FUTUROLOGY CHRONICLE N O 25- JOURNEY TO MARS

JOURNEY UPDATE

HUMANITY’S JOURNEY TO MARS

The odyssey of humankind's exploration of Mars mirrors our unyielding thirst for cosmic exploration, charting a course from rudimentary satellite dispatches to intricate rover and orbiter missions.

The Inception: 1960s

Despite its failed attempt to reach the Red Planet, the USSR's Marsnik 1 was an ambitious attempt to begin the voyage in the 1960s. The United States, a Cold War foe, retaliated with NASA's Mariner missions, taking a major step forward with Mariner 4 in 1964. In order to prepare for further exploration, this spacecraft carried out the first successful flyby of Mars and sent back to Earth the first closeup pictures of the Martian surface.

Progress and Discoveries: 1970s to Early 2000s

In the decades that followed, the world witnessed an outpour of advancements and discoveries. NASA's Viking program in the 1970s carried out the first successful landing on Mars, with Viking 1 and 2 providing invaluable data and images. The 1990s and early 2000s marked an era of rovers, with NASA's Pathfinder mission deploying the Sojourner rover, the first to traverse the Martian terrain.

Recent Achievements: 2010s to 2021

With its Tianwen-1 mission, a full orbital, landing, and rover expedition that marked China's forceful entry in the Martian research arena, the world has witnessed China's significant contribution in the recent decade leading up to 2021. Moreover, the 2020-launched Hope Probe of the United Arab Emirates, which entered orbit in 2021, marked the Arab world's foray into interplanetary missions.

2022: A Temporary Setback

ExoMars was widely expected to launch in 2022, but unfortunate political unrest forced a postponement. However, in the broad scheme of Martian exploration, this development represents a temporary roadblock.

The Future: Accelerating Mars Exploration

The momentum for Mars exploration keeps growing while the world's attention partially switches to increased interest in lunar missions. Interplanetary research and exploration is expanding, surpassing temporary political and technological barriers.

Advances in technology and international cooperation are driving us closer to Mars, indicating the beginning of a new phase of Martian settlement.

The year 2040 is a bright prospect for the founding of the first human colony on Mars as we continue to uncover the mysteries of the Red Planet. This continuous endeavor represents not just the scientific and exploratory abilities of humanity, but also our steadfast dedication to breaking through land barriers and establishing a global society outside of Earth.

MARS EXPLORATION TIMELINE

1960: The USSR launches Marsnik 1, the first-ever Mars mission, which fails to leave Earth's orbit.

1964: NASA's Mariner 4 is launched successfully and becomes the first spacecraft to take images of another planet from space during a flyby of Mars in 1965.

1971: Mariner 9, launched by NASA, becomes the first spacecraft to orbit another planet, sending back detailed images of Mars.

1975: Viking 1 and Viking 2 are launched, reaching Mars in 1976. Both landers successfully send back the first color photographs from the Martian surface.

1980s:No missions to Mars were launched this decade up to 1996

1996: NASA launches the Mars Pathfinder mission, which includes a rover, Sojourner, the first successful rover on Mars.

1999: The Mars Climate Orbiter is lost as it enters the Martian atmosphere due to a navigation error caused by a units mismatch.

2001: NASA's 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiter is launched and begins mapping the Martian surface and climate.

2003: ESA’s Mars Express orbiter is launched, carrying the Beagle 2 lander, which is lost upon landing.

2004: NASA's rovers Spirit and Opportunity are launched and find evidence of past water activity on Mars.

2006: NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is launched, sending back highresolution images and data from Mars.

2007: Phoenix lander is launched by NASA, confirming the existence of water-ice on Mars.

2011: Mars Science Laboratory mission launches the Curiosity rover, which lands in 2012, exploring Gale Crater and Mount Sharp, discovering evidence of ancient freshwater lakes.

2013: India’s ISRO launches the Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan), making it the first Asian nation to reach Martian orbit and the first nation in the world to do so in its maiden attempt.

2016: ESA's ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter is launched, with the Schiaparelli lander, which crashes on Mars.

2018: NASA launches the InSight mission, a lander that studies the interior of Mars.

2020: NASA launches the Perseverance rover as part of the Mars 2020 mission, landing successfully in 2021.

2021 China's CNSA launches the Tianwen-1 mission, which includes an orbiter, lander, and rover. The rover, Zhurong, lands successfully .

UAE's Hope Probe is launched, becoming the Arab world’s first interplanetary mission.

2022 : Exomars ESA European space agency mission aborted due to geopolitical reasons explained in a specific chapter

NASA MARS MISSION UPDATE

Thanks to their scientific productivity and ability to expand knowledge and comprehension of the solar system and beyond, NASA has extended the work of five interplanetary spacecraft to continue their Mars mission. The agency made this announcement in this official statement.

“Independent evaluations of their work, incorporating feedback from NASA, business, and academia, led to the decision to continue these long-running missions. A panel study consisting of fifty reviewers "validated that these eight science missions hold substantial potential to continue bringing new discoveries and addressing compelling new science questions".

CURIOSITY - ROVER

The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), commonly referred to as Curiosity, touched down on the planet in 2012 and will continue to investigate for an additional three years. The object landed on the Gale Crater of the Red Planet and spent years ascending Mount Sharp (Aeolis Mons). The mission is to investigate how water and possible living forms came to be in that area of the Earth over an extended period of time.

NASA said, "Surfacing the critical sulfate-bearing layers which give unique insights into the history of water on Mars, MSL will climb to higher elevations in its fourth extended mission."

MAVEN - ORBITER

November 2013 saw the launch of the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) mission, which aims to study changes in the Red Planet's atmosphere. Less water was flowing on Mars' surface when pressure dropped, most likely due to the planet's atmosphere gradually eroding over long ages.

“To study the interaction between Mars' atmosphere and magnetic field during the upcoming solar maximum," NASA said of the extended mission, which will last an additional three years. To better understand how Mars' upper atmosphere and magnetic field interact with the sun, MAVEN observations will be conducted as the sun's activity level increases towards the maximum of its 11-year cycle."

INSIGHT - LANDER

As a tool for learning more about "mars quakes" and the evolution of the planet's interior, InSight, which touched down on the planet in 2018, has proven very valuable.

Apart from a "mole," or subterranean probe, failing and a slow accumulation of dust on its solar panels, the spacecraft has been operating as intended. The mission is scheduled to run through the end of 2022, but given its unstable power status, it might not make it that far.

The spacecraft's health will be monitored for earthquakes and weather over the extended mission, according to NASA. Unfortunately, InSight's ability to produce electricity is limited by dust buildup on its solar panels. Unless a "dust devil" in Mars' atmosphere blows through the solar panels, it is unlikely that the mission will last the full term of its current extended mission."

ODISSEY - ORBITER

Currently in its third decade in orbit, the Mars Odyssey spacecraft is operating as intended, having begun operations in 2001. NASA intends to extend the mission's duration by three years despite warning that its propellant is running short. Odyssey functions as a remote scientist in addition as a communications relay for other surface-based Mars spacecraft returning data to Earth.

In terms of science, NASA said that "Mars Odyssey's extended mission will perform new thermal studies of rocks and ice below Mars’ surface, monitor the radiation environment, and continue its long-running climate monitoring campaign."

RECONNAISSANCE - ORBITER

A long-term picture of the Red Planet's surface is offered by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which has been in operation since 2005. In addition to monitoring missions on the Red Planet, it records variations in sand dunes, ice caps, and other features.

The mission is expected to continue for three more years, with the exception of the loss of one instrument (the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars, or CRISM), which was caused by a coolant leak that destroyed one of the two spectrometers. For surface missions, MRO will also keep providing relay services.

Mars Rover Orbit (MRO) will investigate the evolution of the planet's surface, ice sheets, active geology, atmosphere, and temperature during its sixth extended mission.

PERSEVERANCE LANDER AND INGENUITY HELICOPTER

As the latest rover to set foot on the planet, on 18thfebuary2021"Percy" investigate delta deposits and old lakes to learn more about the former lake's characteristics and look for any signs of preserved life.

With or without the rover's scientific objective, "Ginny" accomplished the first powered, controlled landing on an extraterrestrial. The atmosphere of Mars is just 1% as dense as that of Earth, despite having a gravity that is around one-third that of Earth. This makes it more harder for the helicopter to take off.

INGENUITY 59TH FLIGHT

The 59th flight of NASA’s Ingenuity Mars Helicopter took place on September 16, 2023. During this flight, Ingenuity achieved its highest altitude yet, reaching 20 meters above the Martian surface and was airborne for 142.59 seconds.

Ingenuity has been an incredible success, surpassing its original technology demonstration goal of five flights.

The 1.8-kilogram helicopter drone is still travelling across Mars in an epic voyage, scouting for NASA's Perseverance rover mission and testing critical technology that may enable the return of samples from the Red Planet in the near future as part of the ongoing search for life on the planet.

Da Vinci inspiration

Before April 19, 2021, when Ingenuity made its first tentative jump just two months after landing on the floor of Mars' Jezero Crater onboard Perseverance, no rotorcraft had flown on a world other than Earth.

Over the course of a 40-second flight, Ingenuity floated 3 m above the ground, an accomplishment that then-NASA science head Thomas Zurbuchen referred to as "a true extraterrestrial Wright Brothers moment."

As there isn't much atmosphere on Mars and it's impossible to stick-shift a helicopter from Earth, getting Ingenuity airborne was a significant accomplishment in and of itself because real-time control is impossible due to the lengthy lag between gearbox and reception.

Being a technological demonstrator is still the main objective. As Perseverance and the drone investigate an old river delta on the surface of Mars' Jezero Crater, the drone is also currently acting as a scout for Perseverance.

Furthermore, as NASA develops two Martian helicopters for its Red Planet sample-return endeavor, the emphasis is moving to fine-tuning operations, cooperation, and design choices.

Because the rover has stored some sample tubes in a "depot" on Jezero's floor, the two Ingenuity-like drones on the sample return mission—which is scheduled to launch in 2028—will act as backups for Perseverance if the rover is unable to transport the samples.

Ingenuity continues to gently push its boundaries to assist mission planners in preparing for the sample-return attempt and other upcoming rotorcraft operations.

If the drone thinks the default landing area is too rocky or dangerous, it can choose its own landing spot thanks to a new "mitigation capability" incorporated in a recent software update.

Miles beyond its intended flight patterns, its navigation system was also modified with digital elevation maps to account for the hills it must fly.

In the meantime, the team is monitoring crucial parameters to strengthen the future generation of copters, such as how Ingenuity flies in the Martian atmosphere, how much dust is gradually accumulating on its solar panels, how the heat and cold bend its metal, and so on.

Along with new features, the two new helicopters, dubbed SRHs (sample return helicopters), will also be equipped with a pinpoint landing mechanism that will enable them to retrieve sample tubes.

The team has protocols in place to fly when Mars seasons change and the atmosphere thins, such as spinning the rotors a bit faster than usual. Ingenuity's lithium-ion batteries remain within about five millivolts of where they need to be, and the solar panels remain relatively clear of dust thanks to the constant flying.

https://youtu.be/0gQDnzpy1n4 Video of his First flight

ESA Exomars : STOP AND GO

Amidst the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the ESA Council decided in March 2022 to postpone the launch of the ExoMars Rover and Surface Platform mission until September 2022.

In July 2022, the ESA Council also decided to terminate the ESA-Roscosmos cooperation for that project.

At the Ministerial Council meeting in November 2022, member states of ESA pledged to provide funding for the ExoMars Rosalind Franklin Mission, a new mission that will comprise a new European lander to deliver the Rosalind Franklin Rover to Mars' surface.

Achieving more European autonomy and leadership in Mars science and robotic exploration would require pursuing Rosalind Franklin, a mission with unparalleled onboard science laboratory and unique drilling capabilities compared to other missions now under development.

When is the Rosalind Franklin Rover scheduled to launch?

Building and qualifying a new European lander will take at least three to four years. The next step are the launch windows selection. Every two years, when Earth and Mars are in the finest possible alignment, there are the best chances to launch to Mars.

2028 has been selected as the new earliest launch window for the Rosalind Franklin Mission, which will involve a two-year transfer to Mars.

In doing so, the time required to construct the essential mission components is balanced with the likelihood of a successful landing in 2030.

Time of arrival is crucial because they must make sure that activities begin at least six months before the onset of fall and winter in the northern mars hemisphere, when the atmosphere is typically dustier and there is a chance of global dust storms.

This is why it is preferable to choose a longer transfer profile (ballistic transfer or two years-see special chapter on this subject ) and land at a favorable time for the rover mission rather than taking a shorter route that

would arrive at Mars earlier, but would arrive too near to the start of the Global Dust Season, which would put the rover's survival in jeopardy.

When might we expect to see the first science from the Rosalind Franklin rover?

After landing in October 2030, the Rover Operations Control Centre in Turin, Italy, is anticipated to receive the first data from the rover.

After landing, the rover will deploy on the Martian surface in ten sols. Its equipment will be immediately commissioned, and it will begin doing preliminary scientific investigations like taking pictures of the surface. About a month after arrival, the first deep drilling is anticipated.

What are the upcoming actions to get the components that are still missing ready for the mission in 2028?

In order to handle the new launcher interfaces and mission conditions, the ESA team has begun a program of maintenance and refurbishment for the current flight gear together with some design changes and adaptations.

Under the assumption that much of the European flight equipment built for the Russian Descent Module, which is currently scheduled to be recovered, can be reused, design work on a new European lander has also begun.

Reusing the qualified onboard computer, the parachute system, and the radar doppler altimeter that were created for the previous mission version is planned for the new Lander. Industry in Europe will redesign and construct the remainder.

The rover egress mechanism, landing platform, landing module, and aeroshell shall be part of this.

There is also a need to reevaluate the launcher, the radioisotope heater units used to warm up the rover after it lands on Mars, and the throttleable propulsion system used for the final lander deceleration before landing on Mars.

Who are the European countries and prime contractors that are currently collaborating in ExoMars?

Thales Alenia Space, a prime contractor based in Turin, Italy; Airbus Defense and Space, a prime contractor based in Stevenage, UK; and OHB, a carrier module prime contractor based in Bremen, Germany, are involved in the massive ExoMars project. Italy's Leonardo supplies the drill system.

The parachute system is provided by a collaboration headed by Thales Alenia Space in France. Furthermore, the majority of ESA Member State countries are active, along with roughly 60 other industries, with Italy being a prominent program participant. Built at ALTEC Torino (Italy), the Rover Operation Control Center is responsible for managing the surface mission.

Will NASA help with the upcoming mission?

On board the ExoMars Rosalind Franklin rover is NASA's Mass Spectrometer, a component of the Mars Organic Molecule Analyser package (MOMA).

Plans are in the works for NASA, contingent on funding, to give ESA further support in the form of radioisotope heater units for the rover, launch service, and components of the propulsion system required to land the Rosalind Franklin rover as soon as practical.

How does this affect the overall schedule for the Moon/Mars exploration mission of the European Space Agency (ESA)?

Europe's aspirations for space exploration are being accelerated in response to the conditions surrounding ExoMars' postponement.

Even though ExoMars is undergoing a rebirth, the launch's 2028 postponement acts as a catalyst for further European autonomy by enabling us to invest in the continent's industry in order to obtain the technologies we still lack.

In order to guarantee European independence for upcoming robotic and human expeditions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond, this will be essential.

With the launch of the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter in 2016, ESA has demonstrated its proficiency in orbiting Mars, having operated Mars Express since 2003.

In the robotic exploration of Mars, ESA is already a significant international collaborator. NASA's Perseverance rover is now storing samples on Mars in preparation for a follow-up mission to retrieve them in the 2030s as part of the Mars Sample Return Campaign, which is ongoing in parallel with ExoMars.

Sample Transfer Arm (STA) for NASA's Sample Retrieval Lander (SRL) is one way that ESA is supporting the follow-up missions.

STA will retrieve the tubes containing the samples of rock and soil from Mars and move them to the rocket on board SRL so that they can be sent into Mars orbit in an Orbiting Sample (OS) container. In Mars' orbit, the OS will be "caught" by ESA's Earth Return Orbiter and sent back to Earth.

China-zhurong: ARE YOU SLEEPING?

Part of the Tianwen-1 mission, Zhurong is the first Chinese Mars rover.

China became the second nation, after the United States, to arrive on Mars and establish communication from its surface when it did so on May 14, 2021. Zhurong was deployed on May 22, 2021, with success.

The first interplanetary mission launched by China, Tianwen 1, commemorated its second anniversary on February 10, 2022, when it was orbiting Mars. However, there is now photographic proof of the Zhurong rover's immobile status, suggesting that one of the mission's main components may have stalled.

Since Zhurong depends on solar energy for power and heating, it went into a prearranged slumber in May 2022 to endure the harsh and dark Martian winter.

The China National Space Administration (CNSA), which is in charge of Zhurong, had not yet released any information regarding the spacecraft, although its operators had expected a wake-up in December when the light reappeared in the Martian spring.

Zhurong did not move between September 7, 2022, and February 8, 2023, according to new photos released on Tuesday, February 21, by the University of Arizona, which is in charge of managing the HiRISE camera on NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. This additional evidence suggests that the rover has not yet awakened from slumber.

The South China Morning Post revealed in January that there was still no communication between the rover and mission control.

The rover could stay in hibernation for a variety of reasons. It's possible that dust built up on Zhurong's solar panels decreased their effectiveness. Furthermore, data from NASA's Perseverance rover, a nuclear-powered spacecraft capable of crossing the winter solstice, indicates that Mars remains relatively cold, possibly even below Zhurong's operational temperatures.

Conditions on Mars have the potential to rectify both scenarios: as the year goes on, the planet may warm up and a dust devil or wind storm may clear the solar panels, as occurred with NASA's Spirit rover in 2005.

Zhurong's original mission, which was supposed to last only three months on the Martian surface, has been successfully completed, so even if he is doomed to slumber forever, all is not lost.

Zhurong accomplished a great deal in its year of operation, which is no little accomplishment. The rover's mission was given the annual space accomplishment award by the International Astronautical Federation in September 2022.

In September 2022, Jia Yang, the deputy chief designer of the Tianwen 1 mission, informed reporters that Zhurong needed to attain a temperature of minus 15 degrees Celsius and produce at least 140 watts of energy to awaken from hibernation.

Private space ventures

In a dynamic development in private space exploration, two emergent space companies, Relativity Space and Impulse Space, are planning the first private voyage to Mars. As conversations around this mission unfold, the CEOs of these companies, Tim Ellis and Tom Mueller, have shed light on their innovative approaches and ambitious goals.

Relativity Space is leveraging advanced 3D printing technology to establish the first industry on Mars. With the launch of its first rocket, the Terran 1, for next year, the company aims to surpass expectations by sending the first private lander to the red planet.

Ellis reassures stakeholders, citing secured launches on the Terran R totaling $1.2 billion from OneWeb and other clients, thereby mitigating financial risks related to the Mars venture.

Despite initial surprise at Relativity's Mars proposals, Mueller, a veteran of SpaceX propulsion and now founder of Impulse Space, expressed his readiness to tackle the immense challenge of Martian landing.

He plans to innovate the Mars Lander's entry, descent, and landing strategy to ensure a successful and gentle touch down on Mars' surface. This includes the utilization of a thermal shield, deployment of parachutes, and activation of rockets, aiming for a more affordable mission cost than the previous $816 million Insight venture.

Both companies expect to drastically reduce expenses associated with Mars exploration. Ellis projected a smaller and more cost-effective mission compared to decrease launch costs.

In their quest to finance this multimillion-dollar project, Ellis and Mueller are in search of potential customers, such as NASA or universities, to finance the scientific instruments onboard the lander, which will, at the least, gather and transmit images of Mars back to Earth.

The ultimate vision is not just a one-time mission as they envision a continuous collaboration to deliver payloads to Mars, highlighting the apparent demand in the market.

Despite the extensive journey and multiple challenges faced in a 300-day space mission, including the need for utmost precision and the assurance of a gentle landing, the two firms are resolute.

Primary propulsion for the lander is set to be from the same technology Impulse’s spacecraft will use to place satellites in Earth's orbit. Prior to the Mars launch, Impulse aims to conduct a successful orbital flight and present results from an Earthbound hover test.

Contrasting their venture with SpaceX's initiatives, Ellis emphasizes the unique approach of Relativity and Impulse, steering clear of the complex inorbit refueling missions essential for SpaceX's Starship. They aim for a more traditional, yet commercially agile, lander design that significantly contributes to interplanetary travel.

In conclusion, the burgeoning private space industry, exemplified by Relativity Space and Impulse Space, holds the promise of making humanity truly multiplanetary. Ellis passionately contends that realizing the dream of having a million people on Mars in our lifetime will necessitate the collaborative efforts of dozens to hundreds of companies, propelling humanity further into the cosmos. Illustration: 3D Rocket moulding

for a Faster JOURNEY

DELTA V FOR BEGINNERS

In space flight dynamics, the Delta V budget is a crucial factor in planning a space mission.

It involves considering variations in speed, or "change in velocity," to account for the necessary changes in speed to reach destinations like other planets or moons.

This is because there is no air to push against in space, and rocket engines are necessary to change direction or speed, depleting some of the rocket's fuel each time.

A Delta V budget helps space organizations in mission planning by ensuring that rockets have enough fuel for their entire journey, including taking off, changing direction, landing, and possibly even returning.

For example, sending an expedition to Mars requires a significant amount of Delta V due to the gravity of our planet.

To properly reach Mars once in orbit, the spacecraft may need to make certain course corrections.

As it approaches Mars, it will need to alter its trajectory again to be drawn in by the planet's gravitational pull.

Delta V is necessary in space because moving in space is different from driving on a road, where you can stop and start whenever you choose.

The vacuum of space is devoid of friction, and unless you use fuel to modify the speed again, once you accelerate (or decelerate), you will stay at that speed permanently.

When organizing a space mission, engineers must consider all necessary velocity changes: starting off, corrections to the course, entering orbit, and landing or returning.

Engineers determine the overall ΔV required for all these maneuvers for each given space mission.

A Delta V budget guarantees that a spaceship has enough fuel for all necessary speed adjustments, much like in a financial budget where you make sure you have enough money for all of your expenses.

Not every rocket and spaceship is created equal; some offer more ΔV with the same quantity of gasoline, making them more fuel-efficient.

Selecting or creating the ideal propulsion system is essential to the mission’s success. The Delta V budget is essentially our means of ensuring that we have enough “speed-changing power” for the duration of the space mission.

Hohmann transfer vs ballistic capture.

To understand the notion of ballistic capture as a possible approach to accelerating Mars transport. We need to make a comparison between the widely utilized Hohmann transfer trajectory and ballistic capture. The specifics will emphasize the benefits and drawbacks of every strategy.

When it comes to launch opportunities, ballistic capture is helpful since it makes it possible to launch continuously without having to wait for certain windows which are far apart in time.

For ongoing deployments and routine resupply missions, this may be advantageous. Additionally, it may result in fuel savings, which would increase the economy of missions.

Long transit times are a disadvantage, though, and they might not be appropriate for goods that need to arrive quickly or perish.

However, the Hohmann transfer trajectory offers the advantage of a shorter trip time roughly six to nine months and less radiation exposure for astronauts.

Additionally, it permits accurate launch windows, which can be crucial for missions with a tight timeline. But it needs to wait for the best time to launch, which might take up to 26 months.

Future missions to Mars may employ a hybrid of these two approaches. A steady supply of equipment and non-urgent commodities, for instance, might be guaranteed by frequent freight missions employing ballistic capture.

It might be possible to manage colony expansion, rotate the personnel, and bring in specialized experts during crewed missions during Hohmann transfer windows.

A launch window's duration for interplanetary missions is determined by a number of variables, including the mission objectives, spacecraft capabilities, trajectory, and tolerances in the mission plan.

For a typical Mars transfer using a Hohmann transfer orbit, the optimal launch window is small, often a few days. Nevertheless, a few weeks is a longer window in which a spaceship can still achieve its goals, although at the expense of extra propellant or journey time.

Further limitations on launch windows may be imposed by spacecraft or payload requirements, weather conditions at the launch site, and other factors included in the input. For launches outside of the primary window, which can be complicated and fuel-intensive, in-flight trajectory modifications might be required.

All in all, mission planners give careful thought to these constraints and schedule launch procedures appropriately. In case of any delays, backup dates are established within the launch timeframe. The contribution notes that a Mars mission utilizing a Hohmann transfer has a main launch window that happens roughly every 26 months.

The input concludes by summarizing the benefits and drawbacks of Hohmann transfer trajectories and ballistic capture for Mars missions. It emphasizes the significance of launch windows and the factors to be taken into account when organizing interplanetary missions.

LOX METHANE PROPULSION: Update

The potential application of Liquid Oxygen (LOX)/Methane (LCH4) propulsion systems reflects a significant advancement in space exploration technology.

The system provides a robust and efficient approach to interplanetary travel, tackling various challenges and offering promising solutions. With a history that spans over five decades, research into methane propulsion systems has matured, reducing uncertainty and risk associated with its implementation in future space missions.

One of the notable merits of the LOX/Methane propulsion system lies in its environmental compatibility. The system is non-toxic and non-corrosive, mitigating the environmental and safety concerns associated with space missions.

This characteristic not only enhances the sustainability of space exploration but also simplifies operational protocols, eliminating the need for extensive decontamination processes, commonly required with the use of toxic propellants.

Additionally, the system's performance metrics present a compelling case for its adoption in human-scale spacecraft. The propulsion system showcases superior ignition characteristics in a vacuum, bolstered by the high vapor pressure of the propellants.

These factors contribute to enhanced reliability and efficiency in space mission operations. Moreover, the LOX/Methane propulsion system's compatibility with in-situ resource utilization, particularly in Mars missions, stands out as a unique advantage.

The ability to produce propellants on Mars represents a significant stride towards self-sustained human exploration of the Red Planet, optimizing mission logistics, and resource management.

The thermal similarities between LOX and Liquid Methane further enhance the system's cost-effectiveness, allowing the use of common components and fostering cost savings compared to other propellants like liquid hydrogen.

However, despite these advantages, the LOX/Methane propulsion system is not without its challenges. The cryogenic nature of the propellants necessitates innovative solutions for effective storage.

Adequate refrigeration techniques must be employed to maintain the propellants in liquid forms, ensuring their availability and stability for prolonged space missions.

In conclusion, the LOX/Methane propulsion system emerges as a promising technology for advancing human space exploration.

Its non-toxicity, enhanced performance, and compatibility with in-situ resource utilization on Mars underscore its potential to revolutionize interplanetary missions.

Despite the challenges related to cryogenic storage, continued research and innovation in this domain are expected to yield robust solutions, solidifying the role of LOX/Methane propulsion systems in future space exploration endeavors.

The system's alignment with environmental sustainability and costeffectiveness further reinforces its position as an asset in advancing human exploration beyond Earth's orbit.

NUCLEAR PROPULSION: UPDATE

Under the Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations (DRACO) project, Lockheed Martin (LMI) has been awarded a contract by DARPA to design and demonstrate a spacecraft fueled by nuclear energy.

For the DRACO project, DARPA collaborated with NASA's Space Technology Mission Directorate since both organizations stand to gain from this cutting edge technology.

By 2027 at the latest, a nuclear thermal rocket engine vehicle will be demonstrated in space flight to be more rapid, farther, and nimble.

Although chemical propulsion engines have long been the norm for spaceflight, significantly more potent and effective propulsion will be required for humans to reach Mars.

Nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) engines can minimize propellant requirements and enable quicker and farther spaceship flight thanks to thrust levels up to five times higher than those of traditional chemical propulsion.

They also make it possible for missions to Mars to be aborted in ways that are not feasible with chemical propulsion systems.

With these more potent and effective nuclear thermal propulsion technologies, travel times between destinations can be shortened.

For human trips to Mars, shorter transit times are essential to minimize radiation exposure to the crew. This is a cutting-edge technology that can be utilized to send supplies and people to the moon.

The cislunar operations would be revolutionized by a safe, reusable nuclear tug ship. For cislunar space, nuclear thermal propulsion has numerous securities uses thanks to its increased speed, agility, and maneuverability.

An NTP system heats hydrogen propellant rapidly in a nuclear reactor to extremely high temperatures, then directs that gas into the engine nozzle to produce strong thrust.

The fission-based reactor will transform the cold hydrogen into a very hot pressurized gas using a unique high-assay low-enriched uranium, or HALEU.

The NTP system is extremely safe because the reactor won't start up until the spaceship has entered a nuclear safe orbit.

LMI has a long history and competence in nuclear controls, and it has developed many of NASA's radioisotope thermoelectric generators for the agency's planetary missions, even though nuclear systems are still a relatively new subject.

They made significant investments in the transmission and storage of cryogenic hydrogen. A crucial technology required for both conventional propulsion systems and nuclear thermal propulsion in deep space exploration.

Plasma propulsion : UPDATE

The research by Dr. Kazunori Takahashi and Prof. Akira Ando at Tohoku University revealed part of the performance degradation mechanism of the advanced, electrodeless, helicon plasma thruster with a magnetic nozzle. The study addressed the concern of axial momentum loss at the source lateral wall in helicon plasma thrusters, which affects the thrust force and thereby the propulsion efficiency.

This axial momentum loss seems to originate from the internal axial electric field in the plasma core, which appears to be more enhanced by highly ionized plasmas for future high-power operation.

Continuing research in this area aims to minimize these performance degradations by enhancing the understanding of plasma dynamics and momentum loss in the thruster.

The electrodeless design still holds promise as it eliminates the issue of electrode erosion present in other electric propulsion devices.

Understanding and mitigating other sources of performance loss are crucial for the development and practical application of these advanced propulsion systems.

In conclusion, advancements in electrodeless electric propulsion like the helicon plasma thruster are crucial for future space exploration and development.

Despite the challenges in understanding and minimizing axial momentum loss and other performance degradation mechanisms, continuous research efforts are being made.

The goal is to ensure that these advanced propulsion systems can operate efficiently and reliably over long periods, which is essential for deep space exploration missions.

While improvements are ongoing, a comprehensive solution to all performance degradation issues is still a subject of ongoing research and development.

An approach to accelerate a spacecraft to speeds higher than the flow velocity by interacting with ionized gas flows in space (the solar wind or interstellar medium) is investigated.

This technique involves a lift-generating spacecraft circling between different wind speed regions of the heliosphere to gain energy without using propellant and with only minimal onboard power requirements.

It is inspired by the dynamic soaring maneuvers performed by sea birds and gliders, in which variations in wind speed are exploited to gain velocity. A sequence of elastic collisions between areas of the medium traveling at different speeds can be used to describe the spacecraft motion in the most basic analysis.

The spacecraft trajectory is modeled in greater depth in order to forecast possible velocity gains and the maximum velocity that may be attained given the vehicle's lift-to-drag ratio.

A lift-generating system is proposed, whereby the surrounding medium is accelerated in the transverse direction, producing lift (a force perpendicular to the flow), by extracting power from the flow over the vehicle in the flight direction.

It is demonstrated that when a tiny transverse velocity is applied over a vast area of interaction, significant values of the lift-to-drag ratio are achievable. It is not possible to use a physical wing because of the large interaction area needed in the extremely low density of the heliosphere.

However, it is possible to excite R-, X-, and Alfven waves, as well as magneto sonic waves, using plasma waves produced by a compact, directional antenna to impart momentum on the surrounding medium.

A theoretical mission is outlined that would allow a spacecraft to achieve speeds close to 2% of c without using propellant in 2.5 years after launch by performing dynamic soaring on the heliosphere's termination shock. In order to accomplish actual interstellar flight to other solar systems, the approach could be the initial step in a multistage journey.

It is discovered that, at least when considering the underlying physical principles, it is possible to produce significant lift-to-drag ratios through contact with the interplanetary and interstellar medium flow over a

spacecraft. Using a small, directed antenna, it is found that applying plasma waves close to the plasma's resonance frequency is an efficient way to alter the flow's momentum transversely.

A number of waves are found to possess the low group velocities required for an efficient connection that alters the flow's momentum in a transverse direction; further research on these other plasma waves is recommended. A dynamic soaring maneuver can be executed by the spacecraft due to the sufficiently large lift-to-drag ratio values (LD>10)(>10).

This maneuver allows the vehicle to surpass the solar wind speed and reach multiples of the difference in wind speed between different regions of the heliosphere.

It seems possible that a vehicle using the dynamic soaring technique may reach velocities of around 2% of c after 1.5 years by soaring along the termination shock and heliopause, or 0.5% of c after 1 month by soaring along the slow and fast solar wind.

Further wind gradients could be found in other heliosphere structures, which could result in even larger velocity improvements.

Upon considering the fundamental physical principles, it is theoretically possible to achieve notable lift-to-drag ratios by interacting with interplanetary and interstellar medium flows.

The application of plasma waves near the plasma's resonance frequency using a small, directed antenna can efficiently alter the flow's momentum transversely, potentially allowing a spacecraft to execute a dynamic soaring maneuver.

This maneuver could enable the spacecraft to exceed solar wind speed and achieve significant velocity gains, potentially reaching around 2% of the speed of light after 1.5 years by soaring along specific regions of the heliosphere.

The technique promises the opportunity for large-scale velocity improvements, representing a breakthrough for future interstellar travel without the need for propellant.

Further exploration and research on these plasma waves and other aspects of the proposed methodology are essential to verify and realize this theoretical potential in practical applications.

if you wish to learn more on this research by the Canada scientist M. Larrouturou check https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frspt.2022.1017442/full

"Trajectory of the gradient flight on the terminal shock and the heliopause: (A) diagram of the trajectory, (B) numerical simulation of the projected trajectory on the equatorial plane, (C) speed of the spacecraft as a function of time."

Long Journey hibernation

The European Space Agency (ESA) is considering the first hibernation pragmatic results involving humans in less than ten years, potentially opening the door to long-duration space missions akin to science fiction.

Hibernating crew members would cut mission costs by reducing oxygen consumption and avoiding boredom in small space capsules.

Studies on animals show that astronauts' bodies that hibernate may decompose more slowly than those of astronauts who remain awake in microgravity, making them well-prepared for difficult exploration upon arrival.

The idea of permanently inducing torpor in people might not be as absurd as it first seems. Initial research has demonstrated that torpor can be induced in animals like rats, and these animals can be safely brought back to life a few days later.

However, maintaining extremely high neurotransmitter levels could have long-term negative effects.

The purpose of forcing individuals to hibernate is to address the problem of loss of muscle and bone mass for space travelers.

Microgravity has similar effects on the human body to extended bed rest, but bed rest during hibernation doesn't appear to have any of these impacts.

Animals quickly recollect their environment when they emerge from hibernation, and the physiology of the torpor state holds the secret to its protective properties.

Torpor state, a state where an organism is in a state of hibernation, has the potential for spaceflight missions due to its pause-button feature.

In a spacecraft destined for Mars, a hibernating astronaut would not only reduce expenses for food, water, and oxygen but would also wake up relatively fit without experiencing the detrimental effects of prolonged bed rest or living in microgravity.

Research indicates that radiation does not harm a hibernating body's slowed-down cells, which is a significant health risk during long-duration space trips.

Astronauts in microgravity face a serious challenge due to the difficulty of returning to Earth's gravity. Studies reveal that the effects of microgravity on the human body are similar to those of extended bed rest. However, when an animal emerges from hibernation, its fitness levels are surprisingly high, unlike a patient emerging from a protracted sickness or medical coma.

The physiology of the torpor state holds the secret to its protective properties, as it reduces the lifespan of animals that normally go into torpor when prevented from going into torpor.

PROPELLANT Fuels station in space

A recent study proposes the creation of a “Strategic Propellant Reserve” using lunar-derived propellant to drive the growth of a $3 trillion cislunar economy in the next 30 years.

A U.S.-backed strategic reserve will ensure the continuation of America's leadership in space, as space has become the newest “Astropolitic” domain.

The ability to maneuver in space freely without the restraints of launch windows and vehicle availability is highly valued, particularly in case of a threat or conflict in cislunar space.

Studies have confirmed the need for space-based propellant for large-scale crewed missions planned in the coming decades. A report expands on the concept by recommending the U.S. government establish reserves in four key locations: low Earth orbit (LEO), near recti-linear halo orbit (NRHO), lunar surface (LS) and Mars orbit (MO).

Based on the structure of the U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve, the proposed propellant reserve would ensure a critical amount of propellant is always available in cislunar space.

Customers of this propellant would begin with NASA crewed lunar missions and lead to commercial activities, such as construction of on-orbit satellites, LEO and Lagrange 5 (L5) settlements, and solar power beaming stations.

With government investment of $15 billion to $26 billion over 30 years, significant space endeavors such as crewed NASA missions, important national security operations and commercial activities receive the benefit of reduced cost and technological risk, protected assets, and existing lunar infrastructure while enabling a thriving, trillion-dollar cislunar economy by 2050.

On average, the mass of a rocket launched from Earth is 95% propellant, which restricts the amount of payload that can be cost effectively taken to orbit and will limit exploration efforts to the Moon and Mars.

Refueling in cislunar space allows more payload mass to launch at a lower cost. With millions of metric tons of water estimated at the lunar poles, lunar-based propellant could support millions of years of missions.

A U.S. government-backed propellant reserve will encourage the development of new industries in cislunar space and ensure these activities can continue in case of supply interruption on Earth.

As the propellant reserve stimulates the cislunar economy through readily available propellant, industries currently in their infancy will see rapid growth.

Funding methods for the Strategic Propellant Reserve include a public-private partnership (PPP) that creates an operation and management agreement between the government and a private partner.

The Strategic Petroleum Reserve was established in 1975 in response to the oil embargo and crisis of 1973 and 1974 and is operated by the Department of Energy (DOE).

By establishing a readily accessible source of propellant controlled by the U.S. and its allies, the goal for the U.S. and allied space-faring countries should focus on establishing a long-term presence in space before other countries. An Astropolitical early question!

Analog mars habitat on earth

An analogue mission series called CHAPEA will replicate year-long stays on the surface of Mars. Four crew members will reside in the remote 1,700 square foot Mars Dune Alpha habitat on each expedition.

The crew will mimic spacewalks during the trip and report on a range of topics, including performance and physical and behavioural health.

The 3D printed habitat will have two restrooms, a technical work space, private crew quarters, a kitchen, and sections set aside for work, recreation, fitness, and medical purposes in addition to places for growing crops.

The habitat will be as Mars-realistic as possible to get the best data possible during the analogue, which may include environmental stressors including resource shortages, isolation, equipment failure, and heavy workloads.

Simulated spacewalks, virtual reality, communications, crop growing, meal preparation and consumption, exercise, hygiene activities, maintenance work, personal time, science work, and sleep may be the main crew activities throughout the analogue. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6afj68fLMJI

Timetable

First analog mission: June 25, 2023

Analog mission 2: Commencing in 2025

Analog Mission 3: Commencing in 2026

The results of CHAPEA and the knowledge gained from the analogs will impact future NASA missions including those to the surface of Mars.

MOXIE: oxygen breaktrough

Mars missions have suggested using indigenous resources to manufacture rocket propellant for a six-person oxygen-methane propelled Mars ascent vehicle (MAV).

Oxygen can be produced in situ from the CO2-rich Martian atmosphere, which has a surface atmospheric pressure ranging from ~5 to 10 mbar. Water ice is also a potential native resource for manufacturing fuel and oxidizer on Mars.

However, obtaining water requires an ice-mining operation, melting the ice, purifying the water, and transporting it near the MAV for propellant production.

Atmospheric CO2 can be acquired anywhere on Mars, and carrying fuel from Earth while producing oxidizer on Mars still offers a substantial benefit until such time as a mining operation can be set up.

A MOXIE-like system, scaled up several hundred times, could produce sufficient oxygen to launch a MAV for a crew arriving one 26-month cycle later. Producing oxygen is such a critical function for human exploration that it demands prior validation in the actual Mars environment NASA’s Technology Readiness Level 9.

The architecture developed for planning, testing, and executing MOXIE runs demonstrated successful operation during day and night throughout all Martian seasons, showing robustness to variations in atmospheric pressure and temperature.

The Nernst potential (VN) is a crucial factor in electrolysis reactions, and MOXIE must operate at a voltage above VN for oxygen production and below VN for carbon formation to prevent coking.

This process raises cell resistance and may fracture the cathode, preventing oxygen production. MOXIE's electrolysis stack can be safely operated over many cycles with sufficient attention to these limits.

The Nernst potentials exhibit significant sensitivity to temperature, with decreasing the operating temperature by 30°C reducing VN(2CO → 2C + O2) and raising it by 0.027 V.

An optimal compromise between efficient operation and the risk of damaging heat-sensitive materials is 800°C. However, volume and power constraints

prevent an oven, so MOXIE's SOXE is heated by heater plates at the top and bottom of the stacks. This configuration results in thermal gradients of up to 10°C between cooler cells and warmer cells nearer the heaters, increasing the risk of coking.

MOXIE software allows specifying a desired current through the stack or voltage across the top and bottom parts of the stack. All runs described in this paper were run in current-control mode, where a feedback loop adjusts the stack voltage to obtain the desired current.

Estimates of the internal resistance of the stack are used to predict required voltages to ensure the operation remains in the safe voltage zone.

A generic MOXIE run steps the compressor up to its 3500 rpm maximum speed, implements another V-I sweep, and sets the current to as high a value as possible for this maximum gas intake while keeping the estimated electrolysis voltage at least 0.1 V below the Nernst potential for carbon formation.

Two diagnostic runs were conducted to assess the uncertainties associated with determining the actual voltage across cells and assessing the purity of the O2 product. FM OC12 was designed to estimate the resistance (RL) of the thin Inconel leads connecting the MOXIE voltage control circuitry to the stack of electrolysis cells that comprise the SOXE.

The SOXE uses a stack of 10 electrolysis cells, electrically wired in series with a center tap. Analysis of early MOXIE runs showed higher voltages required to obtain the commanded current in B compared to T, which might indicate degradation of B. However, because voltage is measured directly at the power supply, the discrepancy could also be due to differences in RL between T and B.

By varying TS while holding other parameters held constant, it was possible to accurately estimate the difference between RL(T) and RL(B) and confirm that most of the voltage difference between the stacks could be accounted for by a difference of ~50 milliohms between the two.

FM OC13 explored the relationship between oxygen purity and relative anode and cathode pressures, a critical metric because a purity of >99.6% is recommended for both propellant and breathing oxygen.

Purity is determined by a commercial nondispersive infrared (NDIR) CO2 sensor that monitors trace CO2 (0 to 5%) in the anode exhaust.

The amount of crossover flow varies with each unit; in the FM, it is several times greater than in the EM. As the cathode-to-anode overpressure increases, the oxygen purity falls off rapidly.

MOXIE, a solar-powered oxygen production system on Mars, is a promising solution for future human exploration. It has demonstrated daytime and nighttime oxygen production without any detectable difference in performance beyond that expected from the changing atmospheric density. However, it faces challenges in terms of cycle-to-cycle degradation, which is likely associated with differential thermal stress. To support the design of a full-scale, continuously operating system, further investigation is needed to determine the extent of long-term continuous operation.

MOXIE has made significant progress in demonstrating daytime and nighttime oxygen production during all martian seasons without any detectable difference in performance beyond that expected from the changing atmospheric density.

However, it has also faced design compromises, such as the use of fixed apertures in lieu of pressure regulators, compromises in stack thermal control resulting in substantial thermal gradients and lags, and a simplified command and control system with limited sensor measurement and selfcalibration capability.

A full-scale oxygen production plant will need a sophisticated monitor and control system to respond to daily and seasonal variations in the Mars atmosphere and changes in the plant's performance.

Future work should focus on enhancement of monitor and control capability coupled with increased SOXE robustness against carbon formation. Overall, MOXIE has shown that a SOXE technology for producing oxygen on Mars from the atmosphere is viable, scalable, and meets expectations for efficiency and quality.

MARS REGOLITH VS MOON REGOLITH

In contrast to lunar regolith, Mars dust is incredibly thin, and enough of it hangs in the atmosphere to give the sky a rusty red color.

Occasional large-scale planet-wide dust storms gather the dust, but because of the atmosphere's extremely low density, they move slowly.

Its surface was previously covered by river valleys and flowing water, which is why Martian regolith is so much finer than that of the Moon. Researchers on Mars are actively investigating whether or not martian regolith is still being formed in the contemporary era.

Large amounts of water and carbon dioxide ices are thought to be still frozen inside the regolith, which could be useful for manned expeditions (and possibly colonisation attempts) in the upcoming decades.

A layer of regolith estimated to be 50 metres (160 feet) thick similarly covers the moon Deimos on Mars. From a height of 30 km (19 miles) above the lunar surface, images from the Viking 2 spacecraft verified its existence.

Only Titan, Saturn's largest moon, is known to contain regolith among the planets in our solar system. Although its exact origin is unknown, the surface is well-known for its vast fields of dunes.

There are scientists who speculate that these could be tiny pieces of water ice that have been degraded by Titan's liquid methane or even organic matter particles that have developed in Titan's atmosphere and fallen to the surface.

Another idea is that these dunes, which span hundreds of km and are several hundred metres high, are the result of a series of strong wind reversals that happen twice in a single Saturn year (30 Earth years). The composition of Titan's regolith is still a mystery to Earth scientists.

Long-term study of the data revealed that the surface might be made of ice grains that resemble sand, despite the penetrometer data from the Huygens Probe suggesting that it might resemble clay.

Images captured by the probe upon landing on the moon's surface reveal a level plain covered with spherical stones that could be composed of water ice and imply fluid movement on them.

Regolith has also been seen on the surfaces of asteroids. These come from the millions of years of meteoroid strikes that crushed their surfaces and produced dust and other small particles that were dragged inside the craters.

Regolith is expected to exist anywhere there is rock, to put it simply. Good old-fashioned "dirt" can be found almost any place in our Solar System; and most likely, in the universe beyond.

It can be the result of wind or flowing water, or it can be the result of meteors impacting the surface and the crucial element for any form of buildup in Mars colonies.

NEW SPACE CONCRETE

A novel concrete substitute has been developed by engineers, which incorporates replicated dirt from Mars or the moon, potato starch, and salt.

According to the researchers, the strength of the "space concrete" is reported to be double that of normal concrete. The proponents anticipate that the novel substance would ultimately enhance construction endeavors on celestial bodies such as the moon and Mars.

The efficacy of potato starch as a binding agent in the production of a unique material called "StarCrete" is showcased by two scholars from the University of Manchester, England, in a recent publication in the Open Engineering journal.

The investigation conducted by the researchers observed that the concrete mixtures incorporating simulated Martian and lunar soils exhibited strengths that were more than twice as high as those of conventional concrete, which typically possesses a comprehensive strength of approximately 32 Megapascals (MPa).

The StarCrete composite material combined with synthetic Martian soil had a compressive strength of 72 MPa, whereas the blend incorporating simulated lunar regolith demonstrated even higher strength, measuring at 91 MPa.

The durability of stronger concretes is generally associated with longer lifespans; however, this characteristic does not constitute the primary advantage of StarCrete as a prospective construction material for lunar or Martian environments.

According to the scientists' estimation, a quantity of approximately 55 pounds (equivalent to 25 kilograms) of dried potatoes has the potential to yield almost 1,000 pounds (approximately half a ton) of StarCrete material.

This quantity of StarCrete would be sufficient to shape more than 200 individual bricks. In order to provide context, it is necessary to utilize approximately 7,500 bricks for the construction of a residential structure comprising three bedrooms inside the terrestrial environment.

The components required for concrete mixing are typically characterized by their substantial weight. In the context of forthcoming lunar and Martian constructions, akin to any space mission, the primary concern is in the prioritization of weight reduction. The cost of launching payloads into space increases proportionally with their weight, regardless of whether they are

satellites, cargo destined for the International Space Station, or materials intended for lunar habitat construction. Therefore, it is preferable to have a lower weight.

The utilization of resources present at an astronaut's destination to supplement supplies that are challenging or costly to transport from Earth, commonly referred to as in-situ resource utilization (ISRU), has been a longstanding approach in the investigation of establishing sustainable outposts on celestial bodies.

According to the study team, the utilization of a lightweight concrete mix derived from potato starch exhibits notable strength and durability, hence presenting significant advantages over traditional materials in the context of extraterrestrial building.

The initial choice of media for the University of Manchester scientists' investigation on ISRU building supplies did not involve potato starch. In a prior investigation, the aforementioned research group examined the potential use of human blood and urine as cohesive ingredients in their alien concrete formulation.

The blood and urine of astronauts are considered renewable resources that are readily accessible during an astronaut's mission, regardless of the location.

The experimental investigations conducted by the researchers including the utilization of blood and urine in concrete production resulted in compressive strengths surpassing those of conventional combinations, with measurements averaging approximately 40 MPa.

The building of these bricks, however, necessitated astronauts to periodically expel their physiological fluids, a factor that was perceived as a disadvantage.

Aled Roberts, the primary investigator of the StarCrete project and a research fellow affiliated with the Future Biomanufacturing Research Hub at the University of Manchester, acknowledges that the utilisation of potato flakes is a more favourable alternative to the utilisation of blood and urine.

In a formal statement, the individual expressed the notion that astronauts are likely to have a preference towards residing in dwellings constructed from scabs and urine.

If this causes disappointment among present or prospective space explorers, there is no need to worry. The potential for individuals to incorporate tangible elements of their own being in the fabrication of their Martian dwelling has not been entirely forfeited. The particular salt compound included in the potato-derived StarCrete blend is magnesium chloride, which can be extracted from Martian soils or, fortuitously, human tears.

BIOMINERaLiSATION FOR SELF BUILDING

The proposed technology for habitat outfitting on Mars uses cyanobacteria and fungi as building agents. Synthetic biology toolkits will be used to create a synthetic lichen system, consisting of diazotrophic cyanobacteria and filamentous fungi, to produce abundant biominerals and biopolymers. These self-growing building blocks can be assembled into various structures, such as floors, walls, partitions, and furniture.

Cyanobacteria capture carbon dioxide and convert it to carbonate ions, while filamentous fungi bind calcium ions onto fungal cell walls and assist cyanobacteria's survival.

The project also explores a fully autonomous self-growing technology by creating a synthetic lichen system using mutualistic interactions between photoautotrophic diazotrophic cyanobacteria and heterotrophic filamentous fungi.

This technology is crucial for future colonizers of new planets and for tackling challenges on Earth, such as military logistics and construction in remote, austere, high-risk, and post-disaster environments.

The development of construction materials that capture atmospheric carbon dioxide in the production process aligns with the nation's commitment to decarbonization.

Robot cave explorer

Exploring beneath the surface of other planets, such as Mars, is crucial in determining whether life has ever existed outside of Earth.

The thin atmosphere of Mars exposes its surface to high energy radiation from space, which can degrade substances that provide evidence of life. Therefore, scientists believe that going below the surface, at least 2meteres deep, is the best chance of finding evidence of past or present life on Mars.

Caves on other planets, such as the moon and Mars, have been suggested as potential shelters for future space travelers.

These caves could also contain resources like water and provide insights into the planet's history. Additionally, caves on Earth support diverse groups of microorganisms, making them potential havens for evidence of microbial life on other planets.

To explore these caves, scientists have developed a robot called ReachBot. It It is designed to crawl and climb through extraterrestrial caves, using extendable arms equipped with spiny grippers to anchor itself and navigate the rocky surfaces.

The robot concept, which received funding from NASA's Innovative Advanced Concepts Program, has proven to be feasible through a round of studies.

ReachBot would likely be tethered to a larger rover, which would provide power and act as a communications relay.

The robot could be equipped with cameras, microscopes, and remote sensing methods like LIDAR. It may also have a conveyor belt system to collect samples and dispatch them to the surface for analysis by the rover's instruments.

The team envisions ReachBot being used not only for exploring Martian caves but also for tasks in environments like the International Space Station or the planned lunar outpost, the Gateway.

The robot could perform maintenance and upkeep tasks, allowing astronauts to focus on other activities.

It could also crawl inside lunar caves that may serve as resources for astronauts on the moon.

In the future, ReachBot could be customizable depending on its destination, with design choices like size and number of extendable arms being influenced by the specific mission requirements.

The robot's arms could also be equipped with scientific instruments to access tight spaces.

Overall, ReachBot represents a significant step in furthering exploration across our solar system, enabling scientists to go where humans cannot yet tread and potentially uncovering evidence of extraterrestrial life.

MESH TELECOM NETWORK

A team of researchers from the University of Arizona is now engaged in the development of a group of robotic devices that draw inspiration from the renowned Grimm Brothers' fairy tale, Hansel and Gretel.

The primary objective of these robots is to investigate underground areas on the planet Mars, encompassing caves and lava vents.

The robots, encompassing lake landers and underwater vehicles, will be interconnected by a communications network, enabling them to operate autonomously or collaboratively without human intervention.

The proposed paradigm, known as the Breadcrumb-Style Dynamically Deployed Communication Network (DDCN), offers two operational modes: passive data collection by a mother unit at the surface while its offspring explore the underground, or active control by the mother unit over operations and the movements of the rovers.

The Distributed Data Communication Network (DDCN) facilitates uninterrupted data transmission, as every robot within the group maintains communication with the central "mother" unit, even in intricate surroundings.

The potential of enhancing the exploration capacity of these robots can be achieved by equipping each individual unit with a light detection and ranging device, commonly known as lidar.

This integration would enable the robots to generate three-dimensional maps of cave systems and establish a network that can be utilized by the entire group of robots.

Technology may also serve as a valuable tool for the exploration of deep oceans, such as those located beneath Europa, one of Jupiter's moons, or Titan, one of Saturn's moons.

Communication nodes function as repeaters, effectively amplifying transmissions at consistent intervals to mitigate signal deterioration.

The nodes possess the capability to collect several types of data, including but not limited to pressure, salinity, temperature, and other chemical and physical factors. This data is subsequently transmitted to the lander units for further analysis and processing.

Vertical farming

There has been a concerted effort by humans to strategize and execute missions to transport individuals to Mars, as seen by NASA's objective to deploy astronauts to the Martian surface during the 2030s, and SpaceX's ambitious goal to achieve this feat at an earlier timeframe.

Nevertheless, the primary obstacle resides in maintaining the presence of humans on Mars, given that the planet possesses an atmosphere that is 100 times less dense than that of Earth, receives only half the quantity of sunshine, lacks readily available fresh water, and experiences typical temperatures as low as -81 degrees Fahrenheit.

The Nutritional Closed-Loop Eco-Unit System (NUCLEUS), developed by Interstellar Lab, a firm established by Barbara Belvisi (France), has been designed to cater to the dietary needs of a team of four astronauts over a two-year space mission.

The NUCLEUS system has the capacity to generate a variety of fresh produce, including microgreens, veggies, mushrooms, and edible insects.

Vertical farming, characterized by the utilization of nutrient-rich water sent straight to the roots of plants, is often regarded as the most optimal approach for agricultural practises on the planet Mars.

This methodology can be effectively used in several challenging environments, encompassing locations such as Dubai with its intense heat, as well as regions characterized by severe freezing temperatures.

Nevertheless, the functionality of hydroponics would be compromised in the absence of gravity, given that gravity serves as a fundamental factor in the operation of Earth's extensive agricultural systems. Aeroponics, as an alternate approach, involves the delivery of water to enclosed root systems through the utilization of a misting mechanism.

Hydroponic vertical farming system on Mars, within the confines of an environment is a plausible prospect given the effect of Martian gravity.

Nevertheless, the successful operation of this system necessitates a greater expanse of space in order to ensure its sustained capacity to provide sustenance and supply breathable air through the process of oxygen production facilitated by the growth of plants inside this space.

The exclusive alternative for agricultural practices on Mars is often regarded as vertical farming within a completely enclosed and regulated environment.

TERRAFORMING

The concept of Extraterrestrial Nature Reserves (ETNRs) presents a fascinating and practical approach to the question of human expansion into space. As Earth grapples with burgeoning populations and shrinking natural reserves, the thought of terraforming Mars to create habitable, Earth-like environments is emerging as a viable proposition.

ETNRs symbolize the convergence of cosmic exploration and ecological preservation, proposing the construction of terrestrial ecosystems within controlled environments on Mars.

The envisioned ETNR, termed as a "forest bubble," is a bioengineered oasis on the Red Planet, providing essential ecosystem services to support diverse life forms. This self-contained environment would encompass a variety of organisms to form an early forest ecosystem, specifically chosen for their potential to survive Martian conditions.

Beyond merely sustaining life, this forest bubble would serve as a psychological refuge for Martian inhabitants, offering a semblance of Earth's natural serenity amidst Mars’ alien terrain. This pioneering project underscores the importance of a multispecies approach to space colonization. The intricate interplay of diverse life forms, each contributing vital functions to the ecosystem, is fundamental to human survival in extraterrestrial environments.

The design for this Martian forest biosphere is meticulously planned to adapt to the planet's unique conditions. The dome, enveloping the forest, would be crafted from specialized glass, permitting light and a measured amount of UV and ionizing rays to permeate, vital for human vitamin D synthesis and plant photosynthesis.

This design contemplates the delicate balance required to maintain habitability, ensuring that neither excessive nor insufficient rays disrupt the biosphere's equilibrium.

The architectural conception of the dome also incorporates the creation of simulated seasons, mirroring Mars' own extended seasonal cycle. This feature is paramount to the well-being of both the plant and human life within the dome, providing the necessary environmental cues for biological cycles and rest periods.

The forest biosphere project exemplifies humanity's inherent connection with the diverse spectrum of life on Earth. It underlines the notion that space exploration is not a solo human endeavor but a collective voyage of Earth's entire living system.

As humans reach for the stars, the intimate biological partnerships, honed over millennia on Earth, will be their steadfast companions, enabling the flourishing of life on new cosmic frontiers.

This Martian forest, while a departure from Earth's native forests, symbolizes the adaptable spirit of life, demonstrating the potential for diverse ecosystems to thrive even on the barren expanses of Mars.

It stands as a testament to the interdependence of life, echoing the sentiment that as humanity ventures into space, it carries with it the rich tapestry of life, interwoven and resilient, ready to blossom wherever it may find a home

For more information on this fascinating sci fi subject based on solid science by Author Paul Smith https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-ofastrobiology/article/extraterrestrial-nature-reserves-etnrs/C1ABBBEB3A2CF6465893E68B6A4D9450

Homo spaciens

Back On earth Lewis hamilton fully ready to travel in this outfit, and a Schiaparelli model for the first opening gala on mars, I presume! (NOT generated with AI)

SAPIENS TO SPACIENS

The word "Homo spaciens" is a speculative notion concerning a prospective human species that could potentially possess adaptations suited for habitation in extraterrestrial environments.

There exists speculation among certain individuals on the potential evolution of Homo spaciens from Homo sapiens, which may occur through genetic engineering, artificial selection, or natural selection as a response to the various obstacles and opportunities presented by the pursuit of space exploration and colonization.

Potential characteristics of Homo spaciens may include a reduction in bodily dimensions and bulk to conserve resources and adapt to the conditions of microgravity.

The first capability involves an improved ability to sense subtle signals and communicate effectively in contexts with high levels of noise. The second capability pertains to an enhanced resistance to radiation, harsh temperatures, and cosmic rays.

The metabolism and immune system have undergone modifications to adapt to various dietary patterns and combat different pathogens. • Psychological and social behavior have been subject to alterations in order to adapt to situations of isolation, stress, and cultural variety.

Nevertheless, these suppositions are merely speculative in nature, relying solely on existing knowledge and imaginative thinking.

There is currently a lack of empirical evidence supporting the existence or prospective existence of Homo spaciens within the foreseeable timeframe.

The term Homo spaciens is occasionally employed as a metaphorical or humorous expression to characterize those who possess a keen interest in or actively engage in space-related pursuits.

As an illustration, certain astronauts have humorously referred to themselves as Homo spaciens subsequent to extended durations spent in orbital conditions.

Genetic engineering refers to the manipulation of an organism's DNA in order to create novel characteristics or augment pre-existing ones.

Certain scholars have posited the notion that genetic engineering may offer a potential avenue for human adaptation to the formidable environmental challenges encountered in space and on other celestial bodies, encompassing factors such as diminished gravitational forces, elevated radiation levels, and extreme thermal conditions.

For instance, several studies have been conducted on the subject of genetic engineering for the sake of space adaption.

The topic under consideration pertains to the exploration of how genetic engineering might be employed to enhance sustainable plant agriculture to enable human space exploration.

This discussion revolves around the potential of genetic engineering to optimize the growth and nutritional value of plants in space, as these factors are crucial for the maintenance of human life support systems.

The research additionally proposes the utilization of gene-editing techniques such as CRISPR to generate innovative agricultural species that are optimized for space settings.

One potential strategy for safeguarding future astronauts from the hazards associated with space exploration and habitation on Mars is then the genetic modification of humans.

Specifically, an avenue worth exploring is the integration of tardigrade DNA into human cells.

Tardigrades, often known as water bears, are little organisms capable of withstanding highly challenging environments, such as the vacuum of outer space.

Genetic engineering possesses the potential to assist humanity in surmounting the most formidable technical obstacles associated with inhabiting space, including radiation, gravity, and isolation.

It envisions a prospective era whereby people could engender novel life forms and go upon intergalactic exploration.

Long isolation will not make him smile anymore ! (AI generated)

ROBOTS IN SPACE VS ASTRONAUTS

How crucial is the human presence in outer space, and how much do we desire it?

Astronauts symbolize the zenith of human creativity and technological prowess, shedding light on the potential and challenges of venturing beyond Earth's comforting embrace.

Their occupancy on celestial bodies, like the moon, insinuates possible ownership rights for the countries or organizations that dispatch them. Nonetheless, in terms of exploration, robots are proving to be more efficient, cost-effective, and safer.

This, once a future forecast, is today’s reality. Robots continue to advance, whereas human physical capabilities remain the same.

While human astronauts made unprecedented discoveries on the moon decades ago, modern robotic explorers, like the semi-autonomous rovers on Mars, are showcasing remarkable capabilities in navigating and analyzing extraterrestrial terrain.

Notwithstanding the impressive astronaut-led missions, like the repair of the Hubble Space Telescope, the financial toll of such endeavors is hefty.

In contrast, robotic missions have proven to be economically more viable, reaching farther into space and collecting invaluable data from various celestial bodies, including former planet Pluto, comets, and asteroids.

Despite the shift toward robotic exploration, the human inclination for manned space missions prevails, fueled by tradition, emotional engagement, the allure of adventure, and inspiration for future generations.

Historic explorations by figures like Columbus and Neil Armstrong have ingrained a human-centric view of exploration.

However, the ongoing and future robotic missions by various countries highlight the growing importance and enhanced capabilities of robotic explorers in space.

Although the debate continues, with arguments regarding ownership and economic interests playing a significant role, the enhanced efficiency, reduced cost, and increased safety of robotic exploration cannot be overlooked.

We shall contemplate the future of space exploration, weighing the emotional and traditional appeal of human involvement against the practicality and promise of robotic missions.

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Fancy a fight! (AI generated)

SPACE RADIATION EFFECTS

Research indicates that astronauts' brains will be negatively impacted by space radiation during their journey to Mars.

A study conducted on mice exposed to radiation levels common in interplanetary space showed significant memory and learning deficits, as well as increased anxiety and panic.

The study warns NASA and other organizations planning to send humans to Mars about the potential consequences of radiation exposure.

The researchers used a different approach by dosing mice with low doses of radiation over a long period of time, similar to what astronauts would experience.

The study found that radiation-exposed mice exhibited stress-related behaviors and a decline in memory and learning, with compromised cellular signaling in critical brain regions.

While the exact molecular pathways are unknown, the study suggests that cell death and DNA damage are unlikely causes. NASA is aware of and interested in this study, as it funded the research.

While NASA can test prospective Mars explorers for anxiety and depression, the study highlights the greater threat posed by learning and memory disorders.

Long-term exposure to radiation could potentially impair astronauts' problem-solving and decision-making abilities, which could be harmful in emergency situations.

While low doses of background radiation exposure do not exclude crewed Mars missions, it is a major risk factor that needs to be considered. As interplanetary travel may require longer trip times, cumulative radiation exposures could be substantially higher.

Space radiation is predicted to be one of the most significant challenges for humans to leave the solar system.

ALL FEMALE CREW OPTION

The debate over the selection of astronauts for Mars has been ongoing for 70 years, with the idea that an exclusively female crew would be the most rational choice for promoting diversity and representation.

Scientific studies suggest that an exclusively female crew would have lower resource consumption compared to an exclusively male crew, enhancing the efficiency of a long-distance voyage to Mars.

However, some scholars argue that this contention has become obsolete, and a heterogeneous team will ultimately exhibit superior performance.

Recent studies have consistently demonstrated that women tend to have a smaller physical footprint and use less vital life-sustaining resources, such as oxygen, water, and food, compared to men.

A study published in Scientific Reports found that a team consisting of four female members would require 1,695 kilograms less food compared to an all-male team, resulting in a cost savings of $158 million.

A recent study by Jonathan Scott, a researcher at the French Institute for Space Medicine and Physiology, found that an all-female crew would exhibit an 11% to 41% reduction in the use of life-support supplies compared to an all-male crew.

However, the team's calculations were based on assumptions about future missions and the anticipated reactions of individuals, and the findings may not be comprehensive enough to adequately advise real-life missions.

Scientists argue that advancements in technology have diminished the significance of calculations during the early stages of the space program. Dr. Saralyn Mark, health innovation director at Star Harbour, believes that progress should focus on individual training and contribution to a mission. The first astronauts, Mercury 7, were required to have physical dimensions that allowed them to fit within the capsule.

Since then, 78 female astronauts have embarked on space missions, but it wasn't until 2013 that NASA introduced an equal gender cohort.

Spacecraft designs have also evolved, with the Orion spacecraft being the preferred mode of transportation for crewed lunar expeditions and future Martian missions.

Researchers use analogue space missions to investigate these aspects, observing that teams with greater diversity have a higher capacity for mutual learning and problem-solving abilities.

In contemporary times, the significance of gender should not hold substantial influence, but prioritizing competence and capability for space missions, emphasizing qualities such as empathy, communication, adaptability, patience, and comprehensive training.

All crew ready for a girlie party in space for sure! (AI generated)

HEALTH BENEFIT FROM MARS TO EARTH

The potential Mars mission holds the promise of yielding health benefits for Earth.

The physiological effects experienced by individuals during space travel have led to extensive investigations into the impacts of radiation exposure and microgravity, resulting in advancements in remote medical practices and telehealth.

Astronaut David Saint-Jacques, affiliated with the Canadian Space Agency, evaluates the Bio-Monitor, a cutting-edge intelligent garment designed to assess and document the physiological indicators of astronauts.

A journey to Mars will have physiological costs on the human body, including muscle degeneration, cardiac muscle reduction, compromised skeleton structural integrity, and a decline in immune system functionality.

The astronaut's circadian cycle is disrupted by ninety-minute days, and their DNA is subject to scrambling due to radiation exposure.

A typical mission duration of six months on the International Space Station (ISS) incurs significant impacts, such as skeletal density decline, thickening and stiffening of arteries, and increased internal body temperature.

As space agencies prepare for lunar missions and Mars expeditions, the field of space medicine remains committed to innovative and unconventional approaches to address the challenges. Space exploration serves as a compelling opportunity to stimulate intellectual curiosity and advance medical knowledge.

The International Space Station (ISS) is a multifunctional facility that serves as a living space, workspace, scientific research facility, provisions storage, medical facility, fitness centre, and healthcare unit.

As humans explore beyond Earth, logistical complexities will increase, and research has focused on the potential of using biological facilities, specifically plants, for pharmaceutical production. Communication delays between Mars and Earth can cause astronauts to struggle to access essential supplies and diagnose themselves.

Technology designed for medical procedures has proven beneficial in extending healthcare services to remote locations like Antarctica, maritime vessels, and home care environments.

The Inspiration 4 mission by SpaceX used the Butterfly iQ, a portable ultrasound device, to capture images of astronauts' cardiovascular, respiratory, and urinary systems without ground-based assistance.

Remote monitoring advancements include small and body-worn scanning equipment, which enable the collection and tracking of biomedical data from astronauts.

Vision-testing instruments have been developed for space, helping astronauts manage visual changes and address the needs of over a billion people worldwide with impaired vision.

Operational laboratory testing equipment has also been developed, eliminating the need for specialized expertise and providing benefits in rural or geographically isolated areas.

The first human space exploration occurred in 1961 when Yuri Gagarin completed a 108-minute orbit around the globe. The physical environment, including weightlessness, radiation, and extreme temperatures, poses significant challenges to the human body.

Prior to the Apollo missions, engineers worked to establish a reliability rate of 0.999 for all spacecraft and launch vehicles.

Astronauts have contributed significantly to our understanding of space safety measures, with over 3,000 experiments conducted on the International Space Station (ISS).

Mark Shelhamer, a researcher at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, explains that astronauts have a higher degree of experimental control, allowing for better monitoring of variables like exercise and social dynamics.

Health research in space has been limited due to the limited size of samples, blinding protocols, and lack of diversity among participants.

However, the increasing accessibility of space flight to individuals engaging in space tourism may improve these deficiencies.

The Inspiration4 mission, led by a Black woman and a 29-year-old cancer survivor, aims to analyze data to understand the vestibular system in a microgravity environment and its potential benefits for those suffering from vertigo.

The successful completion of a Mars mission requires further advancements in medicine to ensure astronauts' survival.

Scientists are exploring the feasibility of inducing hibernation in astronauts to mitigate metabolic rate, oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, and caloric requirements during their journey.

This could potentially improve terrestrial cryopreservation efforts and transplantation procedures.

Mars travel could increase human susceptibility to cancer and damage their cardiovascular and neurological systems. To mitigate this, scientists are exploring molecular approaches to enhance cellular healing in astronauts, such as gene therapy with an adeno-associated viral vector.

This could potentially eliminate the need for spacecraft medications and offer long-lasting protection.

Space activities have tangible benefits that can be applied to Earth's advancements. Microgravity conditions pose a significant obstacle for astronauts, but also offer advantages for scientific investigations.

In the absence of gravity, liquids exhibit unique behavior, allowing for the study of amyloid fibrils, which are protein aggregates that accumulate in the brains of individuals with neurodegenerative disorders.

Microgravity can facilitate the cultivation of amyloid fibrils within encapsulated liquid droplets on the International Space Station (ISS).

Crystal formation in microgravity conditions is decelerated, making it easier to generate high-quality crystals for structural biology research and pharmaceuticals.

This could lead to cost-effective, uncontaminated, injectable medications with extended shelf life.

Cell biology experiments show that microgravity conditions have a significant impact on cellular behavior, with stem cells exhibiting extended stemness characteristics when exposed to microgravity.

This could lead to personalized stem cell therapies and novel therapeutic approaches in cancer treatment.

Microgravity is also being used in engineering and materials research, with researchers developing a system for producing artificial retinas in space. However, the current state of affairs is still considered science fiction, but initial measures are being taken.

AI SEARCH FOR BIOSIGNATURE

Researchers have devised a methodology employing AI to detect potential indications of extraterrestrial life on celestial bodies beyond Earth. The researchers integrated statistical ecology and AI machine learning methodologies to elucidate the patterns and principles governing the persistence of life in extreme terrestrial habitats.

Subsequently, they employed artificial intelligence techniques to discern analogous patterns and principles within datasets obtained from extraterrestrial environments.

This approach has the potential to provide valuable guidance for rovers and other exploration missions in identifying locations with the greatest likelihood of harboring life.

Altiplano (Chile) AI search test for biosignature in equivalent environment.

The study conducted by Kim Warren-Rhodes, a Senior Research Scientist at the SETI Institute, examined the interdisciplinary aspects of mapping the limited biodiversity present within salt domes, rocks, and crystals located at Salar de Pajonales, situated at the border of the Chilean Atacama Desert and Altiplano.

The machine learning model was taught to discern the patterns and rules linked to the distributions, enabling it to acquire the ability to forecast and identify those identical distributions inside untrained data.

By integrating statistical ecology with artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques, the researchers were able to achieve a biosignature detection rate of 87.5%, a significant improvement compared to the random search method which yielded a detection rate of ≤10%. Additionally, this approach resulted in a remarkable reduction of up to 97% in the search area required.

Rhodes stated that their methodology enables the integration of statistical ecology and machine learning techniques to uncover and forecast the patterns and principles governing the survival and distribution of nature in the most challenging terrestrial environments.

The focus of this discussion is on the partnership between Rhodes University and the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) Institute. The team

from the NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI) utilized the Salar de Pajonales as a terrestrial counterpart for Mars.

Pajonales is characterized as a high-altitude (3,541 m) salt lakebed with hyperarid conditions, with a dry climate and significant levels of ultraviolet radiation. While it is often perceived as unfriendly to numerous organisms, it remains capable of supporting certain life types.

Throughout the field campaigns of the NAI project, the research team successfully acquired a total of 7,765 photographs and 1,154 samples. These resources were utilized for the purpose of evaluating the efficacy of various instruments in detecting photosynthetic microorganisms residing within salt domes, rocks, and alabaster crystals.

These microorganisms release pigments that can potentially serve as a biosignature according to NASA's criteria for detecting signs of life.

At the Pajonales site, the utilization of drone flight photography facilitated the integration of simulated orbital data from the High Resolution Imaging

Science Experiment (HiRISE) with ground sampling and 3D topographical mapping techniques, enabling the extraction of spatial patterns.

The results of the study provide statistical evidence that microbial life at the Pajonales terrestrial analog site exhibits non-random distribution patterns. Instead, it is concentrated in localized areas referred to as biological hotspots, which are closely associated with the availability of water at scales ranging from kilometers to centimeters.

Subsequently, the research team proceeded to train AI convolutional neural networks (CNNs) with the objective of identifying and forecasting macroscale geologic characteristics at Pajonales.

These features, such as patterned ground or polygonal networks, bear resemblance to those observed on Mars.

Additionally, the CNNs were trained to identify micro-scale substrates, referred to as 'micro-habitats', that are highly probable to harbor biosignatures.

Similar to the Perseverance team operating on Mars, the researchers conducted experiments to assess the optimal methods of integrating an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or drone with ground-based rovers, drills, and scientific instruments.

These instruments include the VISIR on the 'MastCam-Z' and Raman on the 'SuperCam' installed on the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover.

The subsequent research goal of the team at Pajonales involves evaluating the predictive capabilities of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) in determining the whereabouts and dispersion patterns of ancient stromatolite fossils and halite microbiomes.

This investigation aims to ascertain whether comparable principles and models are applicable to other analogous but slightly distinct natural systems, utilizing the same machine learning algorithms.

LIFE DETECTION LADDER

NASA has attempted to discover any form of life since the first Viking Missions in the late 1970s. The Ladder of Life Detection is a tool designed to guide research on detecting microbial life on space objects, considering the limitations of robotic space missions.

It incorporates insights from past life detection efforts and establishes standards for measuring evidence of native life.

The criteria for detecting life include high sensitivity, minimal contamination, repeatability, and distinguishable features.

The Life Ladder aims to facilitate scholarly discourse on methodologies for detecting life beyond Earth, considering logistical constraints. It provides a comprehensive overview of the characteristics of life, their specificity to living organisms, and the methodologies used for quantification.

The sensitivity criterion incorporates all quantitative measurements pertaining to instrumental performance. The quantification of the signal for the characteristic of life necessitates selective measurement above the limit of quantitation (LoQ), while adhering to the instrumental response time and dynamic range.

In practical applications, the Limit of Detection (LoD) is determined by calculating a specific number of standard deviations over the mean of measurements obtained from a blank sample.

Detectability is another crucial criterion in life-detection measurement, ensuring that physical, chemical, or geological conditions in the sample's environment do not prevent detection. This criterion is separate from instrumental performance, which is captured in the "sensitivity" criterion part.

However, the detectability of a feature is intimately tied to the technique used for its measurement, as environmental conditions can affect the feature only at the time of measurement. A sample known to contain the targeted feature should be analyzed to determine the detectability of the feature at the life-detection measurement conditions.

The reliability criterion for distinguishing biological from abiotic sources in environmental measurements requires features to be produced by life and distinguished from background abiotic sources or sinks.

The ratio of biogenic to total concentration must exceed the measurement precision. Community standards for distinguishing indigenous from abiotic environmental signals are strict, with evidence for life accepted only if the likelihood of most signals are being due to abiotic processes.

MARTIAN LIFE GEOLOGY

NASA's Mars Exploration Program aligns with the mission's objectives. Clearly stated and taking place within the context of scientific study are four assignments for Perseverance's stay on Mars. These are the following:

Examining if preserved indications of life, or biosignatures, can help determine whether life has ever existed on Mars. The rover is searching for these indicators in a region that may have once supported life.

An analysis of the Martian climate will be possible thanks to Perseverance's specialized instruments, which it will use to look for evidence of past and potential future habitability. Moreover, he uses the Curiosity rover's research findings.

Perseverance gathers, seals, and preserves rock samples on Mars' surface as well as inside itself. For further investigation, these samples might be brought back to Earth after being recovered during upcoming Mars missions.

In an attempt to gather oxygen from the Martian atmosphere, the rover provides experimental technologies as part of mankind's preparations. Prospective manned expeditions to Mars may benefit from this capability.

The robotic arm on Rover Perseverance is longer than two metres, enabling it to fulfil the mission's multiple research objectives. It is very similar to a human arm in terms of functioning and range of motion. Actuators that mimic the human wrists, elbows, and shoulders comprise its five degrees of freedom.

The finest feasible replication of a human geologist's work is what this structure stands for. Multiple scientific instruments are carried by Perseverance, the robotic arm's hand.

Sight, a spectrometer, ground-penetrating radar, and sensing are among the instruments mounted on the cross-shaped turret.

Aside from taking microscopic pictures and analyzing the elemental and mineral makeup of the rocks and soil on Mars, the rover can also use an impact drill to remove rock cores.

Essentially, the driving components included into the robot arm's joints provide it with both mobility and functioning.

In order to provide dependable, accurate, and backlash-free positioning for the flawless completion of scientific activity, five Harmonic Drive gears are included here.

Within the rover, the shoulder joint is equipped with two drive units for both vertical and horizontal migration. While a freedom of movement of 160° is allowed in the horizontal plane, it is 70° in the vertical plane.

An additional driving element guides the arm itself, which may be extended upwards and outwards and rotates 290 degrees.

Both 340° and 350° of vertical and horizontal rotation are possible with the two drive units installed in the wrist that positions the turret and, consequently, the objects.

A Robot pick it up, but I am still an expert to analyze it. Don’t cancel me yet!

Martian core

The vast amount of data collected by Insight seismometer will be studied for many years to come.

Scientists have inferred that Mars' liquid iron core is denser and smaller than previously believed based on seismic waves the sensor recorded from two temblors in 2021.

In an article published on April 24 2023 in the Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences, the findings—which represent the first direct observations of the core of another planet were described.

The InSight team discovered the two earthquakes, which occurred on August 25 and September 18, 2021, to be the first examples of farside quakes, meaning they began on the opposite side of the planet from the lander. Distance turned out to be important: The greater the distance an earthquake occurs from InSight, the further its seismic waves can travel inside the planet before becoming noticeable.

Lead author Jessica Irving, an Earth scientist at the University of Bristol in the United Kingdom, stated, "To find, and then use, these quakes, we needed both luck and skill." Because so much energy is lost or deflected away during seismic waves' journey across the Earth, far side earthquakes are inherently more difficult to detect.

The experts who first examine seismographs, the Marsquake Service, had already developed their expertise, Irving pointed out, because the two earthquakes happened after the mission had been functioning on the Red Planet for well over a full Martian year (about two Earth years).

The fact that one of the two earthquakes was generated by a meteoroid impact was also beneficial because impacts give seismologists more exact data and a precise location for their study. (Because Mars lacks tectonic plates, faults—or rock fractures—caused by heat and stress in the planet's crust are the primary source of most earthquakes there.) The severity of the earthquakes also affected the detections.

At NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, Bruce Banerdt, the main investigator of InSight, stated, "These two far side quakes were among the larger ones heard by InSight." We would never have found them if they hadn't been so large.

Being in a "shadow zone," or a region of the earth where seismic waves are more likely to be refracted away from InSight, made it difficult to identify these specific earthquakes, at least not until they were quite large.

It is extremely difficult to detect seismic waves that travel into a shadow zone, therefore the InSight team's achievement of doing so with just one seismometer on Mars is all the more amazing. On Earth, though, there are a lot of seismometers.

"The complex seismograms recorded by the lander required a great deal of seismological expertise from the entire InSight team to extract the signals," Irving stated.

Less accurate information was obtained from a prior study that used seismic waves reflected off the planet's outer edge to get the first look at its core. By identifying seismic waves that passed through the core, scientists can improve their simulations of the core's composition.

Insight seismograph

About a fifth of the core is made up of components like sulphur, oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen, according to the research detailed in the recently published report.

"Knowing how much of these elements is in a planetary core is crucial to comprehending the conditions in our solar system during planet formation and how these conditions impacted the planets that formed," ETH Zurich coauthor Doyeon Kim stated.

The primary objective of InSight's mission has always been to investigate the deep interior of Mars and aid in the understanding of how all rocky worlds, including Earth and its Moon, develop.

MARSQUAKE

The biggest earthquake ever recorded on Mars, or any planet other than Earth, struck the planet's surface on May 4 2023 with a magnitude of 5.

NASA's recorded the earthquake, which was stronger than the previous record 4.2-magnitude quake that occurred in August 2021.

An earthquake of magnitude five would not be significant on Earth. These earthquakes happen about 500,000 times a year on our globe, although they hardly ever result in significant damage.

A magnitude 5 earthquake on Mars, on the other hand, is about as strong as scientists had hoped for when they deployed InSight to the Red Planet in 2018. Mars is tectonically considerably more tranquil than Earth.

To identify the location and source of the record-breaking earthquake, the team will need to analyse the data, as they now know very little about it.

InSight is equipped with a highly sensitive seismometer manufactured by the French space agency CNES. On November 26, 2018, the spacecraft touched down in the Elysium Planitia, a wide plain straddling the planet's equator.

With the use of this equipment, geologists can remotely examine the planet's innards by identifying and interpreting seismic waves that are travelling through Mars's layers of geology.

Geologists can ascertain the depth and make up of the crust, mantle, and core by contrasting their observations of the Red Planet with their understanding of how seismic waves behave on Earth.

Over 1,313 earthquakes have been recorded by InSight over approximately 1,300 days on the planet.

Nevertheless, the lander is experiencing difficulties obtaining sufficient solar energy to sustain its functions. Since InSight arrived, the amount of dust in the air has significantly grown due to seasonal weather patterns, causing the sun to become obscured.

Back in January, a nearby dust storm put the spacecraft into safe mode and cast doubt on how long the mission would last. And on May 7, only a few days after making its new and significant discovery, the spacecraft once more reached dangerously low power levels.

PALEOLAKE

It is estimated that there are about 1,000 undiscovered "paleolakes" on Mars, out of the approximately 500 known ancient lake beds. The quest for water on Mars has recently taken a new turn.

A recent study shows that hundreds of long-dry "paleolakes" on Mars might remain undiscovered despite several missions searching the Red Planet's surface for evidence of past livable conditions.

Evidence that water once flowed on Mars billions of years ago is being discovered by scientists. Curiosity and Perseverance, two NASA rovers, are presently investigating craters that formerly held large lakes.

According to the new study, however, most ancient Mars Lake habitats may not have been like these massive, dramatic craters; in fact, statistics indicate that the majority of Martian paleolakes are likely still undiscovered.

Joseph Michalski, the study's lead author and an associate professor of Earth sciences at the University of Hong Kong, said recently:d

"Mars has about 500 known paleolakes, but >70% of ancient Martian lakes have so far not been detected (by comparison to statistics for Earth)." Stated differently, we have not yet discovered the little lakes on Mars.

Though Michalski advised against making a direct connection between life on Mars and the undiscovered lakes, water is an essential component of life as we know it. He estimated that the lifespan of any individual lake was only 10,000–100,000 years.

It is likely that they originated during the approximately 400 million-yearlong Noachian epoch on Mars.

It might be necessary to distance ourselves from our understanding of how lakes arise on Earth in order to find the paleolakes on Mars.

For example, the majority of Earth lakes are located in quite high latitudes, where ice forms easily; nevertheless, according to Michalski, we haven't identified many lakes on Mars in such conditions.

Furthermore, Michalski noted that although "we know almost nothing" about these putative structures, researchers may choose to look for paleolakes formed by ancient Mars tectonic activity.

"Antiquated Martian lakes have some interesting and unusual features," he continued. The gravitational pull of the Red Planet, for instance, is just 40% that of Earth. Due to the lack of flora, sediment would have been present everywhere in the lakes, which, along with the reduced gravity, would have maintained the lakes "murky for a long time," according to Michalski.

"The data do not support that view they were probably fresh water," he said. "We tend to think of lakes on Mars as being hyper salinity, like desert playas."

At the time these paleolakes formed, some four billion years ago, the sun was less bright. This information implies that Red Planet paleolakes absorbed just 30% of the solar radiation that Earth lakes currently get, in addition to Mars' larger distance from the sun than Earth and the probable murkiness of its waters. Consequently, it is unknown how conducive those prehistoric Martian water bodies would have been to photosynthetic life.

DUST LANDSLIDE AND STORMS

On Mars, landslides known as slope streaks have been seen by scientists for many years. Every orbiter mission that has since been in orbit has witnessed the streaks, which were first noticed by the Viking orbiters in the 1970s. However, there has been much discussion on the process underlying the slope streaks: is it dry mechanics or may water activity on the Red Planet be to blame?

The front-runner turns out to be "dry." However, researchers working on the Mars Odyssey mission have confirmed that carbon dioxide frost is another cause of the slope streaks.

Slope streaks typically show up on the slopes of hills or mountains, or on the walls of craters. According to earlier research, even a tiny dust devil or an impact event at precisely the right location can cause the rocks and dust of Mars to be moved from a slope. On Mars, these occurrences result in dry dust avalanches.

Images and data from the Odyssey spacecraft have uncovered conclusive evidence that the sublimation of carbon dioxide ice might loosen rocks, creating an avalanche, although other research only suggested this possibility.

Odyssey is the longest-running Mars mission, having entered orbit in 2001. Because of its present orbit, the spacecraft may get a unique view of the planet at 7 a.m. local Mars time, which is the ideal time to see frost activity just like it is on Earth.

Photographs captured by Odyssey's visible light camera last year shocked scientists with sights of ghostly white and blue frost highlighted by the rising Sun. However, Odyssey is also equipped with the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), and the results of this heat-sensitive camera indicated that frost was present more extensively, even in regions that the visible light camera was unable to detect.

The lead author of the research, Sylvain Piqueux of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, remarked, "Odyssey's morning orbit produces spectacular pictures." The dawn's long shadows are visible as they spread over the surface."

NASA claims that frost that accumulates overnight is rapidly warmed by the Sun due to Mars's extremely thin atmosphere, which is only 1% as dense as

Earth's. Within minutes, dry ice vaporises into the atmosphere rather than melting.

According to a press release, Lange stated, "Our first thought was ice could be buried there." "We were looking closer to the planet's equator, where it's usually too warm for dry ice frost to form, but near Mars' poles, dry ice is plentiful."

What would happen if you were present to see such an avalanche occur?

According to the experts, these dust avalanches most likely resemble a river of dust that hugs the ground and leaves behind a path of fluffy material. Over the course of several hours, the dust moves downward, revealing darker substance streaks underneath.

Slope streaks or even greater landslides were seen in those same regions. In its research, the team explains: "Slope streaks are formed when sublimation-driven winds within the regolith are strong enough to displace individual dust grains at sunrise, initiating and sustaining dust avalanches on steep slopes.

According to this, the CO2 frost cycle is an active geomorphological agent that affects latitudes all over Mars, not just those that are high or polar. It may also play a significant role in preserving mobile dust reservoirs near the surface.

Glacier water ice

Scientists have discovered signs of a "modern" glacier on Mars, indicating the presence of hidden water ice. This discovery could have significant implications for future human exploration of the Red Planet.

The glacier was found near the equator of Mars and is estimated to be 3.7 miles long and up to 2.5 miles wide, with a surface elevation of up to 1.1 miles.

The researchers from the SETI Institute and the Mars Institute used data from NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter to identify light-toned deposits on the Martian surface, which include sulphate salts, moraine bands, and crevasse fields.

These features suggest the presence of a "relict glacier," where salt formed on top of a glacier while the ice below retained its shape.

The discovery of this glacier has implications for future exploration missions and our understanding of the habitability of Mars.

It suggests that surface water ice may have existed on the planet more recently than previously believed.

The glacier-specific features, such as crevasses and moraine bands, provide evidence of erosion over time. The salt deposits are composed of sulphate salts that are created when hot lava, pumice, and volcanic ash come into contact with water ice.

The researchers believe that water ice may be maintained beneath the sulphate salts, potentially providing a resource for future missions.

The presence of a relatively young relict glacier near the equator of Mars is a new finding and indicates that Mars experienced surface ice in recent times. This challenges the notion that water ice is not stable at the surface near the equator.

The discovery opens up the possibility of finding ice at shallow depths in equatorial regions, which would be ideal for human exploration due to the warmer temperatures and access to ice.

Further research is needed to confirm the presence of water ice in this remnant glacier and explore the potential for ice-rich substrates in other light-toned deposits.

The findings were presented at the 54th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference in Texas.

The researchers noted that volcanic activity has occurred in the area where the glacier was found, and chemical reactions between volcanic materials and glacier ice likely formed the sulphate salts.

The discovery of this glacier provides valuable insights into the geological history of Mars and the potential for water resources on the planet.

WATER SEARCH

NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) are employing specialized instruments in their quest to detect the presence of water on the Martian surface.

Based on a decade-long, comprehensive examination, the most recent discoveries put up a novel proposition of a "water map" for the planet Mars. Mars is commonly recognized as a desiccated and arid celestial body, although its historical state deviates from this prevailing perception.

During the Hesperian period, which occurred from 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ago, Mars is believed to have harbored a significant body of water known as Oceanus Borealis.

The entity exerted significant influence over the geographic region including the northern hemisphere of the globe. The presence of particular planetary circumstances during that period facilitated the existence of liquid water on the planet's surface.

Over time, alterations in temperature, climate, and geology have progressively facilitated the transfer of water from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere or subsurface reservoirs.

Nearly 99% of the Earth's ocean water is sequestered within the planet's crust, namely within hydrous minerals, which are a type of rock.

Hydrous minerals are a type of mineral that contain water molecules inside their chemical structure. These minerals are formed through several geological processes.

Hydrous Minerals are rocks that contain water, or its constituent elements, hydrogen and oxygen, integrated into their chemical composition.

The classification of hydrous minerals has four primary categories, namely silicates, sulphates, silicas, and carbonates. Although some minerals may appear visually identical without the aid of magnification, their chemical compositions and structural arrangements exhibit significant differences.

Sophisticated equipment is capable of detecting these entities, which provide scientists with valuable insights into the geological evolution of water over extended periods.

The recently developed water map of Mars effectively identifies the specific locations of these minerals containing water. The provided illustration depicts a geological map delineating the rock formations that currently encompass the remnants of Mars's prehistoric body of water.

Although Mars is known for its vast amount of hydrous minerals, it is important to note that these minerals are not the sole source of water on the planet.

Water ice is known to exist in both the northern and southern poles of the planet Mars. The northern polar ice cap is the sole location on Earth where water is visibly present, whereas the southern pole is characterised by a frozen carbon-dioxide cap that conceals its water.

In the year 2020, radar analyses indicated the existence of liquid water in the vicinity of the southern pole, perhaps forming a network of subterranean saltwater lakes. In the year 2022, emerging information pertaining to the presence of liquid water on the planet has indicated the possibility of ongoing geothermal activity.

There is a possibility of a greater volume of frozen water being sequestered in the deep subsurface, at depths beyond the reach of existing surveying technology.

The recently developed water map is effectively delineating regions of scientific significance for prospective investigation on the planet Mars. Near water sources, there exists a possibility, albeit limited, for the active formation of hydrous minerals. Identifying the coexistence of these regions with established deposits of subterranean ice presents potential avenues for water extraction.

The Rosalind Franklin Rover, developed by the European Space Agency (ESA), is scheduled (2028) to make a landing in Oxia Planum, an area abundant in hydrous clays. The primary objective of this mission is to examine the influence of water on the geological formation of the region and to explore the possibility of past life existence on Mars.

Numerous ongoing investigations and studies are currently being conducted in the field, albeit at an early stage. Scientists are cautiously delving into the realm of hydrous minerals to unravel the mysteries surrounding Mars's aqueous history.

Blue Sunset on Mars

MARTIAN VOLCANOLOGY

Large swathes of Mars may be covered in wild rocks bearing witness to apocalyptic explosive eruptions, according to a recent study.

For over a year now, the Perseverance rover has been exploring some extremely unique rocks in the Jezero crater. These rocks, which comprise a large portion of the Nili Fossae region's base on Mars, are abundant in magnesium olivine.

On the other hand, the coat is distinctive of the mineral olive both on Earth and on Mars. As a result, discovering it on the surface is not random and may indicate that certain volcanic processes had occurred on Mars in the past.

Nonetheless, scientists have previously shown interest in this kind of rock previously. Similar rocks were discovered in the Gusev crater, which is located far from Perseverance's current location, as early as 2005 by Spirit, a NASA rover that was in operation at the time.

The same mineral makeup has been found in the rocks found in the Jezero and Gusev craters, according to American researchers using infrared spectral data from the Martian orbit. Therefore, geological occurrences at the two places would have been comparable.

Next, the scientists began contrasting these rocks with ones that are familiar to us on Earth. Their findings, which were written up in the journal Icarus, demonstrate that these rocks' form and texture on the Martian base are comparable to those of terrestrial ignimbrites, which are common volcanic rocks created by intense, explosive volcanic eruptions.

It appears that these deposits cover the pre-existing terrain, which lends credence to this theory. Ignimbrites are actually made of different types of lava debris (pink stones, ashes), which are welded together to produce heat when they are expelled from the volcano during an explosive eruption that creates burning clouds.

Their testimony confirms the existence of a highly viscous and gas-filled magma. These are common volcanic rocks found on Earth that generate significant deposits known as tuf.

For a while, experts believed that the Nili Fossae base originated from volcanic eruptions due to the presence of olivine in these rocks. However, the account of Mars' past continues farther with this new interpretation, which implies that they remain unaltered. Indeed, everything indicates that the volcanic explosions would have been far more catastrophic than previously believed.

Thus, as indicated by the presence of “ignombrite” in both the Gusev crater and Nili Fossae, the Red Planet would have had multiple significant explosive eruptions of this type at various points during the Noachian period of its history.

Large areas of consecutive volcanic deposits would have been covered by these extremely intense eruptions, which would have changed the Martian landscape. For instance, in the Nili Fossae region, ignimbrites presently encircle 18,000 km2. There aren't any deposits this size anywhere on Earth.

The planet's surface is probably covered in a large number of stratovolcanoes, even if the source(s) of the Martian ignimbrites are no longer known.

A few craters in the Nili Fossae region might also be considered old calderas, however it's still challenging to distinguish them from impact craters.

CLOUDS FORMATION

A Mars rover has recently witnessed some breathtaking sunsets and seen sun beams breaking through the cloud cover. The rover has also seen iridescent, feather-like clouds.

The NASA explorer is studying clouds at twilight, expanding on research that started two years ago when it studied night-shining clouds,

The newly released photos serve as a reminder that even a quick look up at the sky from Mars' surface is an alien sight, displaying phenomena that are either uncommon or nonexistent on Earth.

Thousands of miles from the planet's sun-facing side to its rear, a massive green worm-like aurora was photographed above Mars by the United Arab Emirates Space Agency's Hope spacecraft last year.

Additionally, scientists working with the European Space Agency have found a cloud the size of California that appears over a dormant volcano in southern Mars every spring.

Scientists are learning more and more about the Martian sky out of curiosity. On January 27, it caught a group of fluffy clouds resembling rainbows. These clouds have a kaleidoscope of colors when illuminated by the light, resembling mother of pearl jewelry.

Rainbow clouds are quite unusual, although they can happen over Earth if they are thin and feature a lot of homogeneous water droplets or ice crystals.

"When we observe iridescence, it indicates that the particle sizes within a cloud are the same as those of their neighbors in every section of the cloud," said Mark Lemmon, an atmospheric scientist at the Space Science Institute in Colorado.

Through color transition analysis, we are able to observe changes in particle size throughout the cloud. This provides information on how the cloud is changing over time and how the size of its particles is altering.

Sunlight spilling through Martian clouds was another feature of Curiosity's February 2 photo shoot. These beams have previously been photographed by the rover on the Red Planet, but never so clearly.

The majority of the water ice clouds that linger over Mars are only 37 miles above the surface. However, these new puffs are more like to dry ice and are probably made of carbon dioxide. They are far above, where the icy temperatures are even more extreme.

With its completion scheduled for mid-March, the cloud survey makes use of the rover's colour Mastcam.

The panoramic photos of the shimmering clouds and sun rays were pieced together by scientists using more than two dozen different shots that were beamed down to Earth. With the observations, they hope to learn more about the weather, temperatures, and atmosphere of Mars.

Sounds & acceleration rotation

Another historical first has been accomplished by NASA's Mars Perseverance mission: Scientists were able to confirm the speed of sound on Mars with the aid of the rover that touched down there in February 2021.

As they explain in a report given earlier this month at the 53rd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, the scientists responsible for the discovery used instruments on board the rover, including a laser and the rover's Super Cam microphone.

Since sound travels at varied speeds depending on the temperature and density of the medium it passes through, the denser the medium, the faster sound travels, the speed of sound is not constant throughout the cosmos.

At roughly 20 degrees Celsius, sound travels at a speed of 343 meters per second in Earth's atmosphere. However, it moves at a speed of 1,480 meters per second through water.

Since the atmosphere of Mars differs greatly from that of Earth, sound on the red planet travels in a very different way. Compared to Earth, Mars has substantially less atmosphere and air pressure (around 0.020 kg/m3), whereas Earth's atmosphere is approximately 1.2 kg/m3.

The Perseverance Super Cam microphone and a laser on board the rover that can generate a precisely timed noise were employed by the scientists behind the latest experiment.

By examining the characteristics of sound in the rover's immediate area, they were able to validate hypotheses based on what is known about Mars' atmosphere. They unequivocally demonstrated that sound travels at a speed of about 240 metres per second close to Mars' surface.

Contrary to common belief, nobody can hear you scream in space. Actually, astronauts are able to communicate openly because of pressurised housing, communication devices, and spacesuits.

All the better, since without that gear, interacting with people on Mars would be, to put it mildly, quite foreign.

The latest research also demonstrated that sound behaves differently through Mars' atmosphere. For instance, the study demonstrates that on Mars, high-pitched sounds move more quickly than bass notes.

Even if future Mars explorers would converse with one another in oxygenated, pressurized quarters, it's fascinating to consider the bizarre consequences of this sound perception if two people could have open communication on the planet.

"Mars is the only terrestrial planet atmosphere in the Solar System experiencing a change in speed of sound right in the middle of the audible bandwidth (20 Hertz to 20,000 Hertz)" the researchers said in their article, citing the special qualities of carbon dioxide molecules at low pressure.

This might result in a "unique listening experience" on Mars, they continued. In theory, it could enable speedier communication between those with higher vocal tones and those with lower tones.

The crew intends to keep gathering information with the Perseverance SuperCam microphone in order to gain a better understanding of how sound travels on Mars.

With their work, the Mars Perseverance mission can now claim a long list of historic firsts, such as the first controlled off-world flight and the first extraction of breathable oxygen from the red planet.

Listen to this illustrative video : https://youtu.be/GHenFGnixzU

A FASTER ROTATION

Data collected by NASA's InSight lander on Mars suggests that the planet is rotating faster than previously thought. The InSight mission, which was designed to investigate Mars' interior, used a radio transponder called RISE to monitor the planet's rotation.

The data revealed that Mars' rotation is increasing by about 4 milliarcseconds per year, resulting in a slightly shorter Martian day. The cause of this acceleration is unknown, but scientists speculate that it could be due to landmasses rising or ice building up near the Martian poles.

The findings were published in the journal Nature based on data collected before the mission's power outage and retirement.

The InSight project benefited from advancements in radio technology and upgrades to the Deep Space Network, which improved the precision of the data collected and transmitted back to Earth.

The data validates the decades-long effort to land a geophysical station like InSight on Mars. Previous studies had already confirmed the presence of a molten metal core in Mars, but the InSight mission provided more detailed measurements and insights into the planet's interior.

Overall, the data collected by the InSight mission has contributed to our understanding of Mars' rotation and core, shedding light on the planet's geological processes and history. The mission's findings will continue to shape future research and exploration of the red planet.

Fastest rotation illustration (AI Generated)

ASTROPOLITICS

Not yet on Mars, but the flags are ready (AI Generated)

ASTROLAW

Space law is the body of law that governs space-related activities. It includes international agreements, treaties, conventions, and United Nations resolutions, as well as rules and regulations of international organizations. It addresses various matters such as the preservation of the space and Earth environment, liability for damages caused by space objects, dispute settlement, astronaut rescue, sharing of information, use of space technologies, and international cooperation.

The principles of space law include space as the province of all humankind, freedom of exploration and use of outer space, and non-appropriation of outer space.

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space is responsible for developing international space law. There are five international treaties and five sets of principles that deal with issues such as non-appropriation, arms control, freedom of exploration, liability, safety and rescue, prevention of interference, notification and registration, scientific investigation, exploitation of natural resources, and dispute settlement.

States also have their own national legislation to regulate space activities, with different approaches and adaptations based on their specific needs and involvement of non-governmental entities.

RESCUE AGREEMENT

An international agreement outlining states' rights and responsibilities regarding the rescue of people in space is known as the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, or simply the Rescue Agreement.

The United Nations General Assembly adopted the Agreement by consensus on December 19, 1967 (Resolution 2345 (XXII)). It became operative on December 3, 1968. Article V of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty's rescue provisions are expanded upon by its provisions.

Although the Rescue Agreement is more detailed and specific than the rescue clause in Article V of the Outer Space Treaty, it nevertheless has ambiguous wording and leaves room for varying interpretations.

On December 19, 1967, the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 2345 (XXII), which contained the Rescue Agreement's language. On April 22, 1968, the Agreement became available for signature; on December 3, 1968, it came into effect.

The European Space Agency, the Intersputnik International Organisation of Space Communications, and the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites are three international intergovernmental organizations that have declared their acceptance of the rights and obligations conferred by the Rescue Agreement, while 98 States have ratified it and 23 have signed it as of January 2022.

According to the Rescue Agreement, any state party must alert the UN Secretary General and the launching authority as soon as it learns that a spacecraft's crew is in distress.

In essence, the Rescue Agreement mandates that any state that signs it must do everything within its power to save the lives of spacecraft crews that have landed on its soil, whether as a result of an accident, distress call, emergency, or unintentional landing.

Any state party that is able to do so shall, if necessary, offer aid in the search and rescue operation if the distress arises in an area outside of the borders of any nation.

Due to the limited launch capabilities of even the most advanced space programs, the possibility of rescuing travelers in space was remote when the pact was drafted, although it has since grown increasingly possible.

For instance, docked Russian Soyuz spacecraft have been retained by both Mir and the International Space Station to serve as an escape mechanism in the case of an emergency while in orbit.

In certain situations, this vessel may also be able to aid in a rescue.

The Rescue Agreement has come under fire for being very ambiguous, particularly when it comes to defining who qualifies for rescue and what exactly qualifies as a spacecraft and its parts.

The agreement also makes no mention of the financial burden of a rescue mission.

It is stipulated in the Rescue Agreement that the state that launches a craft into the territory of another state shall be responsible for its recovery. Nevertheless, the cost of the astronauts' rescue is not included in the deal.

The Space Shuttle Columbia accident caused a major shift in public perceptions of in-orbit rescues, and NASA responded by preparing the STS3xx or Launch on Need missions to arrange for rescue in specific situations. However, during the course of the Space Shuttle program, this capacity was never used.

In the film "The Martian" (2015) the Chinese National Space Administration voluntarily offers NASA assistance since it possesses a secret technology that the US is not aware of.

By providing a small pod that can serve as a rendezvous with the larger spacecraft headed for Mars to save Watney, it divulges its top-secret technology.

The choice to take this action is political in nature; as the head of the Chinese National Space Administration puts it, it would be awful if the world learned later that China had the opportunity to assist but chose not to. Maybe this was a reference to the Astronaut Agreement, but given that China is a party, it would have been good to have it mentioned specifically.

Thus, a new kind of collaboration emerges, albeit one that is carried out very cautiously between space organizations and scientists rather than between heads of state or through diplomatic channels.

This is actually a pretty accurate portrayal. During the Cold War, scientists on both sides agreed to exchange information for mutual gain and to work together peacefully and impartially to advance human spaceflight when US presidents and USSR chairmen changed and space policies also did.

Multinational initiatives are undoubtedly the most likely course of action as space research grows more complex.

Not only do they share the financial risks and expenses, but they also get the benefits that the Outer Space Treaty intended: "Space exploration and use shall be carried out for the benefit of and in the interests of all countries," according to Article I.

Snapshot from the “Martian” movie showing the US Astronaut stranded on the planet.

CHINA – USA DISCORD IN SPACE

In the vast and unbounded frontier of outer space, the intricate politics and divergent visions of Earth-bound nations cast their shadows. The growing discord between global powerhouses, the United States and China, elucidates the burgeoning tension that threatens the cooperative spirit essential for the exploration and colonization of space.

This discord is palpably evident in the controversy surrounding the Artemis Accords, crafted by the United States. These accords, a non-legally binding assembly of principles, aim to dictate activities on the Moon, Mars, and other celestial bodies.

The accords are a cornerstone for NASA's ambitious objectives to return astronauts to the lunar surface and beyond to mars pioneering the extraction of valuable elements.

The Artemis Accords strive for a unified approach to space exploration, emphasizing peaceful intentions, transparency, and adherence to existing international agreements.

However, these accords have not been universally welcomed. Leading the opposition, China expresses significant concerns and promote an alternative lunar and mars project, projecting it as an inclusive endeavor, open to all nations.

China's objections to the Artemis Accords are multi-faceted, with the issue of "safety zones" serving as a crucial contention point. The accords permit nations to establish specific lunar and mars regions safety zones, intended to avert unintentional disturbances or conflicts.

The United States interprets these zones as a compliance mechanism in line with the Outer Space Treaty's mandates to avoid harmful interference in outer space activities.

On the contrary, China perceives these zones as a covert attempt for lunar and mars territorial acquisition, inconsistent with international law's ethos.

Beijing staunchly advocates for space-related deliberations and legislation to transpire within the United Nations' framework, where a broader, more diverse assembly of nations can participate, ensuring a more balanced and equitable decision-making process.

Amid these geopolitical complexities, the historical context of US-China space relations plays a significant role. The 2011 American legislation effectively sidelined China from collaborating with NASA and excluded Beijing from participating in the International Space Station endeavors, instigating a rift that has only widened with time.

China's alienation from internationally collaborative space efforts has propelled the nation to forge its independent path in space exploration and advancements.

The fragmented approach, characterized by disparate goals and lack of cooperation, undermines the collective human endeavor to explore, understand, and settle in the cosmic realm beyond our home planet.

In this cosmic arena, where the endeavors of exploration and settlement unfold, it becomes paramount for global powers to transcend terrestrial discord, embracing collaboration, shared understanding, and mutual respect.

The escalating astropolitical tensions between nations like the United States and China undermine this collective cosmic quest, sowing seeds of division and conflict in the boundless realms of space, where unity, cooperation, and shared vision should prevail.

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China space agency – Mars Colony Illustration

Science fiction serves as an asset in examining the present and contemplating the consequences of our actions and societal choices.

Through the exploration of various themes, such as cohabitation with other forms of life, the preservation of humanity, the impact of climate change, and the potential for an apocalypse, science fiction engages in current debates and prompts reflection on our world today.

One recurring theme in science fiction is the question of how to coexist with other life forms. Authors like Ursula K. Le Guin in her “Ecumen” Cycle novels delve into the complexities of creating a common political organization with alien species.

These populations, once related, have evolved to become vastly different from one another in terms of anatomy, intelligence, culture, language, and lifestyle.

This exploration of diverse life forms mirrors contemporary discussions on the restoration of connections between humanity and the environment. As our interactions with nature diminish, science fiction serves as a reminder of the importance of maintaining these relationships.

Ecological crisis and climate change are also prevalent themes in science fiction, giving rise to a subgenre known as climate fiction or cli-fi. These works imagine the consequences of climate change and the impact it has on the world.

They serve to raise awareness and explore potential outcomes of our current actions. By depicting possible futures, cli-fi encourages readers to consider the urgency of addressing climate change and the need for policy initiatives.

Another significant theme in science fiction is the preservation of humanity in an increasingly computerized and robotic world. As technology advances, the question arises of whether humanity can extend itself into machines through artificial intelligence or automation.

This theme has been explored in classic science fiction works like Karel Čapek's "R.U.R." and Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein." Today, science fiction continues to examine the implications of integrating technology into our lives and the potential consequences of relying too heavily on It.

The theme of the apocalypse or the end of times is also a recurring motif in science fiction. Whether religious or secular in nature, these stories serve to understand our fears and anticipate the potential consequences of our actions.

From the nuclear bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to the concept of the Anthropocene, where humanity has the power to alter the planet's history and ecosystems, science fiction explores the potential destruction and extinction of life on Earth.

By examining these scenarios, science fiction prompts us to consider the present and act before it's too late.

In a world characterized by uncertainty and a lack of historical landmarks, science fiction offers a means to navigate the present and contemplate the future.

By immersing ourselves in literary fiction, films, video games, and other forms of media, we can explore different perspectives, anticipate potential outcomes, and gain a deeper understanding of our world.

Science fiction serves as an asset in thinking critically about the present and the choices we make as a society.

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