life, let alone education. Malawian children, particularly girls, are often expected to contribute to the household chores, such as collecting and water as well as looking after siblings and other manual work. This is detrimental to their schooling in one of two ways; either the expenditure of time and energy, on top of an often long walk to school, reduces their learning capacity and attendance or the family lose potential income from the lost labour, increasing the chances a child will drop out (Fredriksen, 2009, p. 11). Having access to water at school lessons this burden and can improve access to water 31

PY\ ^RO aRYVO MYWW_XS^c 2YaO`O\ aRO^RO\ Z\Y`SNSXQ aK^O\ SX ]MRYYV] S] LOXO MSKV S] not in question, the issue is how to provide it and how it should be managed. “A promising complementary infrastructure to school construction is Rainwater Harvesting (RWH). This is a low-cost technology to catch and store runoff rainwater. =_P MSOX^ \YYP^YZ K\OK SX ]MRYYV] KVVYa] K VK\QO KWY_X^ YP aK^O\ ^Y LO MYVVOM^ON N_\SXQ monsoon seasons, diverted from gutters into a closed storage tanks� (Laurete, et al., 2009, p. 1) >RO ^K]U YP NO]SQXO\] SX ^RS] MYX^Ob^ S] ^Y Z\YZY]O OP MSOX^ ]c]^OW] PY\ aK^O\ Z\Y`S]SYX ^RK^ MKX LO WKSX^KSXON KXN WKXKQON Lc ^RO MYWW_XS^c <KSXaK^O\ RK\`O]^SXQ S] YXO such system and architects should consider designing roof structures that maximise collection and storage. However the appropriate technology will not be standard across the country and will depend on the local climactic conditions. Access to electricity is not considered essential and thus is rarely provided in primary ]MRYYV] RYaO`O\ S^ MKX RK`O K ]SQXS MKX^ OPPOM^ YX K MRSVNt] ON_MK^SYX 3X 7KVKaS VO]] ^RKX YP ^RO ZYZ_VK^SYX RK`O KMMO]] ^Y OVOM^\SMS^c AY\VN ,KXU KXN ]Y ^RO majority of children must attempt homework by the light of kerosene lamps or candles, aRSMR MKX LO ]O`O\OVc NKWKQSXQ PY\ ROKV^R ,\_MO O^ KV -RSVN\OX aRY NY RK`O electric light tend to spend more time on their homework and perform better in school (Gustavsson, 2007, p. 1297).

Fig 29. Studying by kerosene lamp (SolarAid, 2015)

Fig 30. Solar powered lamp (EEP Souther, 2012)

Architects can consider numerous potential systems by which electricity could be provided at school. Photovoltaic panels and wind turbines are obvious examples but there are other creative proposals, such as Uncharted Play’s electric football that generates charge for LED lamps as it rolls. The expense of providing electricity could potentially be covered by further community involvement, such as running a mobile phone charging station or electric lamp rental. The importance of these facilities, beyond traditional classroom infrastructure, is ]SQXS MKX^ 8Y^ YXVc NYO] ^ROS\ SXMV_]SYX RK`O KX SWWONSK^O SWZKM^ YX Z_ZSVt] VOK\XSXQ YZZY\^_XS^SO] L_^ ^ROc MKX LOXO ^ ^RO aSNO\ MYWW_XS^c +V^RY_QR ^RS] SXO`S^KLVc KNN] to the cost of providing school infrastructure, if new schools are to genuinely become sustainable places of learning, water and electricity are essential ingredients.

32

Barriers beyond the Architect The barriers to quality education discussed here are not intended to be exhaustive, rather they are the issues that designers are best placed to tackle. Designing a low cost classroom construction system will allow greater numbers to be built across the country, tackling the critical lack of classroom space. Improving sanitation facilities will empower female pupils and increase attendance. Planning better distribution of facilities into smaller, more accessible schools will bring services to where there is the greatest need. Ensuring each school has a safe, clean, well ventilated kitchen and KX KQ\SM_V^_\KV ZVY^ MKX ROVZ NOKV aS^R R_XQO\ KXN WKVX_^\S^SYX K^ ]MRYYV +XN XKVVc providing creative sources of water and electricity can improve academic attainment and bring vital utilities to the wider community. >RO]O LK\\SO\] K\O ]SQXS MKX^ L_^ S^ S] SWZY\^KX^ ^Y O]^KLVS]R ^RK^ ]YWO S]]_O] K\O LOcYXN the remit of an architect or planner. Violence against girls, early marriage and pregnancy MYX^SX_O ^Y RK`O K WKTY\ SWZKM^ YX ^RO VO`OV YP POWKVO ON_MK^SYX SX 7KVKaS ,S]SUK O^ KV # 0KWSVc SXMYWO KXN VO`OV] YP ZK\OX^KV ON_MK^SYX K\O KV]Y ]SQXS MKX^ PKM^Y\] SX a child’s attainment (Moyi, 2010, p. 237) (Nannyonjo, 2007, p. 12). And a high prevalence of HIV/AIDS and other diseases in Malawi leave many children orphaned and unable to attend school as they take on the roles of their parents in the household (UNESCO, 2015, p. 63). These are just some of the huge problems Malawi faces if universal quality primary education is to be achieved. Whilst these cannot be solved through the design of schools, education is linked to each of them. Educated girls are less likely to suffer from violence, tend to marry later and are less likely to contract HIV/AIDS (UNESCO, 2015, p. 59). Likewise, every year of schooling proportionally increases future earnings, even for those who do not end _Z SX PY\WKV aY\U ]_MR K] PK\WO\] ,KXO\TOO ._ Y Z "" +V^RY_QR K\MRS^OM^] MKXXY^ NS\OM^Vc SX _OXMO O`O\c LK\\SO\ ^Y ON_MK^SYX KXc SWZ\Y`OWOX^ ^Y ON_MK^SYXKV attainment that can be achieved through design will have an impact far beyond the classroom.

33

05 Proposed Strategies: An Analysis

“A movement is growing both within the professional design community and the design, engineering and architecture schools to direct our practices toward socially responsible, humanitarian design.� (Smith, 2007, p. 11) 34

05 - Proposed Strategies: An Analysis In recent years the design community has seen an increased interest in socially conscious design. This has included renewed interest in improving access to education SX VYa SXMYWO MY_X^\SO] 7KXc YP ^RO]O Z\YTOM^] RK`O WKNO K ]SQXS MKX^ SWZKM^ ^Y ^ROS\ respective community yet the majority remain isolated, one off projects. Why has no XOa ]c]^OW LOOX ]SQXS MKX^Vc ObZKXNON) +XN SP K\MRS^OM^] NY RK`O K \YVO SX KMRSO`SXQ universal quality primary education, what can be learned from these recent attempts at NO`OVYZWOX^ K\MRS^OM^_\O) >RS] MRKZ^O\ VYYU] K^ ]ZOMS M ObKWZVO] YP ]MRYYV NO]SQX] SX Sub-Saharan Africa as well as some more general proposed approaches to design in low income countries.

Gando Primary School, Gando, Burkina Faso: Francis Kéré, 2001

Longitudinal section

63 m²

covered areas for recreation

63 m²

covered areas for recreation

Floor Plan

Fig 31. Gando Primary plan and section (5»\», 2004)

35

63 m²

“This school, in a remote settlement in the south of Burkina Faso, is the expression of one man’s commitment to improve conditions in his village. It also represents the involvement YP K aRYVO MYWW_XS^c SX ^RO MYX]^\_M^SYX YP K L_SVNSXQ ^RK^ ]cWLYVSdO] ^RO \]^ ]^OZ towards this improvement.â€? (Varanda, 2004, p. 1) 0\KXMS] 5Âť\Âťt] 1KXNY =MRYYV RK] LOOX K RSQRVc SX _OX^SKV NO]SQX aSXXSXQ ^RO +QK 5RKX Award for Architecture in 2004. The project developed in phases from the original three classroom block, built in 2001. Later additions include a second classroom block, teacher’s housing, toilet blocks, a library and a woman’s centre (Lepik, 2010, p. 34). The three detached classrooms, each a generous 63m2, are separated by external sheltered space that can also be used for teaching.

Fig 32. Community space ( Ouwerkerk, 2010) Stabilised soil blocks are used for construction with an earth mortar to further reduce cement (Varanda, 2004, p. 3). The system uses a press to compact a mixture of sub-soil and a stabilising agent such as lime or cement (in this case blocks were 6% cement) 6OZSU Z >RO LVYMU] K\O N\SON SX ^RO ]_X \K^RO\ ^RKX \ON XOQK^SXQ ^RO OX`S\YXWOX^KV S]]_O] aS^R L_\X^ L\SMU] +] ^RO]O LVYMU] K\O _XSPY\W SX ]SdO KXN ]RKZO VO]] WY\^K\ S] \O[_S\ON ?8 2+,3>+> # Z +XY^RO\ LOXO ^ YP ^RO ]c]^OW S] ^RK^ making blocks is an unskilled task which community members could easily participate SX RYaO`O\ 5Âť\Âť NSN RK`O ^Y MYX`SXMO ^RO MYWW_XS^c ^RK^ OK\^R MYX]^\_M^SYX MKX LO high quality and valuable,

Fig 33. Roof construction ( Ouwerkerk, 2001)

Fig 34. Sheltered outdoor space ( Ouwerkerk, 2010) 36

“In the beginning the villagers needed a great deal of persuading before they came round to the idea that clay – a construction material they have known for thousands of years – could be used to build a robust and stable house, let alone a huge school” (K»\» quoted in - Varanda, 2004, p. 4) ARSV]^ aKVV KXN PY_XNK^SYX MYX]^\_M^SYX _]O ^\KNS^SYXKV ^OMRXS[_O] 5»\»t] \YYP S] KX innovative, passive, solar design. Concrete reinforcement bars are welded together to create the trusses, lifting the metal roof above the ceiling. The space in between is naturally ventilated, keeping temperatures cool within (Fig. 35). The ceiling itself consists of thermally massive adobe which also helps keep temperatures cool as the ceiling acts as a heat store during the day and cools in the evening (Varanda, 2004, p. 3).

Fig 35. Ventilation diagram (5»\», 2004) As a learning environment Gando is also successful. Temperatures remain cool, classes have an abundance of natural light, they are ventilated without being exposed and there S] KZZ\YZ\SK^O ObSLVO VOK\XSXQ ]ZKMO LO^aOOX ^RO MVK]]\YYW] >RS] aK] KMRSO`ON aS^R ]SQXS MKX^ MYWW_XS^c SX`YV`OWOX^ aS^R VYMKV] Z\Y`SNSXQ ^RO WKTY\S^c YP VKLY_\ 6OZSU 2010, p. 34). This contributed to the low total cost of $30,000 for the initial classroom block (Varanda, 2004, p. 2). Clearly there are many positive aspects to Gando School’s design. The learning environment is good, there are community facilities and the cost was low. However, whilst the construction system is cheap, the press to create the stabilised soil blocks MKX LO Z\YRSLS^S`OVc ObZOX]S`O >RO KNNS^SYXKV MY]^ YP ^RO Z\O]] L\SXQ] ^RO XKV MY]^ above the average classroom block in Malawi even when the cost is shared over several projects. There are also some issues with maintenance, after only a few years the ceiling

Fig 36. Classroom interior (Ouwerkerk, 2010)

Fig 37. Classroom interior (Ouwerkerk, 2010) 37

RKN ]^K\^ON ^Y ]KQ KXN YY\ ^SVO] RKN M\KMUON @K\KXNK Z " >RO]O K\O S]]_O] ^RK^ MYWW_XS^c WOWLO\] aY_VN XN NSP M_V^ ^Y \O]YV`O YX ^ROS\ YaX .O]ZS^O ^RO]O S]]_O] ^RO\O K\O MO\^KSXVc WKXc K]ZOM^] YP 5Âť\Âťt] NO]SQX ]_MR K] ^RO OX`S\YXWOX^KV performance, community engagement and quality learning environment, that could successfully be implemented elsewhere and contribute to improving on the standard model.

Malawi Schools Project, Dowa & Mzimba, Malawi: John McAslan and Partners, 2009 -VOK\Vc SX _OXMON Lc 1KXNY =MRYYV S] ^RO 7KVKaS =MRYYV] :\YTOM^ Lc Z\YTOM^ K\MRS^OM^] Hannah Lawson and Andy Meira. The classroom blocks were originally intended to act K] Z\Y^Y^cZO WYNOV ]MRYYV] PY\ P_^_\O ObZKX]SYX 6Ka]YX 1VOXNKc >RO NO]SQX promotes community participation, low cost materials and construction and a quality learning environment. Six of these prototype blocks were built across three schools in ^RO .YaK KXN 7dSWLK NS]^\SM^] SX #

Fig 38. Malawi schools plan and section (McCabe, 2014) “They [the community] required school buildings that were inclusive; welcoming parent engagement which in turn would encourage parents to send their children to school. They needed extended schools that enabled the community to use the buildings beyond school hours for a whole range of activities from adult learning to health clinics. They also wanted teaching spaces that would allow students to learn in different forms - group work, individual work, activity-based etc.� 6Ka]YX 1VOXNKc Z ! 38

Fig 40. Malawi schools interior (Chagara, 2009)

Fig 39. Malawi schools exterior (Chagara, 2009)

As with Gando School, the design uses stabilised soil block construction for the walls, although a burnt brick strip foundation is used, rather than concrete and stone. Another ]SWSVK\S^c S] ^RO ]ROV^O\ON ]ZKMO LO^aOOX MVK]]\YYW] KM^SXQ K] KNNS^SYXKV ObSLVO VOK\XSXQ ]ZKMO 0SQ 9XO ]SQXS MKX^ NSPPO\OXMO ^RY_QR S] ^RO VSWS^ON _]O YP WO^KV] SX MYX]^\_M^SYX SX 7KVKaS MYWZK\ON ^Y ,_\USXK 0K]Y KXN ]Y ^\_]]O] K\O YP ^SWLO\ >RO interior is plastered and painted white to maximise natural light. The learning environment is well considered in Lawson and Meira’s design. Efforts aO\O WKNO ^Y UOOZ SX^O\XKV ^OWZO\K^_\O] ]^KLVO KXN WKbSWSdO XK^_\KV VSQR^ KXN ventilation. This was done with the aid of environmental engineers, thermal modeling and lighting analysis (Lawson, 2009, p. 30). Practically, this is achieved through the use of a ridge ventilation system that doubles as a clerestory (Fig. 38). Classes are spacious at 63m2 KXN ^RO\O S] KWZVO YZZY\^_XS^c PY\ ObSLVO _]O YP ]ZKMO aS^R ^R\OO ]ROV^O\ON outdoor spaces included per block. Timber shutters over windows allow control over lighting and keep the elements out during the rainy season whilst allowing natural ventilation (Fig. 41). “We aimed to re-establish the school as a focal community building for all family activity – education, health and social.” (Lawson, 2009, p. 31) In general the classroom blocks are well designed, use durable materials and are not overly expensive, so is Lawson’s design the optimum model for the Malawian

Fig 41. Timber shutters (Chagara, 2009)

Fig 42. Sheltered learning space (Chagara, 2009) 39

MVK]]\YYW) +] aS^R 5»\»t] ]MRYYV ^RO WKMRSXO _]ON ^Y MYWZ\O]] OK\^R KNN] K ]SQXS MKX^ expense to the project. The classes also act somewhat in isolation. Although later versions were intended to include rainwater harvesting and a community garden (Lawson, 2009, p. 30), the schools lack electricity and no other infrastructure, such as toilets or kitchens, were constructed. Despite this, Lawson and Meira’s classroom should be commended for the quality of its learning environment and many elements of the design could be applied elsewhere.

Legson Kayira Community Center & Primary School, Rumphi, Malawi “These schools will act as beacons within the community: Providing hope through learning, shelter through built infrastructure and nourishment through harvested rainwater to sustain subsistence farming initiatives.” (Coester, 2015, p. 14)

Fig 43. A4AC plan (A4AC, 2014)

Fig 44. Legson Kayira School (A4AC, 2014)

,Y^R 5»\» KXN 7M+]VKXt] Z\YZY]KV] K\O WYNO\X ^KUO] YX >RO_XcXMUt] s+ZZ\YZ\SK^O materials’ typology. Architecture for a Change (A4AC) however used a prefabricated system for their 2014 project. The structure consists of adapted shipping containers, a steel frame and local brickwork (Coester, 2015, p. 14). The majority of the school was MYX]^\_M^ON SX 4YRKXXO]L_\Q KXN ^\KX]ZY\^ON ^RO UW ^Y ]S^O SX <_WZRS -YO]^O\ 2015, p. 16). Aware that community participation is important to create a sense of ownership but generally lacking in prefabricated structures, A4AC’s design includes the use of local materials. Flooring, columns and fenestrations all use locally sourced brick and were constructed by the community (A4AC, 2014). Other materials used are steel and corrugated iron.

Fig 45. Section diagram (A4AC, 2014) “By utilising locally manufactured materials, the local people were left with a sense of ownership and this softened the container as a foreign contextual element.” (Coester, 2015, p. 16) >RO VOK\XSXQ OX`S\YXWOX^ S] K ObSLVO ]ZKMO aS^R ]OM^SYX] YP aKVV KLVO ^Y PYVN Y_^ ^Y expand the classroom (Fig. 46). This also allows control of natural ventilation and light, aRSMR S] WKbSWSdON ^R\Y_QR ^RO _]O YP ^\KX]ZK\OX^ \YY XQ ]ROO^] =SWSVK\ ^Y 1KXNY School, natural ventilation between the ceiling and roof help keep temperatures low, although A4AC use grass rather than thermally massive adobe blocks (Fig. 45). The classrooms form a partially enclosed courtyard area, intended for community use, which can be covered with an expanding canopy.

Fig 46. Expanding classroom (A4AC, 2014)

Fig 47. Local materials (A4AC, 2014) 41

Fig 48. Interior, day (A4AC, 2014)

Fig 49. Interior, night (A4AC, 2014)

The project includes both rainwater collection, intended mainly for agricultural use, KXN ZRY^Y`YV^KSM ZKXOV] + +- ZVKXXON K ]MRYYV ^RK^ aY_VN LOXO ^ ^RO MYWW_XS^c ^R\Y_QR ^RO]O \O]Y_\MO] -YO]^O\ >RO ]MRYYV KV]Y SXMV_NO] K ObSLVO MY`O\ON space for community functions and markets (A4AC, 2014). Although A4AC attempt to mitigate some of the issues with prefabrication, their design is not a sustainable model. The choice of materials are not widely available in Malawi and so importing from South Africa was necessary however transport costs KVYXO aY_VN LO K ]SQXS MKX^ N\KSX YX 7KVKaSt] \O]Y_\MO] +V]Y K] WOX^SYXON SX MRKZ^O\ two, Malawi’s poor quality road network would not allow for similar projects in more isolated sites. At 40m2 MVK]]\YYW] K\O ]WKVVO\ ^RKX 5\ KXN 7M+]VKXt] KXN aY_VN YXVc allow for 33 pupils per class rather than Malwi’s target of 40. <O_]SXQ WK^O\SKV] aRSMR aY_VN Y^RO\aS]O LO aK]^ON PY\ K NO]ZO\K^OVc XOONON infrastructure project is a commendable goal. A4AC are also successful in their design YP ^RO ]MRYYV K] K MYWW_XS^c R_L SXMV_NSXQ aK^O\ OVOM^\SMS^c KXN ObSLVO KMMO]]SLVO ]ZKMO 2YaO`O\ ^RO\O S] XY `KV_O SX _Z]MKVSXQ SXOP MSOXMc 3P + +-t] NO]SQX ^OKMRO] _] anything, it is that architects must carefully consider the potential for upscaling their work across the region. Due to high transport costs, prefabrication does not allow this.

Earth-bag Construction The previous examples have established that a quality learning environment at a low cost is achievable, at least in an isolated project, but that neither stabilised soil blocks nor prefabrication could feasibly be widely expanded. Of the two systems, the earth constructed models are more cost effective however they suffer from the extra expense of the pressing machine. A similar method of construction that requires no additional technology is earth-bag. “People are discovering that in addition to being sustainable, earthbags are safe, quiet, N_\KLVO XYX^YbSM \YNOX^ Z\YYP KXN \O]S]^KX^ ^Y L_VVO^] YYN] KXN \O] AROX Z\YZO\Vc designed, earthbag structures can withstand hurricanes and earthquakes. Because of this, builders, NGOs, research institutes and government agencies are using earthbags in affordable clinics, schools, emergency shelters and disaster resistant housing.� (Geiger, 2011, p. 1) Theunynck (2009) dismisses earth building generally as a potential solution to school construction for three reasons; designs are less appropriate for learning, construction 42

UXYaVONQO NYO] XY^ ObS]^ KXN MY]^] K\O XY^ ]_P MSOX^Vc VYa >RO_XcXMU # Z # ]Y aRK^ S] NSPPO\OX^ KLY_^ OK\^R LKQ ^RK^ WKUO S^ `SKLVO) 5»\» KXN 7M+]VKXt] NO]SQX] K] WYNO\X MVK]]\YYW] _]SXQ OK\^R ^OMRXYVYQc NS]Z\Y`O ^RO \]^ ZYSX^ OK\^R MYX]^\_M^ON classrooms can be appropriate for learning. The added advantage of earth-bag is that construction and maintenance are low skill tasks and costs are at least as low as stabilised soil blocks.

Fig 50. Earthbag school, Burundi (Eternally Solar, 2007) Unlike many other earth construction systems, very little skilled labour is required, K ]SQXS MKX^ KN`KX^KQO K] MYWW_XS^c WOWLO\] MKX MYX^\SL_^O Lc MYVVOM^SXQ OK\^R VVSXQ LKQ] KXN ^KWZSXQ >RO ]c]^OWt] ]SWSVK\S^c ^Y \OQ_VK\ WK]YX\c LKQ] K\O VKSN SX K stretcher bond) would allow local contractors to quickly pick up the technique (Geiger, 2011, p. 6). Costs are kept low due to the minimal transport costs as the major building material is available on site and the reduction in cement use, no mortar is required between courses. The system is very similar to rammed earth, although replaces expensive, timber PY\WaY\U aS^R ZYVcZ\YZcVOXO LKQ] aSNOVc K`KSVKLVO KXN _]ON ^Y ^\KX]ZY\^ WKSdO SX 7KVKaS ,KQ] K\O VVON aS^R OK\^R P\YW ^RO ]S^O KXN ^KWZON PY\ KNNON MYWZ\O]]S`O strength, they are then laid in courses with barbed wire in between to hold the bags in place and give tensile strength (Geiger, 2011, p. 2). Earth bags can also replace concrete foundations with increased gravel content on courses below ground level, further reducing reliance on cement.

Fig 51. Earthbag school, Sierra Leone (Shine on Sierra Leone, 2010) 43

There is limited precedent for earth-bag construction in Malawi however many Y\QKXS]K^SYX] RK`O LOQ_X ^Y _]O ^RO ^OMRXS[_O SX ^RO \OQSYX >RO ,O\QOX =MRYYV YP +\MRS^OM^_\O L_SV^ K ]SXQVO MVK]]\YYW SX XSOQRLY_\SXQ 7YdKWLS[_O SX # =RSXO YX =SO\\K 6OYXO RK`O MYX]^\_M^ON K ^R\OO MVK]]\YYW LVYMU 0SQ KXN ^RO ,_\_XNSKX government have constructed an earth-bag school in Cibitoke (Fig. 50). Each of these projects follow the standard model in their design however innovation is possible. >RO\O S] XY \OK]YX MVK]]\YYW] L_SV^ YP OK\^R LKQ] MY_VN XY^ ^KUO YX ^RO PY\W YP 5\ Y\ McAslan’s designs, with some additional bracing. Earth-bag building remains in its infancy in Malawi and as a school construction system QOXO\KVVc RYaO`O\ S^] [_KVS^SO] NY ^ aS^RSX ^RO P\KWOaY\U YP MYX]^\KSX^] YX ]MRYYV designers. Materials and skills are available at a low cost and transport requirements are minimal. The environmental issues with burnt brick are negated as no timber is \O[_S\ON KXN MOWOX^ MKX KV]Y LO ]SQXS MKX^Vc \ON_MON 0_\^RO\ ^O]^SXQ S] \O[_S\ON L_^ SP ^RO [_KVS^c YP VOK\XSXQ OX`S\YXWOX^ MKX WK^MR ^RK^ YP 5\ KXN 7M+]VKXt] NO]SQX] ^ROX earth-bag may well be the future of school construction in Malawi.

Primary Schools as Community Hubs “Schools should be designed to better serve communities local to the school as well as pupils with facilities, such as kitchens, dining space and libraries, transforming schools into community ‘learning hubs’. This could result in better pupil-retention, indirectly through improving school-community linkages and involvement in supporting students and the general school communityâ€? (Uduku, 2010, p. 2) 5Âť\Âť KXN 7M+]VKX ]O^ ^RO ]^KXNK\N PY\ [_KVS^c YP VOK\XSXQ OX`S\YXWOX^ KXN OK\^R bag technology solves issues with construction technology yet barriers to education remain. These cannot be solved through the design of the classroom block and require consideration of the whole school. If architects hope to deliver sustainable change, they must deliver more than just classrooms and local interventions. Future developmental architecture must consider the immediate impact on the local community as well as how their designs might be repeated across the region. The idea of schools acting as community hubs is not a new one, Chung (2002) and Sanoff (2002) promote the idea in US schools and Knapp, et al. (2007) and Ukudu (2010) stress the importance of community involvement in developing countries. u.O`OVYZSXQ TYSX^ _]O ]MRYYV PKMSVS^SO] S] K MY]^OPPOM^S`O OP MSOX^ _]O YP \O]Y_\MO] +X K\\Kc of intergenerational uses also gives nonschool-age populations a vested interest in their neighborhood public school as a community hub.â€? (Chung, 2002, p. 16) This system remains relevant in Malawi, where access to water, electricity and other `S^KV NO`OVYZWOX^KV \O]Y_\MO] S] ]O`O\OVc VSWS^ON 0Y]^O\ =RUK\K^KX Z <K^RO\ than remaining a separate development goal, improving access to these resources could become a part of holistic school design. As previously stated, these facilities are essential for modern schools, their scaling up to serve the whole catchment area could be a simple way to provide for the community. Whilst community involvement is often championed, community management of 44

\O]Y_\MO] MKX LO Z\YLVOWK^SM 2K\`Oc <OON Z ! 9\QKXS]SXQ _^SVS^SO] K\Y_XN schools could allow community ownership and access whilst retaining an infrastructure around which to organise upkeep and maintenance. As Malawi’s national infrastructure is generally poor, a system of schools providing these utilities for their catchment area could provide a proxy ‘grid’ and allow access to important resources even in rural areas. >RO LOXO ^] ^Y ^RO aSNO\ MYWW_XS^c XOONXt^ OXN ]SWZVc aS^R access to electricity and water however, the community school is well placed to assist with a wide range of poverty related issues. Electric lights in schools create the opportunity for evening classes, increasing community participation and giving access to relevant education on ^YZSM] VSUO 23@ +3.= KQ\SM_V^_\O KXN WSM\Y XKXMSXQ =YVK\ VKWZ \OX^KV KXN ZRYXO charging stations are potential new businesses, creating new employment in the area. “Here in Malawi, a teacher may be able to earn an extra 10-15,000 kwacha (around $19) a month from using the lamps to charge phones, increasing their salary by 30-40%. A group of teachers can buy a box of lamps between them [and] can charge phones for up to 60 people a week.” (Vidal, 2015)

Fig 52. Teacher renting lamps (Vidal, 2015) +XY^RO\ Z\O]]SXQ ZY`O\^c \OVK^ON S]]_O S] WKVX_^\S^SYX ZK\^SM_VK\Vc YP _XNO\ `O] School kitchens, usually run by run by local mothers with food donated by aid programmes, could expand their duty beyond the school. Malnutrition in pregnancy can have lifetime effects on a child, expanding school kitchens to feed local mothers and Z\O ]MRYYV MRSVN\OX MY_VN ]SQXS MKX^Vc SXM\OK]O ROKV^R KXN VOK\XSXQ MKZKMS^c AY\VN Food Programme, 2006).

Fig 53. Community garden, Gando (Ouwerkerk, 2010) 45

The extent to which communities are involved with a school will have a direct bearing on its success. Where the relationship is poor or where community leaders are not MYX`SXMON YP ^RO LOXO ^] YP ]MRYYV MRSVN\OX ]SWZVc aYXt^ QY -RSWYWLY Z .O`OVYZSXQ ]MRYYV] SX^Y MYWW_XS^c R_L] S] K WO^RYN Lc aRSMR ^Y SXMOX^S`SdO community participation in schools through access to resources. Community hubs can also help improve local economies through increased employment and adult education ?N_U_ +] ZY`O\^c S] YXO YP ^RO WY]^ ]SQXS MKX^ SXNSMK^Y\] YP ] MRSVNt] ]MRYYV performance (UNDP, 2015, p. 8), anything that can be done to alleviate poverty in a MYWW_XS^c ]RY_VN RK`O K LOXO MSKV OPPOM^ YX ON_MK^SYX

46

06 Conclusions

Despite every effort and the impressive progress made on educational access in some countries and regions, the world as a whole has broken a fundamental promise to children: that each and every one of them would be able to complete primary education by 2015. (UNESCO, 2015, p. 101) 47

06 - Conclusions

Fig 52. Damaged classroom block, Balaka, Malawi (McCabe, 2015) Access to education is widely accepted as a fundamental right and a major international development priority yet in Malawi and elsewhere there remains much work to be done. The imminent introduction of the sustainable development goals suggest the issue will remain at the top of donor’s agenda for the coming years. Although progress has been made since 2000, attempts to improve access and quality through school construction have been limited in their success by major external constraints on school designers and planners. Despite this, a focus on improving primary education remains a valuable goal SX ^RO aSNO\ QR^ KQKSX]^ ZY`O\^c Architects and designers cannot solve all of the world’s woes, poverty persists across the world and there exists no silver bullet to eradicate it. Yet focusing on education, aS^R KVV YP S^] NS\OM^ KXN SXNS\OM^ LOXO ^] K\MRS^OM^] MKX SWZKM^ MRKXQO +\MRS^OM^] MKX help increase access through improved planning and they can improve quality through designing better learning environments. Architects also have a responsibility not to design in isolation but to consider the wider impact of their school designs. Can this WO^RYN LO SWZVOWOX^ON OV]OaRO\O) ASVV ^RS] ]MRYYV LOXO ^ ^RO aRYVO MYWW_XS^c) 2Ya aSVV S^ LO VYYUON KP^O\ KXN WKSX^KSXON) +XN RYa MKX LK\\SO\] ^Y [_KVS^c ON_MK^SYX LO WS^SQK^ON ^R\Y_QR NO]SQX) These questions have no simple answer and solutions will likely vary, depending on a variety of external factors. Yet these are the issues that must be addressed in future school design for Malawi. Malawi does not need a new standard model but a variety of designers working on solutions independently. However, unlike with the ObKWZVO] KXKVc]ON SX MRKZ^O\ `O ^RO]O ]YV_^SYX] W_]^ ^ aS^RSX K ^SQR^ P\KWOaY\U Supplementary to this text is a design manual, intended to aid those who seek to MYX^\SL_^O ^Y 7KVKaSt] ]MRYYV SXP\K]^\_M^_\O NO MS^ >RS] WKX_KV VKc] Y_^ ^RO P\KWOaY\U within which creative solutions may be found to the problems listed above. +\MRS^OM^] RYZSXQ ^Y SWZKM^ MRKXQO SX ON_MK^SYX WKc XN ^RO ]VYa \K^O YP Z\YQ\O]] disheartening but change is possible. Improvements to the standard model’s quality of 48

learning environment are simple and achievable, particularly important are increasing natural light, ventilation and stabilising temperatures. More complex is the scaling up of school construction within the current, donor led, funding model. This will require a reduction in the cost of a standard block without compromising on quality. This WKc LO KMRSO`ON ^R\Y_QR ^RO ]ZOMS MK^SYX YP XOa WK^O\SKV] Y\ SXXY`K^S`O _]O YP YVNO\ techniques. Importantly, it is designers and architects who are best placed to deal with these issues and their contribution is not only valuable but necessary. “Without education, development is a dream” 0\KXMS] 5»\» SX +\MRS^OM^_\O PY\ 2_WKXS^c Z

Fig 53. Outdoor classroom, Michiru, Malawi (McCabe, 2015)

49

List of Figures Figure 09 Pencils of Promise, 2012 ?X XS]RON =ROV^O\ -VK]]\YYW 1RKXK [Photograph] aaa SMU\ MYW +MMO]]ON "

Figure 01 McCabe 2015 Cover image - Michiru primary, Malawi [photograph] Figure 02 UNESCO 2014 Global Out of school children [Graph] Quebec: UNESCO

Figure 10 Tsai Design Studio, 2012 Prefabricated Shipping Container Classroom, South Africa [Photograph] www.tsaidesignstudio.com - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 03 IIAG, 2014 IIAG: Education [Diagram] London: IIAG

Figure 11 McCabe, 2015 Typical Standard Model Plan [Drawing]

Figure 04 Ouwerkerk, 2013 Francis Kere, Gando School [Photograph] www.kere-architecture.com Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 12 McCabe, 2015 Standard Classsroom Block, Matititsi primary, Malawi [Photograph]

Figure 05 Chagara, 2009 McAslan, Malawi schools project [Photograph] www.mcaslan.co.uk - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 13 McCabe, 2015 Community brick kiln, Chikwawa, Malawi [Photograph] Figure 14 McCabe, 2015 Typical classroom interior, Nambadwe, Malawi [Photograph]

Figure 06 McCabe, 2015 Standard Classroom Block [Photograph] Figure 07 Diagram - Author’s own, 2015 Impact of Classroom on Learning [Diagram] .K^K ,K\\O^^ DRKXQ 7YPPK^ 5YLLKMc 2013 Building and Environment, Volume 59, p.679

Figure 08 Nakuru Children’s Project, 2011 Appropriate Materials - Wattle and Daub Classroom [Photograph] aaa SMU\ MYW +MMO]]ON "

Figure 15 McCabe, 2015 Typical classroom window [Photograph] Figure 16 McCabe, 2015 Roof radiating heat [Diagram] Figure 17 McCabe, 2014 High mortar ratio [Photograph] Figure 18 DEL Construction, 2015 Typical cost breakdown [Diagram]

50

Figure 19 McCabe, 2015 Termite damaged truss [Photograph]

Figure 29 SolarAid, 2015 Studying by kerosene lamp [Photograph] aaa SMU\ MYW +MMO]]ON "

Figure 20 McCabe, 2015 Water damaged classroom [Photograph]

Figure 30 EEP Souther, 2012 Solar powered lamp [Photograph] aaa SMU\ MYW +MMO]]ON "

Figure 21 Hirano, 2009 Cost per m2 of wall construction [Graph] 5SQKVS$ <aKXNK 7SXS]^\c YP /N_MK^SYX

Figure 31 5Âť\Âť Gando Primary plan and section [Drawing] www.openarchitecturenetwork.org - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 22 Diagram - McCabe, 2015 Pupil Classroom Ratio [Diagram] .K^K 8K^SYXKV =^K^S]^SM] 9P MO Statistical yearbook 2012 DYWLK$ 8K^SYXKV =^K^S]^SM] 9P MO

Figure 32 Ouwerkerk, 2010 Community space [Photograph] www.kere-architecture.com Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 23 McCabe, 2015 Typical temporary classroom, William village, Malawi [Photograph]

Figure 33 Ouwerkerk, 2001 Roof construction [Photograph] www.kere-architecture.com Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 24 McCabe, 2015 Typical toilet block, Michiru, Malawi [Photograph]

Figure 34 Ouwerkerk, 2010 Sheltered outdoor space [Photograph] www.kere-architecture.com Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 25 Moyi, 2010 Reasons for delayed entry [Table] International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 30, p. 239

Figure 35 5Âť\Âť Ventilation diagram [Diagram] www.kere-architecture.com - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 26 Lehman, 2003 Expendature per student as a function of school enrollment [Graph] AK]RSXQ^YX .-$ AY\VN ,KXU

Figure 36 Ouwerkerk, 2010 Classroom interior [Photograph] www.kere-architecture.com Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 27 Lehman, 2003 Enrollment relative to distance [Graph] AK]RSXQ^YX .-$ AY\VN ,KXU Figure 28 AY\VN ,KXU SADC Social development indicators [Table] AK]RSXQ^YX .-$ AY\VN ,KXU

Figure 37 Ouwerkerk, 2010 Classroom interior [Photograph] www.kere-architecture.com Accessed 16/08/15

51

Figure 48 A4AC, 2014 Interior, day [Photograph] www.a4ac.net - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 38 McCabe, 2014 Malawi schools plan and section [Drawing] Figure 39 Chagara, 2009 Malawi schools exterior [Photograph] www.mcaslan.co.uk - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 49 A4AC, 2014 Interior, night [Photograph] www.a4ac.net - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 40 Chagara, 2009 Malawi schools interior [Photograph] www.mcaslan.co.uk - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 50 Eternally Solar, 2007 Earthbag school, Burundi [Photograph] www.earthbagbuild.com - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 41 Chagara, 2009 Timber shutters [Photograph] www.mcaslan.co.uk - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 51 Shine on Sierra Leone, 2010 Earthbag school, Sierra Leone [Photograph] www.earthbagbuilding.com - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 42 Chagara, 2009 Sheltered learning space [Photograph] www.mcaslan.co.uk - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 52 Vidal, 2015 Teacher renting lamps [Photograph] www.guardian.co.uk - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 43 A4AC, 2014 A4AC plan [Drawing] www.a4ac.net - Accessed 16/08/15 Figure 44 A4AC, 2014 Legson Kayira School [Photograph] www.a4ac.net - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 53 Ouwerkerk, 2010 Community garden, Gando [Photograph] www.kere-architecture.com Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 45 A4AC, 2014 Section Diagram [Diagram] www.a4ac.net - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 54 McCabe, 2015 Damaged classroom block, Balaka, Malawi [Photograph]

Figure 46 A4AC, 2014 Expanding classroom [Photograph] www.a4ac.net - Accessed 16/08/15 Figure 47 A4AC, 2014 Local materials [Photograph] www.a4ac.net - Accessed 16/08/15

Figure 54 McCabe, 2015 Outdoor classroom, Michiru, Malawi [Photograph]

52

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-RSWYLY 4 /N_MK^SYXKV 3XXY`K^SYX] SX .O`OVYZSXQ -Y_X^\SO]$ 3WZVSMK^SYX] KXN -RKVVOXQO] PY\ Policy Change in Malawi. Journal of International Cooperation in Education, 4(2), pp. 39-54. -RSWYWLY 4 ;_KX^S^c @O\]_] ;_KVS^c SX /N_MK^SYX$ -K]O =^_NSO] SX 7KVKaS International Review of Education, Volume 51, pp. 155-172. Coester, D., 2015. Welcome to the Global Village. Leading Architecture and Design, Issue Feb/Mar 2015, pp. 14-16. .O <KON^ 5 ,O^aOOX s^\_O LOVSO`O\]t KXN YZO\K^SYXKV ObZO\^]$ ?8/=-9 K\MRS^OM^] KXN ]MRYYV building in post-colonial Africa. The Journal of Architecture, 19(1), pp. 19-42. /VVS] 0 5_^OXQ_VO 7 8cK]_V_ + 6S`OVSRYYN] KXN <_\KV :Y`O\^c <ON_M^SYX SX 7KVKaS World Development, 31(9), pp. 1495-1510. 1_]^K`]]YX 7 ! /N_MK^SYXKV LOXS ^] P\YW ]YVK\ ^OMRXYVYQc +MMO]] ^Y ]YVK\ OVOM^\SM ]O\`SMO] KXN MRKXQO] SX MRSVN\OXt] ]^_Nc ^Y_^SXO] ObZO\SOXMO] P\YW OK]^O\X Z\Y`SXMO DKWLSK Energy Policy, Volume 35, pp. 1292-1299. 2K\`Oc : + <OON < + -YWW_XS^c WKXKQON aK^O\ ]_ZZVSO] SX +P\SMK$ ]_]^KSXKLVO Y\ NS]ZOX]KLVO) Community Development Journal, 42(3), pp. 365-378. 5KNdKWS\K / <Y]O : -KX P\OO Z\SWK\c ON_MK^SYX WOO^ ^RO XOON] YP ^RO ZYY\)$ /`SNOXMO P\YW Malawi. International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 23, pp. 501-516. 5S\U 4 =YWWO\ 7 7OX]^\_K^SYX KXN LYNc KaK\OXO]]$ VSXUSXQ QS\V]t ROKV^R aS^R QS\V]t education.. Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), Special on Gender and Health, pp. 1-22. 6K_\O^O + 6ORWKXX - >]_UKNK < # <KSXN\YZ] PY\ /N_MK^SYX$ 2Ya ^Y SWZ\Y`O aK^O\ KMMO]] SX ]MRYYV]) The International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth, Volume 99, p. 1. 6Ka]YX 2 # 6O]]YX] VOK\X^$ 7KVKaS ]MRYYV] Z\YTOM^% +\MRS^OM^]$ 4YRX 7M+]VKX :K\^XO\] Architect’s Journal, 230(19), pp. 28-31. 6Ka]YX 2 1VOXNKc 4 2OK\^] KXN WSXN] Urban realm, Volume 2, pp. 74-83. Lewin, K. M., 2009. Access to education in sub-Saharan Africa: patterns, problems and possibilities. Comparative Education, 45(2), pp. 151-174. 7STYXS : 6 3dKNURKR C 9 # 7KXKQOWOX^ YP YYN] SX 7KVKaS$ MK]O ]^_Nc YP ^RO 6YaO\ =RS\O <S`O\ @KVVOc Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, 18(5), pp. 490-503. Moyi, P., 2010. Household characteristics and delayed school enrollment in Malawi. International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 30, pp. 236-242. 7aKWLOXO 4 , 7__VK + = 6OY 4 - :\O`KVOXMO KXN MY\\OVK^O] YP R_XQO\ KWYXQ Z\SWK\c KXN secondary school children in Malawi: results from the 2009 Global School-based Health Survey. Malawi Medical Journal, 25(2), pp. 45-49`. =KVKWK + 7 # >2/ ?=/<= 38 738.$ ?^SVSdSXQ 2OX\c =KXYPPt] 7O^RYN] SX 3X`O]^SQK^SXQ ^RO Learning Environment. open house international, 34(1), pp. 35-44. Solomon, L., 1985. Quality of Education and Economic Growth. Economics of Education Review, 4(4), pp. 273-290. Sommer, M., 2010. Where the education system and women’s bodies collide: The social and health impact YP QS\V]t ObZO\SOXMO] YP WOX]^\_K^SYX KXN ]MRYYVSXQ SX >KXdKXSK Journal of Adolescence, Volume 33, pp. 521-529. =ZO\VSXQ 1 , >YaK\N] ?XS`O\]KV /N_MK^SYX Foreign Affairs, 80(5), pp. 7-13. Uduku, O., 2015. Designing schools for quality: An international, case study-based review. International Journal of Educational Development, Volume 44, pp. 56-64. Wroe, D., 2012. Donars, dependancy and political crisis in Malawi. African Affairs, Volume 111 (442), pp. 135-144

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Reports +`OX]^\_Z < Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi and Uganda: Universal Primary Education and Poverty Reduction , AK]RSXQ^YX .-$ AY\VN ,KXU ,\_MO 8 :O\Od :KNSVVK < +VLKVKU < The health effects of indoor air pollution exposures in developing countries, 1OXO`K$ AY\VN 2OKV^R 9\QKXSdK^SYX ,\_X] , 7SXQK^ + <KUY^YWKVKVK < A Chance for every child: Achieving universal primary education by 2015. AK]RSXQ^YX .-$ AY\VN ,KXU ,_XNc . O^ KV # Rethinking School Feeding: Social Safety Nets, Child Development and the Education Sector. AK]RSXQ^YX .-$ AY\VN ,KXU Earthman, G., 2004. Prioritization of 31 Criteria for School Building Adequacy, ,KV^SWY\O$ +WO\SMKX -S`SV Liberties Union Foundation of Maryland. 0Y]^O\ @ =RUK\K^KX 7 Malawi’s Infrastructure: A Continental Perspective, Chicago: The World ,KXU 0\ON\SU]OX , # <K^SYXKVO 3]]_O] KXN -YXNS^SYX] PY\ =_]^KSXSXQ ^RO +LYVS^SYX YP =MRYYV 0OO] In: Abolishing School Fees in Africa: Lessons from Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi and Mozambique. AK]RSXQ^YX .-$ AY\VN ,KXU ZZ # Hirano, S., 2009. child friendly schools infrastructure standards and guidelines, 5SQKVS$ <aKXNK 7SXS]^\c YP Education. IIAG, 2014. Ibrahim Index of African Governance: Summary Report, London: IIAG. 5XKZZ / 8Y]MRS] 5 Architectural Quality in Planning and Design of Schools: Current issues with focus on Developing Countries. Lausanne: Comportements. 5XKZZ / 8Y]MRS] 5 :K]KVK\ � /N] ! School Building Design and Learning Performance with a Focus on Schools in Developing Countries. Lausanne: Comportements. Lehman, D. et al., 2004. The Rural Access Initiative: Shortening the Distance to Education for All in the African Sahel.. AK]RSXQ^YX .-$ AY\VN ,KXU Mulkeen, A., 2006. Teachers for Rural Schools: A challenge for Africa, Paris: Association for the Development of Education in Africa. 7_VUOOX + 1 2SQQSX] - # Multigrade Teaching in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington DC: World ,KXU Nannyonjo, H., 2007. /N_MK^SYX SXZ_^] SX ?QKXNK$ +X +XKVc]S] YP 0KM^Y\] 3X _OXMSXQ 6OK\XSXQ +MRSO`OWOX^ in Grade Six, AK]RSXQ^YX .-$ AY\VN ,KXU 8K^SYXKV =^K^S]^SMKV 9P MO Statistical Yearbook 2012, DYWLK$ 8K^SYXKV =^K^S]^SMKV 9P MO <OON , =RKa < " =KXS^K^SYX PY\ :\SWK\c ]MRYYV] SX +P\SMK 6Y_QRLY\Y_QR$ A/.Sanoff, H., 2002. Schools Designed with Community Participation., Washington DC: National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities-NCEF. Theunynck, S., 2009. School Construction Strategies for Universal Primary Education in Africa: Should Communities Be Empowered to Build Their Schools?, AK]RSXQ^YX .-$ >RO AY\VN ,KXU Uduku, O., 2010. Designing school buildings as development hubs for learning: Final Project Report for EdQual Project, ,\S]^YV$ ?XS`O\]S^c YP ,\S]^YV UNDP, 2015. The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015, New York: United Nations. UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2014. Progress in getting all children to school stalls but some countries show the way forward, Quebec: UNESCO.

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UNESCO, 2010. Engineering: Issues, Challenges and opportunities for development, Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO, 2015. Fixing the Broken Promise of Education for All: Findings from the Global Initiative on Outof-School Children, Montreal: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. ?8/=-9 3,/ World Data on Education: Malawi vii Ed. 2010/11, s.l.: UNESCO. ?8 2+,3>+> # Interlocking Stabilised Soil Blocks: Appropriate earth technologies in Uganda, Nairobi: ?8 2+,3>+> Varanda, F., 2004. 2004 Site Review Report: Primary School, Gando, Burkina Faso, Geneva: Aga Khan Award for Architecture. AY\VN ,KXU The Education System in Malawi, AK]RSXQ^YX . - $ >RO AY\VN ,KXU World Food Programme, 2006. World Hunger Series 2006: Hunger and Learning, <YWO =^KXPY\N$ AY\VN 0YYN :\YQ\KWWO =^KXPY\N ?XS`O\]S^c :\O]]

Online Video 5Âť\Âť 0 2Ya ^Y L_SVN aS^R MVKc KXN MYWW_XS^c E`SNOYG +`KSVKLVO K^$ aaa ^ON MYW ^KVU] NSOLONYI P\KXMS]IUO\OIRYaI^YIL_SVNIaS^RIMVKcIKXNIMYWW_XS^c E+MMO]]ON ! +_Q G ,VKMU ,OKX :\YN_M^SYX] CY_^R YP 7KVKaS 6OQ]YX 5KcS\K =MRYYV E`SNOYG +`KSVKLVO K^$ aaa cY_^_LO MYW aK^MR)`'AQO2T5`6@:7 E+MMO]]ON ! +_Q G

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Laying the Foundations for Learning What Role Can Architects and Planners Play in Achieving Universal Quality Primary Education in Malawi? Frank McCabe MArch Advanced Architectural Design University of Strathclyde Dissertation August 2015 Supervisor: Prof. Ashraf Salama

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