Fresh Cup Magazine | August 2017 by Fresh Cup Magazine

DEFINING THE TERMS THAT DEFINE COFFEE & TEA

CAFÉ ENCYCLOPEDIA AUGUST 2017 | Fresh Cup Magazine » Vol. 26 » No. 8

Navigating the Encyclopedia A handy guide to all you’ll find in the A–Z listing. P. 14

A–Z Listings An alphabetical quick-reference guide to all things coffee and tea. P. 16

Topic Spotlights Coffee Chemistry, by James di Properzio P. 19

Logistics & Warehousing, by Rachel Northrop P. 49

Coffee Certifications, by Ellie Bradley P. 25

Milk & Microfoam, by Nathanael May P. 54

Coffee Processing Methods, by Nathanael May P. 26

Maintaining Freshness, by James di Properzio P. 56

Pour-Over Brewing, by Brian Helfrich P. 28

Extraction Variables, by Jennifer Haare P. 59

Cupping Coffee, by Michael Ryan P. 30

Foundations of Roasting, by Rob Hoos P. 60

Building an Espresso Recipe, by Jennifer Haare P. 32

Roast Profile, by Jessica Easto P. 63

Understanding Fair Trade, by Kyle Freund P. 36

Brewing Tea, by Tony Tellin P. 69

Food Safety Modernization Act, by Ellie Bradley P. 38

F1 Hybrids, by Ellie Bradley P. 70

Figures (Tables, Maps, and Infographics) Bean Belt P. 17

Tea Types & Processing Methods P. 34

Top Tea-Growing Regions P. 22

Manual Brewing P. 53

Coffee Varieties P. 24

Coffee Cherry Anatomy P. 64

Feature Story

SUPPLY CHAIN 101 How does our coffee get to us? P. 44

BY CHRIS RYAN

Editor’s Letter P. 10

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References and Contributors P. 72

Advertiser Index P. 74

FROM THE EDITOR A Starting Point

WHEN WE DECIDED TO TAKE ON A SECOND EDITION of our Café Encyclopedia, we knew it would be a tedious challenge: producing a printed resource guide in a digital age is a bit absurd—a sentiment acknowledged in 2012 when we debuted our first edition. But as we also acknowledged, internet discussion boards and blogs are prone to error, leading to misunderstanding and confusion. A printed guide benefits from thorough research, referencing, and fact-checking, along with added points for style (shout-out to our amazing art director, Cynthia Meadors). This edition features an updated list of terms to reflect industry growth (e.g. all things related to manual brewing) as well as an array of columns, illustrations, and tables to zoom in on topics foundational to coffee and tea. We looked to books, trusted websites, magazine articles, research studies, and our network of industry peers to help us compile and fact-check the terms and information found within. In developing this issue, we aimed to reach a consensus for definitions, but frequently encountered dissenting opinions. This reflects the relative youth of our industries: Compared to other agricultural industries, tea and coffee are very young in research-based practice standards. We don’t all agree on definitions because there are many pathways to success when it comes to processing, roasting, and brewing. Every piece of equipment will perform best under a slightly different set of conditions, and every professional will find success in a slightly different set of processes. This encyclopedia is not meant to be the end point for all coffee- or tea-related queries. Rather, the Café Encyclopedia is meant to serve as a reliable and comprehensive quick-reference guide that answers a question in the most basic terms, then points to recommended resources for in-depth understanding. So, take this guide as a starting point. Let it inspire discussion, exploration, and learning. Mark it up, keep it in your training lab, share it with a friend. We’ll return to our regular format next month. In the meantime, we hope you seize the opportunity to learn something new.

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ON THE COVER: Café Encyclopedia

Illustration by Cynthia Meadors ELLIE BRADLEY, EDITOR ellie@freshcup.com

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EDITOR P HOTO BY CYNTHIA MEA DO RS

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What you’ll find inside: DEFINITIONS Terms are listed alphabetically, along with a brief definition. Use these for a quick reference.

INTERNAL REFERENCES TO OTHER TERMS When a word in a definition also appears as its own term in the A–Z listing, we’ve noted the page number of the other instance, offset in parentheses (because we all get annoyed when people define words with other words we don’t know). We’ve limited these references to terms that make you say, “Huh!?”.

MULTIPLE DEFINITIONS When a word has two industry-related definitions, you’ll see these distinguished by a numbered listing.

COMPARATIVE REFERENCES A few terms are followed by “cf.” and a page number. These are comparative references, linking opposing definitions for improved understanding. An example is the comparison of altitude and elevation, which are often used interchangeably, but have different meanings.

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MUCILAGE The gluey substance surrounding each of the two coffee seeds. Mucilage is found between the skin, and the parchment of the coffee cherry (see fig. 6).

HARD WATER Water that contains high levels of calcium, magnesium compounds, and a variety of other metals, which are picked up as the water travels through certain types of soil and rock. In coffee and tea businesses, hard water contributes to scaling (62) in boilers and other equipment. Mineral-rich water also can reduce the effectiveness of detergents and other cleaning products.

SCALE 1. The pale mineral buildup found in espresso machines, batch brewers, and kettles. Scale is formed in a boiler by an interaction of calcium and bicarbonate, compounds found in water. When the two combine, they create calcium carbonate, better known as limescale. 2. An instrument used for weighing. Scales are used for cupping, espresso extraction, and manual brewing. Gram scale implies that measurements can be given in grams.

ALTITUDE The vertical distance between an object and the Earth’s surface. (Compared to elevation, this is not a helpful measurement when comparing different coffee-growing regions, as Earth’s surface can vary significantly in its position from sea level from region to region; cf. elevation.)

FIGURE 6

COFFEE CHERRY ANATOMY

FIGURES We’ve included a number of tables and illustrations to show relationships between terms, provide visual aids for geographical listings, and serve as quick-reference tools. These items are noted at the end of definitions by a “see fig.” followed by the corresponding figure number.

TOPIC SPOTLIGHTS These spotlights provide a more detailed explanation of a topic area, grouping related terms and offering additional context or practical application tips. Terms mentioned in topic spotlight columns are noted with a “See ‘reference,’” followed by the spotlight title and the page number. A full listing of topic spotlights can be found in the table of contents.

HETEROSIS Also called hybrid vigor, heterosis refers to the productivity, uniformity, and better vegetative growth in coffee plant hybrids that have a great genetic distance between the two parents of the offspring. (See “F1 Hybrids,” 70.)

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ACETIC ACID–ASTRIGENCY

ACETIC ACID The main acid in vinegar, acetic acid can give coffee an unpleasant, fermented taste if present in high concentrations. However, in proper balance, it is said to provide notes of lime and sweetness.

ARABICA Affogato

AROMA

ACIDITY A sensory note describing perceived acidity, rather than pH level. Acidity incorporates descriptors such as brightness, delicacy, complexity, liveliness, and effervescence; its presence prevents a cup from tasting dull or flat. Chemically speaking, acidity is produced by the acids in coffee— both those in unroasted green and those developed via chemical reactions during roasting or storage. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

Aeropress

See Coffea arabica.

AFFOGATO A sweet, Italian-inspired offering in which a shot of espresso is poured over gelato. Variations on the drink/dessert run aplenty, but traditionally the gelato is vanilla and the espresso is added immediately following extraction. In Italian, affogato means “drowned,” an apt description for the gelato that becomes submerged in espresso.

The fragrance produced by hot, freshly brewed coffee or tea. Aroma is one of four main categories for tasting coffee, and is helping in determining cup quality. Influenced by retronasal olfaction (60). (See “Cupping Coffee,” 30.)

AROMATICS Chemical compounds in coffee responsible for the perception of coffee aroma. More than 800 aromatic compounds are known to be present in coffee, though perception of these compounds is dependent both on concentration and odor threshold. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

AIRFLOW The measurement and adjustment of the heated air moving past coffee beans during the roasting process. In most modern roasters, the coffee roasts primarily through convection—the beans are toasted by the hot air moving around them—and many machines offer a variety of airflow settings to give operators control over the speed at which that air moves.

Assam

AGITATION AEROPRESS A manual brewing method developed by Aerobie (the frisbee maker) and released in 2005. The Aeropress is known for its fast brewing time and easy portability. It combines immersion and pourover brewing, and works well with a number of grind sizes, brewing times, and water temperatures (see fig. 5).

AERATION Introducing air into milk to create foam. (See “Milk & Microfoam,” 54.)

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Describes the action of stirring coffee during brewing, either with a spoon or with the water stream from a kettle, increasing the interaction between water and grounds. (See “Extraction Variables,” 59.)

ASSAM A state in northeast India that produces more tea than any other region in the world (see fig. 2). Assam is also the spot where India’s native tea plant, Camellia sinensis var. assamica, was first discovered. The best teas from the region are marked by compelling fruit, spice, and malt notes.

ASTRINGENCY A harsh flavor sensation that makes the mouth pucker. Astringency is caused by tannins, which occur naturally in coffee and tea, and is

BAGGY–BEEHOUSE DRIPPER FIGURE 1

BEAN BELT

experienced as a dry feeling on the tongue and mouth. It’s typically viewed as a negative attribute of coffee—especially as astringency levels increase—and is often associated with poorer-quality beans or overextracted brews. Astringency is commonly confused with bitterness, but astringency refers to a sensation while bitterness describes a taste; cf. bitterness.

BAGGY Describes coffee that has taken on the flavor of its storage vessel, usually a burlap jute bag.

BALANCE A tasting descriptor referring to the manner in which different flavor components—such as acidity and body—interact on the palate. When a coffee is considered well balanced, no single taste characteristic will stand out overwhelmingly—instead, a handful of distinct flavor

notes complement and contrast one another, opening the door to layers of taste complexity.

This zone runs between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn (see fig. 1).

BATCH BREW A staple café procedure in which multiple cups of coffee are brewed simultaneously. Automated batch brewing can help ensure taste consistency, and many newer batch brewers offer increased control over brewing parameters.

Beehouse dripper

BATIAN Developed from SL28 and SL34 crosses, the variety was produced in 2010 by Kenya’s Coffee Research Foundation to be disease resistant and have better cup quality than Ruiru II (see fig. 3).

BEAN BELT The equatorial zone between latitudes 25 degrees north and 30 degrees south that is characterized by ideal coffee-growing conditions.

BEEHOUSE DRIPPER A wedge-shaped cone dripper with two holes in the bottom (a modern take on the Melitta dipper, which features one hole). The ceramic pour-over apparatus has ribbed walls and works with most drinkware (see fig. 5).

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BENEFICIO–BOURBON

BENEFICIO Used in Latin America to refer to a wet mill where coffee cherries are processed. Similar setups go by different names in other countries, such as washing station in Rwanda and coffee factory in Kenya. It’s here coffee is processed; cf. cooperative.

BILL OF LADING (BOL) Coffee’s ticket to travel. A BOL is issued by the shipping line indicating where coffee came from, where it needs to land, and who is the rightful owner. The exporter forwards the BOL for each shipment of coffee to the importer. A separate BOL is issued by the freight carrier for each shipment of coffee from the warehouse to a roasting facility. Once the roaster has received the BOL, indicating the next transfer of ownership, the importer invoices the roaster. (See “Supply Chain 101,” 44.)

Bird Friendly Certification

BITTERNESS Bitterness helps balance the perceived acidity in coffee, and can add dimension and complexity when combined with acidity and sweetness. Bitterness is often confused with astringency (16), but specific compounds are linked with the sensation, including quinic acid, trigonelline, and caffeine. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” opposite page.)

BLACK TEA The most consumed tea type in the Western world. Black tea comes from one of two varieties: Camellia sinensis var. sinensis or Camellia sinensis var. assamica. Post-harvest, black tea spends more time in the oxidation stage than other tea types, which helps give the tea its color and smell, as well as its full, rich flavor. (see fig. 4). In China, black tea is always known as red tea (hong cha) because of the color of its leaves and liquor.

heat necessary to quickly produce hot water and steam at precise temperatures. In the heat exchange setup, a single large boiler, made of copper or steel, holds water heated to the point of steam—around 250 degrees Fahrenheit. When a barista calls on the machine to extract coffee, water is brought through a tube (called the heat exchanger) running inside the boiler, and the water is heated en route. The double boiler arrangement, meanwhile, contains two boilers. One is kept at steam temperature and is used solely for the machine’s steam wand. The second holds water at around 200 degrees Fahrenheit, and that supply remains available for pulling shots.

Bourbon

BLADE GRINDER See grinder.

BLOOM The practice of adding a small amount of water at the beginning of a manual brew to wet the coffee. The initial slurry of coffee grounds and hot water increases in volume as the grounds absorb water, and it bubbles as carbon dioxide is released from the ground coffee. Many commercial batch brewers dispense an initial amount of water to account for this step. (See "Extraction Variables," 59.)

BIRD FRIENDLY CERTIFICATION (SMITHSONIAN) A coffee certification developed by ecologists at the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center and associated with shade-grown coffee. Certified coffee bears a green-and-brown circular seal depicting birds and coffee beans. (See “Coffee Certifications,” 25.)

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BODY A beverage’s weight or perceived fullness in the mouth. Technically a characterization of a liquid’s strength, as defined by the concentration of total dissolved solids (66) in a cup.

BOILER The component in commercial espresso machines that creates the

BOURBON A coffee variety developed in the 1860s from a natural mutation of typica that occurred between its planting on the island of Bourbon in 1708 and its export to Brazil in the 1860s (see fig. 3). Most coffee cherries are red, but bourbon plants can produce cherries that are pink, yellow, or orange. Bourbon has slightly higher yields and is more robust than typica in general.

BREAKFAST TEA–BROKEN

BREAKFAST TEA A tea blend that typically combines leaves from different producing regions and boasts high caffeine levels. Two popular incarnations are the traditionally Assam- and Yunnan-tea heavy Irish breakfast and English breakfast, which often include China Keemun black tea.

Breve

COFFEE CHEMISTRY

offee’s flavor involves over 1,000 chemical compounds. The primary tastes perceived on the tongue are important, but the hundreds of aromatics in coffee are smelled rather than tasted.

SWEETNESS comes from sugars, which mostly caramelize during roasting to produce toastiness and the dark tone of caramel. This is complemented by caramel-like aromatics. BITTERNESS is crucial: without bitterness, coffee would be unrecognizable. Bitterness helps balance the acidity in coffee. Aromatics can, in turn, balance the bitterness. The balance of complementary tastes is key to the best coffee experience. Caffeine provides about 10 percent of the bitterness of coffee. Trigonelline (aka niacin) is bitter, but roasting converts most of it to pyridines, which taste warm and roasty. ACIDITY is complex. Fruit acids contribute fine acidity admired at the cupping table. Citric acid is strong, but malic (also found in apples) and tartaric (found in grapes) are nuanced. An acid profile is considered more complex with a balance of these, typical of beans grown at high altitudes.

BREVE An American variation of a latte, which is typically two parts steamed milk to one part espresso. To make a breve, the barista adds steamed half-and-half—equal parts cream and milk—instead. The name comes from the Italian word—pronounced bre-vay—that translates to “brief” or “short.”

BREW RATIO 1. The relationship between coffee and water used in manual brewing. Expressed in terms of coffee to water (c:w). Ratios vary based on brewing methods and devices. 2. The relationship between dry coffee (dose) and the amount of coffee extracted (yield). Expressed in terms of dose to yield (d:y).

BROKEN One of the two main grades of black tea, along with leaf; refers to smaller parts of the leaf that have been cut or broken. Typically, leaves designated as broken produce a stronger and darker brew than those in the leaf grades, and they infuse faster than whole-leaf teas.

CHLOROGENIC ACIDS (CGAs) degenerate in roasting into caffeic and quinic acids, and phenols. CGAs are perceived as more bitter; quinic acid is sour and bitter. AROMATIC ACIDS, including lactic and acetic acids, can be smelled as well as tasted. Some develop when the fruit is separated from the seed, others during roasting as sugars caramelize. A little is pleasurable, more becomes winy, while too much creates the defect called ferment. INORGANIC ACIDS include phosphoric acid, a strong acid that acts with the other acids and salts to give a pleasant, lingering note. AROMATICS make the aroma and are caused in part by Maillard reactions, which occur when a sugar joins chemically with an amino acid (the building blocks of protein). MERCAPTANS, produced in the Maillard reaction, are a family of volatiles with a high concentration of sulfur. THIOPHENES have a meaty aroma from Maillard reactions between sulfurous amino acids and sugars. FURANS are the most abundant class of aromatics in coffee, and contribute caramel aromas from the sugars broken down by the heat of roasting. PYRAZINES are next most abundant, with roasty, walnuty, or toasty aromas. They can be smelled even in small amounts, and so contribute much to the aroma. One pyrazine, which gives an earthy aroma, is also a flavor constituent in bell peppers. PHENOLS are also important in the aroma of single-malt Scotch whiskies from Islay, associated with their seaweedy character. PYRROLES give sweet odors of caramel, or even mushrooms. —BY JAMES DI PROPERZIO IN THIS ARTICLE: ACETIC ACID, ACIDITY, AROMATICS, BITTERNESS, CAFFEINE, CAFFEIC ACID, CHLOROGENIC ACID, CITRIC ACID, FURANS, FRUIT ACIDS, MAILLARD REACTION, MALIC ACID, MERCAPTANS, PHENOLS, PYRAZINES, PYRIDINES, PYRROLES, SWEETNESS, THIOPHENES, TRIGONELLINE

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BROKER– BUNA/BUNNA

BROKER 1. Represents equal interests of buyer and seller. Similar to the way a real estate agent does not own a property but arranges the terms of agreement between a buyer and seller, a physical coffee broker does not own coffee; he or she connects sellers offering specific products with buyers seeking specific products. (See “Supply Chain 101,” 44.) 2. Accredited auction participant and tea taster who negotiates the selling of tea from producers, or the buying of tea for packers and dealers, for a brokerage fee from the party on whose behalf the broker is working.

BRUISING A step in tea processing where cell walls of tea leaves are broken down to facilitate oxidation (see fig. 4).

Bud

BUD The developing tip of a tea plant, located at the end of each stem. A bush’s buds, along with a varying number of leaves (depending on the plucking process), are what pluckers harvest and then send into the manufacturing chain. The buds are essentially early forms of new leaves and, ideally, they are picked just before opening and unfurling.

BUNA/BUNNA The Ethiopian coffee ceremony; a social occasion performed as a sign of respect and friendship, and to welcome guests. The lengthy ceremony includes the roasting of coffee and preparation in a vessel similar to the Turkish ibrik. The ceremony may be performed multiple times in a day, and often coincides with a meal. Bunna tetu means “to drink coffee” in Amharic.

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BURR GRINDER–CAPPUCCINO FIGURE 2

TOP TEA-GROWING REGIONS

BURR GRINDER See grinder.

C MARKET The commodity futures market is operated by the Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) in New York under regulation of the New York Board of Trade. Arabica coffee is traded under the symbol KC. The C market price fluctuates daily based on the factors that affect other financial markets, such as currency exchange rates and global stock indexes, and on fundamental factors affecting the physical coffee itself, such as weather, harvest forecasts, supply reserves, and anticipated demand.

CAFÉ AU LAIT A beverage made with brewed coffee and steamed milk. Some variations use a ratio of 1:1, while others use 1:3.

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CAFFEIC ACID An acid formed from the decomposition of chlorogenic acid. Found only at low levels in coffee, but thought to contribute to astringency. Unrelated to caffeine. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

CAFFEINE A naturally occurring, odorless, bitter alkaloid responsible for the stimulating effect of coffee and tea. Actual concentrations vary by brewing method and coffee or tea variety. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

CAMELLIA SINENSIS A tropical and sub-tropical evergreen plant; its leaves are harvested and cured in order to produce white, green, yellow, oolong, puerh, and black tea. Its two main varieties are Camellia sinensis var. sinensis, or Chinese tea, and Camellia sinensis var. assamica, or Assam tea.

COUNTRY MAPS COURTESY OF:

The plant also goes by the names tea plant, tea tree, and tea shrub, and is usually trimmed to below six-and-a-half feet when cultivated for its leaves. If a drink is truly tea, it must be derived from the leaves of this bush; cf. tisane.

CARAMELIZATION The stage of roasting where sugars (commonly sucrose) contained in green coffee begin to breakdown, releasing acidic and aromatic compounds. It should be noted that at the beginning of the process, caramelization deepens flavor complexity, but as sugars continue to caramelize, perceived sweetness decreases.

CAPPUCCINO A staple specialty coffee drink that combines espresso, steamed milk, and foam. Typically, each of those ingredients accounts for a third of

CARRY–CATUAI

the beverage, but slight variations may occur depending on the preferences of barista and customer—a dry cappuccino, for instance, contains significantly more foam than steamed milk.

CARRY The cost of financing and storing coffee in a warehouse. Once coffee is in a roaster’s position (meaning it is reserved in their name), the roasting company, as the final customer, is responsible for covering the carry costs. Carry is sometimes included in the free on truck (40) price, though it depends on the original terms of the contract. (See “Supply Chain 101,” 44.)

CATIMOR A cross between timor (hibrido de Timor) and caturra, developed in Portugal in 1959 with the aim of increased yields and disease resistance (see fig. 3). Catimor’s cup quality is sometimes considered inferior.

CATUAI A cross between caturra and mundo novo created by Brazil’s Instituto Agronômico de Campinas (IAC) in the 1950s (see fig. 3). The cross was selected to combine the dwarf characteristic of caturra with the yield and strength of mundo novo. Catuai produces red and yellow cherries.

Cascara

CASCARA Cascara, which means “husk ,” “peel,” or “skin” in Spanish, is the dried skins of coffee cherries. These skins are collected after the seeds have been removed from the cherries. They are then dried in the sun, and brewed as a tea, or packed and shipped for export to be used in other food applications.

CASTILLO Developed in 2005 by the Colombian government’s National Coffee Research Center (CENICAFE) from plants of the Colombia variety (see fig. 3). Colombia’s cup quality was low, and castillo was developed for leaf rust resistance and better cup quality.

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CATURRA–CHAI FIGURE 3

COFFEE VARIETIES

C. LIBERICA

C. ANTHONYI

Liberica S288

C. EUGENOIDES

Ethiopian/Sudan Accessions

Yirgacheffe Sidamo Java (Cultivar) Dilla Deiga/Dega Dalle Alghe Agaro S.12 Wild Natural Mutant

Harrar Gera Rume Sudan Kaffa Ennarea Gimma Tafari-Kela Rambung S.4

Typica

French Mission

Bergundel

SL34

Amarello de Botucatu

Laurina (Bourbon Pointu)

Mokka SL28

Villalobos

Kent

CATURRA A natural dwarf mutation of bourbon, discovered in Brazil in 1937 (see fig. 3). The variety produces relatively high yields, but with capacity for overbearing. Caturra is more disease resistant and productive than bourbon, though cup quality is not quite as high. Red and yellow variations and plants are low-growing, often referred to as dwarf or semi-dwarf and favored for ease of picking.

CENICAFE Promotes research in coffee to aid Colombia’s coffee farmers, as part of the Colombia Coffee Growers Federation (FNC), or the Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia.

CENTRIFUGAL ROASTER A roaster in which coffee is placed inside a large inverted cone, which

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Red Bourbon

Bergandal

Kona/Guatemala

Caturra Orange Bourbon Yellow Bourbon

IAPAR59

Tupi

Lempira

Obata

ICAFE 95

Catisic

IHCAFE 90

Pacas

Pluma Hidalgo

Catimor

Ruiru 11

Villa Sarchi

San Ramon Pache Comum

Hybrido de Timor

Bourbon

Java/Sumatra

Blue Mountain ET101

Robusta

Yemen Accession

Gesha/Abyssinia

USDA 762

C. CANEPHORA

Arabica (Ethiopia)

Barbunk Sudan

Jember/ S795

RUBIACEAE

Mayaguez

Catrenic

Sarchimor Jackson

Colombia Mibirizi

Castillo

Pink Bourbon Maragogype Pacamara

Oro Azteca

Marsellesa

T5296

Mundo Novo Starmaya

Catuai

Centroamericano

Maracatu

Mundo Maya

Maracaturra

spins to draw the coffee beans up the walls as they are heated. Seeds are then flung down into the middle of the cone to repeat their journey. This type of roaster allows for large volumes of coffee to be roasted very quickly.

CERTIFICATION A process verifying that a product meets specific criteria. In the specialty coffee industry, this typically pertains to the producing end, where a certification’s standards address the environment in which the coffee was produced, as well as the prices paid to the farmer and the impact coffee sales bring to producing communities. (See “Coffee Certifications,” opposite page.)

CEYLON A tea-industry descriptor referring to the nation of Sri Lanka. The

island country off the southeast coast of India was a British colony before 1948 and until 1972 went by the name Ceylon. The country’s industry is divided into six distinct growing regions, all of which benefit from a climate and mountainous geography extremely well suited for quality leaf production (see fig. 2). The region is particularly well known for its black tea.

CHAI A spiced tea blend from India, where it is known as masala chai. Chai is the Hindi term for “tea,” while masala is the name for the drink’s blend of spices. Masala chai typically consists of four elements: tea, milk, spices, and sugar (or another type of sweetener). Black tea is the most commonly used leaf type, while frequently utilized spices include cardamom, cinnamon, and ginger.

C COFFEE CERTIFICATIONS

offee certifications and labels tell consumers about the farming practices used to produce a certain coffee. Producers are incentivized to take steps to become certified because of the opportunity to sell coffee at higher per-pound prices. In turn, buyers look to certified coffees because of the transparency associated with certifications, the opportunity for higher retail pricing, and the op-

portunity to support organizations prioritizing sustainable agricultural practices.

FAIR TRADE CERTIFIED There are three major certifiers of fair-trade products in the United States: Fair Trade USA, Fairtrade America (US member of Fairtrade International), and IMO Fair for Life. Collectively, these certifications work to help build an economy that supports a better life for farming families through market access for marginalized producers, sustainable and equitable trading relationships, and advocacy and consumer awareness. Coffee purchased from certified cooperatives must be at or above the Fair Trade Minimum Price as set by Fair Trade Labelling Organizations International (FLO).

RAINFOREST ALLIANCE The Rainforest Alliance (RFA) seal indicates that a farm has been audited to meet sustainability standards relating to environmental, social, and economic factors. To become certified, producers must meet criteria set by the Sustainable Agriculture Network (SAN), a coalition of conservation groups. SAN standards are built on principles of sustainable farming, including biodiversity conservation, improved livelihoods and human wellbeing, natural resource conservation, and effective planning and farm management systems.

Only 30 percent of a producer’s coffee beans must meet RFA conditions for the seal to be used on packaging. Audits are conducted on an annual basis by trained auditors, including teams of biologists and agronomists authorized and monitored by SAN.

sity, and enhances soil health. Coffee sold as certified organic in the United States must be produced under standards established by the USDA’s National Organic Program. Requirements of the organic seal include abstaining from any use of prohibited substances on the land for at least three years. Prohibited sub-

SMITHSONIAN BIRD FRIENDLY

stances include most synthetic pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers. Minor nonorganic ingredients used in processing must come from a list of approved substances, known as the “National List.” Both producers and buyers are subject to annual fees for inspection and certification.

Developed by ecologists at the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center (SMBC) to ensure tropical agroforests are preserved for migratory birds, this certification has the most robust shade and habitat standards of any certification. Criteria includes a canopy at least 12 meters high where the dominant species is native. The canopy must also consist of at least two strata layers of vegetation, include ten woody species dispersed throughout the production area, and still provide a minimum of 40 percent shade cover after pruning. The coffee must also be certified organic. Inspections take place every three years, coordinated with organic inspection.

USDA ORGANIC Organic is the most heavily regulated and closely monitored food system in the United States. The USDA Organic certification was put in place to create a verifiable sustainable agriculture system that produces food in harmony with nature, supports biodiver-

UTZ CERTIFIED Utz e m ph a s izes transparency and traceability in the supply chain, as well as improved economic performance through productivity and farm professionalism. Certification requires compliance with mandatory control points; the number required increases over a four-year period. Note: The Utz certification will merge with the Rainforest Alliance at the end of 2017. The merged organization will be called the Rainforest Alliance and will focus on issues in climate change, deforestation, poverty, and unsustainable farming. By creating a single certification, the two organizations hope to simplify the certification process for farmers and empower companies to build more responsible supply chains, more efficiently.

hile certification exists to support both producers and the environment, the steps required for inspection and verification can be cost prohibitive. Many producers farm under these practices, though their coffee does not bear any additional certification labeling. Roasters who actively maintain relationships with their producer partners can provide more information about the agricul-

tural practices associated with their offerings.

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CHAMOMILE–COFFEE BERRY BORER

COFFEE PROCESSING METHODS

CHAMOMILE A name for the liquid produced by infusing German chamomile (known by the scientific name Matricaria recutita). Though commonly referred to as chamomile tea, the drink is actually a tisane (66). The caffeine-free herb has daisy-like flowers, and many consider Egypt’s Nile River Valley to be home to the planet’s highestquality chamomile.

CHEMEX An hourglass-shaped pour-over brewer invented in 1941 by eccentric German chemist Dr. Peter Schlumbohm. The brewer comes in a range of sizes with either a wooden collar or glass handle (see fig. 5). A funneled top holds the filter, while the bottom half serves as a carafe.

CHLOROGENIC ACIDS Describes a group of acids, rather than an individual acid. Most of the organic acid in roasted coffee is comprised of chlorogenic acids, which contribute to perceived acidity in the cup. Degraded by roasting into caffeic and quinic acids, and phenols. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

CITRIC ACID Usually the second-most prevalent organic acid in roasted coffee. Citric acid is the same as that found in citrus fruit, and is associated with citrus flavor notes like orange and lemon. Contributes to perceived acidity in the cup, but can cause an unpleasant sour taste when present in high concentrations. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

CLEVER DRIPPER An immersion brewer (42) made by the Taiwanese company Absolutely Best Idea Development (Abid). Made of BPA-free plastic, the cone-shaped dripper looks like a pour-over brewer and uses a #4 Melitta filter, but brews like a french press (see fig. 5).

August 2017 » Café Encyclopedia

escribed in the simplest terms, for coffee to be roasted, everything from the coffee that isn’t a seed (or bean) must be removed. To do this, coffee is processed in one of three

basic ways. In the most commonly used method—the WASHED PROCESS— coffee berries are picked and collected, then sent through a pulper that removes the skin and fruit from the seeds. The seeds still have some pulp and mucilage on them, so they’re soaked in a fermentation tank for several hours, then rinsed and dried on a patio, raised bed, or mechanical dryer. This drying process can take anywhere from 24 hours (for the mechanical dryer) to several days (for the patio). After drying, the coffee is gathered for milling. The washed process uses a lot of water, both to move the coffee from step to step, and to—well, wash the coffee. In coffeegrowing regions where water is scarce, or there isn’t enough to spare for processing, a different, less water-exhaustive process is used: the natural process. In the NATURAL PROCESS, the coffee is picked, collected, sorted, and immediately placed on raised drying beds or patios. The skin and fruit dry out, becoming almost raisin like, and are then gathered for milling. In between these two ends of the processing spectrum are a host of small and large variations that fall under the general terms of SEMI-WASHED, HONEY, or PULPED NATURAL. Within this range of processing methods, coffees are pulped, dried, and then milled. How much they’re pulped, how long they’re dried, and the order that those things happen in all factor into the variability that these terms represent. No matter how the coffee is processed—washed, semi-washed, or natural—it needs to be milled at a dry mill to prepare the coffee for shipping to ports around the world. After processing, the coffee seeds are still inside a papery skin called parchment. This parchment is removed by hulling devices, then the coffee is sorted by size, density, and defects, and bagged in either 60-, 69-, or 70-kilogram bags. Once the coffee has shipped around the world and arrives at a coffee roaster, it’s ready to roast, but it had to pass through the caring hands of dozens of people to get there. They are why our coffee tastes great, and we owe every hand that touches our coffee our respect and gratitude.

—BY NATHANAEL MAY

IN THIS ARTICLE: DRY MILL, DRYING PATIO, FRUIT, HULLING, MECHANICAL DRYER, MUCILAGE, NATURAL PROCESS, PARCHMENT, PROCESSING METHODS, PULP, PULPED NATURAL, RAISED DRYING BEDS, SEMI-WASHED PROCESS, SKIN, WASHED PROCESS

The base is watertight, so grounds and water steep together for the length of the brew cycle. Setting the dripper on top of a cup engages a release mechanism, draining the brewed coffee.

COFFEA ARABICA The world’s most cultivated and consumed species of coffee. Coffea arabica accounts for approximately two-thirds of the globe’s coffee consumption and is prized for its quality, taste, and aroma. Less bitter and caffeine-filled than robusta, arabica has been harvested for centuries and, until the early twentieth century, was virtually the only type of commercially harvested coffee (see fig. 3).

COFFEA CANEPHORA Also known as robusta. Coffea canephora accounts for approximately 30 percent of the world’s coffee. It is a lower-growing, higher-bearing tree that produces full-bodied but bland coffee of inferior cup quality and higher caffeine content than Coffea arabica. Commonly used by commodity brands due to its lower price point and hearty yield. Instant coffee is also traditionally made from robusta (see fig. 3).

Coffee Berry Borer

COFFEE BERRY BORER Known by the scientific name Hypothenemus hampei and the nickname broca, this beetle is renowned for wreaking havoc on coffee trees around the world. The pest does its harm when the female lays eggs inside the coffee cherry; when these hatch, the larvae then consume the seeds from the inside, resulting in reduced output and diminished quality.

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COFFEE GRADING–COFFEE LEAF RUST

COFFEE GRADING The process of assessing the quality of green coffee. Most producing countries use a grading system to sort and categorize farmers’ output. The SCA, meanwhile, has its own defined method, which aims to offer roasters and importers a single green-coffee-rating system. The SCA grading paradigm consists of five levels: Specialty (the system’s top tier), followed by Premium, Exchange, Below Standard, and Off. A coffee’s grade is determined by the number of “defects” in a 300-gram sample—the defect count tallies how many of the beans are marked by visible impurities such as insect damage. To qualify as Specialty, Premium, or Exchange grade, a coffee must also have a moisture content level between 9 and 13 percent.

Coffee Pod

COFFEE POD Also called single-serve cups, or Kcups. Pre-ground coffee packaged into a small, (usually) plastic cup, intended for single use and an individual serving of coffee. Pods are designed to be compatible with certain automated brewing devices.

COFFEE LEAF RUST The most widespread and destructive plant disease affecting coffee. Often referred to as roya (Spanish for “rust”), the ailment causes distinctive yellow or orange spots on arabica leaves. Leaf rust is caused by a fungus, Hemileia vastatrix, that attacks coffee plant leaves and can cause premature defoliation.

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POUR-OVER BREWING

he beauty and terror of manual brewing is all that it exposes. A perfectly crafted pour-over, à la something you might find in the US Brewers Cup, showcases the remarkable intention and skill that exists in the coffee industry. On the other end of the spectrum, however, is a massive opportunity for error that manual brewing offers. It can expose a bad coffee, bad water, bad grinder or grind calibration, bad technique, bad equipment, and so much more. Allow me to elaborate. Pour-over coffee, a type of manual brewing, involves pouring hot water over ground coffee and through a filter. The water is introduced at a slow, consistent rate, extracting flavor compounds as it drains through the coffee bed. Unlike immersion methods, where the coffee steeps in water for a set amount of time, fresh water is replenished throughout the pour-over brewing process. Pour-over devices include the Chemex and V60. Regardless of the extraction method, the brewing variables, such as coffee quality, temperature, technique, and time, are similar and the result should be a cup of coffee that tastes much like what you’d make with a batch brewer. The difference is that the pour-over coffee is constructed with intention; the barista must not only make decisions, they must also execute, by hand, each aspect of brewing. With manual brewing, each variable and each step in the process is independently important. Optimally, coffee should be fresh, of high quality, and ground just before brewing. Water should be clean (no visible impurities and free of tastes like chlorine, metals, and minerals), and warmed to somewhere between 195 and 205 degrees Fahrenheit. The pouring technique requires focus, consistency, and control so that the water is in contact with the coffee for the optimal amount of time. Thus, there’s room for human error in each step. Whereas most batch machines have pre-set brew ratios, water temperatures, and infusion intervals, the barista needs to control these steps with robot-like precision. For example, pour too quickly and the coffee may be underextracted, with water passing through the coffee without enough time to properly extract flavor. The upside, however, is a terrific opportunity. It’s the opportunity to treat each coffee as its own product. After all, coffee is highly variable and no two batches are the same. Manually brewing allows a barista to make small changes that optimize extraction for the coffee at hand. For example, the water temperature for our SHB Guatemala can, and perhaps should, be different than the water temperature for our Panamanian gesha. It’s the opportunity to slow down and reflect—the coffee we’re about to brew started a life years ago, touched dozens of hands, and now will reach its end in your cup. It’s the opportunity for hospitality. A well-extracted espresso may take 30 seconds, but this process usually takes 2 to 6 minutes, allowing for much more interaction between a barista and a customer; a host and a guest. It’s the opportunity for the barista to showcase passion and skill and intelligence, all the years of training and practice that have led to this moment and this pour-over. Coffee is a craft, and pour-overs offer us a prime showcase. —BY BRIAN HELFRICH IN THIS ARTICLE: BATCH BREW, BREW RATIO, CHEMEX, EXTRACTION, GESHA, GRINDER, IMMERSION BREWING, MANUAL BREWING, POUR-OVER, V60

COFFEE SODA–CTC

COLOMBIA Coffee Soda

A coffee variety released in 1982 as a result of a breeding program from CENICAFE. The variety was developed from catimor parents to produce a plant with higher yields and disease resistance (see fig. 3). Considered to have poor cup quality.

COLOMBIA SUPREMO Supremo is a Colombian coffee grade which refers to coffee of screen size 17. Colombia Excelso is one grade smaller, and is categorized by screen sizes 15–16.

CONVENTIONAL COFFEE SODA Concentrated coffee that has been mixed with carbonation (usually mineral water). An espresso tonic is a variation on this beverage, combining espresso and tonic water.

COFFEE TASTER’S FLAVOR WHEEL Originally published in 1995 by the Specialty Coffee Association, the Flavor Wheel groups coffee flavor terms based on sensory science, and is commonly used today by cuppers to describe the coffee they buy and/ or sell. The wheel was updated in 2016 in collaboration with World Coffee Research and input from dozens of professional sensory panelists, scientists, coffee buyers, and roasting companies.

COLD BREW Any brewing method in which time replaces heat; grounds are steeped in cold water over many hours to create a concentrate (not all molecules in coffee dissolve in cold water, requiring a higher dose of coffee and resulting in a stronger brew). Because of the difference in what molecules are extracted, cold brewing is known for presenting a smooth and balanced cup.

Coffee that is not organic certified.

CONTACT TIME The length of time water and grounds interact during brewing or extraction. (See “Extraction Variables,” 59.)

CREMA The layer of coffee foam that sits at the top of a shot of espresso. It’s an expected by-product of the espresso extraction process, and the crema’s look and taste are often useful signs in determining the quality of extraction as well as of the coffee itself. The crema is created when water, forced through ground coffee at high pressure, interacts with carbon dioxide and oils present in the grounds.

CRUST During cupping, the layer of saturated grounds that rises to the top of the cup. A cupper first evaluates the aroma of the wet grounds, then breaks the layer of grounds with a spoon, evaluating the ensuing aroma before eventually scraping away the grounds and then moving on to the tasting process. (See “Cupping Coffee,” 30.)

CONTAINER Forty-foot long box that typically holds between 320 bags (59 kilograms each) and 300 bags (70 kilograms each). This corresponds to roughly 37,500 pounds of green coffee, which is the unit of trade for a single KC arabica coffee contract on the futures market.

Crust

COOPERATIVE Organization of agricultural producers where each member is part owner. Because all members own equal parts of the organization, the success of the group equally impacts every individual. Many coffee cooperatives run wet mills, dry mills, and have export licenses to function as the seller of coffee to final buyers.

CORTADO Also called a gibraltar. A shot of espresso served with an equal proportion of warm milk (heated to have little to no microfoam).

CTC The initialism referencing the crush-tear-curl processing method used to manufacture many commodity-level teas. CTC machines use rotary blades to mulch the leaf after it withers briefly. The tea is then rolled into small, uniform beads that are well suited for bags. It all adds up to a fast, full oxidation. The resulting brewed tea is

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CULTIVAR–DECAFFEINATION

consistently dark and strong, and the method allows the manufacturer to yield more cups per pound than with the orthodox method.

CULTIVAR A cultivated plant that has been selected for its desirable characteristics that distinguish it from other plants of the same species. A cultivar should have a name that conforms to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP, commonly called the “Cultivated Plant Code”). The name must be distinct from other cultivars and when propagated, the plant must retain its desirable and different characteristics. Samples of cultivars include caturra, mundo novo, and ruiru 11.

Cup of Excellence

CUP OF EXCELLENCE An annual event currently held in ten producing countries that relies on an international jury of expert coffee tasters to assess recently harvested, high-quality coffees. Samples that meet the Cup of Excellence scoring threshold are auctioned off online to international buyers. The program is administered by USbased Alliance for Coffee Excellence.

CUPPING The process used to assess coffee quality. Cupping is a structured tasting that proceeds within accepted guidelines. Dry grounds are first tested for fragrance, then steeped in hot water. After the wet fragrance is assessed, the foamy crust is scooped away with a spoon. The cupper slurps—or aspirates—the coffee

August 2017 » Café Encyclopedia

CUPPING COFFEE

hether it’s your first time cupping coffee or you have been at it for years, these are helpful guidelines to remember when approaching the table and inviting others to join you. Start by remembering why you’re at the cupping table. The purpose of cupping is to let the coffee speak for itself. Anything that distracts from that endeavor—perfume, cigarette smoke, or talking about impressions before others have had the chance to smell and taste—is frowned upon. Even if it isn’t a super-serious tasting, I always think of it as showing respect to the producer and your fellow cuppers. Additionally, we encourage some common housekeeping rules to make it easier for cuppers to focus on the coffee instead of bumping into one another: (1) everyone moves from left to right (i.e. counterclockwise), (2) cupping bowls are left on the table, not picked up, and (3) at least two samples of each coffee are available for everyone to taste. The standards for cupping are designed to create a consistent and controlled environment in which we can accurately assess coffees, regardless of where we are in the world. The SCA website is an excellent resource for detailed standards and best practices. Generally, I find it helpful to think about the cupping process as consisting of six major steps. Cuppers will go around the table (from left to right) and evaluate at each step. 1. FRAGRANCE. Cuppers smell the dry grounds. Many defects can be detected here first. 2. AROMA. Once water is added to the dry grounds, cuppers evaluate smell again. When coffee starts brewing, it gives off a totally different set of aromatic compounds than its fragrance. 3. BREAK. Cuppers break the crust—which forms naturally and traps a burst of very volatile and delicate aromatics—and immerse their noses in the resulting cloud of aromas. This moment gives cuppers a deep, albeit fleeting, glance at what the coffee has to offer. 4. SKIM. The foam that is created from cupping is part of the brew, but doesn’t tell us very much about the coffee (nor does it taste very good)—the foam actually masks the flavor of the coffee below. Cuppers skim it off to get to the coffee underneath. 5. SLURP. Forget your manners, we’re here to slurp. When we taste coffee, we use a spoon and try to “vacuum” the coffee off the spoon as loudly as possible. Slurping does a few things: • Sprays the coffee across all nerve endings, not just our taste buds. • Vaporizes the coffee so we not only taste, but we smell it, which leads to . . . • Retronasal olfaction: Besides being fun to say, slurping a coffee engages our sense of smell (olfaction) backwards, as aromas pass through the nose on their way out, hence the name “retronasal.” This type of smelling better accesses long term memory and allows the flavor to stick with us longer. 6. SLURP AGAIN. Tasting coffee at different temperatures is key. As the coffee gets closer to the temperature of your mouth, sensitivity will increase and different flavors will present themselves.* It’s why cheap beer tastes great when it’s ice cold and crappy coffee tastes better piping hot—our palate can’t tell the difference. A great coffee should taste better and better as it cools. Cupping is one of the most unique things we, as coffee professionals, get to do. It can be lighthearted or extremely serious. As long as we’re intent on honoring the hands that prepared it, we’re on the right track. —BY MICHAEL RYAN IN THIS ARTICLE: AROMA, CUPPING, CRUST, FRAGRANCE, RETRONASAL OLFACTION * Sweetness is more perceptible at warmer temperatures—to a point—while acidity is more present at cooler temperatures. A great example is two cans of soda. One pantry temperature and one refrigerated. The refrigerated soda tastes refreshing and the acidity is more present while sweetness is not overpowering. The same product kept in the pantry will taste overly sweet and lack the crispness that existed in the cool can. Both cans are the same recipe but temperature drastically changes the intensity of acidity or sweetness.

energetically over the entire tongue, aiming to bring the furthest reaches of the palate into the tasting process (including the nasal passages, which are sensitive to the aromatic compounds released by coffee). (See “Cupping Coffee,” opposite page.)

CUSTOMS Control point for all commercial goods crossing international borders. Customs officials review documents and cargo to ensure that both correspond to each other and are compliant with national laws.

Darjeeling

DARJEELING A tea-producing region in West Bengal, India (see fig. 2). Though white, green, and oolong teas grow in Darjeeling, the area is best known for its black teas. The highest-quality Darjeelings are usually produced during the first plucking period, or flush, occurring in February and March, and second flush in June and July. These time periods are the first two of the four annual harvests in the area. Darjeeling teas are known for possessing a floral aroma and a spicy flavor known as muscatel.

DECAF Coffee or tea that has undergone a process to eliminate most—but not all—of the drink’s caffeine content.

DECAFFEINATION Process to remove caffeine from coffee or tea. In coffee, decaffeination occurs after the beans are processed and sorted for market, but before roasting. Beans are first soaked in water, then an additive is used to extract caffeine. There are four widely used decaf methods for coffee: water process; ethyl acetate; carbon dioxide; and methylene chloride.

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DEFECT–DOSER

DEFECT Describes green coffee that has developed problems resulting in bad flavor. Bad seeds in the green coffee sample are termed defects, and scored against the coffee to determine its grade.

BUILDING AN ESPRESSO RECIPE

DELIVERY PERIOD The period of time (days, months, years) agreed between the seller and buyer of the coffee for the product to be delivered. Small orders of less than ten bags are usually released to the roaster all in one shipment, but large orders can be released and shipped incrementally to a roaster’s facility. If coffee is kept in a customer’s name longer than the original delivery period identified in the initial green coffee sales contract, then carry charges will appear as a separate line item on the invoice. (See “Supply Chain 101,” 44.)

DEGASSING Also called outgassing, or offgassing. The release of gases, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2) from roasted coffee. (See “ Extraction Variables,” 59.)

DEMUCILAGINATION Removal of the fruity layer of the coffee cherry between the outer skin and pulp, and the parchment layer surrounding the seed (see fig. 6). Mucilage is broken down by water in a fermentation tank (wet process), or mechanically by a demucilager. (See “Coffee Processing Methods,” 26.)

DEVELOPMENT ROAST See profile roast.

DIRECT TRADE A phrase many quality-focused roasting companies use to describe their coffee-buying processes. Direct trade has no specific criteria attached to it; however, the concept generally involves one buyer and one farmer (or group of small farmers) working directly to negotiate a

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ROAST: Keep in mind that (in general) darker-roasted and older coffee is much more permeable (i.e. water passes through more quickly) than a lighter-roast coffee. This will affect necessary temperature and grind size settings. DOSE: Choose coffee dose depending on how much espresso you want to have in the cup. Dose will depend on the ratio you select for a particular coffee, as well as the density of the coffee itself. Density of the coffee can make it fill up more or less of the basket, therefore less dense coffees may require a lighter dose in order to fill the basket to the same amount as a higher dose, denser coffee. There are also many reasons to alter dose when “dialing.” For example, the barista might want to tighten or loosen a ratio, but maintain the same output to have a consistent weight or volume of espresso. RATIO: A good ratio to start with is 1:2 (grounds input to espresso output). This means that if you put 17 grams of ground coffee in the portafilter, you will get 34 grams of espresso (due to the water retained by the espresso puck, this may require an input of greater than thirty-four grams of water to achieve the equivalent output). How strong or weak do you want the coffee? Adjust ratio according to strength preference. Less water will mean heavier body and higher concentration. More water will mean less body (perhaps a silkier texture) and decreased concentration. GRIND SIZE: Increasing or decreasing grind size means increasing or decreasing the surface area of coffee, thus influencing how quickly particles interact with water. This can also mean changes in flow rate—if shots are moving too quickly and underextracted (tasting watery) you need to tighten up the grind size. If shots are pulling slowly and tasting sour, you should coarsen the grind size. Shots that pull slowly may also be quite bitter. CONTACT TIME: The amount of time spent brewing will directly affect extraction yield. Increasing or decreasing contact time will increase or lower extraction yield, resulting in different flavors from the bean. TEMPERATURE: One can generally stick with the same temperature after dialing in a coffee on espresso. A good rule is to only change temperature when using a different variety or roast level. PRE- OR POST-INFUSION: Utilizing a pre- or post-infusion function lengthens contact time between grounds and water by adding water at a lower pressure, typically around 3 bars—much less than the standard 9. Keep in mind that the “best espresso” is the one you like best. Use these variables as tools to “dial in” the perfect recipe for your shop and customers. —BY JENNIFER HAARE IN THIS ARTICLE: CONTACT TIME, DOSE, FLOW RATE, RATIO, ROAST LEVEL, PORTAFILTER

fair price, which is often above the market price for green coffee.

DISTRIBUTION TOOL A tool used to evenly distributed grounds within a portafilter, creating a puck of even density.

DISTRIBUTOR Importers are often referred to as green coffee distributors. Wholesale roasters are often distributors of their own coffee. For higher volume grocery and HORECA (hotel, restaurant, and café) accounts, a wholesale roaster may use a third-party distributor to deliver coffee. (See “Supply Chain 101,” 44.)

Dooars

DOOARS A small, lush region of northeast India where tea is grown in the nitrate-rich soil of the Himalayan foothills. Dooars is a low-elevation growing area (similar to neighboring Assam) known for fullbodied black teas that typically deliver less character than those from Assam.

DOPPIO See espresso.

DOSE The amount of coffee used in brewing or extraction. (See “Building an Espresso Recipe,” opposite page.)

DOSER A mechanism of a burr grinder (usually a front attachment), used to transfer coffee into an espresso portafilter basket. Ground coffee is released from the doser by the pull of a lever.

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DOSERLESS GRINDER–DRYING PATIO FIGURE 4

TEA TYPES & PROCESSING METHODS FRESH LEAF

TEA TYPE WITHERING

Reducing the moisture content of the fresh leaves.

GREEN

WHITE

Chinese: 2–4 hrs Japanese: 30–60 mins (if withered at all)

Breaking down the cell walls of the leaves in order to faciliate oxidation.

OXIDATION

Chemical changes in the leaf that greatly affect flavor, strength, and color of the tea.

Process used to shut down the enzymes causing oxidation.

Pan Frying or Firing

Steaming

SHAPING

DRYING

Removal of unwanted moisture left in the tea leaves.

Baking

Rolling

Forming the leaf into a specific shape.

PU-ERH

Tossing or Tumbling

Rolling

Partial Oxidation

Full Oxidation

Pan Frying or Firing

Baking

Pan Frying

Rolling

Forming

Drying

BLACK

INDOOR or OUTDOOR (time and method vary widely by tea type and origin.)

BRUISING

FIXATION

OOLONG

Light Rolling

Drying

Ball Rolling

Drying

Shaping

Rolling

Drying

FINISHING

Final stage of the tea production process.

DOSERLESS GRINDER See grinder.

DRAFT LATTE A coffee-and-milk beverage that is kegged and served from a tap.

DRAGONWELL One of the most renowned green teas of China, prized for its nutty flavor with overtones of grass, beans, and orchids. Dragonwell— officially known as Xihu Longjing— is traditionally grown and manufactured around the picturesque town of Longjing, near the historic city of Hongzhou.

DRAYAGE Moving coffee from the port to the warehouse. This cost is absorbed by importers. All US ports are

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Pressed

Roasting

strictly regulated by unions, and each container of coffee and bag in the container incurs a fee every time it changes location. (See “Supply Chain 101,” 44.)

DRUM ROASTER A roaster with a rotating drum, positioned horizontally, which rotates over the heating element (usually powered by gas or electricity). Green coffee enters that central chamber through a hopper, and the beans are kept in motion inside the drum via paddles or other devices. Heated air enters the drum, cooking the beans until the user ends the roast and mechanically transfers the coffee to an attached cooling bin. Here, another set of paddles continues to rotate the coffee, allowing it to cool evenly to room temperature.

Wet Piling

DRY MILL A facility that accepts dried coffee cherry and mechanically separates the coffee bean from the dried fruit and parchment layer (or endocarp, see fig. 6). Hulling machinery removes the parchment layer from wet processed coffee. Hulling dry processed coffee refers to removing the entire dried husk (exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp) of the dried cherries. (See “Coffee Processing Methods,” 26.)

DRYING A step in tea processing where unwanted moisture is removed from tea leaves, usually by hot air (see fig. 4).

DRYING PATIO A tool used to dry coffee in many producing countries, particularly those in Latin America. Immediately

EARL GREY–F1 HYBRID

after cherries are harvested and put through any initial processing stages, they are spread across concrete or cement patios so they can be dried in the sun over time. Throughout the day, plantation, or co-op workers will push the drying coffee into rows or piles to help ensure that the beans dry consistently. Washed coffees remain on the patio for around seven days, pulped naturals for eight to nine days and naturals for roughly two weeks. (See “Coffee Processing Methods,” 26.)

Earl Grey’s Bergamot Orange

EARL GREY Black tea blended with a potent oil extracted from the rind of the bergamot orange, resulting in a pronounced aroma that is citrusy and almost floral. The blend was named after Charles Grey, British Prime Minister in the 1830s, who is said to have received it as a gift, and modern varieties include additions of lavender, lemongrass, and jasmine.

ELEVATION A measurement of the vertical distance between an object and global sea level. Often expressed in meters above sea level and used to describe where a coffee is grown; cf. altitude.

ESPRESSO A quintessential coffee term that refers to the concentrated liquid resulting from pushing hot water at high pressure through a puck of finely ground coffee. The SCA defines a single shot of espresso as a 25- to 35-gram beverage made from 7 to 9 grams of coffee, pulled with water between 195 and 205 degrees Fahrenheit at 9 to 10 bars of pressure for 20 to 30 seconds. The term doppio, Italian for “double,” describes a double shot of espresso.

ESPRESSO MACHINE A machine used to generate heat and pressure necessary to push hot water through finely ground coffee

contained by a portafilter. Machine types include: (1) thermoblock machines, which contain a single unit used to first heat water, then generate steam for milk, (2) heat exchange machines, which use a single boiler to generate steam, as well as a tube system to pass fresh water under the boiler to be heated for brewing, and (3) dual boiler machines, which prepare steam and brewing water in separate boilers.

ESTATE A venue, usually privately owned, where tea is grown. Synonyms include farm, garden, and plantation. Tea-producing estates typically grow their tea and process it in a factory on the grounds. The main alternative to an estate tea is a blended tea, which is usually a combination of leaves from different gardens.

EXPORTER Registered with national government to sell goods internationally; responsible for paying all fees and

complying with all phytosanitary regulations in country of export and import. Producer/estate owner can be an exporter, as well as a dry mill, co-op, or business who exclusively buys green coffee to resell to roasters or importers. Exporters follow shipping instructions to deliver coffee to port. (See “Supply Chain 101,” 44.)

EXTRACTION Removal of mass from coffee grounds by infusing coffee with hot water. Hot water releases or “extracts” the flavor from the roasted, ground coffee. (See “Extraction Variables,” 59.)

EXTRACTION YIELD Communicated as a percentage; refers to the amount of solubles extracted from the initial dose of coffee. (See “Extraction Variables,” 59.)

F1 HYBRID A new group of varieties developed by World Coffee Research, created by

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FAIR TRADE CERTIFICATION–FLOW RATE

UNDERSTANDING FAIR TRADE

crossing genetically distinct arabica parents and using the first-generation offspring. (See “F1 Hybrids,” 70.)

FAIR TRADE CERTIFICATION An international certification system working to help build an economy that supports a better life for farming families through market access for marginalized producers, sustainable and equitable trading relationships, and advocacy and consumer awareness. Coffee purchased from certified cooperatives must be at or above the Fair Trade Minimum Price as set by Fair Trade Labelling Organizations International (FLO). (See “Coffee Certifications,” 25, and “Understanding Fair Trade,” right.)

FANNINGS A grade of black tea that denotes small pieces of leaf created during manufacture, ideal for use in tea bags. Fannings are bigger than the smallest particle size—known as dust—but are not large enough to be considered broken or to be included in loose-leaf offerings.

FERMENTATION Scientifically speaking, fermentation is the way microbes such as yeast and bacteria derive energy; it’s a metabolic process where sugar is converted into CO2 and ethanol, among other products. However, the term is also used to describe the processing step where demucilagination occurs in a tank of water. Organisms in the water—including yeasts, bacteria, fungus, and mold—consume the fruit sugars of the mucilage, breaking it away from the coffee seed so it can be more easily separated. The water is an important source for microbial populations, but many microbes are also coming into the mill on the skin of the fruit (and human skin), and can be transferred to the equipment in a

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air trade helps farmers and workers in developing and leastdeveloped countries access better trading terms for sustainably produced products. While there are a variety of approaches to fair trade, most share common principles, including: • Market access for marginalized producers • Sustainable and equitable trading relationships • Advocacy and consumer awareness Certification of products covers the supply chain from farmers’ and workers’ organizations to importers and brands. The first certified products landed on store shelves in 1988 when coffee farmers in Mexico banded together and partnered with buyers in the Netherlands to launch the Max Havelaar label. This spurred the launch of a number of fair trade labelling groups that united to establish Fairtrade International in 1997 to harmonize standards and certification worldwide. In the US, there are three major certifiers of fair trade products: • Fairtrade America (FLO) is the US member of Fairtrade International. Products carrying the Fairtrade label meet internationally agreed upon Fairtrade standards from the producer level to the final product. • Fair Trade USA (FTUSA) licenses the most recognized fair trade label in the United States and primarily focuses on product and trader certification. • IMO Fair for Life is owned by ECOCERT, an organic certifier, and offers a fair trade product certification and a social responsibility certification. For more information on the different approaches to fair trade certification, visit fairworldproject.org. —BY KYLE FREUND IN THIS ARTICLE: FAIR TRADE CERTIFICATION, IMPORTERS, SUPPLY CHAIN

mill. This process produces acids, as well as esters and aldehydes, which will later add complexity, flavor, and depth to a coffee. Demucilagination ends when the mucilage is removed from the skin; however, fermentation ends when there is no more food (sugar/acids) to be consumed by microbes. This can go on for hours or days past the point where the mucilage has been removed.

FERMENTATION TANK A large basin used to contain pulped coffee cherries for the purpose of removing mucilage. The tank may be full of water, or empty, as is done in a dry fermentation method.

FINISH The impression as coffee leaves the palate. Similar to aftertaste, which describes the sensations gathered after the coffee has left the mouth.

FINISHING Final stage of the tea production process. May include roasting of the tea leaves, pressing, or wet piling (see fig. 4).

FIRING The stage of tea manufacturing in which oxidation of the leaf is arrested by heat, usually supplied by burning coal (see fig. 4).

FIRST CRACK First crack is a sound but also an event, the moment when the surface of a roasting bean cracks as a result of pressure build up—around 385 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit in a conventional drum roaster—as water vapor and carbon dioxide from inside the bean force their way out. Other gases trapped in cells expand, puffing the bean like popcorn. The bean loses mass and moisture but gains its characteristic aroma. (See "Roast Profile," 63.)

FIRST FLUSH The first picking season, considered to be the time when the highest quality tea leaves are collected. First flush occurs between February and May. Some teas—Darjeeling, for example—are identified by the flush during which they’re harvested.

FLASH-CHILLED Describes how a hot-brewed liquid is quickly brought down to a cool temperature for bottling or kegging purposes, while preserving optimal freshness and flavor. A typical method for flash-chilling includes commercial plate chillers that were created for chilling the wort in the beer industry. The hot brew method also pasteurizes the beverage prior to flash-chilling making it safer to consumers.

FLAT WHITE An espresso-based beverage originating from Australia (or New Zealand, arguably). The drink typically* combines a double shot of espresso with hot milk, and very little foam, and tops out around 5.5 ounces—all served in a ceramic cappuccino cup.

Flow Rate

FLOW RATE Describes the rate at which water passes through coffee. (See “Extraction Variables,” 59.) *This definition was taken from the Sprudge team, who conducted a survey of more than 2,000 Australians and New Zealanders in an attempt to sort out the true definition of an “Antipodean Flat White.”

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FLUID BED ROASTER–FREE ON BOARD

FLUID-BED ROASTER Also known as air roasting, this technology for roasting coffee was patented in 1976 by chemical engineer Michael Sivetz. The fluidbed roaster forces a column of hot air through a screen, tumbling and heating the beans. Fluid-bed roasting is common in the home market—popcorn poppers employ the technology—and several manufacturers have created small fluid-bed roasters for home use.

FLY CROP A second, smaller harvest taking place after the main harvest; a term used primarily to describe harvests in Kenya.

FOOD SAFETY MODERNIZATION ACT (FSMA) An act signed in 2011 by President Obama, seeking to mitigate risk to human health caused by adulteration of food during processing. Compliance requires documentation of risk-reducing strategies by food processors—including coffee roasters— ultimately designed to prevent food contamination through new rules for preventive controls, foreign supplier verification, sanitary transportation, food defense, and renewed FDA enforcement authority. (See “Food Safety Modernization Act,” right.)

FRAGRANCE The scent of coffee. Used to describe the initial cupping step in which dry grounds are assessed for smell. Different than aroma, which also encompasses flavor and mouthfeel. (See “Cupping Coffee,” 30.)

FREE ON BOARD (FOB) The price of green coffee at the time it is ready for export. This includes the value of the green coffee itself plus taxes or other tariffs at origin

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FOOD SAFETY MODERNIZATION ACT

he Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) seeks to mitigate risk to human health caused by adulteration of food during processing. Signed in 2011 by President Obama, the act requires documentation of risk-reducing strategies by food processors—including coffee roasters—ultimately designed to prevent food contamination through new rules for preventive controls, foreign supplier verification, sanitary transportation, food defense, and renewed FDA enforcement authority. For some roasteries, compliance is simply a matter of ensuring proper documentation of safety precautions and quality assurance testing already in place; for others, more extensive measures are required to become compliant. The FSMA went into effect in May 2017. WHY IS IT IMPORTANT FOR ROASTERS TO BE FSMA COMPLIANT? Noncompliance with the FSMA guidelines can result in revoked facility registrations, fines, product recalls, and denial of import permits. Non-compliance may also be indicative of weak processes, and indicate the need for more thorough review of basic manufacturing practices. WHAT ARE THE POTENTIAL HAZARDS FOR GREEN COFFEE? Potential hazards for green coffee can occur from microbiological hazards, chemical hazards from pesticide residues, the incorporation of foreign matter, exposure to allergens, and contamination from packaging. All these hazards can have negative effects on human health, but can be mitigated by improved practices throughout the production chain. WHAT CAN ROASTERS DO TO BECOME FSMA COMPLIANT? • Evaluate hazards: Conduct an assessment to identify areas of vulnerability and actionable process steps. For roasters, this can be done largely through literature studies and a review of supply chain transactions. • Create preventive controls: Mitigation strategies should be identified and implemented at each actionable process step to assure minimization or prevention of vulnerabilities. • Validate preventive controls: Validate that preventive controls work, through literature studies or lab tests (importer may be able to provide these). • Monitor preventive controls: Monitor data on preventive controls through lab testing; check that hazards are eliminated through preventive controls. • Verify if preventive control is effective: Verify on a yearly basis if preventive controls are effective or require corrective action. WHERE IS A GOOD STARTING POINT? Before jumping into FSMA documentation, start with an assessment of your general manufacturing practices (in jargon-y terms, a gap analysis). This process will help you assess the areas of your business that are foundational to a hazard prevention plan—hygiene, structural elements, etc. A gap analysis can then serve as a launch point to build your HACCP plan (hazard analysis and critical control points). These steps are good for hashing out your internal processes and paving the way for future scaling. They also put you well on your way to being FSMA compliant. CAN I PREPARE MY OWN PAPERWORK? FSMA plans should be prepared by a trained Preventive Controls Lead Instructor, or PCQI. This certification can be obtained through FDA-certified training, usually in a two-day course. TAKE-HOME MESSAGE: If it’s not documented, it didn’t happen. Start with simple steps that can easily be evaluated for efficacy, then build from there. IN THIS ARTICLE: FOOD SAFETY MODERNIZATION ACT, GREEN COFFEE, SUPPLY CHAIN

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FREE ON TRUCK–GAIWAN

FRESHNESS A period of time when coffee’s complex flavor is preserved. Green coffee is considered fresh for many months, and roasted coffee is considered fresh up to a week or two, depending on the way it is stored. (See “Maintaining Freshness,” 56.)

Gaiwan

FRUIT See pulp.

FRUIT ACIDS Acids present in coffee that contribute fruity and floral aromas to the cup (this is perceived acidity). In high concentrations, they can taste sour and unappealing. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

FRYING

(such as contributions to national coffee funds/boards). Export fees (cost of stuffing a container and transporting coffee from the mill to the port) are included in the FOB price and all responsibility and liability is with the exporter’s account until the container with the coffee is loaded to the vessel at the port of origin where the coffee will ship from. (See “Supply Chain 101,” 44.)

FREE ON TRUCK (FOT) The price of green coffee when it leaves the warehouse for delivery to a roaster. FOT price is the total of FOB plus import costs, which include ocean freight, insurance, customs clearance, taxes, and warehouse in-loading, storage, and load out charges. Responsibility and liability for the coffee is transferred when coffee is loaded into the truck to the buyer (roaster). (See “Supply Chain 101,” 44.)

FREIGHT BROKER A person who, for compensation, arranges, or offers to arrange, the

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transportation of coffee by an authorized motor carrier.

FRENCH MISSION BOURBON Bourbon varieties brought to Africa from the island of Reunion by French missionaries in 1897. The variety first appeared in Tanzania, then in Kenya (see fig. 3).

FRENCH PRESS Also known as a cafetiere. The precise origin of the device is unclear, but date back as early as the 1850s in France. The first official patent was filed in 1929 by Italian designer Attilio Calimani. The press is an immersion brewer featuring a metal filter attached to a rod, which is then pressed through the cylinder (see fig. 5) usually made of glass. The french press is known for producing a richer brew, as the coffee’s essential oils stay in the brew. Because of the longer contact time with water, a coarse grind is recommended.

A step in tea processing used to arrest oxidation. Frying subjects tea leaves to high heat through handtossing in a wok, or roasting them in an iron pan.

FUJIAN A coastal province in southeastern China, across the Formosa Strait from Taiwan, that is among the world’s most prolific tea-growing regions (see fig. 2). The area enjoys a subtropical climate and mountainous, heavily forested landscape that has allowed Fujian (pronounced foo-gee-ahn) tea makers in different subregions to create marvelous teas in a range of categories.

FURANS A class of aromatics that are abundant in coffee and contribute caramel-like aromas from the sugars broken down by the heat of roasting. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

GAIWAN A simple, porcelain lidded bowl used for preparing and serving tea. Leaves are brewed in the bowl, then the lid is used to strain the liquid.

GENMAICHA–GRINDER

GENMAICHA Japanese green tea that combines tea leaves with roasted brown rice. Genmaicha translates to brown rice tea, and is often described as having a nutty, savory taste, which is partly generated by the presence of the brown rice.

Gongfu Tea Ceremony

GESHA Also seen as geisha. An Ethiopian cultivar with unique cup character. Rose to prominence after the Peterson family grew a lot at Hacienda La Esmeralda in Boquete, Panama. The distinct coffee has drawn record bids at auction.

GIBRALTAR See cortado.

GONGFU TEA CEREMONY An ancient ritual designed for preparing tea in a very precise and ceremonial way before presenting it to guests. Also known as the kung-fu tea ceremony, the ritual—which began in China—entails using a small pot to brew tea quickly at a high temperature, then consuming it in small cups.

GRAVIMETRIC SYSTEM A system in which output is determined by weight; refers to an espresso machine with a built-in scale which weighs extracted liquid as it flows into a vessel. Different from a volumetric system, which determines output by volume.

GRAINPRO BAG A multi-layer, penetration-resistant plastic bag used for green coffee storage. Considered superior to jute or burlap bags for its ability to extend the flavor life of coffee. (See “Supply Chain 101,” 44.)

GREEN COFFEE The dried seed of coffee fruit (from the flowering Coffea shrub) and the form of coffee before it is

roasted. Also the traditional coffee form for export.

GREEN COFFEE BUYER A person who oversees the acquisition of green coffee on behalf of a roaster. The green coffee buyer serves as a gatekeeper to quality and must have a thorough understanding of the supply chain. Through a vast array of relationships and partnerships on all sides of business, the buyer manages supply, quality, cost of goods, risk, inventory, cash flow, and sustainability. (See “Supply Chain 101,” 44.)

GREEN TEA Grown mainly in China and Japan, green tea is the most consumed tea type in Asia. Green tea undergoes a steaming or firing process soon after harvest, which “fixes” the

leaves and largely prevents oxidation from occurring. This preserves the green color and ensures a freshtasting leaf, leading some tasters to refer to the green variety as tea in its most natural form (see fig. 4).

GRINDER Device used to pulverize roasted coffee. Blade grinders use a metal blade and a chopping action, while burr grinders push coffee between two grinding surfaces (the burrs) to crush roasted coffee seeds into grounds. The grinding elements of burr grinders, also called burr mills, come in two varieties: conical or flat. Grinders can come with a dosing element or be doserless. A doser (33) typically attaches to the front of a burr grinder, where coffee grounds gather before being pushed into the portafilter by

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GROUPHEAD–KALDI

a lever mechanism. A doserless grinder ejects its grounds directly through a chute, rather than into a doser.

Honeybush

GROUPHEAD/GROUP HEAD Also referred to as brew group, brewhead, or group. The fixture protruding from the front of most espresso machines into which the portafilter and filter clamp. The group showers pressurized hot water through a diffusion plate over the bed of freshly ground and tamped espresso.

GUNPOWDER TEA A Chinese green tea in which the leaf is tightly rolled to resemble a pellet. Called zhucha (pearl tea) in Zhejiang province where it originated, gunpowder is known as a strong green tea with slight vegetal notes.

HIGH GROWN Synonymous with hard bean (HB), high grown (HG) refers to coffee grown at altitudes of about 4,000–4,500 feet above sea level. Coffee grown at high altitudes

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matures slowly and tends to be more dense than coffee grown at lower elevations.

HONEY PROCESS A drying process where the skin and pulp (see fig. 6) of the coffee cherry are removed, but some or all of the mucilage remains. (See “Coffee Processing Methods,” 26.)

HONEYBUSH A honey-smelling tisane that grows wild in the southwest of South Africa’s Eastern Cape.

HULLING A process of removing the parchment layer (see fig. 6) from dried coffee beans. (See “Coffee Processing Methods,” 26.)

HYBRID VIGOR See heterosis.

IMMERSION BREWING Brew methods, such as the Clever or french press, where coffee steeps in water for a set amount of time (see fig. 5).

IMPORTER The link between green coffees and roasters. Their job is to source coffee from coffee-growing regions, import the coffees to their own country, and sell them to roasters. (See "Logistics & Warehousing," 49).

INFUSION Tasting term for tea liquor (52), but also denoting the infused leaf.

INORGANIC ACID Also known as mineral acids; acids derived from minerals that don't contain carbon; generally very soluble in water. In coffee, phosphoric

acid (57), is the inorganic acid most commonly discussed (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

JAPANESE-STYLE ICED COFFEE A brew method in which hot coffee is brewed directly onto ice, typically using a manual brew device, such as a Chemex (see fig. 5). Japanese-style iced coffee exhibits a more dynamic flavor profile than cold-brew coffee because aromatic compounds and solubles are extracted with the hotter water; cf, cold brew.

JASMINE TEA Typically green tea (though sometimes black tea) scented with jasmine buds or freshly cut jasmine flowers.

JUTE BAG A bag made out of a shiny vegetable (jute) fiber used widely by the coffee industry to ship green coffee around the world. Jute is the name of the plant used to make burlap.

Kaldi

KALDI According to legend, Kaldi is the Ethiopian goat herder that first discovered the potential of coffee. The story goes that Kaldi noticed that his goats became energetic after eating berries from a certain tree. He reported his findings to the abbot of the local monastery who made a drink with the berries and found that it kept him alert throughout the evening.

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PH OTO BY C HRISTIAN JO UDREY

SUPPLY CHAIN 101

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SUPPLY CHAIN 101

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SUPPLY CHAIN 101 (cont.)

TO P PHOTO BY ELLIE BRADLEY; BOT TOM P HOTO BY TIM WRIGHT

icture the verdant slopes of Latin America or the rolling hillsides of East Africa, where pickup trucks bounce along barely there roads en route to row upon row of coffee trees bearing red, ripening fruit. Then picture your neighborhood roastery café, where the roastmaster carefully turns the green coffee into a consumable product, followed by a barista painstakingly crafting a delicious pour-over drink. These two locales—where coffee begins as a plant and where it finishes as a drink—are about as disparate as two places can be, both in their geographical distance and in their look and feel. As such, it can boggle the mind to ponder how coffee gets from one setting to the other. While coffee’s seed-to-cup journey is indeed a long one, it’s a wellhoned process full of logistics, paperwork, and maybe a little romance. For a perspective seated in the center of the action, let’s view this journey from the perspective of the coffee importer, who serves as the middleman coordinating all links in the chain to enable coffee’s path to its destination. For our example seed-to-cup journey, let’s say that Local Roaster in Oakland, California, is using Bean Importer to purchase a coffee from Coffee Cooperative in Colombia’s Valle del Cauca Department.

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SUPPLY CHAIN 101 (cont.)

Contract

STEP 1: THE CONTRACT While a coffee transaction ostensibly starts with the coffee on the tree—there would be no transaction without the raw product—it actually begins with a contract. Local Roaster will tell Bean Importer it wants to purchase a container of coffee (about in Colombia, typically 250 154-pound bags) from Coffee Cooperative. The importer then sends a contract to the cooperative stipulating the expected delivery time of the coffee and providing shipping instructions to the preferred port of Local Roaster. The contract should also stipulate price. Typically the arrangements for contracted coffee will happen several months before shipment: since coffee from Valle del Cauca will be ready to ship around May, this contract may be finalized around January. Another important element of that contract will be the quality stipulation, with Local Roaster asking for coffee hitting a certain quality target tied to the Specialty Coffee Association’s 100-point scale—for example,

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a minimum of 84. Contract quality specs can also include screen size, altitude (strictly hard bean [SHB], high grown [HG]), and defect count.

ual level rather than at communal cherry-collecting stations. Farmers will return from harvesting, process their cherries, and bring the coffee in parchment—the protective covering that helps preserve the bean—to Coffee Cooperative’s purchase point. The co-op will keep track of how much parchment it has amassed from its members, and will cup samples of each coffee to assess its quality. Knowing that it has a container’s worth of 84-pointminimum coffee to fill, the co-op will set aside coffee of this quality to build the lot. Once Coffee Cooperative has amassed enough coffee to meet the contract, it will send a sample via airmail to Bean Importer. This is called the “pre-ship sample,” and without its approval, Coffee Cooperative will not ship the coffee to its final destination. In this evaluation, Bean Importer will cup the coffee to ensure it scores at 84 or above. Fortunately, Coffee Cooperative trains its members rigidly on best agricultural practices at the farm level and follows strict quality-control

Contract quality specs can include screen size, altitude (strictly hard bean [SHB], high grown [HG]), and defect count. For micro-lots, the contract specifies a coffee’s assigned lot name and unique identifying number. For micro-lots, the contract specifies a coffee’s assigned lot name and unique identifying number.

protocols, so its coffee passes the approval process: Bean Importer cups the coffee at 85.

STEP 2: SECURING THE COFFEE With the contract in place, Coffee Cooperative will then go about gathering enough coffee to fulfill the order. In Colombia, wet milling and washing happen at an individ-

STEP 3: READYING THE COFFEE FOR SHIPPING With the sample approved, Coffee Cooperative will now prepare the coffee to be exported. The parchment needs to come off for the coffee to be

L&W exported, and a great deal of volume will be lost in the process—typically about 20 percent loss of weight. It may take 300 pounds of coffee in parchment to yield 250 pounds of exportable coffee (provided that all 300 pounds in parchment are confirmed 84-point, or otherwise compliant with specs). Coffee Cooperative will transport bags of parchment from warehouse locations to dry milling facilities, and the coffee will be dry-milled upon arrival. Removing the protective shell that the parchment provides essentially starts the clock on quality deterioration, so once the coffee is milled, the co-op will want to ship it as fast as possible. After milling, Coffee Cooperative bags the coffee, attaches the stenciled information identifying the bags, and ships the coffee according to the schedule determined following approval of the pre-ship sample.

Shipping

STEP 4: SHIPPING THE COFFEE On the day of shipment, Coffee Cooperative takes the coffee to Buenaventura, a coastal city in Valle del Cauca from which most of the region’s export originates. The shipping company will fill—or “stuff”— the container with coffee, and the container will be loaded onto a ship that soon hits the water en route to its destination in Oakland. It’s here that a bit of romance may enter the picture, as we can picture the vast, peaceful ocean and the green coffee snug in its container as it undertakes the long journey.

LOGISTICS & WAREHOUSING

uch of the work of importers and exporters as intermediaries is to manage risk and to finance the coffee while it is in transit between countries—often the riskiest segment of the supply chain. Ports and warehouses move massive volumes of freight, operate thousands of tons of machinery, and employ large staffs of frequently rotating employees. Everyone who handles coffee is human, and inevitably something will go wrong. Coffee gets loaded onto the wrong truck, the warehouse floods, the shipping crew goes on strike, or a weather event compromises the coffee while it’s sitting in the port. Another major role of importers and exporters is to troubleshoot these situations, to file claims with shipping and freight companies and brokers and to make sure that at the end of the day producers and coffee suppliers are paid, and that roasters have beans to meet the week’s volume of orders. Logistics is all about maneuvering—if the thing that was supposed to show up someplace did not, for whatever reason, what else is close by that can help cover the gap until we find the lost pallet or lost container and redirect it to where it should have been in the first place? This maneuvering involves lots of phone calls, e-mails, and messages back and forth until a plan is devised and carried out. The more micro-lots that producers labor to prepare and roasters commit to buying, the more work exporters and importers do to consolidate small lots for shipment from, and to, common ports. The more discrete units of coffee, the more paperwork to move the same volume. All of these processes happen in a common cycle—coffees from different origins are at all different stages of this process at the same time. While coffee is being loaded in Buenaventura headed for Oakland, other coffee from Limon, Costa Rica, is landing in New Jersey, while coffees from Kenya and Sumatra are on the water headed for Hamburg and Antwerp. It’s a bit of a juggling act with lots of moving parts, so every time a container of coffee lands and the arrival sample is approved it is no small victory! —BY RACHEL NORTHROP IN THIS ARTICLE: BROKER, CONTAINER, EXPORTER, IMPORTER, MICRO-LOT, ORIGIN

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SUPPLY CHAIN 101 (cont.)

shipping parlance—and to schedule a pickup. Once the warehouse has brought the coffee back to its facilities, it will issue a report to Bean Importer detailing the contents of the container, its condition, and the details of its handling.

Receiving at Port

But we quickly return to logistics and paperwork: when Coffee Cooperative ships the coffee, it sends an invoice to Bean Importer. The co-op will typically expedite this in order to get paid as quickly as possible, so paperwork may arrive about 10 days after the shipment departs. Because Coffee Cooperative is fair-trade certified, Bean Importer will need to remit payment within 14 days of shipment, per fair-trade rules. In addition to the invoice, Coffee Cooperative will send Bean Importer the original bill of lading, which is essentially the ownership title of the coffee. Bean Importer retains this document indicating its ownership of the coffee while the container travels toward the United States. Bean Importer also uses this documentation to secure insurance for the coffee should it be damaged during transport. STEP 5: RECEIVING THE COFFEE AT PORT About a week before the ship carrying the coffee gets to Oakland, Bean Importer receives a notice of its impending arrival. At this time, the importer stamps the back of the bill of

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lading and signs it—turning it into an “endorsed” bill of lading—and sends it to the shipping line along with a check covering the cost of the ocean freight. (This cost can vary depending on shipping distance, destination port, petroleum prices, and even things like

STEP 6: GETTING THE COFFEE TO THE ROASTER At this point, Bean Importer is very close to handing over this Colombian coffee to Local Roaster, but it needs to do a final check to make sure the product has survived the journey with its quality intact. The importer will ask the warehouse to send “landed” samples to both Bean Importer and Local Roaster, who will confirm that it matches the pre-ship sample and still meets the quality specifications of the contract. Most importers’ contracts have a clause called SAS/NANS, meaning “Subject to Approval of Sample/No Approval, No Sale,” so this is a crucial final step. Fortunately, Coffee Cooperative milled its coffee under the proper protocols and nothing

Specialty coffee’s status as an exotic product cultivated in far-off origins is part of its appeal: consumers want to savor not just the sweetness and complexity of their cup, but the stories each sip evokes. shipping routes frequented by pirates that require extra security.) In a matter of days, the endorsed bill of lading, the check, and the coffee itself all arrive at the Port of Oakland. When this happens, the shipping company contacts the warehouse that will store the coffee, both to inform them the coffee has arrived—also known as “landed” in

happened in shipping to damage the coffee, so its quality is intact: the landed sample scores 84.5. At this point, the coffee is ready for delivery to Local Roaster. Because a container-load of coffee is so enormous—about 37,500 pounds of coffee—the roaster schedules a delivery from the warehouse to its facilities instead of picking up the coffee

themselves. Since Local Roaster and the warehouse are both based in Oakland, there is only a manageable cost associated with the delivery of the coffee. (Deliveries are typically handled by freight carriers, who can complete both short- and long-distance delivery routes. Freight brokers are often involved to quote multiple carriers and find the best rate for a given route. If a roaster who didn’t live near a port purchased the coffee, they’d likely work with Bean Importer and a freight broker to find the best way to take the coffee from the port to its ultimate destination. This proves more costly but is still an efficient way of moving the coffee.)

Getting to the Roaster

The truck from port is unloaded at Local Roaster’s facilities, and it’s now up to the roaster to use the green coffee at their discretion. Stored at moderate temperatures with relative humidity, green coffee will last for many months—exactly how long is still up for debate. But this gem from Valle del Cauca will take its place amid the rows of green coffee bags, ready to perform when the roastmaster calls its number. Specialty coffee’s status as an exotic product cultivated in far-off origins is part of its appeal: consumers want to savor not just the sweetness and complexity of their cup, but the stories each sip evokes. Stakeholders at every link of the supply chain honor that story, performing their necessary actions to bring coffee to its destination. It’s hard to deny the romance in that. FC IN THIS ARTICLE: BILL OF LADING, CONTAINER, COOPERATIVE, DRY MILL, FAIR TRADE CERTIFICATION, FREIGHT, BROKER, HIGH GROWN, IMPORTER, ORIGIN, PARCHMENT, PRE-SHIP SAMPLE, STRICTLY HARD BEAN, SUPPLY CHAIN, WET MILL

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KALITA WAVE–MATCHA

KALITA WAVE A pour-over dripper made by Kalita, a Japanese company that got its start making paper filters. The Wave comes in two sizes—each requiring its own filter—and is available in ceramic, glass, or stainless steel. The flat-bottom dripper has three holes, and its filters are specially designed to hang suspended within the device, serving to regulate temperature by creating air pockets between the filter and sides, as well as between the filter and bottom of the device (see fig. 5).

Maragogype

KENT A coffee variety developed in India in the 1920s. Kent was bred from typica parents to be resistant to leaf rust (see fig. 3).

KENYA AA A grade of coffee related to size, specific to Kenya. Kenya AA coffees have a screen size of 17 or 18, which is the largest of the coffees sorted and graded in Kenya.

KOMBUCHA Tea that is sugared and fermented with a symbiotic culture of acetic acid bacteria and yeast (SCOBY). Kombucha is effervescent and enjoyed for its flavor and purported health benefits.

LAPSANG SOUCHONG A Chinese variety of black tea that is scented with pinewood smoke. According to official records, Lapsang Souchong was the first black tea ever produced.

LATTE A combination of steamed milk and espresso. The industry standard is about three parts milk to one part espresso. Milk used in a latte should have a fine texture with microfoam. Latte art—the practice of pouring milk into designs at the top of the cup—has become commonplace at

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MARAGOGYPE specialty cafés, and baristas regularly take part in competitions (66) to see who can deliver the best pour.

LESS THAN TRUCKLOAD (LTL) The transportation of a relatively small freight offered by large parcel services such as FedEx.

LIQUOR The brewed tea liquid that remains when leaves are removed after steeping.

LONDON FOG A tea drink combining steeped Earl Grey with steamed milk and vanilla syrup.

MACCHIATO An espresso shot topped with a drop of steamed milk and a dollop of foam.

MAILLARD REACTION A chemical reaction between an amino acid and a reducing sugar, induced by heat. This reaction turns coffee brown (and gives ribs their delicious char), and creates volatile aromatics and flavors. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

TYPICA

MALIC ACID A sweet, crisp acid said to contribute to flavors of stone fruit as well as notes of pear and apple. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

MANUAL BREWING Methods of brewing coffee by hand, without the use of automatic devices. Manual brewing methods include Chemex, V60, Kalita Wave, Melitta, french press, and siphon (see fig. 5), and require the use of a gram scale, a gooseneck kettle, and thermometer. (See “Pour-Over Brewing,” 28.)

MARAGOGYPE A natural mutation of the typica variety of arabica coffee with low production, but very large fruit— often referred to as elephant beans (see fig. 3).

MASL An abbreviation for meters above sea level, which measures the elevation at which coffee is grown.

MATCHA A high-quality powdered green tea made from the youngest buds of the tea plant. The buds are plucked during the spring, then ground to a fine powder using a mill stone.

M FIGURE 5

MANUAL BREWING POUR-OVER BREWERS

Kalita Wave Hario V60 Beehouse

Woodneck

Walküre

Chemex

FULL-IMMERSION BREWERS

French press

HYBRID BREWERS

Aeropress

Siphon

Clever

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MECHANICAL DRYER–MOISTURE CONTENT

MECHANICAL DRYER An alternative to sun-drying coffee on a patio that is done in poor weather or when the patio does not have enough capacity. Mechanical dryers speed up the slowest part of the coffee drying process and help prevent fermentation. (See “Coffee Processing Methods,” 26.)

MERCAPTANS A family of volatiles produced in the Maillard reaction with a high concentration of sulfur. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

MICROFINANCE Financial services such as loans, savings, insurance, and fund transfers to entrepreneurs, small businesses, and individuals who lack access to traditional banking services.

MICROFOAM Milk foam that is smooth and shiny with no visible bubbles, perfect for creating latte art. (See “Milk & Microfoam,” right.)

MICRO-LOT A small volume of coffee produced and processed specifically to have special character. Implies a single producer, and often a specific growing area, and cultivar within a farm.

MILK STEAMING The process of heating milk for making milk-based espresso drinks such as lattes and cappuccinos. The espresso machine’s steam wand is used to aerate milk as it heats to enhance the milk’s volume and mouthfeel through the incorporation of air. (See “Milk & Microfoam,” right.)

MOISTURE CONTENT The amount of water bound up inside the coffee seed. When a coffee cherry is picked, it has 20–30 percent moisture. After the drying process,

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MILK & MICROFOAM

hen a customer orders a latte from a café, they’re asking for two ingredients to be combined in a single vessel: espresso and freshly steamed milk. Well-steamed milk (with microfoam evenly distributed throughout) is what can take a latte from passable to excellent, but it’s a nuanced and multistepped process. First—and this step must never be skipped for any reason—purge the steam wand into a damp towel or drip tray before beginning. Then, start with cold milk in a clean pitcher. Pour enough milk so that the pitcher is 1/3 to 1/2 full. Use a pitcher roughly one size larger than the drink you’re preparing. For example, use a 12-ounce pitcher when preparing milk for an 8-ounce beverage. This allows room for the milk to swirl and aerate, and ensures the volume of milk will be deep enough to properly submerge the steam wand. Submerge the end of the wand into the milk, just below the surface of the milk. I use the line where the tip of the steam wand screws on to the end of the wand as a guide, lining it up with the surface of the milk. You’re ready to steam! Turn on the steam wand to full pressure. Immediately lower the pitcher slightly to aerate the milk, allowing the steam tip to rest at the surface of the milk, creating a frothing noise. This noise is your indicator that you are producing foam. It shouldn’t be terribly loud, and definitely not screaming, just the intermittent sound of air escaping from the milk. When aeration begins, you want to begin making a whirlpool in the pitcher. This ensures controlled, even heating as the spinning motion breaks large bubbles caused by aeration into tiny bubbles called microfoam. When milk isn’t swirling, it often rolls over itself, which can lead to hot milk shooting out of the pitcher—both messy and dangerous. As the milk swirls, bring your other hand down (the one that turned on the steam wand) and press it against the pitcher to feel the temperature of the milk. Aeration must be completed before 100 degrees Fahrenheit (bubbles caused by aeration beyond this point may not have time to get broken down by the whirlpool). That’s the moment you just start to feel warmth on your hand. Once the milk reaches this temperature (“barely warm to the touch”) you are done aerating and ready to move on to the next phase. Submerge the end of the steam wand so it’s beneath the surface of the milk, but not touching the walls or the bottom of the pitcher. Now you’ll heat the milk to its final temperature (between 120 to 150 degrees, depending on the beverage and the best practices set by your café). At this temperature, the milk will be too hot to hold your hand against, but not so hot that you can’t lightly touch the side of the pitcher. You may need to adjust the angle of the pitcher to encourage the milk to spin in a whirlpool-like motion. In this way, you’ll whip the textured foam from the surface throughout the entire pitcher. When the milk becomes too hot to hold on to, turn off the steam pressure. Set the milk on the counter, wipe the steam wand off using a dedicated (damp) steam wand towel, and purge the wand one last time. There may be a few large bubbles on the surface of your milk—a couple gentle taps of the pitcher on the counter should pop these. Give the milk a swirl or two, and you’re ready to pour it into your cup and make a customer’s latte dreams come true! —NATHANAEL MAY IN THIS ARTICLE: ESPRESSO, LATTE, MICROFOAM, MILK STEAMING, PITCHER, STEAM WAND

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MOKA POT–NEMATODES

MAINTAINING FRESHNESS

a coffee cherry should be much lower, around 12 percent. Moisture content is measured by water activity (69).

MOKA POT A stove-top coffee brewer that produces a dense, concentrated cup of coffee by generating steam pressure to force water through the grounds.

Moka Pot

offee’s complex flavor is the result of hundreds of chemical compounds found in the roasted bean—some 1,800 and counting. These compounds fall into several major categories, each presenting its own challenge in

the effort to maintain freshness. But four factors strongly influence the behavior of many compounds: temperature, humidity, oxygen, and time. For roasted beans, these four factors take on the mathematical meaning of the word—their effects multiply each other. If you can’t control all, control the ones you can to minimize the others’ effects.

MOUTHFEEL How a coffee feels in the mouth; its apparent texture.

MUCILAGE The gluey substance surrounding each of the two coffee seeds. Mucilage is found between the skin and the parchment of the coffee cherry (see fig. 6).

MUNDO NOVO A coffee variety created from a natural cross between bourbon and typica, named for the place in Brazil where it was discovered (see fig. 3).

NATURAL PROCESS Coffee that is dried with the cherry remaining on the bean throughout the drying process. The fruit typically remains on until just before the time of export, when the dried up pulp and parchment are removed simultaneously to access green coffee.

NEMATODES Parasitic roundworms that disrupt coffee plant growth processes and cause growth decline.

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TEMPERATURE: Room temperature provides heat that accelerates staling. Refrigerators are harmful due to humidity, emulsification of oils, and undesirable odors. If you cannot consistently maintain a cool, dry location and minimal time from roaster to cup, freezing in a truly airtight container may be your best option to minimize chemical action in roasted beans. HUMIDITY: The steamy environment of roaster-retailer settings is not ideal for roasted beans, which need a low ambient humidity. Also, the bins in which roasted beans are stored can trap humidity from the beans themselves, accelerating staleness. (The water in the air contributes to several of the chemical processes involved in staling.) The optimal environment to retard staling and loss of flavor is sealed storage with very low, controlled humidity. OXYGEN: Even a tight, sealed bag, or one that’s vacuum-packed, contains enough oxygen to complete the chemical process of oxidizing all the beans. Better is a sealed container that has been not just evacuated but has also had the air displaced with non-oxygen gas. Once bags are sealed, air continues circulating and entering the bean through normal gas exchange. TIME*: Even one week under normal storage conditions at the roastery (or in transit, a retailer, or in a home) can diminish flavor compounds. Roaster and retailer logistics mitigate staling, especially for beverages served in the café; but home preparation still relies on the customer to buy fresh and use promptly. Optimally, roasted beans should be stored in an oxygen-free container with very low humidity, and kept rather cool. The worst thing you can do to the beans’ longevity is to grind them; most of the aromatics are released or brought to the surface, and the coffee loses flavor perceptibly in a matter of minutes, losing most of it in a single day. —BY JAMES DI PROPERZIO IN THIS ARTICLE: AROMATICS, STALING *It’s also important to note that brewing coffee that is not aged can result in extraction issues. This is especially true for espresso, with many coffees peaking in espresso quality 10 to 14 days after roasting.

NITRO–PID

PACAS A natural mutation of the bourbon variety with low-growing plants and good yields, but is highly susceptible to coffee leaf rust (see fig. 3).

Peaberry

PARCHMENT Also called the husk, parchment is the thick skin that covers wet-processed coffee after the berries have been skinned, de-pulped, and dried (see fig. 6).

PAST CROP PEABERRY

NITRO Refers to coffee created through the process of kegging and the addition of nitrogen; characterized by smooth and creamy textures.

OCHRATOXIN A (OTA) A toxic mold flora that grows on a wide range of raw foods. OTA can be a significant food contaminant from a public health point of view.

OFFGASSIING See degassing.

OOLONG A type of tea originating from the Wuyishan (Fujian) province of China. Oolong is withered much longer than green or white teas, resulting in oxidation levels ranging from 15–80 percent, often associated with flavors of plum or fig (see fig. 4).

ORANGE PEKOE Manufacturing term for the largest grade of black tea with a long unbroken leaf.

ORIGIN Refers to the geographic location where a coffee was grown.

TYPICA

ORIGIN ROAST A roast specific to country of origin meant to showcase the unique qualities of the coffees from that region, country, farm, or lot. (See “Roast Profile,” 63.)

ORGANIC CERTIFICATION An agricultural certification designating that a farm produces coffee without the use of pesticides or herbicides. (See “Coffee Certifications,” 25.)

ORTHODOX A traditional tea production method where loose leaf tea goes through a process of plucking, withering, rolling, oxidation/fermentation, and drying.

OXIDATION A stage in tea manufacturing where the leaf is exposed to the air to ferment. The chemical changes that occur during this process are responsible for the strength and color of the resulting tea (see fig. 4).

PACAMARA A coffee variety developed from a cross between pacas and maragogype, known for distinctive cup qualities (see fig. 3).

Describes coffee not from the new or current crop. This term is also used as a general term in cupping for flavors that have faded over time.

PEABERRY One single, round seed in a coffee cherry, rather than the usual two, flatbottom seeds that face each other.

PHENOLS A class of compounds characterized by a six-membered aromatic ring, bonded directly to a hydroxyl group (-OH). Important in the aroma of single-malt Scotch whiskies from Islay, associated with their seaweedy character. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

PHOSPHORIC ACID An inorganic acid (42) that is believed by some to be significantly responsible for coffee’s perceived acidity and is often associated with a mango flavor. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

PID Shorthand for proportional integral derivative, a mathematical algorithm. In coffee, PID controllers are integrated into espresso machines to improve temperature stability: the PID controller compares the difference between a set temperature and the measured temperature, and uses this prediction to make adjustments to maintain a consistent temperature. PID controllers on espresso

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PITCHER–PYRROLES

machines and hot-water dispensers improve temperature stability and also allow baristas to change the brew temperature, giving them additional control over the coffee.

PITCHER A tool for steaming milk typically made of stainless steel. (See "Milk & Microfoam," 54.)

POLYPHENOLS An antioxidant phytochemical found in both coffee and tea; considered a health benefit of both beverages.

PORTAFILTER The part of semiautomatic espresso machines that attaches to the grouphead. Usually made of heavy brass, the portafilter has a handle that allows the barista to properly insert it into the grouphead, where it forms a tight seal. An interior basket holds ground coffee.

Portafilter

pour-over brewing process. Pourover devices include the Chemex and V60 (see fig. 5).

POURSTEADY An automated and programmable pour-over coffee machine.

PRE-INFUSION A pre-wetting of coffee grounds that begins the brewing process, allowing the ground particles to absorb water and release carbon dioxide, opening paths for the remaining water to more easily extract the coffee. (See “Extraction Variables,” 59.)

PRE-SHIP SAMPLE A representative sample taken after milling is complete and the coffee is ready to ship. These samples are sent to a buyer to grade, roast, cup, and approve before the shipment is scheduled. (See “Supply Chain 101,” 44.)

PROCESSING METHOD The way a coffee cherry becomes green coffee. There are three main methods: washed/wet processed, natural/dry processed, and pulped natural/honey processed. (See “Coffee Processing Methods,” 26.)

POTATO DEFECT A flavor defect in coffee thought to be caused by the antesia stink bug that tastes like biting into a mealy boiled potato skin. Associated with coffees from central Africa.

POUR-OVER A type of manual brewing that involves pouring hot water over ground coffee and through a filter. The water is introduced at a slow, consistent rate, extracting flavor compounds as it drains through the coffee bed. Unlike immersion methods, where the coffee steeps in water for a set amount of time, fresh water is replenished throughout the

August 2017 » Café Encyclopedia

Pu-erh

PROFILE ROASTING Roasting coffee to highlight certain characteristics of the seed that develop based on where it was grown or how it was processed. (See “Roast Profile,” 63.)

PU-ERH A tea from the Yunnan province of China, distinguished by flavors developed during its fermentation (see fig. 4). This process can occur naturally (raw) or be accelerated by artificial means (ripe).

PULP The fruit of a coffee cherry, or the mesocarp layer (see fig. 6).

PULPED NATURAL A method of processing coffee that combines steps from natural and washed processes. The skin is removed from the coffee, but instead of fermenting and removing the mucilage, as is done in a washed process, the coffee is dried with the mucilage clinging to the parchment layer. (See “Coffee Processing Methods,” 26.)

PYRAZINES A class of aromatic compounds found in coffee. Pyrazines are responsible for the roasted, walnut, cereal, cracker, or toast-like flavors in coffee. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

PYRIDINES An organic compound partially responsible for the roasty aroma of coffee. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19).

PYROLYSIS The thermal breakdown of chemical compounds into their simplest forms due to heating. In roasting, results of pyrolysis include caramelization (22), and second crack (62).

PYRROLES Aromatic compounds formed during the Maillard reaction that are responsible for some of the sweet, caramel- and mushroom-like aromas in coffee. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

P EXTRACTION VARIABLES

o extract means to remove or obtain something, usually by a special method. In the case of coffee, we use water to extract the parts of the coffee seed (bean) that we want to drink. We do this at a certain rate, to a desired concentration, in order to get the flavor we desire. Coffee seeds have many different compounds inside them. Using water, our goal is to extract just the right amount of them to get a cup that is tasty, balanced, and not too strong or weak. Extraction yield is communicated as a percentage and refers to how much of the coffee seed ends up in the finished product (herein referred to as “the cup”). About 30 percent of roasted coffee is water soluble; target extraction ranges between 18 and 22 percent. Finding the balance between extracting enough of coffee’s soluble compounds to deliver complex flavor, yet not going so far as to overextract, is challenging—and where the barista sets herself apart from the home brewer. This process is tied to a number of variables. Here are a few basics to keep an eye on. VARIABLES TO CONSIDER: FRESHNESS: Freshly roasted coffee necessarily undergoes a period of aging that allows it to degas. Gases from the roasting process eventually exit the pores of the bean, making it more permeable. Coffee that has not degassed sufficiently will be less permeable and difficult to extract. WATER TYPE: Water quality varies greatly depending on geographical origin, local water treatment, and inhouse filtration. Calcium, alkalinity, pH, and sodium—as well as total dissolved solids (TDS)—impact how soluble compounds are extracted from coffee, so it’s important to know what’s in your brewing water. BREW RATIO: The ratio of coffee grounds to water; or, how much coffee is used for a given quantity of water. This may be expressed in units of either grams or ounces. A 1:16 coffee-to-water ratio is commonly recommended as a starting point. GRIND SIZE: Grind size and burr setting directly correspond to surface area. Generally, increased surface area means increased extraction potential. A whole bean has very little surface area compared to a bean that is broken up, which is why we brew with ground coffee. The smaller, or finer, the grind size, the more surface area there is and the easier it is for water to extract flavor. The opposite is true for larger, or coarser, grind sizes. In addition to drastically affecting the coffee’s solubility, grind size also affects flow rate (think water flowing through boulders versus sand), which will in turn affect water contact time. TEMPERATURE: Hot water extracts coffee flavor faster than cold water. That’s why cold brewing takes hours while hot brewing takes minutes. However, too-hot water can

burn coffee and lead to overextraction. The industry generally considers the ideal brewing temperature to be between 195 and 205 degrees Fahrenheit. Temperature stability throughout the length of the brew cycle is desirable for replicable results. Just as baking foods at different temperatures will result in drastically different results, different brew temperatures will extract coffee differently. CONTACT TIME: The length of time water and grounds are interacting. Too short = underextracted; too long = overextracted. BLOOM: The initial wetting of the grounds. This phase prepares particles for extraction of solubles, both by helping to release CO2, and by allowing subsequently added water to move more freely through the bed of grounds (an even pre-wetting should result in a more even extraction). STRENGTH/(TDS): TDS refers to the solids dissolved in the cup, which does not include crema or oils formed on the surface. This is measured with a refractometer. TDS translates to concentration of dissolved coffee solids in the cup and is described in terms of strength. The higher the concentration of TDS, the stronger the cup. The lower the concentration of TDS the weaker the cup. In practice, strength is determined by how the coffee feels in your mouth. Strong cups feel thick or heavy while weak cups feel thin or watery. AGITATION: This is the word we use for creating turbulence in the coffee (with a spoon or with the water stream from the kettle). Agitation directly relates to the rate of extraction, so this variable should be kept consistent from brew to brew. FLOW RATE: the rate at which water flows through coffee. —BY JENNIFER HAARE

IN THIS ARTICLE: AGITATION, BLOOM, CONTACT TIME, CREMA, DEGAS, EXTRACTION, EXTRACTION YIELD, FLOW RATE, RATIO, REFRACTOMETER, ROAST LEVEL, TURBULENCE

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Q GRADER–ROAST PROFILE

FOUNDATIONS OF ROASTING

Q GRADER An individual who is credentialed through the Coffee Quality Institute (CQI) to grade and score coffees utilizing standards developed by the Specialty Coffee Association (SCA).

QUAKER Light-colored coffee seeds that have failed to roast properly and are considered defective.

QUINIC ACID An acid found in higher concentrations in darker-roasted coffees that contributes to coffee’s body and perceived bitterness. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

RAINFOREST ALLIANCE CERTIFICATION A broad certification guaranteeing than an agricultural product has met certain economic, ecological, and social standards. (See “Coffee Certifications,” 25.)

RAISED DRYING BEDS Also referred to as African drying beds. Elevated beds used for drying coffee when dry-processing. Raised beds allow air to pass on all sides of the coffee, preventing fermentation, and promoting uniform drying.

RATIO The proportion of grounds to water. A 1:16 coffee-to-water ratio is commonly recommended as a starting point. (See “Extraction Variables,” 59.)

REFRACTOMETER A tool designed to measure the angle of light’s refraction through a liquid, used to determine total dissolved solids, and to calculate extraction yield in coffee.

RETRONASAL OLFACTION Flavor and aroma perceived in the nose, emanating from the mouth.

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t its most basic, coffee roasting is the act of using heat over time to both physically and chemically alter the dried green coffee in a controlled fashion. This is accomplished through the use of roasting equipment which uses convection, conduction, and radiation to transfer heat energy from a source to the bean mass while mixing the bean mass either mechanically or through fluidization to assure a relative evenness of heat application. The roaster (person) guides the heat application to the bean mass using these forms of heat to follow a certain ‘profile’ representing the beans path through the transformative process of roasting, denoted as temperature over time to a determined endpoint (based on either temperature or color). ROASTING COFFEE IS A MIXTURE OF ART, CRAFT, AND SCIENCE. It is artistic because, at the end of the day, we are striving to creatively craft something beautiful and aesthetically pleasing. We also make a number of artistic choices when creating a roasted product. We are choosing the raw green coffee based on potential for flavor, country of origin, region or farm of origin, cultivar type(s), altitude, processing method, etc., in order to find something that fits our needs and expectations. We are also craftspeople. The craft of coffee roasting requires having a deep understanding of your roaster and how to use it to accomplish your task of matching a flavor profile. Every roasting machine is a little different and has its slight quirks and personality based on ventilation setup, environmental conditions, and variations in manufacturing (though this is getting much tighter). As the roaster (person), it is your task to learn your roaster (machine) and how to adapt and adjust the means of heat application through convection, conduction, and radiation to guide the beans along the appropriate profile to the same end point in order to have similar flavor. The act of roasting coffee is underpinned by scientific principles. As more information becomes available, and more about the process of roasting is elucidated, we must act as scientists and through careful experimentation, observation, and data-management, become more intentional about our systems and rationale.

—BY ROB HOOS

IN THIS ARTICLE: ALTITUDE, CULTIVAR, GREEN COFFEE, ORIGIN, PROCESSING METHOD, ROAST PROFILE

Experienced during cupping, when the act of slurping vaporizes the “odorants,” pushing them back (retro) into the nasal cavity. (See “Cupping Coffee,” 30.)

RISTRETTO A concentrated shot or double shot of espresso created by restricting the amount of water that flows through the coffee. For example, a typical single espresso might use 9 grams of coffee to yield 25 to 35 grams of liquid during a 27-second extraction. A ristretto shot of espresso would use the same nine grams of coffee to yield perhaps only 10 grams of liquid during the same 27-second extraction. A proper ristretto espresso generally has a fuller body and flavors that are more concentrated.

Ristretto

ROAST DEFECT Undesirable flavors in the cup that come as a result of a problem in the roasting machine or process. Roast defects are sometimes characterized by a lack of sweetness. Not to be confused with green coffee defects, which describe bean imperfections encompassed by the green coffee grading criteria established by the SCA; cf. coffee grading.

ROAST LOG A tool to collect data during roasting. There are many digital options on the market as well as manual ones, which facilitate the process of tracking roasts minute-by-minute, taking note of adjustments that were made, and turning the roast notes into a line graph (temperature over time).

ROAST PROFILE The relationship between time and temperature in coffee roasting. To create a roast profile, roasters actively manipulate the “roast curve,” the graphed plot of bean temperature during the roast to optimize flavor. (See "Roast Profile," 63).

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ROAST TYPE–SEMI-WASHED PROCESS

ROAST TYPE Also called roast level. Category of roasted coffee that describes its appearance and flavor attributes. A roast type is generally categorized into one of four main groups: light, medium, medium-dark, and dark. (See “Roast Profile,” opposite page.)

Screen Sorting

ROBUSTA See Coffea canephora.

ROLLING Stage in tea manufacture during which the tea leaf, either fresh or withered, is bruised and damaged so the semi-permeable membrane in the leaf cells is ruptured and the leaf juices are exposed to air (see fig. 4). Rolling allows oxidation to begin.

ROOIBOS Also called red bush tea. An herbal tisane produced from the leaf of Aspalathus linoaris, not Camellia sinensis, and grown only in south Africa.

RUIRU 11 A dwarf coffee variety, created at the Kenyan Research Station from rume sudan, timor hybrid, K7, catimor, and SL28. Though disease resistant, it’s thought to have low cup quality (see fig. 3).

RUST RESISTANT Breeds of coffee plants that are less susceptible to Hemileia vasatrix, or coffee leaf rust.

SAMPLE ROAST A small amount (100–300 grams) of coffee roasted on a sample roaster in order to cup the coffee and determine whether the coffee is free of defects and if it meets quality expectations. Sample roasts are less developed than production roasts in order to observe potential defects, faults, or flaws.

SCA CERTIFICATION A series of educational pathway programs including Foundations of

August 2017 » Café Encyclopedia

Coffee, Barista Training, Roaster Training, Coffee Buyer Training, and Coffee Taster Training. The SCA Cupping Judge course must be taught in an SCA-certified laboratory, by an SCA-certified instructor. The SCA also certifies home coffee brewers that meet rigorous technical requirements.

SCREEN SORTING Running green coffee through a screen with holes of a fixed size to sort beans for size.

SECOND CRACK The second audible clue the roaster receives about the degree of roast, following first crack. Second crack occurs around 415–445 degrees Fahrenheit. (See “Foundations of Roasting,” 60.)

SEMI-WASHED PROCESS A processing method for green coffee where the outer skin and pulp (see fig. 6) are removed from the cherries mechanically, but the mucilage is left on the seed for at least a day. The mucilage is then washed off, the seed is partially dried, and then processors hull the coffee in its semi-wet state. (See “Coffee Processing Methods,” 26.)

S ROAST PROFILE

efore green coffee makes the transition to retail, it needs to be roasted. Roasting increases the solubility of coffee beans (meaning flavors can be more easily extracted), and develops the flavors and aromas we associate with coffee. Generally, the longer and hotter a coffee bean is roasted, the more its flavor changes. Heat induces chemical reactions within the bean, each of which contribute to the final flavor profile. (These reactions include the Maillard reaction and caramelization.) As coffee roasts, it darkens in color, transforming from green, to yellow, to brown, then dark brown, and eventually to black. Though color is an indicator of roast level, it is misleading to categorize coffees by hue. Calling a coffee “light”

The manipulation of time and temperature determines flavor, but how these two variables are used to influence the final cup can be tricky. Joe Marrocco, of Cafe Imports and the Roasters Guild Executive Council, helped break down how this manipulation works: • A roaster looking for a lively, intensely bright, and complex cup of coffee will likely roast their coffee quickly and to a lower temperature (like a baker seeking a gooey cookie). • A roaster who wishes to achieve a more mellow, sweet, and comforting expression from a coffee would roast the coffee to a higher temperature for a longer amount of time. • A roaster who wants to taste less of the origin character and more of the roast process—perhaps looking for dark-

or “dark” oversimplifies its characteristics, and might be misleading for customers. While some might attribute light coffees to the third-wave sector, it would be more correct to say that craft roasters favor profiles highlighting certain characteristics of the seed (bean) that develop based on where it was grown and/or how it was processed. This is generally referred to as profile roasting (58). Roasters treat each coffee differently by testing a series of roast approaches until the desired result is achieved. Based on these trials (sample roasts), the right application of heat over specific amounts of time is determined for that coffee.

chocolate to smoky tones—would take the process even further, roasting to much higher temperatures. The profiles with greater heat application pushing the coffee to a higher finish temperature will send the coffee into a reaction called second crack, in which the coffee grows darker and shinier (first crack occurs earlier on in the roasting process, when coffee is just starting to brown and caramelize). This dulls the bright cup characteristics and causes more bitter flavors. Eventually the coffee becomes more fully carbonized, turning into tiny bricks of charcoal. At this point, coffee will taste burnt, and every additional second in the roaster leads closer to lighting beans on fire.

LIGHT

Light body Notes of seeds, malt, grain, grass, corn

MEDIUM LIGHT

Bright acidity | more complexity | clear origin character Notes of fruits, nuts, spice, brown sugar

MEDIUM

Balanced acidity and sweetness | full body | clear origin character Notes of caramel, honey, brown butter, cooked fruit, cooked vegetables, darker spices like black pepper, cloves, plum, cooked apple

MEDIUM DARK

Emerging bittersweetness | slightly muted acidity | potential for heavy body Notes of tobacco, vanilla, bourbon, porter beer, stewed meat, smoked fruit

DARK

Prominent bittersweetness | muted acidity | light body Notes of burnt tobacco, very dark cocoa, bitter black tea, charred vegetable, very dark toast

VERY DARK

Dominant bitter/bittersweet tones | light body | fully muted origin character Notes of cigar smoke, smoked meat, liquid smoke, soy sauce, fish sauce, burnt bread

EXTREME DARK

Dominant burned/bitter tones Flavorless except for notes of smoke, ash, aspirin

IN THIS ARTICLE: CARAMELIZATION, GREEN COFFEE, MAILLARD REACTION, PROFILE ROASTING, ROAST LEVEL, ROAST PROFILE, SAMPLE ROAST.

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SENCHA–SPECIALTY COFFEE

SENCHA

FIGURE 6

A popular Japanese tea, typically steamed then sun dried, resulting in a light and sweet flavor.

COFFEE CHERRY ANATOMY

SENSORY LEXICON A collaborative research project on coffee’s flavors and aromas by World Coffee Research and Kansas State University. The Lexicon is a universal language of coffee’s sensory qualities and a tool for measuring them.

SHADE-GROWN A term used to describe coffee grown under shade. Shade-grown coffee is said to better preserve animal habitats. No official standards for determining “shade-grown” status exist; cf. Bird Friendly Certification.

SHAPING The process in which teas are rolled, either by hand or machines that are designed to mimic hand rolling, to create various leaf shapes (see fig. 4).

SHOT IN THE DARK A café offering in which a shot of espresso is added to a cup of drip coffee. This extra-caffeinated beverage is also known as a red eye.

SINGLE ORIGIN Coffee that hails from a single country, region, or crop, and has not been blended with other origins.

SIPHON BREWER Also known as a vacuum pot. An immersion brewing method featuring a two-part chamber, typically requiring an independent heat source (see fig. 5). Water is heated in the lower chamber, creating a pressure differential that forces water to the upper chamber. Grounds are then added to the upper chamber where they are agitated by the incoming air and water. Once brewing is complete, the heat source is removed, causing another change in pressure

August 2017 » Café Encyclopedia

and forcing the coffee back through to the bottom chamber. A filter between the chambers prevents grounds from escaping into the bottom chamber.

SL28 A coffee variety developed in the 1930s, when Scott Laboratories was hired by the Kenyan government to develop drought-resistant coffee varieties. They failed to create a highyield tree, but SL28 is a delicious coffee variety with a balanced sweet and citrus flavor profile (see fig. 3).

SKIN Also called cascara. The outermost layer of the coffee cherry (see fig. 6).

SL34 A coffee variety from Scott Laboratories that grows well at medium-

to-high altitudes with a flavor profile characterized by complex citric acidity, a heavy mouthfeel, and a clean sweet finish (see fig. 3).

SMALLHOLDER A farmer who owns a small farm, or smallholding.

SOFT WATER Water with a low concentration of calcium and magnesium ions. The advantages of soft water include reduced usage of soaps and detergents in hand-washing and in cleaning applications; cf. hard water.

SPECIALTY COFFEE Used loosely to describe higherquality coffee. By SCA standards, coffee that scores 80 points or more on a 100-point scale.

SPLITTER–TANNINS

SPLITTER A spout attached to the bottom of the body of a portafilter that splits the espresso shot, as it is being extracted, into two.

Stroopwafel

SPOT COFFEE Green coffees that are in the importer’s warehouse and ready to ship, or pick up immediately.

STALING The process of a coffee losing aromatic compounds, flavors, and general palatability over time. (See “Maintaining Freshness,” 56.)

STARMAYA An F1 hybrid that can be seed propagated, meaning that parent plants can breed without the use of high-tech nurseries. (See “F1 Hybrids,” 70.)

STEAM WAND Attached to an espresso machine, the steam wand ejects steam to heat and aerate milk. Steam wands should be cleaned (purged) after each pitcher of milk is steamed. (See “Milk & Microfoam,” 54.)

STRICTLY HARD BEAN (SHB) A classification for coffee that indicates minimum growing altitude. Altitude designations vary by country. (See “Logistics & Warehousing,” 49.)

STRIPPING 1. At origin, a container is “stuffed” when it is loaded; at its destination, a container is “stripped” when it is unloaded. Part of the customs exams that all foreign products must undergo include weighing the contents of the container and verifying that everything inside corresponds to the original bill of lading. (See “Logistics & Warehousing,” 49.) 2. A method of harvesting coffee where all cherries are mechanically

stripped from the coffee tree at once, regardless of maturation or ripeness.

STROOPWAFEL A very thin, sweet, waffle-like cookie sandwich filled with syrup or caramel. The name of the Dutch treat, pronounced strohp-wafel means “syrup waffle.”

SUPPLY CHAIN A network of interdependent entities that enable the journey coffee takes from seed to cup, including farmers, cooperatives, importers, roasters, cafés, and consumers.

SWEETNESS Sweetness in coffee is related primarily to the roasting process. Prior to roasting, there is not a substantial amount of sugar in green coffee. During the roasting process, carbohydrates break down into sugars and the small amount of sugars

that do exist are caramelized. This creates flavors like caramel, toffee, chocolate, brown sugar, vanilla and other forms of caramelized sugars. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

TAMPER An instrument (usually handheld) for compacting ground coffee for espresso into a portafilter basket. A tamper’s diameter should span the full width of the basket to optimize even distribution.

TANGENTIAL ROASTER Similar to large drum roasters, but with internal shovels to mix the coffee evenly during heating, allowing a bigger batch to be roasted effectively. When capacity is similar, tangential roasters are able to achieve faster roasting speeds then drum roasters.

TANNINS Bitter-tasting polyphenols. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

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TEA GRADES–TURBULENCE

TEA GRADES Used to identify the type and styles of dry leaf tea, done on the basis of the size of the leaf, aroma, taste, and color of the liquor. The highest tea grade is orange pekoe.

Turbulence

TEA TASTING The process in which a trained taster determines the quality of a particular tea.

TERROIR A word that developed in French wine-making circles and refers to the effects that climate, landscape, soil composition and other placeoriented factors can have on the quality of an agricultural product. Coffee buyers and producers looking to highlight the unique flavor characteristics of beans from specific farms and regions have adopted the wine-industry phrase, bringing it to the center of many premiumcoffee discussions.

THIOPHENES Compounds found in coffee that have a meaty aroma from Maillard reactions between sulfurous amino acids and sugars. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

THROWDOWN Fun, informal competitions for baristas to show off their latte art skills.

TIMOR HYBRID A natural hybrid of C. arabica and C. canephora. A popular variety for breeding programs, due to its disease-resistant (see fig. 3).

TISANE Herbal infusions containing no Camellia sinensis leaf.

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS A measurable component of a cup’s brew strength. A TDS count tells a barista how many dissolved soluble materials are suspended

August 2017 » Café Encyclopedia

in a brewed coffee sample. Batchbrewed coffee tends to taste best when it contains 1.2 to 1.5 percent total dissolved solids (which means the drink is between 98.5 and 98.8 percent water). Espresso is much more concentrated, with TDS measurements between 9 and 14 percent. The measurement is often considered alongside brew ratio and extraction yield.

TRIGONELLINE A bitter alkaloid found in coffee which breaks down into pyridines, yielding a warm and roasty taste. (See “Coffee Chemistry,” 19.)

TRIPLE NET A lease agreement that designates that the tenant is solely responsible for all the costs relating to the

building being leased, including real estate taxes, building insurance, and common area maintenance. These types of agreements are common for retail and café spaces.

TULSI An herb that grows in India, nicknamed holy basil due its variety of health, healing, and religious uses.

TURBOCHEF A versatile and user-friendly rapidcook oven.

TURBULENCE Mixing action of water flowing through and around the coffee particles to achieve a uniform extraction of soluble material. (See “Extraction Variables,” 59.)

TURKISH COFFEE–WALKÜRE

Turkish Coffee

TURKISH COFFEE A preparation method that reportedly dates back to the mid-1500s, when Syrian traders delivered the first coffee to Istanbul. Turkish coffee involves grinding the roasted seeds to powder-like fineness, then boiling them in a longhandled pot called an ibrik (also known as a cezve) with some sugar. The mixture is served in demitasse cups, but not all the liquid is consumed, as a thick sludge from the settled grounds typically accumulates on the bottom.

TYPICA Considered the oldest variety of coffee, taken from Yemen (see fig. 3). Typica has been grown for centuries because of its high-quality as well as a clean sweet flavor profile.

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE A tax required for businesses in certain states. The Department

August 2017 » Café Encyclopedia

of Labor’s unemployment insurance programs provide benefits to eligible workers who become unemployed through no fault of their own, and meet other state eligibility requirements.

USCC United States Coffee Championships. A series of coffee competitions including the Barista Championship, Brewers Cup, Roaster Championship, and Cup Tasters Championship produced by the SCA.

UTZ CERTIFICATION A certification that shows consumers that products have been sourced sustainably according to Utz guidelines and their code of conduct. (See “Coffee Certifications,” 25.)

V60 A pour-over brew method made by Hario. The conical dripper encourages water to flow to the center, extending the amount of time it is in contact with coffee (see fig. 5).

VACUUM POT See siphon brewer.

VARIETAL A specific instance of a variety, not a reference to region.

VARIETY Genetically distinct variation of a single species such as Coffea arabica. Cultivar is another acceptable term to use.

VILLA SARCHI A bourbon mutation first grown in Sarchi, Costa Rica, characterized by acidity, intense fruit notes, and sweetness. Associated with high yield, and capable of good cup quality, but highly susceptible to disease (see fig. 3).

WALKÜRE A German company that makes porcelain coffee brewers and accessories, including the Bayreuth, a porcelain pour-over coffee brewer (see fig. 5). A two-tiered porcelain

WASHED PROCESS–WATER-PROCESSED DECAF

BREWING TEA

oose leaf tea—tea that has not been portioned into a tea bag or a sachet—is how tea has been prepared for thousands of years. At its core, brewing tea is a simple process that requires nothing but a vessel and hot water. This simplicity is one of many reasons why tea is the most prepared beverage on the planet. Making the perfect cup of tea is a subjective goal, but there are several factors and techniques that can greatly alter the finished beverage. In the 71 years since George Orwell published “A Nice Cup of Tea” in the London Evening Standard, our world of tea has changed quite dramatically, with more options, styles, flavors, and experiences than ever before. The following parameters are set forth with all styles in mind, intended to guide discovery. Remember the best cup of tea is the one you enjoy most. Don’t be afraid to play around and experiment. KNOW THE LEAF: Loose leaf tea does not mean full leaf tea. Many loose teas are small particles more similar to those found in old school tea bags or even in CTC (cut, torn, and curled) teas, the grape nut–like particle produced heavily in India, Africa, and beyond. Teas comprised of smaller sized particles have more surface area to interact with water, resulting in a stronger extraction. To compensate, you can adjust how much tea you use per cup, or the steep time. WATER AND TEMPERATURE: Use drinking water that has been purified to remove flavor and aromas. Water should be freshly drawn for the occasion. Temperature is a key point in extraction—use hotter water for bold, intense, and robust experiences, and cooler water for sweeter, softer, and more gentle experiences. Water should be 170–185 degrees Fahrenheit for green and white teas, 205–212 degrees Fahrenheit for blacks and herbals, and 190–200 for most oolongs. RATIOS: To start, use one teaspoon of full leaf tea per 8-to-10 ounces of water. If you are making a large pot of tea, you may want to add an extra spoonful—“one for the pot.” Adjust to suit your preferences: if the tea isn’t strong enough, add more. TEA INTO WATER, WATER INTO TEA: Pouring water over tea leaves creates a more robust extraction because the leaves are agitated as the water hits them. For milder flavors, add leaves into hot water gently. A good rule of thumb is to bring water to tea for black teas, most oolongs, and herbal infusions. For white teas, green teas, and lighter oolongs, bring the tea to water. TIME: Traditionally, herbal infusions and black teas are steeped for 5 minutes. Green teas, white teas, and lighter offerings are steeped for 3 minutes. When teas are prepared in gongfu fashion, steeping times are much shorter. VESSEL: The best tea is made in a tea pot. While you can brew tea in a coffee cup, Pyrex dish, sauce pan, or an old tin can, it will not be the same. If you don’t have a tea pot, buy one! It’s a wise investment because your vessel affects the flavor and aroma of your tea. Porcelain and glass are the best options to brew a wide variety of tea experiences. Stoneware and clay are best for high-roasted oolongs and pu-erh teas. —BY TONY TELLIN IN THIS ARTICLE: BLACK TEA, BREW RATIO, CTC, EXTRACTION, GONGFU (TEA CEREMONY), GREEN TEA, OOLONG TEA, PU-ERH TEA, WHITE TEA

filtration system is built in, along with a water dispersion plate, making it a pour-over method easily accessible to novices.

WASHED PROCESS A processing method for green coffee in which the sugars present in the mucilage are removed through natural fermentation (56), or mechanical fermentation. After sugars are removed, the beans are taken through a secondary washing to remove any additional debris. (See “Coffee Processing Methods,” 26.)

WASHING CHANNELS In wet-processing, freshly pulped coffee (post-fermentation) is moved to a washing channel, where coffee is suspended in water and agitated with a wood paddle to work off the remaining mucilage. The washing channel also helps separate good seeds from bad— good seeds are dense and sink, and bad ones float.

WASHING STATION Also called a wet mill or beneficio, washing stations are where fresh coffee cherries are brought for pulping, fermentation, and drying.

WATER ACTIVITY Describes water in coffee not bound to other molecules (unbound water), available to support growth of bacteria, yeast, and molds. Water activity (aw) is expressed from 0 to 1.0, ranging from bone dry to pure water, and is determined using a water activity meter, which calculates a ratio comparing coffee’s water vapor pressure in comparison to pure water; cf. moisture content.

WATER-PROCESSED DECAF A process of decaffeinating coffee where green coffee is fully submerged in filtered water to extract

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WET MILL–YUNNAN

F1 HYBRIDS

t’s no secret new coffee varieties are needed. Global temperatures are warming, weather patterns are changing, and threats from pests and disease grow. As demand for coffee increases, the land available to grow arabica is expected to decrease dramatically—and the process to introduce new varieties can’t keep up. A new coffee tree takes two-to-three years to mature, and breeding a new variety of coffee can take 20-plus years to get all

varieties. However, F1 hybrids specifically refer to the first generation result of the parents’ breeding. To produce a “copy” of that F1 (to mass produce the plant) requires either a re-cross of the two parent plants, which is very labor intensive, or cloning in an advanced nursery with a tissue lab. Using seed from an F1 plant gives an F2—or second generation—plant, and leads to “unstable” F2 offspring (meaning they don’t perform the same as the F1 parent—typically

the way to market. But, there’s hope in F1 (first-generation) hybrids. In plant breeding, F1 hybrids are desirable because they exhibit heterosis, or hybrid vigor. Generally, the greater the genetic distance between two parents of a hybrid offspring, the more vigorous the child will be (in coffee breeding, “vigorous” often translates to productivity, uniformity, and better vegetative growth). World Coffee Research and others have been working to use hybrid vigor to coffee’s advantage., An exhaustive study of the genetic diversity of 826 arabica plants enabled WCR to identify how genetically different the plants are from one another so that plants with high levels of distance are mated together to maximize hybrid vigor. With this information, WCR’s breeding team partners with various coffee-producing regions with local breeders to determine desirable qualities for new varieties, helping inform the selection of parent plants for hybrid crosses. The result of all this? The creation of a whole new class of coffee varieties, which show immense promise in assuring a future for coffee in the face of increasing industry challenges.

with losses in yield, quality, overall vigor and other factors). Using seed from F1 hybrid plants can therefore be very risky for farmers.

WHAT ARE F1 HYBRIDS? F1 hybrids are a new group of varieties created by crossing genetically distinct arabica parents and using the first-generation offspring. The handful of F1 hybrid varieties in existence have all been developed in the last 10 years, and only recently become commercially available to farmers. HOW ARE F1 HYBRIDS DIFFERENT THAN OTHER HYBRIDS (E.G. PACAMARA, A CROSS BETWEEN PACAS AND MARAGOGYPE)? Hybrid is a broad term, often used to describe varieties like pacamara, which have been created by crossing two different

WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THESE VARIETIES? In the past, plants bred to withstand harsh weather conditions or resist pest attacks have suffered in one way or another: reduced yield, poor cup quality, etc. The hybrid coffee varieties have the potential to combine traits that matter most to farmers—higher yields and disease resistance—with the trait that matters most to consumers—taste. F1 hybrids also tend to have higher production than non-hybrids (22–47 percent higher yields for one F1 hybrid, called centroamericano) without compromising cup quality or disease resistance. IF HYBRIDS ARE SO GREAT, WHY AREN’T WE SEEING WIDESPREAD USE BY PRODUCERS? As noted above, F1 hybrids are an entirely new type of variety; as they become more widely known it’s expected that use will grow. And F1 hybrids currently can only be produced by technically sophisticated nurseries, which limits access for farmers. (This control is crucial: due to the rules of genetics and how traits are passed from generation to generation in breeding, it’s vital that F1 hybrids are only purchased from trusted nurseries.) WHAT IS THE OUTLOOK FOR THE ACCESSIBILITY OF F1 HYBRIDS? The outlook is promising. Starmaya is an F1 hybrid (with very desirable traits, both at farm level and in the final cup) that can be seed propagated, meaning that parent plants can breed naturally, without the use of high-tech nurseries.

IN THIS ARTICLE: ARABICA, F1 HYBRID, HYBRID VIGOR, HETEROSIS, PACAMARA, STARMAYA, VARIETIES, WORLD COFFEE RESEARCH

August 2017 » Café Encyclopedia

all the soluble material from the beans. The water solution is then filtered through carbon, trapping caffeine, but allowing coffee solids to pass through. Coffee beans are then returned to the flavor-saturated water, allowing them to reabsorb everything but the caffeine.

WET MILL Also called a washing station. The area where fresh coffee cherries are brought for pulping, fermentation, and drying.

WET PILING A fermentation process used for the production of ripe pu-erh. This technique manipulates conditions to accelerate the pu-erh aging process by prolonged bacterial and fungal fermentation in a warm humid environment under controlled conditions. The process of wet piling involves piling, wetting, and turning the tea leaves, is similar to composting (see fig. 4).

WHITE TEA The least processed tea variety—leaves are often simply plucked and dried (see fig. 4).

WHOLE LEAF Unbroken grades of black tea produced by orthodox manufacture. Generally, whole leaf grades yield more flavor than broken leaf grades.

WITHERING A part of tea processing where tea leaves are spread out along troughs and subjected to hot air to reduce moisture and prepare the leaf for rolling without breaking (see fig. 4).

WORLD COFFEE RESEARCH An organization whose goals are to enhance the livelihoods of coffee producers by creating more genetic diversity in coffee varieties, developing technologies to make growing high-quality coffee easier for producers, and foster the next generation of coffee scientists. World Coffee Research is responsible for identifying the 100 most genetically diverse arabicas, and using that information to breed coffee plants for various desirable qualities. (See “F1 Hybrids,” opposite page.)

YUNNAN A province in southwest China that is a prominent tea growing region (see fig. 2). FC

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References & Contributors CONTRIBUTING WRITERS Brian Helfrich, co-owner of Summit Coffee Co.

Haven, Leif. “What is Nitro Coffee?” Eater. September 2015, eater.com.

Chris Ryan, writer and editor focusing on the worlds of specialty coffee and tea; chrisryancr@gmail.com

Heimoff, Steve. “What are Tannins in Wine?” Kendall-Jackson Wines. March 2015, kj.com.

James di Properzio, freelance writer based in Medford, Oregon.

Hoffman, James. “An Introduction to Acidity.” January 2014, jimseven.com.

Jennifer Haare, director of training and staff development at Ipsento Coffee Jessica Easto, author of Craft Coffee Michael Ryan, director of coffee at Dapper & Wise Roasters

Kornman, Chris. “Green Coffee Analytics: Relevance to Roasters, Buyers, and Producers—Part 1: Moisture Content and Total Water Activity,” Royal Coffee. May 2016, royalcoffee.com.

Nathanael May, director of coffee and green coffee buyer for Portland Roasting Coffee

Lawley, Richard. “Ochratoxins,” Food Safety Watch. January 2013, foodsafetywatch.org.

Kyle Freund, digital content manager at Fairtrade America

Rachel Northrop, regular contributor to Fresh Cup, a sales rep for Ally Coffee, and the author of the book When Coffee Speaks: Stories from and of Latin American Coffeepeople Rob Hoos, director of coffee and lead roaster at Nossa Familia Coffee Tony Tellin, head teamaker at Smith Teamaker PEOPLE Alex Rawal, Method Roasters Andres Wilhoff, Wormhole Coffee Andy Reiland, Cafe Imports Rebecca McNelly, Heartland Repair Cerianne Bury, Trabocca Chris Alspach, Upper Left Coffee Roasters Christopher Hendon, University of Oregon David Fasman, Huckleberry Roasters David Pohl, independent coffee consultant Emily McIntyre, Catalyst Coffee Consulting Hanna Neuschwander, World Coffee Research Jeffrey McIntosh, Teabook Joe Marocco, Cafe Imports Katie Gilmer Pon, La Minita Coffee Importers Lucia Solis, Scott Laboratories Mike Ebert, Firedancer Coffee Consultants Ravi Kroesen, Royal Tea New York

McIntosh, Jeffrey. “Decoding Pu-erh,” Fresh Cup Magazine. November 2016, freshcup.com. McIntyre, Emily. “Ridding Coffee of Potato Defect,” Fresh Cup Magazine. September 2014, freshcup.com. Meister, Erin. “Coffee Jargon: Espresso ‘Ristretto.” Serious Eats. May 2012, drinks.seriouseats.com. “Coffee Varieties: Timor Hybrid,” Serious Eats. June 2013, drinks. seriouseats.com. “How Coffee Gets Decaffeinated: Water Process,” Serious Eats. July 2011, drinks.seriouseats.com. “How to Make Japanese-Style Iced Coffee,” Serious Eats. July 2011, drinks.seriouseats.com. “The Refractometer,” Fresh Cup Magazine. January 2015, freshcup.com. Mergel, Maria. “Mercaptans,” Toxipedia. Feb. 2011, toxipedia.org. Misko, Bobby. “What are the Different Lease Types for my Business?” Bongiovi Law Firm. bongiovilaw.com. Ryan, Chris. “Good Genes: Coffee Genetics,” Fresh Cup Magazine. April 2017, freshcup.com. Simsch, Sebastian. “What on Earth is Honey Process?” Seattle Coffeeworks. August 2014, blog.seattlecoffeeworks.com. Tomky, Naomi. “The Ethiopian Coffee Ceremony in America,” Sprudge. January 2016, sprudge.com USGS Water Science School. “Water Hardness.” water.usgs.gov.

Tim Taylor, Ipsento Coffee

Water Research Center Staff. “Hard Water Hardness Calcium Magnesium Water Corrosion Mineral Scale,” Water Research Center. water-research.net.

ARTICLES Bernson, Alex. “The Flat White: Explained,” Sprudge. February 2015, sprudge.com.

BLOGS A&E Coffee & Tea, “Flavor and Aroma: Using the Flavor Wheel to Describe Coffee,” December 2014. aeroastery.com.

Tammy Baiz, Solutions Espresso Service

Ciummo, Brenna. “What is Cascara?” Fresh Cup Magazine. May 2014, freshcup.com. Coleman, Jason. “Moisture in Coffee Equals Quality,” Food Online. foodonline.com. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. “The Coffee Berry Borer is in Hawai’i; How Can We Manage It?” College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. ctahr.hawaii.edu.

Bunn, “Pre-Infusion and the Brewing Process,” April 2009. bunn.com. Casa Brasil, “Methods of Coffee Harvesting.” casabrasilcoffees.com. Clive Coffee, “How do Espresso Machines Work?” March 2017. clivecoffee.com. Coffee Quality Institute, “What is a Q Grader?” coffeeinstitute.org. Counter Culture, “Coffee Varieties.” counterculturecoffee.com.

Di Justo, Patrick. “Here’s Everything That’s Hiding in Your Cup of Coffee,” Business Insider. March 2015, businessinsider.com.

Dark Matter Coffee, “Fermentation.” darkmattercoffee.com.

Editors of Roast Magazine. “Getting to the Roots of Coffee’s Plant Heritage,” Roast Magazine. November 2007, roastmagazine.com.

Five Senses Coffee, “Brew Ratios in Espresso,” February 2015. fivesenses.com.au.

Fretheim, Ian. “Hot Water: Measuring Water Activity in HighEnd, Specialty Green Coffee,” Roast Magazine. January 2014, roastmagazine.com.

Kimemia, Dr. Joseph K. “Batian Coffee: A New Coffee Variety Resistant to Coffee Berry Disease and Coffee Leaf Rust.” ico.org.

August 2017 » Café Encyclopedia

Espresso Parts, “Barista Training Basics.” espressoparts.com.

Heart Coffee Roasters, “Affogato: Espresso Meets Ice Cream,” June 2014, heartroasters.com.

Hello Tea Cup, “What is ‘Wet Piling’ (Wo Dui)?” July 2017, helloteacup.com.

Coffee Chemistry, coffeechemistry.com

Illy, “Oriental Coffee, Also Known as Turkish Coffee.” illy.com. Innovative Worldwide Logistics, Inc., “What is a Freight Broker?” innovativeworldwide.com.

Coffee Research, coffeeresearch.org

Kiva, “What is Microfinance?” kiva.org. La Colombe, “Draft Latte: Defined,” August 2015. blog.lacolombe.com. Mo’s Corner, “What is the Difference Between Volumetric and Gravimetric Dosing?” moscorner.com.

Coffee Genome Hub, coffee-genome.org Coffee Wiki, coffee.wiia.com Colombian Coffee Growers Federation (FNC), federaciondecafeteros.org ECM Espresso Machines, ecm.de Equal Exchange, equalexchange.coop

Royal Cup Coffee and Tea, “What is Specialty Tea?” April 2016, royalcupcoffee.com.

Fair World Project, fairworldproject.org

Smith Teamaker, “Gaiwan Service.” smithtea.com.

Hario, hario.jp

Stroopwafel World, “What is a Stroopwafel?” October 2016, stroopwafelworld.com.

InterAmerican Coffee, interamericancoffee.com

Teabox, “Know Your Tea Grades,” Jan. 2017. teabox.com. “Orthodox vs. CTC Tea,” January 2017. teabox.com.

Kalita USA, kalita-usa.com

The Roasterie, “Coffee Aroma vs. Coffee Fragrance: What’s the Difference?” February 2013. theroasterie.com. Whole Latte Love, “A Beginner’s Guide to Coffee Grinders.” wholelattelove.com. BOOKS Colonna-Dashwood, Maxwell and Christopher H. Hendon. Water for Coffee. United Kingdom, 2015.

GrainPro, Inc., grainpro.com

Intercontinental Coffee Trading, ictcoffee.com Matchless Coffee Soda, matchlesscoffeesoda.com National Coffee Association, ncausa.org Ona Coffee, onacoffee.com.au Plants for a Future, pfaf.org Prima Coffee Equipment, prima-coffee.com Probat, probat.com Red Blossom Tea Company, redblossomtea.com Royal Tea, royalteany.com

Easto, Jessica. Craft Coffee, A Manual. Surrey Books, 2017.

Specialty Coffee Association, sca.coffee

Freeman, James, Caitlin Freeman, Tara Duggan. The Blue Bottle Craft of Coffee: Growing, Roasting, and Drinking, with Recipes. Berkeley, Ten Speed Press, 2012.

Stumptown Coffee Roasters, stumptowncoffee.com

Hoffman, James. The World Atlas of Coffee. London, Octopus Publishing Group Limited, 2014.

Toddy Cold Brew, toddycafe.com University of California–Davis, ucdavis.edu US Coffee Championships, uscoffeechampionships.org

Hoos, Rob. Modulating the Flavor Profile of Coffee. Portland, Lulu, 2015.

Utz, utz.org

Pratt, James Norwood. Tea Dictionary. San Francisco, Tea Society Press, 2010.

World Coffee Research, worldcoffeeresearch.com

Rao, Scott. The Professional Barista’s Handbook: An Expert’s Guide to Preparing Espresso, Coffee, and Tea. United States, 2008. Smith, Krisi. World Atlas of Tea. Buffalo, Firefly Books Inc., 2016. GLOSSARIES Business Dictionary, businessdictionary.com Coffee Glossary by Coffee Review, coffeereview.com Coffee Glossary by Coffee Shrub, coffeeshrub.com Coffee Glossary by Fresh Roasted Coffee, freshroastedcoffee.com Coffee Shop Glossary and Espresso Drink Guide by Manual Coffee Brewing, manualcoffeebrewing.com Coffee Terms—Bean Classification and Grading by Zecuppa Coffee, zecuppa.com Espresso Machine Parts Glossary by Espresso Parts, espressoparts.com Sweet Maria’s Glossary, legacy.sweetmarias.com Tea Terminology by Teatulia Organic Teas, teatulia.com COFFEE AND TEA WEBSITES Alliance for Coffee Excellence, allianceforcoffeeexcellence.org Atlas Coffee Importers, atlascoffee.com Cafe Imports, cafeimports.com Chemex Coffeemaker, chemexcoffeemaker.com

Victoria Arduino, victoriaarduino.com

OTHER WEBSITES Encyclopaedia Brittanica, brittanica.com Investopedia, investopedia.com Turbo Chef, turbochef.com United States Department of Labor, dol.gov United States Small Business Association, sba.gov STUDIES Jayabalan, Rasu, Radomir V. Malbaša, Eva S. Lončar, Jasmina S. Vitas, Muthuswamy Satishkumar. A Review on Kombucha Tea— Microbiology, Composition, Fermentation, Beneficial Effects, Toxicity, and Tea Fungus (Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 2014). Small, Dana M., Johannes C. Gerber, Y. Erika Mak, Thomas Hummel. Differential Neural Responses Evoked by Orthonasal versus Retronasal Odorant Perception in Humans (Neuron 47, 4, 2005). 593–605. Yashin, Alexander, Yakov Yashin, Jing Uuan Wang, Boris Nemzer. Antioxidant and Antiradical Activity of Coffee (US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, 2013).

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ADVERTISER Index Go to freshcup.com/resources/fresh-cup-advertisers to view the Advertiser Index and the websites listed below.

ADVERTISER

CONTACT

ONLINE

Barista Pro Shop

866.776.5288

baristaproshop.com/ad/fresh

Brazil International Coffee Week

55.11.3586.2233

internationalcoffeeweek.com.br

Brewista

888.538.8683

mybrewista.com

Cappuccine

800.511.3127

cappuccine.net

Coffee Fest

425.295.3300

coffeefest.com

Coffee Planet

310.880.5337

coffeeplanet.com

DaVinci Gourmet

800.640.6779

davincigourmet.com

Descamex

844.472.8429

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Ditting

810.367.7125

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FETCO

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Florida Restaurant & Lodging Show

203.242.8124

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Fresh Cup Magazine

503.236.2587

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Ghirardelli Chocolate

800.877.9338

ghirardelli.com/professional

Golden Bean

310.266.2827

goldenbean.com

Gosh That's Good! Brand

888.848.GOSH (4674)

goshthatsgood.com

Grandstand Glassware + Apparel

800.767.8951

egrandstand.com/coffee

Holy Kakow

503.484.8316

holykakow.com

Java Jacket

800.208.4128

javajacket.com

Malabar Gold Espresso

650.366.5453

malabargoldespresso.com

Monin Gourmet Flavorings

855.FLAVOR1 (352.8671)

monin.com

Mountain Cider Co.

800.483.2416

mountaincider.com

Oregon Chai

888.874.CHAI (2424)

kerryfoodservice.com/brands/oregon-chai 5

Organic Products Trading Co

888.881.4433

optco.com

RetailMugs.com

970.222.9559

retailmugs.com

SelbySoft

800.454.4434

selbysoft.com

SerendipiTea

888.TEA.LIFE (832.5433)

serendipitea.com

Toddy

888.863.3974

toddycafe.com

Torani

800.775.1925

torani.com/foodservice

Vessel Drinkware

855.883.7735

vesseldrinkware.com

Vio by WinCup

800.292.2877

viofoam.com

Your Brand Café

866.566.0390

yourbrandcafe.com

12, 27

Zojirushi America

800.264.6270

zojirushi.com

51, 75

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