International Journal of Educational Studies | IJES | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 by FSSH Scholarly Journals

Volume 13, Number 1, 2016 Editorial Board Adam P. Howard City University of New York/Hostos Community College, United States Jeremy J. Edward East Stroudsburg University, United States Jamil M. Sharif Emirates College for Advanced Education, United Arab Emirates Dennis R. Edgar Centre for Education and Research, University of Northampton, United Kingdom Editor in Chief Nicole A Hansen Florida International University (FIU) Editors Jeremy J. Edward, East Stroudsburg University, United States Jamil M. Sharif, Emirates College for Advanced Education, United Arab Emirates Dennis R. Edgar, Centre for Education and Research, University of Northampton, United Kingdom Alfredo U. Santos, Interdisciplinary Research Centre for Education and Development -ULHT, Lisbon, Portugal Jung-Hyun Kok, Utah Valley University, United States Muhammad Ataf, United Arab Emirates University, United Arab Emirates A Huang Min, Central China Normal University, China Patrick O. John, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom Suraphong Soepwongli, The Political Science Association of Kasetsart University, Thailand Hamid Ali Abed Al-Asadi, Faculty of Education for Pure Science, Basra UniversityBasra, Iraq Professor Jacob M. Jaffe, College of Technology Education,Tel Aviv Jordyn R Holbrook, North Carolina Central University Mark L Bowden, The University of Melbourne, Australia Stephen A Horn, University of Michigan Nicole A Hansen, Florida International University (FIU) Professor Jamie R Kirstin, University of Edinburg Logan P. Munroe, Ph.D., School of Advanced Study, University of London Martin P Atkinson, Faculty of Medicine | Imperial College London Dr. Francis Kyambo William, The University Of Dodoma, Tanzania, United Republic of Logan P. Munroe, Ph.D., School of Advanced Study, University of London

Professor Jacob M. Jaffe, College of Technology Education,Tel Aviv Professor Jamie R Kirstin, University of Edinburg Baila R. Ayelet, Ph.D., The Interdisciplinary Center |Herzliya Professor Catrina J. Cameron, College of Law and Business | Ramat Gan Massood Yazdanimoghaddam, Islamic Azad University,South Tehran Branch, Islamic Republic of Iran Dr. Generoso Nielo Mazo, Leyte Normal University, Philippines Rosa Branca Tracana, Institute Polythecnic of Guarda, Portugal Huei-Chen Yeh, St. John's University, Taiwan, Taiwan, Province of China Claudiu Mereuta, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania Kester O. Lauchlan, Ph.D., College of Management Academic Studies (COMAS) Dr Awwalu Muhammad Inuwa, Department of Educational Foundations Faculty Education and Extension Services Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto,Sokoto State Nigeria, Nigeria Dr Atieno Kili K'Odhiambo, University of Nairobi, Kenya Mr. Stephen Asatsa, The Catholic University of Eastern Africa, Kenya Cittoor Girija Navaneedhan, Indian Institute of Technology , Chennai, India Dr Ayuba Guga, Department of Educational Foundation and Curriculum, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria., Nigeria Dr Evelyn Roach, East Tennessee State University and Tusculum College, United States Omayma Aboulella Hamed, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University- Egypt, Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research (FAIMER- Philadelphia- USA - Faculty of Medicine- King Abdulaziz University- KSA, Saudi Arabia Dr. Adena B. Avigail, University of Haifa Dr. Samsiah Mohd Jais, Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia Mr Pir Irfan Rashdi, Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Pakistan Prof. Kamel Hussein Rahouma, Currently: Qassim University, Saudi Arabia Permanently: Minia University, Egypt Dr. Supriadi MP.d., Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia Dr. Rommel Lagutan Verecio, Leyte Normal University Paterno St., Tacloban City, Philippines, Philippines

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Editorial ........................................................................................................................................ i – vi Preparing a Computer Software for Multiple Choice Electronic Tests for the Obligatory Courses in Al Qassim University, Saudi Arabia, and Measuring Its Effects on the Male and Female Students Kamel Hussein Rahouma .................................................................................................... 1 – 34 Metaphorical Thinking: Its Link to Neuro Chemistry of Learning C. Girija Navaneedhan & T.J.Kamalanabhan .................................................................. 35 – 44 Impact of School Based Management Committee on The Management of Public Primary Schools in Nasarawa State Nuhu Ishaq Lawal, Dauda Abdulmutalib Gambo & Suleiman Aminu ....................... 45 – 56 Time Allotment and Scope of the Student Teacher Practicum Program of a Philippine University: Implementers’ Perspectives Generoso N. Mazo, Ph.D. ................................................................................................. 57 – 72 Influence of Fadama I Project on the Socio-Economic Status of Farmers in Kebbi and Sokoto States, Nigeria B.I. Okeh, Ph.D., C. Uguru, Ph.D., & N. I. Lawal .......................................................... 73 – 86 Development of Gesture Language-Based Oral Expression Learning Media for Speech Impaired Students at Inclusive School Wati Istanti & Santi Pratiwi Tri Utami ............................................................................ 87 – 94 Need And Extent of Religion as a Catalyst for Management of Guidance and Counseling to Students in Kenyan Schools David Nyaga Bururia .........................................................................................................95 – 100

ABSTRACTING AND INDEXING

The articles in the FSSH Scholarly Journals will be indexed and abstracted by the following database.

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377 http://fssh-journal.org

EDITORIAL Multicultural education is an idea, an approach to school reform, and a movement for equity, social justice, and democracy. Specialists within multicultural education emphasize different components and cultural groups. However, a significant degree of consensus exists within the field regarding its major principles, concepts, and goals. A major goal of multicultural education is to restructure schools so that all students acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function in an ethnically and racially diverse nation and world. Multicultural education seeks to ensure educational equity for members of diverse racial, ethnic, cultural, and socioeconomic groups, and to facilitate their participation as critical and reflective citizens in an inclusive national civic culture. Multicultural education tries to provide students with educational experiences that enable them to maintain commitments to their community cultures as well as acquire the knowledge, skills, and cultural capital needed to function in the national civic culture and community. Multicultural theorists view academic knowledge and skills as necessary but not sufficient for functioning in a diverse nation and world. They regard skills in democratic living and the ability to function effectively within and across diverse groups as essential goals of schooling. Multicultural education is highly consistent with the ideals embodied in the U.S. Constitution, the Declaration of Independence, and the Bill of Rights. It seeks to extend the rights and privileges granted to the nation's founding elitesâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;the ideals of freedom, equality, justice, and democracyâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;to all social, cultural and language groups. Multicultural education addresses deep and persistent social divisions across various groups, and seeks to create an inclusive and transformed mainstream society. Multicultural educators view cultural difference as a national strength and resource rather than as a problem to be overcome through assimilation. Multicultural education emerged during the civil rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s. It grew out of the demands of ethnic groups for inclusion in the curricula of schools, colleges, and universities. Although multicultural education is an outgrowth of the ethnic studies movement of the 1960s, it has deep historical roots in the African-American ethnic studies movement that emerged in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Initiated by scholars such as George Washington Williams, Carter G. Woodson, W. E. B. DuBois, and Charles H. Wesley, the primary goal of the early ethnic studies movement was to challenge the negative images and stereotypes of African Americans prevalent in mainstream scholarship by creating accurate descriptions of the life, history, and contributions of African Americans. These scholars had a personal, professional, and enduring commitment to the uplift of i

Editorial

African Americans. They believed that creating positive self-images of African Americans was essential to their collective identity and liberation. They also believed that stereotypes and negative beliefs about African Americans could be effectively challenged by objective historical research that was also capable of transforming mainstream academic knowledge. Carter G. Woodson–one of the leading scholars of the early ethnic studies movement–helped found the Association for the Study of Negro (now AfroAmerican) Life and History in 1915. The association played a key role in the production and dissemination of African-American historical scholarship. In addition to writing numerous scholarly works and editing the association's publications, Woodson initiated Negro History Week (now Black History Month) to focus attention in the nation's schools on the life and history of African Americans. In 1922 Woodson published a college textbook, The Negro in Our History, which was used in many African-American schools and colleges. In response to public demand for classroom materials, he wrote an elementary textbook, Negro Makers of History, followed by The Story of the Negro Retold for senior high schools. Woodson also wrote, edited, and published African-American children's literature. In 1937 he began publication of The Negro History Bulletin, a monthly magazine for teachers and students featuring stories about exemplary teachers and curriculum projects, historical narratives, and biographical sketches. When the ethnic studies movement was revived in the 1960s, African Americans and other marginalized ethnic groups refused assimilationist demands to renounce their cultural identity and heritage. They insisted that their lives and histories be included in the curriculum of schools, colleges, and universities. In challenging the dominant paradigms and concepts taught in the schools and colleges, multicultural educators sought to transform the Eurocentric perspective and incorporate multiple perspectives into the curriculum. By the late 1980s multicultural theorists recognized that ethnic studies was insufficient to bring about school reforms capable of responding to the academic needs of students of color. They consequently shifted their focus from the mere inclusion of ethnic content to deep structural changes in schools. During these years, multicultural educators also expanded from a primary focus on ethnic groups of color to other group categories, such as social class, language and gender. Although conceptually distinct, the key social categories of multicultural education– race, class, gender, and culture–are interrelated. Multicultural theorists are concerned with how these social variables interact in identity formation, and about the consequences of multiple and contextual identities for teaching and learning. During the 1970s a number of professional organizations–such as the National Council for Social Studies, the National Council of Teachers of English, and the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education–issued policy statements and publications that encouraged the integration of ethnic content into the school and teacher education curriculum. In 1973 the title of the forty-third ii

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) was Teaching Ethnic Studies: Concepts and Strategies. NCSS published Curriculum Guidelines for Multiethnic Education in 1976, which was revised and reissued in 1992 as Curriculum Guidelines for Multicultural Education. A turning point in the development of multicultural education occurred in 1977 when the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) issued standards for the accreditation of teacher education. The standards required all NCATE member institutions (about 80% of the teacher education programs in the United States) to implement components, courses, and programs in multicultural education. Over the past two decades more ethnic content has appeared in the textbooks used in elementary and secondary schools in the United States. An increasing number of teachers are using anthologies in literature programs that include selections written by women and authors of color. In addition, the market for books dealing with multicultural education has gown substantially, and some of the nation's leading colleges and universities, including the University of California at Berkeley and the University of Minnesota, have either revised their core curriculum to include ethnic content or have established ethnic studies course requirements. The Dimensions of Multicultural Education James A. Banks's Dimensions of Multicultural Education is used widely by school districts to conceptualize and develop courses, programs, and projects in multicultural education. The five dimensions are:(1) content integration; (2) the knowledge construction process; (3) prejudice reduction; (4) an equity pedagogy; and (5) an empowering school culture and social structure. Although each dimension is conceptually distinct, in practice they overlap and are interrelated. Content integration. Content integration deals with the extent to which teachers use examples and content from a variety of cultures and groups to illustrate key concepts, principles, generalizations, and theories in their subject area or discipline. The infusion of ethnic and cultural content into a subject area is logical and not contrived when this dimension is implemented properly. More opportunities exist for the integration of ethnic and cultural content in some subject areas than in others. There are frequent and ample opportunities for teachers to use ethnic and cultural content to illustrate concepts, themes, and principles in the social studies, the language arts, and in music. Opportunities also exist to integrate multicultural content into math and science. However, they are less ample than they are in social studies and the language arts. Content integration is frequently mistaken by school practitioners as comprising the whole of multicultural education, and is thus viewed as irrelevant to instruction in disciplines such as math and science. The knowledge construction process. The knowledge construction process describes teaching activities that help students to understand, investigate, and determine how the implicit cultural assumptions, frames of references, iii

Editorial

perspectives, and biases of researchers and textbook writers influence the ways in which knowledge is constructed. Multicultural teaching involves not only infusing ethnic content into the school curriculum, but changing the structure and organization of school knowledge. It also includes changing the ways in which teachers and students view and interact with knowledge, helping them to become knowledge producers, not merely the consumers of knowledge produced by others. The knowledge construction process helps teachers and students to understand why the cultural identities and social positions of researchers need to be taken into account when assessing the validity of knowledge claims. Multicultural theories assert that the values, personal histories, attitudes, and beliefs of researchers cannot be separated from the knowledge they create. They consequently reject positivist claims of disinterested and distancing knowledge production. They also reject the possibility of creating knowledge that is not influenced by the cultural assumptions and social position of the knowledge producer. In multicultural teaching and learning, paradigms, themes, and concepts that exclude or distort the life experiences, histories, and contributions of marginalized groups are challenged. Multicultural pedagogy seeks to reconceptualize and expand the Western canon, to make it more representative and inclusive of the nation's diversity, and to reshape the frames of references, perspectives, and concepts that make up school knowledge. Prejudice reduction. The prejudice reduction dimension of multicultural education seeks to help students develop positive and democratic racial attitudes. It also helps students to understand how ethnic identity is influenced by the context of schooling and the attitudes and beliefs of dominant social groups. The theory developed by Gordon Allport (1954) has significantly influenced research and theory in intergroup relations. He hypothesized that prejudice can be reduced by interracial contact if the contact situations have these characteristics: (1) they are cooperative rather than competitive; (2) the individuals experience equal status; and (3) the contact is sanctioned by authorities such as parents, principals and teachers. An equity pedagogy. An equity pedagogy exists when teachers modify their teaching in ways that will facilitate the academic achievement of students from diverse racial, cultural, socioeconomic, and language groups. This includes using a variety of teaching styles and approaches that are consistent with the range of learning styles within various cultural and ethnic groups, such as being demanding but highly personalized when working with American Indian and Native Alaskan students. It also includes using cooperative learning techniques in math and science instruction to enhance the academic achievement of students of color. An equity pedagogy rejects the cultural deprivation paradigm that was developed in the early 1960s. This paradigm posited that the socialization experiences in the home and community of low-income students prevented them iv

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

from attaining the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed for academic success. Because the cultural practices of low-income students were viewed as inadequate and inferior, cultural deprivation theorists focused on changing student behavior so that it aligned more closely with mainstream school culture. An equity pedagogy assumes that students from diverse cultures and groups come to school with many strengths. Multicultural theorists describe how cultural identity, communicative styles, and the social expectations of students from marginalized ethnic and racial groups often conflict with the values, beliefs, and cultural assumptions of teachers. The middle-class mainstream culture of the schools creates a cultural dissonance and disconnect that privileges students who have internalized the school's cultural codes and communication styles. Teachers practice culturally responsive teaching when an equity pedagogy is implemented. They use instructional materials and practices that incorporate important aspects of the family and community culture of their students. Culturally responsive teachers also use the "cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them" (Gay, p. 29.( An empowering school culture. This dimension involves restructuring the culture and organization of the school so that students from diverse racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and language groups experience equality. Members of the school staff examine and change the culture and social structure of the school. Grouping and labeling practices, sports participation, gaps in achievement among groups, different rates of enrollment in gifted and special education programs among groups, and the interaction of the staff and students across ethnic and racial lines are important variables that are examined and reformed. An empowering school structure requires the creation of qualitatively different relationships among various groups within schools. Relationships are based on mutual and reciprocal respect for cultural differences that are reflected in school-wide goals, norms, and cultural practices. An empowering school structure facilitates the practice of multicultural education by providing teachers with opportunities for collective planning and instruction, and by creating democratic structures that give teachers, parents, and school staff shared responsibility for school governance.

Editorial

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377 http://fssh-journal.org

PREPARING A COMPUTER SOFTWARE FOR MULTIPLE CHOICE ELECTRONIC TESTS FOR THE OBLIGATORY COURSES IN AL QASSIM UNIVERSITY, SAUDI ARABIA, AND MEASURING ITS EFFECTS ON THE MALE AND FEMALE STUDENTS KAMEL HUSSEIN RAHOUMA Professor of Computer Science Coordinator of the Computer Science Program Head of the Computer Science Department Vice Dean of Research & Postgraduate Affairs Faculty of Science & Arts in Oklat Assoqour Al Qassim University, Saudi Arabia Permanent work: Faculty of Engineering, Minia University, Minia, Egypt Abstract The educational system, in Saudi Arabia, obliges all university students to study common eight course. The obligatory courses are: Principals of the political system in Islam, Islam and building the society, Introduction to the Islamic literacy, The linguistic skills, Arabic editing, Thinking skills and learning techniques, Economical system in Islam, Communication skills. This study aims to prepare a computer software for the multiple-choice electronic tests and examinations of these courses because of the big numbers of students. The study aims also to explore the male and female students' views in regard with the features of the software and its effects on them: before, during, and after taking the tests. Two questionnaires are prepared for the two purposes. The questionnaires and the software are distributed twice on a group of 35 specialists in education and software design with 4 weeks as a gap time. Thirty two specialists answered the first questionnaire and 30 specialists answered the second one. A statistical analysis, using Microsoft Excel, of the responses of the specialists, shows that the software and questionnaires are highly valid and reliable. An explorative study is applied for one of the obligatory courses and the first questionnaire was distributed to the male (197) and female (135) students. The application was done in the first semester of the university year 1435/1436 Hejri (2014/2015). Based on the responses of the students, the software is updated. The updated version of the software is finally applied to the male (1973) and female (1584) students and the second questionnaire was answered by all the students took the tests. Results of the final application proved the study hypotheses.

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

Keywords: Evaluation methodologies, CAL systems, gender studies, improving classroom teaching. INTRODUCTION Tests and examinations are almost the only accepted tool that help teacher evaluate their students' learning levels. Teachers and professors utilize them at different times during the teaching process. Paper tests and examinations (PTEs) have been used for very long times. With the spread of computers and mobile devices, the PTEs started to be replaced by electronic forms. There are two types of ETEs. The first type refers to doing the exams in paper and pen, and doing marking using electronic machines. This may happen in tests like TOEFL and ELTS tests. The second type refers to doing the tests and marking them electronically. Computer programs present the tests to the students such that the answers are automatically marked. This paper is interested in the second type. Therefore, a computerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; software is designed to present objective questions to the students. When the students answer, the answers are automatically marked. The paper gives the procedures and results of that the software design and application. The paper investigates the views of specialists and male and female students about the features of the developed software. The paper, also, explores the views of male and female students about the effects of applying the tests electronically on them. In the Faculty of Science and Arts in Oklat Assoqour (FSAOA), Al Qassim University, Saudi Arabia, the administration started a good step to testify the application of ETEs to its students. After discussions with the deanship, the multiple-choice tests were chosen to apply for the obligatory courses. A literature review supports the direction of using the multiple-choice type. In [1], the authors introduce three different types of multiple choice test schemes and compares between them. a) The standard format is the normal format and it gives a stem and alternatives. If the chooses a correct alternative, a 1 score is gained and if not no score is gained. b) The hedging format means repeating the question twice and the student answers the question twice. If the two answers are correct, 2 points are earned. If the two answers are wrong, nothing is earned. If one is correct, only 1 point is scored. c) The Value choice format gives the question once and it gives the student a possibility to weight the question score (1 or 2 or 3). So based on the students' confidence, the score is earned, and the confidence level can be computed according to the scores, which the students give to the questions.

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

The 3 formats were compared in regard with the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; risk preference and confidence in their answers. Data were collected at both Louisiana State University (LSU) and Georgia College & State University (GCSU) where the courses of macro-economicsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; principles, micro-economics principles, and survey of economics were delivered during the fall 1997 and spring 1999 semesters. Each term, there were at least two sections (i.e., classes) of students per course, and there was at least one control group that was given the standard format. Altogether, there are about 1400 exam scores included in the model. Four different regressions were run, one for each instructorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s course. The results showed that none of the special exam formats had a significant effect on the scores. The insignificance of the hedge variable indicates that students on average are risk-neutral when it comes to answering exam questions. The value variable format was also insignificant [1]. In [2], the authors show that test makers and test takers have a strong and systematic tendency for hiding correct answers-or, respectively, for seeking themin middle positions. In single, isolated questions, both prefer middle positions to extreme ones in a ratio of up to 3 or 4 to 1. Because test makers routinely, deliberately, and excessively balance the answer key of operational tests, middle bias almost; though not quite, disappears in those keys. Examinees, taking real tests, also produce answer sequences that are more balanced than their single question tendencies but less balanced than the correct key. In a typical four-choice test, about 55% of erroneous answers are in the two central positions. The authors show that this bias is large enough to have real psychometric consequences, as questions with middle correct answers are easier and less discriminating than questions with extreme correct answers, a fact of which some implications are explored [2]. In [3], the author showed that students often prefer multiple choice tests because they think it is easier then open questions. It also showed that some teachers prefer to give their students multiple-choice' tests because they are easy to mark: an answer is either correct, or not - they do not have to read the answer and evaluate it, they only have to compare the answers to their list of 'correct answers. Students tend to gamble and guess the solutions of the multiple-choice items. The paper gives a mathematical treatment (section 5.5) on how to deal with the effects of such gambling and guessing [3]. In [4], the authors present the real reasons which constraint the application of the E-learning in higher education institutions in Saudi Arabia (Case study: Qassim University) and some suggested solutions. A questionnaire has been designed for the study include 48 paragraphs, divided into 5 parts. The first includes the principal information, the second defines how the technology can be used in the E-learning, the third deals with how to support the E-learning idea, the fourth part explains the difficulties and challenges that face the application of E-learning, the fifth part is to provide suggestions for solving the problem. The study has 100 samples for faculty members and undergraduate students in Ar-Rass college of 3

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

Science and Arts, male Departments at Qassim University. The study indicates that the main factors that obstruct the E-learning is the financial support from saving advanced PC's, labs, and establishing strong computer network, adding to the weakness of some faculty members and student to English language. The study focuses on the suggested solution for the problem by applying the electronic subjects and imposes the whole faculty members to prepare at least one course in electronic form [4]. Thus, we aim here to use a prepared computer software to apply the ETEs tests and exams using multiple-choice questions banks. Also, we aim to measure the effects of using such a computer software on the male and female students. The paper includes an introduction in section (1), followed by the problem of the study in section (2). In section (3), aims of the study are introduced and in section (4), the questions of the study are highlighted. A theoretical framework is explained and in section (5) and the hypotheses of the study are formulated in section (6). Methodology of the study is explained in section (7) and the results of the study are discussed in section (8). Some conclusions and recommendations are given in section (9). At the end, a list of the used references is given. PROBLEM OF THE STUDY The Educational system in Saudi Arabia obliges all the university students to study eight courses. These courses are call "The General Preparation Course" and they include: Principals of the political system in Islam, Islam and building the society, Introduction to the Islamic literacy, The linguistic skills, Arabic editing, Thinking skills and learning techniques, Economical system in Islam, Communication skills. Due to the big numbers of students and the waste of efforts, money, and time, in preparing and applying the PETs for these courses, the researcher got the idea of preparing a computer software and a question bank, for these courses and performing the tests and exams electronically. This direction was assisted by gaining the institutional accreditation by Al Qassim University in (2103). Since then, the University and its Colleges are into serious steps towards the accreditation of their educational programs. In 2014, QU announced the starting of a new deanship called "Deanship of Electronic Learning". This actually was a great step to cope with the international atmosphere to utilize the electronic learning in the educational programs. E-Learning concepts may spread to include every activity of the educational process. One main activity is the evaluation and assessment of the educational programs. Thus, the electronic tests and examinations (ETEs) may appear as a good and fulfilling tool for such a purpose. Thus, this study aims to answer the following main question: What are the views of specialists and students in regard with the features of the prepared ETEs software, and what are its effects of the male and female students?

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

AIMS OF THE STUDY This study aims to: 1. Exploring the specialists and male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with accepting the features of the ETEs. 2. Comparing the averages of scores of male and female students of the FSAOA QU, after applying the ETEs software. 3. Comparing the averages of answers' weights of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with the effects of the ETEs on them before, during, and after taking the tests. 4. Comparing the averages of answers' weights of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with taking the ETEs tests instead of the PTEs tests. QUESTIONS OF THE STUDY From that main question, we can highlight the following branched questions: 1. Are there any statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with accepting the features of the ETEs? 2. Are there any statistical significant differences between the averages of scores of male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, because of using the ETEs software? 3. Are there any statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with the effects of the ETEs on them before taking the tests? 4. Are there any statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with the effects of the ETEs on them during taking the tests? 5. Are there any statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with the effects of the ETEs on them after taking the tests? 6. Are there any statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with taking the ETEs tests instead of the PTEs tests? THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Properties and Advantages of ETEs ETEs are more: easier, faster, accurate, flexible, objective, lower long-term cost (time â&#x20AC;&#x201C; effort â&#x20AC;&#x201C; money), reliable, valid, interactive, cheating limiter, feedback provider, multimedia using, automatic (In: performance, marking and saving records), trusted and comfortable (for: students and teachers) than PTEs [5-8].

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

Disadvantages of ETEs 1. Not all students can use the computer very well. 2. It does not give teachers the options to see your line of thinking to get to your answer. 3. Technology is not always reliable. Information can be lost if a system breaks down. 4. In some cases, teachers need some technical expertise to create exams. 5. The costs to set up an electronic assessment system in a learning institution or a business' training environment can cost thousands, even tens of thousands[7]. Multiple-choice ETEs Many forms of ETE' questions have been proposed and implemented such as multiple choice, matching items, true/false, as well as the completion tests. Some of these tests are more attractive to teachers and students. Also from the computer point of view, certain forms of tests are more suitable for programming. The mentioned types of tests were discussed with the FSAOA, the multiple-choice type was selected for application. Tips for Writing Good Multiple Choice Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

14. 15. 16.

Each question should present a single and clearly formulated problem. Each question must be in a simple and understood language. The answer choices "all of the above" and "none of the above" are avoided. Distractors should be plausible and homogenous. Response alternatives should not overlap. Double negations are not used. Each item should be independent of others. A good question allows that students who know the content to answer before reading the alternatives Alternatives are written in separate lines, indented, separated by blank lines, and using letters vs. numbers. Using four or five answer alternatives is best. Setting the range of questions' difficulty and the length and time limits for the test (use a clock for time showing). Matching the questions' bank to the taught content before applying the test. Checking up the validity, reliability and balancing of the tests. A test is valid if it helps to assess the students' achievement and it is reliable if it accurately assesses the students' performance. A group of students can take the same test twice and they get the same scores. Questions should explore the students' skills and not just recalling. Questions should fulfill the Bloom's taxonomy (or at least the first 3 levels) for test's development and use the suitable verbs. If the course has graduate student' instructors, they can help to design or to review and comment the exam. 6

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

17. Cheating and academic dishonesty must be prevented by randomizing the tests' questions and their answer alternatives for each student. 18. Questions' bank should be updated each time you apply the test by adding new questions or modifying the old ones. 19. A questions' bank can be developed or updated by writing test items at the end of each class, collecting them for later sorting and compare them to your bank questions. Students can share by giving some items. 20. Tests should be cumulative to help students review material they studied, reinforce what they learned and to give them a chance to integrate and synthesize the course content. 21. Clear instructions must be given to the students before starting the test. 22. Some advice and encouragement for the students should be given to the students before starting the test. 23. The test should start by some easy questions and some difficult ones. 24. Timing should be as about one minute per item for multiple-choice tests and matching tests. Notice that you should allow students about three or four times as long as it takes you (or a graduate student instructor) to complete the test. 25. The layout must consider: text font, size, color, and spacing, clear pictures. 26. Allowing the students to go freely throughout the test for answering or reviewing. 27. Reminding the student (before submission) if any questions are unsolved or more than one alternative are chosen for a question. 28. Ending and submitting the test if the allowed time is finished [9 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 17]. Gambling and Guessing in Multiple-choice Tests Multiple choice tests allow the students to gamble by picking the correct answer by chance. To avoid all guessing and gambling, teachers make sure the proposed answers really are in random order and subtract points for wrong answers to discourage students from gambling. Make the subtraction points reasonable (if the correct answer adds 5 points, make the wrong answer subtracts 2 or 3 points). Here, we explain the mathematical approach of how to apply that [3]: Suppose the earned score of the correct answer is pc and the lost score of the wrong answer is pf, where the number of alternatives for the answer is na, then we can compute pf as follows: pf = pc / (na â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1) For instance, if pc = 3, na = 4, then pf = 3 / (4-1) = 1 if pc = 4, na = 5, then pf = 4 / (5-1) = 1

(1)

Accordingly, if we have N questions, the pass score is np, number of correct questions is nc, number of false questions is nf, then:

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

Total score of correct answers = nc * pc Total score of wrong answers = nf * pf Thus the total earned score = nc * pc – nf * pf To pass the test, the total earned score must be equal to or greater than pp (the pass score). Therefore, the minimum number of questions that the student must answer correctly is computed as follows: but Thus: Then: Then:

pp = nc * pc – nf * pf nf = N – nc pp = nc * pc – (N – nc) * pf = nc * pc – N * pf + nc * pf pp + N * pf = nc * pc + nc * pf = nc * (pc + pf) nc = (pp + N * pf) / (pc + pf)

(2)

Equation (2) gives the minimum number of questions that the student must answer correctly to pass the exam. For instance, if N = 100, pp = 60%, pc = 3, pf = 1, then the minimum number of questions, the student must answer correctly to pass the test is (180 + 100 * 1)/4 = 280/4 = 70 questions. Notice that if this number is fractional, we may round it to the ceiling integer value. HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY Hypotheses of the study are exactly the answers of its questions. Thus, according to the questions in part (2); the literature review in part (4); the field experience of the researcher; and the nature of the study problem, the hypotheses of the study are: 1. There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with accepting the features of the ETEs. 2. There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of scores of male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, because of using the ETEs software? 3. There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with the effects of the ETEs on them before taking the tests. 4. There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with the effects of the ETEs on them during taking the tests. 5. There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with the effects of the ETEs on them after taking the tests. 6. There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with taking the ETEs tests instead of the PTEs tests.

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY This study uses the experimental methodology to verify its hypotheses. The following sections describe the procedures of the study: Limitations of the Study The study is limited by the following: 1. Subjective limitations: a. The study is limited to investigate the statistical differences between the specialists’ views and between the male and female students' views in regard with the features of the prepared ETEs’ software as well as its effects on the students. b. The application is limited to the general obligatory courses taught to all the university students in Al Qassim University. There are eight general common courses: (1) principals of the political system in Islam; (2) Islam and building the society; (3) introduction to the Islamic literacy; (4) the linguistic skills; (5) Arabic editing; (6) thinking skills and learning techniques; (7) economical system in Islam; (8) communication skills. 2. Specimen of the study The study population includes all the university students in Al Qassim University who study the general obligatory courses. However, the study specimen is limited to the students of the FSAOA in QU, Saudi Arabia. 3. Time of study application The study was applied in the first semester of the university year 1435/1436 Hejri (2014/2015). Tools of the Study 1. A software is prepared using the Microsoft VB 6. 2. A students' questionnaire about the features of the prepared ETEs software. 3. A second students’ questionnaire about the effects of the ETEs’ software on them. In the following subsections, these tools are explained in details. a. The ETEs Software: According to the results in the last section, the software was updated as follows. 1) Advantages of the software: a) It is easy and accurate. b) It has an English and an Arabic version. c) The questions' bank is simply a text file. Thus, it is easy to add/delete/modify the questions items. 9

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

d) Marking is automatic and the gained score appears after each answer. e) The test is finished by answering the last question. f) Answers of the student are saved in a file by the student's name. This file includes the test information, the student's details, the exam questions, the student's answers, the correct answers, the student's scores and the time taken to answer the test. g) The software gives the earned score after answering each question. h) The software decreases the load of efforts, time, and money waste in the paper written exams. i) The software generates the tests randomly for each student and this decreases the students' cheating during the exam. j) The software can be updated to measure more learning skills. 2) Set up the software The software needs some settings before applying it. This is done by making sure that some files are available in certain formats and in some folders as follows: a) A file, called "studentsinfo.txt", is located in a folder "c:\data\", and it includes the information of students including the university ID, name, level, branch, test subject, study year, semester, student's status (fresh or carrying the subject from a previous semester). All information are separated by comas from each other. b) A file, called "setexam.txt", is located in the folder "c:\data\", and it includes the number of test's items and the total number of items in the bank in separate lines, c) The questions' bank is saved in a text file with the same name of the subject of test, in the folder "c:\data\". Each item needs six lines: the first line gives the stem, the following four lines give four alternatives of the answer, and the last line gives the correct answer. To add a question to the bank, we simply append it at the end of the bank using six lines. d) The software creates a folder "c:\results\" for the results. e) Each subject's results are saved in a separate folder by its name of the test subject. Files by the names of students are created to contain their answers. 3) Operating the software a) Double click the software icon "Electronic Tests", then a screen will appear (figure 1) giving the details of the program owner and three buttons; "Read Me", "Do a test" and "End the program" where: (1) The "Read Me" option explains how to do the test. (2) The "Do a test" starts a test. (3) The "End the program" option ends the program and goes back to the program folder.

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

Figure (1): The first screen of the program b) Click the button "Do a test", then a screen appears requesting to enter the student's university identification number in a correct way then pressing enter. Notice: In case of giving an invalid identification number (a number that is not included in the file of students' information), a message appears asking the student to re-enter a valid number until a correct number is given. c) Once a valid student's university identification number is entered, a screen appears (figure 2) giving the "multiple choice" items. d) The screen gives the item number, the stem, the 4 choices of response, 4 buttons to select the correct answer ("A", "B", "C", and "D"), a box which will present "the correct answer", and a box of "Total score". e) The student answers the given items by clicking one from the choices ("A", "B", "C", and "D"). If the response is correct, the box containing the response is green colored, the "Total score" increases by "1", and the answer appears in the box of "the correct answer". If the response is false, the box containing the response is red colored, the "Total score" does not change, and the correct answer appears in the box of "the correct answer". However, a message appears asking to press "Enter" or "ok" to get a new item. f) After the student finishes the multiple choice items, a message appears telling that the exam is finished. Once the student presses "Enter" or "ok", a new screen appears (figure 3) giving the details of the student including his university identification number, subject of the test, the student's name, the level of study, the class section, the total score, and the time which was taken to answer the whole exam. g) To end the program, the button "End the program" is pressed.

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

Figure (2): Screen of multiple choices items

Figure (3): Final result screen of the program b. The first students' questionnaire: This questionnaire is for the students about the features of the prepared ETEs software. The questionnaire uses the Likert scale and includes 20 items: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)

Software is easy to use. The language of the software is clear and understood Buttons of the software indicate their use The software gives a clear introduction about using it The steps of taking the test are clear and easy The text is clear on the screen. The test screen is reasonable with respect to the monitor Bank of questions is easy to create and update Giving one question on the screen makes the student feel relaxed Four alternatives are good for multiple choice questions 12

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20)

Test items are randomly chosen from the bank of questions Software automatically marks the test Software is accurate in marking. Software is synchronized in marking with the student answer (gives score after each answer) Software saves the student's answers and information in a file by the student's name Software saves the correct answers beside the student's ones Questions are answered sequentially one by one Test finishes by answering the last question The time of answering the questions is set up in the beginning The students get their results once they answer the last question

c. The second students' questionnaire: This questionnaire is for students about the effects of the ETEsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; software on them. The questionnaire includes 12 items: 1) Electronic tests (ETEs) made the students be more serious in studying and preparing for the test 2) Having different models of tests made you be busy in your own test 3) Time was a critical factor that made you be more concentrating in your own test 4) ETEs fulfill the students' wish in finishing tests in a short time 5) Students feel more relaxation during the test 6) ETEs reduced the possibility for cheating 7) Students prefer automatic marking 8) Students feel generally satisfied 9) Students are convinced with their total score 10) Students have no complaint from the marking 11) If the students get a similar paper test or exam (PTE), with similar settings, they still prefer the electronic test (ETEs) 12) Students like to repeat the ETEs in other courses Notice: The Likert scale has five levels: strongly agree (weight = 5), agree (weight = 4), fairly agree (weight = 3), do not agree (weight = 2), strongly do not agree (weight = 1). Validity and Reliability of the Prepared Tools The last three prepared tools were distributed onto a group of 35 specialists in education and software design to validate them. The specialists were asked about the suitability of the questionnaires items and their wording and scientific background. The specialists were asked to suggest the addition of new phrases or modify or delete any existing ones. The distribution process happened twice with a gap period of four weeks between them. From the 35 specialists, 32 individuals (91.4%) answered the first questionnaire and 30 individuals (85.7%) answered the 13

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

second questionnaire. The correlation coefficients between the average weights of answers of the specialists in the two times of distribution are (0.982) and (0.941) for the two questionnaires respectively. This means that the tools of the study are highly reliable. The specialists gave the same comments about the language and scientific background of the items of the two questionnaires. This proves the validity of prepared tools [18]. Another way to testify the validity and reliability of the prepared tools, the researcher used the Cronbach's alpha test for the answers of the specialists about the two questionnaires. Cronbach's alpha measures the internal consistence between the questionnaire phrases. This is done by computing the correlation coefficients between the average weights of votes of the specialists for the phrases. Cronbachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s alpha provides a useful lower bound on validity and reliability. Its maximum value is one, and its minimum is zero, although it can be negative. Cronbachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s alpha generally increases when the correlations between the items increase. For this reason, the coefficient measures the internal consistency of the items. We can compute the Cronbach's alpha from the analysis of variance (ANOVA) for two factors without replication. The researcher did that for the two questionnaires of the study as follows: 1. The first questionnaire To do ANOVA analysis, answers of the questions were arranged in a table in which the columns correspond to the 32 specialists and the rows correspond to the specialists' votes of the 20 questions (weighted according to Lickert's scale). ANOVA results are given in table (1). Figure (4) shows the averages of the specialists' answers according to the Lickert's scale. Figure (5) gives the variances of the specialists' answers from the averages. It can be noted from the two figure that the averages of the first 15 specialists' votes are all five, and thus the variances are all zeros. Figure (6) shows the averages of the questions' answers according to the Lickert's scale. Figure (7) gives the variances of the questions' answers from the averages. The results in table (1) mean that there is high significant correlations between the items of the questionnaire. Thus, there is a high internal consistence between the items of the questionnaire. Consequently, this proves the highly significant validity and reliability [18] of the ETEs software at a significance level of 95%.

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377 The averages of specialists' answers according to the Lickert's scale 6

4 3 2

The averages

1 0 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 The specialists

Figure (4): The averages of the specialists' votes of the first questionnaire

Variances of the specialists' answer from the average

1 0.5

The variances

1.5

0 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 The specialists

Figure (5): The variances of the votes of the first questionnaire from the averages

5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 20

Averages of answers

Averages of questions answers according to Lickert's scale

The questions

Figure (6): The averages of the questions' votes of the first questionnaire

Kamel Hussein Rahouma Variances of questions' answers from the average 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

The variances

0 20

The questions

Figure (7): Variances of the questions' votes of the 1st questionnaire from the averages Table (1): ANOVA analysis for the answers of the specialists about the items of the first questionnaire in regard with the different aspects of designing the ETEs Source of Variation

P-value

F crit

Rows

95.57344

3.083014

20.13013

7.47E-73

1.470791

Columns

47.64219

2.507484

16.37228

6.85E-43

1.60422

Error

90.20781

589

0.153154

Total

233.4234

639

Alpha=1- MSerror/MSrows= 1-0.153154/3.083014= 0.95

2. The second questionnaire Figure (8) gives the weighted votes of the specialists about the second questionnaire in regard with the effects of the ETEs on students. Figure (8) gives the variances of the specialists' votes from the averages. It can be noted from the two figure that the averages of the first 12 specialists' votes are all five, and thus the variances are all zeros. Figure (8) shows the averages of the second questionnaire's votes according to the Lickert's scale. Figure (8) gives the variances of the questions' votes from the averages. Applying ANOVA two-factor without replication between the questions and experts, table (2) is obtained. Results in table (2) show that the internal correlation coefficient between the items is 0.967742. This proves a high internal consistence between the items. This, proves that the questionnaire in regard with the effects of the ETEs on the students is highly valid and reliable [18].

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377 Averages of specialists' answers according to the Lickert's scale 5 4 3 2

The averages

1 0 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 The specialists

Figure (8): The averages of the specialists' votes of the second questionnaire

Variances of the specialists' answers from the averages 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

The variances

0 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 The specialists

Figure (9): The variances of the votes of the second questionnaire from the averages

The averages of questions' answers according to the Lickert's scale 6

4 3 2

the averages

1 0 12

7 6 5 The questions

Figure (10): The averages of the questions' votes of the second questionnaire

Kamel Hussein Rahouma Variances of the questions' answers from the average 2 1.5 1 0.5

The variances

2.5

0 12

6 5 The questions

Figure (11): Variances of the questions' votes of the first questionnaire from averages Table (2): ANOVA analysis for the answers of the specialists about the items of the second questionnaire in regard with the effects of the ETEs on the students Source of Variation

P-value

F crit

Rows (Experts)

91.12222222

3.14

22.07267

1.07E-59

1.503168

Columns (Questions)

43.42222222

3.95

27.72988

2.29E-40

1.818728

Error

45.41111111

319

0.14

Total

179.9555556

359

r=(1-MSerror/MSrows) = 0.967742

Explorative Study To empirically measure the validity and reliability of the prepared ETEs software, and to explore the views of the students about the software, the researcher applied an explorative study. One of the eight general courses delivered to all the university students in Saudi Arabia, namely "Islam and building the society", was chosen for the application of that study. There were 201 male students and 137 female students studying that course during the first semester 1435/1436 Hejri (2014/2015). The staff member, teaching this course, prepared a question bank composed of 30 multiple-choice questions. The software, randomly, picked only 15 for each student to solve. The software settings were the same for male and female students. Male and female students took the test were 195 (97%) and 135 (98.5%) respectively. After taking the test, the students answered the first questionnaire, in regard with the features of the software. The students were asked to suggest any modifications, addition, or deletion of the features. The votes and comments of male and female students came out coincident. Figure (12, 13) compare between the votes of male and female students about the items of the first questionnaire. The students showed their wishes to update some of the software features and to add some new ones. Their comments are: 18

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

A clock is needed on the screen to show them the time. Time should be for the whole test but not for each item. Movement and answering modification in the whole test were required. The questions' wording was weak and sometimes not understood. Some alternatives were repeated in the same questions. Some alternatives were equal in their meaning.

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Weight 5 Weight 4 Weight 3 Weight 2 Weight 1 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 The Questions

The votes

Male students votes about the questions of the first questionnaire

Figure (12): Votes of male students about the items of the first questionnaire in regard with their acceptance of software features

Female Students Votes about the questions of the first questionnaire 120

80 60 40

The votes

100 Weight 5 Weight 4 Weight 3 Weight 2 Weight 1

20 0 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 The questions

Figure (13): Votes of female students about the items of the first questionnaire in regard with their acceptance of software features We used the t-test for paired two samples with means to measure the change between the views of male and female students in regard with the software features. The obtained t-test results are in table (3). The null hypothesis here is that there is no difference between the means of votes of male and female students in regard with their acceptance of the software features. The alternative hypothesis is that there is a difference between them. From table (3), we see that the acceptance area for the null hypothesis is (1.729133 to +1.729133). The computed t value is -0.00356. This value is in the acceptance region. Thus, we confidently (with a confidence level of 95%) say that there is no difference between the views of the male and female students in regard with the acceptance of software features, Table (3) also gives the correlation 19

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

coefficient between the averages of answers of the male and female students 0.998. This means that there is a high agreement between the male and female students in regard with the acceptance levels of the software features. However, this proves the first hypothesis of the study that: "There are no statistical significant differences between the views of male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with the features of the prepared ETEs software". Table (3): t-Test for Paired Two Sample for Means

Mean Variance Observations

Males results

Females results

800.25

558.2

52255.46

27717.33

20 0.998973

Pearson Correlation Hypothesized Mean Difference

242.1 19

Df t Stat

-0.00356

P(T<=t) one-tail

0.498597

t Critical one-tail

1.729133

P(T<=t) two-tail

0.997193

t Critical two-tail

2.093024

Updating the Software According to the results of the explorative study, the software was updated by adding: 1. Marking is automatic but only the final result appears when the test is finished. 2. Movement (forward or backward in the test) and answers modification are allowed. 3. The student can keep the test on the screen or submitted it at any time. 4. A clock appears on the screen to show the total and available time of the test. 5. At submitting time, the test reminds the student if there is any item(s) not answered, giving their numbers and asking to go back to answer them. 6. If the total test time is finished, an automatic submission is done, even if the student did not answer any question. The researcher updated and modified the software screens according to the comments of the students. Figures (14, 15) give the screen of questions and the final score screen respectively. In figure (15), a button is used to leads the student to answer the questionnaire about the effects of the ETEs. The software was distributed, along with the modified questionnaire, onto the 32 group of specialists in education and software design to validate the new updates. The questionnaire included twenty six phrases. Appendix (C) gives the updated form of the questionnaire. The distribution process happened twice with 4 20

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

weeks as a time gap between them. Thirty individuals (93.75%) answered the questionnaire and returned it. Figure (16) compares the results of the two times.

Figure (15): The result screen of the ETEs

Figure (14): The updated ETEs software screen

Votes of the specialists about the questions of the first students' questionnaire in the two times

Weight 4 (1st time)

Weight 3 (1st time)

Weight 5 (2nd time)

Weight 4 (2nd time)

The votes

Weight 5 (1st time)

Weight 3 (2nd time) 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 The questions

Figure (16): Votes of the specialists in regard with the features of the updated software in the two times of distribution (no votes were found for weights 1 &2). The correlation coefficient between the averages of votes of the specialists in the two times of distribution is 0.85 at a significant level of 0.95 respectively. This means that there is a high siginficant agreement between the specialists and experts in regard with the updated software features. Also, The t-test for two samples with means, is computed assuming unequal variances and table (4) gives the analysis results. The null hypothesis here is that: there is no significant difference between the averages of answers of the specialists in the two times of distributions in regard with the updated features of the updates software. From table (4) the limits of accepting the null hypothesis is (-1.675905 to +1.675905). The computed t value is -1.44317 which is in the acceptance area. Thus, we confidently (with a confidence level of 85%) approve the null hypothesis. This proves the validity and reliability of the software and thus we reach the final version [18].

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

Table (4): t-Test for answers of the specialists in the two times for the updated software features First time answers

Second time answers

Mean

145.6538

146.3077

Variance

2.635385

2.701538

Observations Hypothesized Mean Difference

t Stat

-1.44317

P(T<=t) one-tail

0.077605

t Critical one-tail

1.675905

P(T<=t) two-tail

0.155209

t Critical two-tail

2.008559

Final Application of the Study The final version of ETEs software was applied to the students in the first semester 1435/1436 Hejri in the FSAOA in the eight general courses. Table (5) also gives the numbers of male and female students who took the ETEs and their percentages rates to the total numbers of students. The total number of male students studied the eight courses is 2005, from which 1973 (98.4%) students took the ETEs. The total number of female students studied the eight courses is 1603, from which 1584 (98.8%) students took the ETEs. Thus the total number of male and female students studied the eight courses is 3608, from which 3557 (98.6%) students took the ETEs. After the students finished answering the tests, the software leaded them to answer the second questionnaire about the effects of the ETEs on them.

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

Table (5): The general course taught to all university students in Saudi Arabia, and the number their students in the FSAOS in QU No.

Course

Principals of the political system in Islam Islam and building 2 the society Introduction to the 3 Islamic literacy 4 The linguistic skills 5 Arabic editing Thinking skills and 6 learning techniques Economical system 7 in Islam Communication 8 skills Total numbers of tests' takers 1

male students Total Students took No the ETEs

female students Total Students No the ETEs

200

196

98.0%

115

113

98.3%

98.10%

201

197

98.0%

137

135

98.5%

98.22%

300

295

98.3%

283

280

98.9%

98.63%

238 240

234 236

98.3% 98.3%

229 166

225 164

98.3% 98.8%

98.29% 98.52%

254

250

98.4%

249

247

99.2%

98.81%

294

290

98.6%

194

192

99.0%

98.77%

278

275

98.9%

230

228

99.1%

99.02%

2005

1973

98.4%

1603

1584

98.8%

98.59%

took

Total %age

RESULTS OF THE STUDY Results of the Tests in the Obligatory Courses There are four computer labs in the FSAOA, QU, two in the girls' college and two in the boys' college. Each lab contains 50 computers connected in a local area network. This means that at most we needed four periods of tests for the largest number of students in the course "Introduction in Islamic Literacy", where we have 300 male students and 283 female students. Every staff member, teaching a course from the courses in table (5), prepared a question bank of 60 items. The software was set up to pick up randomly 20 items from the bank for each student. Time for the test was set up to 30 minutes. After answering the tests, students answered the second questionnaire about the effects of the ETEs on them. We arranged the results in groups as follows: group1 (Scores < 10 points), group2 (10 ≤ Scores < 12), group3 (12 ≤ Scores < 14), group4 (14 ≤ Scores < 16), group5 (16 ≤ Scores < 18), group6 (18 ≤ Scores). Figures (17 – 24) compare between the results of male and female students. The figures show that the distribution of male and female students' scores are very close to the normal distribution. Figure (25) gives the averages of scores in the eight subjects' tests. Correlation coefficients between the males and females' scores were computed in the eight subjects as 0.982, 0.840, 0.994, 0.968, 0.9993, 0.9999, 0.8789 and 0.913 respectively. This means that the application of the software got the same effects and impressions on the students during the 23

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

application. Table (6) gives the lower and upper t values as well as the computed t values and the significance levels between the results of the male and female students. From table (6), we can confidently say that there is no statistical significant differences between the averages of scores of the male and female students in the tests of the eight courses. This however, proves that applying the software affected the performance of the male and female students in the same way. In other words, this proves the second hypothesis of the study that: "There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of scores of male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, because of using the ETEs software". Students scores in the second subject test

Students scores in the first subject test

40 28

30 30

20 Males

Females

40 30

35 32

40 25

Males Females

20 10

10 10

Groups of scores

Figure (17): The results of the ETEs in the first subject test.

Figure (18): The results of the ETEs in the second subject test.

Students scores in the third subject test 75 70 65 62

70 4545

50 3535

2830

40 30

Males

20 Females

50 45

Numbers of students

60 45 40

Students scores in the fourth 70 subject 60 test

25 20

35 30

60 45 40

50 40 2525

Males

Females

Numbers of students

Groups of scores

Figure (19): The results of the ETEs in the third subject test.

Figure (20): The results of the ETEs in the fourth subject test.

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377 Students scores in the fifth subject test

25 25 20

39 30

25 20

30 20

Females

80 70 60 50

3030 Males

3030

2020

Groups of scores

Figure (22): The results of the ETEs in the sixth subject test.

Figure (21): The results of the ETEs in the fifth subject test

Students scores in the eighth subject test

Students scores in the seventh subject73test 80 55

30 28

60 45

50 35 25

Males 18

40 30 20

Females

80 70 70

Numbers of students

62 45

30 20

Females

Numbers of students

Males

7475

57 43

60 4545

37 33 Males

50 35

2526

40 30 20

Females

Numbers of students

7375

Numbers of students

60 45

Students scores in the sixth subject test

Groups of scores

Figure (24): The results of the ETEs in the eighth subject test

Figure (23): The results of the ETEs in the seventh subject test

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

13.7 13.7

13.7 13.6 13.5

13.4 Males

13.4 13.4

13.3 13.2

13.4 13.3

13.4 13.3 13.2

13.1

Females

8th sub

7th sub

6th sub

5th sub

13.8 13.7 13.6 13.5 13.4 13.3 13.2 13.1 13 12.9 12.8

Scores averages

Averages of scores in the eight subjects' tests

4th sub 3rd sub 2nd sub 1st sub

Subjects

Figure (25): Averages of scores in the eight subjects' tests

-4.57

2.015 0.878 0.05

4.57 4.431 0.005

8th subject

-2.015

7th subject

3.365 3.364 2.711 0.01

6th subject

4.032 4.032 3.628 0.005

5th subject

7.6706 7.6706 7.545 0.0003

4th subject

3rd subject

M/F lower t values Computed t values Significance level

2nd subject

M/F lower t values

1st subject

Table(6): Lower & upper t values, computed t values, and significance levels of the eight subjects' tests for male and female students.

2.015 2.015 1.464 0.05

5.893 5.893 5.022 0.001

2.757 2.757 2.569 0.02

Results of the Second Questionnaire The male and female students answered the second questionnaire directly after finishing the tests in the eight general courses. Their answers are recorded in their answer sheets. The researcher collected the votes of the students and figures (26 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 33) show a comparison between the male and female students' votes in the 8 courses.

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377 Votes of male & female students (examined the first subject) about the question of the second questionnaire 180 140

M Weight 4

120 M Weight 3

100

M Weight 2

F Weight 5

F weight 4

The number of votes

160

M Weigth 5

F Weight 3

0 F Weight 2

8 7 6 The questions

Figure (26): Votes of male & female students in the 1st subject about the 2nd questionnaire Votes of male & female students (examined the seond subject) about the question of the second questionnaire 160 M Weight 5

140

M Weight 4

120 100

M Weight 3

M Weight 2

F Weight 5

The number of votes

180

F Weight 4

0 F Weight 3

8 7 6 The questions

Figure (27): Votes of male & female students in the 2nd subject about the 2nd questionnaire 160 140 M Weight 5

120

M Weight 4

100

M Weight 3

M Weight 2

60 40

F Weight 5

20 F Weight 4 F Weight 3

The number of votes

Votes of male & female students (examined the third subject) about the question of the second questionnaire

0 12

8 7 6 The Questions

Figure (28): Votes of male & female students in the 3rd subject about the 2nd questionnaire

Kamel Hussein Rahouma Votes of male & female students (examined the fourth subject) about the question of the second questionnaire

140

M Weight 4

120 100

M Weight 3

M Weight 2

F Weight 5

40 F Weight 4

F Weight 3 F Weight 2

The number of votes

160

M Weight 5

0 12

7 6 The questions

Figure (29): Votes of male & female students in the 4th subject about the 2nd questionnaire Votes of male & female students (examined the fifth subject) about the question of the second questionnaire 160

120

M Weight 4

100

M Weight 3

M Weight 2

M Weight 1

F Weight 5

The number of votes

140 M Weight 5

F Weight 4 12

7 6 The questions

Figure (30): Votes of male & female students in the 5th subject about the 2nd questionnaire 160 140 M Weight 5

120

M Weight 4

100

M Weight 3

80 60

M Weight 2

M Weight 1

F Weight 5 F Weight 4

The number of votes

Votes of male & female students (examined the sixth subject) about the question of the second questionnaire

0 12

7 6 The questions

Figure (31): Votes of male & female students in the 6th subject about the 2nd questionnaire

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377 Votes of male & female students (examined the seventh subject) about the question of the second questionnaire

140 M Weight 5

120

M Weight 4

100

M Weight 3

M Weight 2

F Weight 5

40 20

F Weight 4

The number of votes

160

0 F Weight 3

7 6 The questions

Figure (32): Votes of male & female students in the 7th subject about the 2nd questionnaire Votes of male & female students (examined the first subject) about the question of the second questionnaire 160 120

M Weight 4

100

M Weight 3

M Weight 2

F Weight 5

F Weight 4

The number of votes

140 M Weight 5

F Weight 3 12

8 7 6 The questions

Figure (33): Votes of male & female students in the 8th subject about the 2nd questionnaire Table (7) gives the weights of the students' answers about the items of the second questionnaire in regard with the effects of the ETEs on them. Table (7), also, gives the t-test values for the averages of the male and female students and the correlation coefficients between them in the eight courses for each item. The tvalues from the tables range from -3.499 to +3.499.

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

Gender

Course

Table (7): Pearson correlation coefficients and the computed t-values for the eight courses Weights of students answers about the 2nd questions of the questionnaire about the effects of ETEs Q1

Q10

Q11

Q12

882

892

887

892

692

918

944

692

928

954

949

918

504

519

509

529

406

539

552

406

539

552

554

541

890

896

880

892

709

916

949

714

936

952

953

936

600

615

605

500

635

625

505

635

641

630

1190

1175

1200

1150

1070

1190

1210

1095

1180

1205

1180

1130

1120

1140

1094

1040

1130

1150

1040

1145

1150

1125

948

1008

993

998

888

993

998

888

1018

1013

1022

991

916

972

961

966

852

965

966

852

987

981

958

950

1010

995

1000

890

995

1000

890

1020

1015

1024

994

751

757

741

753

580

777

796

586

775

797

790

787

1020

1080

1065

1070

953

1065

1070

953

1090

1085

1066

1063

1014

1074

1059

1064

947

1059

1064

947

1084

1079

1060

1057

1175

1155

1180

1140

1060

1170

1195

1085

1155

1195

1170

865

871

855

867

688

891

910

697

911

904

901

1105

1095

1115

1069

1019

1105

1125

1019

1120

1125

1100

1018

1033

1021

1024

923

1054

1044

928

1052

1053

1060

1050

Cor coef

0.78

0.84

0.81

0.83

0.80

0.78

0.79

0.86

0.78

0.79

0.80

t-test values

3.37

3.34

3.46

3.25

3.30

3.22

2.31

3.38

3.17

3.25

3.18

3.2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

From tables (7), we can confidently give the following conclusions: (1) The correlation coefficient between the answers of the male and female students about the first item of the questionnaire, "Electronic tests (ETEs) made the students be more serious in studying and preparing for the test", is 0.783 at a significance level of 0.995 and the t-test value is 3.369 with zero difference between the averages of answers. The t-test value is in the accepted area, and thus the null hypothesis is accepted. This means that there is no difference between the averages of the students' answers, from the eight courses, about the first item of the second questionnaire. Knowing that the tests are computerized made the students do more efforts before taking the tests to be ready. This proves the third hypothesis that: "There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with the effects of the ETEs on them before taking the tests". (2) The items (2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 8) from the second questionnaire refer to the effect of the applying the ETEs on the students during taking the test. The minimum correlation coefficient of these items is 0.776 and the maximum coefficient is 0.842 at a 30

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significance level of 0.995 and zero difference between the averages of the answers. The minimum t-te4st value for these items is 2.307 and the maximum value is 3.455. This means that all t-test values are in the accepted area. This proves that there are no differences between the averages of the answers of the male and female students about these items, from the eight course. In other words this means that: (a) Having different models of tests made you be busy in your own test; (b) Time was a critical factor that made you be more concentrating in your own test; (c) ETEs fulfill the students' wish in finishing tests in a short time; (d) Students feel more relaxation during the test; (e) ETEs reduced the possibility for cheating; (f) Students prefer automatic marking; (g) Students feel generally satisfied This proves the fourth hypothesis that: "There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with the effects of the ETEs on them during taking the tests". (3) The correlation coefficients of the 9th and 10th items of the questionnaire are 0.859 and 0.782 respectively, at a significance level of 0.995 and zero difference between the averages of the answers of the students from the eight course. The ttest values are 3.177 and 3.247 respectively. The t-test values are in the accepted area. Thus, the null hypothesis that there is no difference between averages of answers of the students is accepted. In other words, we confidently can say that the students were convinced with their total score, and they have no complaint from the marking. This proves the fifth hypothesis that: "There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of answer of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with the effects of the ETEs on them after taking the tests". (4) The correlation coefficients of the 11th and 12th items of the questionnaire are 0.786 and 0.801 respectively, at a significance level of 0.995 and zero difference between the averages of the answers of the students from the eight course. The t-test values are 3.177 and 3.196 respectively. The t-test values are in the accepted area. Thus, the null hypothesis that there is no difference between averages of answers of the students is accepted. In other words, we confidently can say that the students prefer taking the electronic tests (ETEs) than taking the paper tests (PTEs) and they like to repeat the ETEs in other courses. This proves the fifth hypothesis that: "There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of answers of the male and female students of the FSAOA, QU, in regard with taking the ETEs tests instead of the PTEs tests". CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS A computer software was prepared for multiple-choice electronic tests and examinations. The software has delicate features such as: saving a separate file by the name of each student, randomly choosing the items from the questions' bank, automatically marking the students' answers, giving the total score at the end of the

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

test, controlling the time of the test, etc. The software is highly validated reliable according to the views of specialists and students. Results of the study show that: 1. There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of the students' answers about the first questionnaire items in regard with the features of the software. 2. There are, also, no statistical significant differences between the averages of the students' scores in the tests because of using the software. 3. There are no statistical significant differences between the averages of the students' answers about the second questionnaire items in regard with the effects of the software on the students before, during, and after taking the tests. 4. The students prefer taking the electronic computerized tests than taking the paper and pen tests. 5. We recommend that the software is updated and generalized to all the students of the university. This will reduce the waste of time, effort and money taken by the PTEs. Abbreviations ETEs: Electronic Tests and Examinations – FSAOA: Faculty of Science and Arts in Oklat Assoqour, in Saudi Arabia – PTEs: Paper Tests and Examinations – QU: Al Qassim University. Acknowledgement The author thanks Dr. Jobeer Al Harbi and Dr. Ali Al Ahmady (the dean and vice dean of the faculty of science and arts in Oklat Assoqour) for their great help in doing and applying this study. The author, also, thanks the colleagues who helped by words or actions for their help to increase enthusiasm to do that research.

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References [1] Douglas M. Walker and John S. Thompson (2001). A Note on Multiple Choice Exams, with Respect to Students’ Risk Preference and Confidence. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, Vol. 26, No. 3, 2001. [2] Yigal Attali and Maya Bar-Hillel (2003). Guess Where: The Position of Correct Answers in Multiple-Choice Test Items as a Psychometric Variable. Journal of Educational Measurement, Summer 2003, Vol. 40, No.2, pp. 109-128. [3] Anjel Lertxundi (No Date). Science in Action, A Question of Choice – Multiple Choice. Felix Qui Potuit Rerum Cognoscere Causas, http://users.telenet.be/mydotcom/upub/sia/mchoice.htm [4] Ashraf M. H. Abdel Gawad and Khalefah A. K. Al-Masaud (2014). Impediments of Activating E-Learning in Higher Education Institutions in Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Application, Vol. 5, No. 4, 2014, pp. 12 – 18. [5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-assessment [6] https://www.mindflash.com/blog/2013/03/three-benefits-of-quizzes-in-elearning/ [7] http://webheadsinaction.org/content/advantages-and-disadvateges-computerbased-quizzes-vs-paper-based [8] Ericksen, S. C. (1969). The Teacher-Made Test. Memo to the Faculty, no. 35. Ann Arbor: Center for Research on Learning and Teaching, University of Michigan. [9] Ebel, R. L., and Frisbie, D. A. (1990). Essentials of Educational Measurement. (5th ed.) Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. [10] Gronlund, N. E., and Linn, R. (1990). Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. (6th ed.) New York: Macmillan. [11] Mehrens, W. A., and Lehmann, I. J. (1991). Measurement and Evaluation in Education and Psychology. (4th ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, [12] Barbara Gross Davis: QUIZZES, TESTS, AND EXAMS, From Tools for Teaching, University of California, Berkeley, http://www2.honolulu.hawaii.edu/facdev/guidebk/teachtip/quizzes.htm [13] Grayson H. Walker (2012): "Quizes, tests and exams", Teaching Resource Center, the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, web site: http://www.utc.edu/Administration/WalkerTeachingResourceCenter/FacultyD evelopment/Assessment/test-questions.html), 15th of January 2012. [14] Jacobs, L. C., and Chase, C. I. (1992). Developing and Using Tests Effectively: A Guide for Faculty. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Kamel Hussein Rahouma

[15] Svinicki, M. D., and Woodward, P. J. (1982). Writing Higher-Level Objective Test Items. In K. G. Lewis (ed.), Taming the Pedagogical Monster. Austin: Center for Teaching Effectiveness, University of Texas, 1982. [16] Savitz, F. (1985). Effects of Easy Examination Questions Placed at the Beginning of Science Multiple-Choice Examinations. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 1985, 12(l), 6-10. [17] Bloom, B. S. (ed.) (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Vol. 1: Cognitive Domain. New York: McKay. [18] Nahid Golafshan (2003). Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research. The Qualitative Report Volume 8 Number 4 December 2003 597607, http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR8-4/golafshani.pdf

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377 http://fssh-journal.org

METAPHORICAL THINKING: ITS LINK TO NEURO CHEMISTRY OF LEARNING C. GIRIJA NAVANEEDHAN Post Doctoral Fellow Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai

T.J.KAMALANABHAN Professor & H.O.D Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai Abstract Metaphorical thinking has a close relationship to individual’s learning capabilities as it determines an individual’s ability to associate the given concept to an experience outside its environment for e.g if a teacher explains the concept of Radioactivity in the class, Metaphorical thinking determines is the ability of the individual to associate the concept Radioactivity to solid waste decay which are totally different concepts yet possess a certain degree of similarity. For every association that Metaphorical thinking initiates, there exist neuronal activities in prefrontal cortex of the brain, the centre of learning. Greater is the ability of an individual to associate the experience with cognition, greater would be the ability to process the given information processing ability. The lack of ability to associate between experience and cognition results in attention deficiency among learners. The present paper explains that practice of Metaphorical thinking statements during teaching-learning process increases the brain activity in the prefrontal cortex of the brain in turn enables to promote the information processing ability of the individuals. Keywords: Metaphorical thinking, learning capabilities, radioactivity, information processing ability and cognition INTRODUCTION Metaphorical thinking helps in promoting the association between familiar life experience with perceivable information put forward to develop concrete learning, Claire F Michaels and Claudia Carello (1981). Therefore, application of metaphorical thinking as a leaning tool promotes individual’s learning ability. The word “learning” has several well defined meaning as understood by several Psychologists, for example Argyris and Schon understood learning as a new knowledge acquired by an individual which would reflect in his/her behaviour occurring repeatedly. Piaget explained learning as adaptation of individual’s mental 35

C. Girija Navaneedhan & T. J. Kamalanabhan

concept with experience and assimilating it. Koble proposed learning as transformation of knowledge to experience meaning acquiring knowledge and applying the knowledge to practice. According to Lewin , learning is a cyclic process in which an individual experiences a concrete observation as well as reflecting on it to form a abstract concept ,making generalizations to create new ideas and applying it to a new situation to experience another concrete observation in a continuous manner. Therefore, from above definitions one could understand learning involves some novel experience an individual perceives as the result of stimulation occurring in the brain. Hence, conscious practice of Metaphorical thinking in teaching learning process helps in triggering neuronal activity in the prefrontal cortex of the brain, the centre of learning. Research work carried out in the field of Neuro Science education revealed that frontal lobes of the cerebrum including the prefrontal cortex continue to develop till early adulthood increasing the ability to plan, reasoning out etc. The ability to reason out is linked to the ability of brain to think, to understand, to experience, to associate, to compare and contrast similar to the strengthening of muscles of a physical body by doing regular exercise. Metaphorical thinking initiates the ability of the brain to associate in order to response to the stimulus being the information put forward to the learners by initiating the synthesis of neurotransmitter â&#x20AC;&#x153;nor-epinephrine responsible for chemical synapses to occur. Chemical synapses promote neuron - neuron communication in response to the stimulus. The entire mechanism explaining the link between Metaphorical thinking and neuro chemistry of learning is shown in the form a teaching learning model.

Neuron synthesizes neuro transmitter nor-epinephrine

Response is promoting learning

Chemical Synapses promote neuron -neuron communication Teacher stimulates the brain with information initiating metaphorical thinking through associations

Figure: 1 Teaching- learning model showing the link between Metaphorical thinking and neuro chemistry of learning.

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Promotion of Metaphorical Thinking on Given Information through Association Research studies carried out in earlier times showed evidence that Metaphorical thinking has an impact on the part of the brain responsible for initiating logical reasoning. Therefore, it promotes problem solving ability among learners as it stimulates imagination; generate ideas, concepts and the ability to think outside the box. (Shinju and Myers 1987, Inhoff et al. 1984, McCabe 1983), pointed out that Metaphorical thinking influences individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interpretation and communication skills. When the given information is explained by the teacher by implementing Metaphorical thinking through associations it helps to build cognitive structures during teaching-learning process , thus bringing harmony in the left and the right hemispheres of the brain represented as a simple model as shown below.

Metaphorical thinking through association Students receive information

Teacher gives information

Cognitive Structures

Figure 2: Shows how metaphorical thinking promotes in developing cognitive structures Metaphorical Thinking and Neurotransmitters Whenever given information is received as a stimulus promoted through metaphorical thinking through associations it initiates neuron- neuron communication through synapses synthesizing the neuro transmitter norepinephrine. Therefore, it is understood that more the teacher promotes metaphorical thinking through associations more would be the frequency of chemical synapses triggering in the synthesis of neurotransmitter nor-epinephrine in prefrontal region a centre for thinking skills of the brain. One of the functions of nor-epinephrine is to promote learning. Therefore, it could be suggested that the promotion of the given information through metaphorical thinking statements involving associations stimulates the prefrontal region of the brain initiating the neuron-neuron firing through chemical synapses facilitating through the

C. Girija Navaneedhan & T. J. Kamalanabhan

neurotransmitter nor-epinephrine. The overall mechanism of Neuro Chemistry of learning could be explained in the following sequential order.

Teacher stimulates the brain with the given information

Metaphorical thinking through associations initiates neuronal activity in the prefrontal regions of the brain

The information is delivered promoting metaphorical thinking

Neuron neuron communication occurs through chemical messengers

nor-epinephrine synthesized diffuses in to the synaptic cleft facilitating learning

The given information is better assimilated through associations.

Figure3: Shows the mechanism of Neuro Chemistry of learning Objectives of the Study 1. To propose a simple mechanism showing the influence of metaphorical thinking on neuro- Chemistry of learning. 2. To evaluate the cognitive ability of teachers based on delivery of content, activity and assessment. 3. To find the impact of content, activity and assessment on academic performance of Science. 4. To find out the impact of metaphorical thinking on cognitive structures in turn reflecting on academic performance. Research Questions 1. Is there a relationship between metaphorical thinking on cognitive structures? 2. How metaphorical thinking through associations promote learning? 3. How the ability of teachers delivering the content, activity and assessment influence the academic performance of learners? Design of the study The experiment involved teacher sample handling IX and X grades following C.B.S.E (Central Board of Secondary Education, India) curriculum. A sample consisting of 25 male and 75 female teachers in the age group 30 to 50 years were 38

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

randomly selected for the study. The investigator prepared the lesson plan for IX grade Science class incorporating metaphorical thinking statements through associations. This lesson plan template was used in Science class and the teachers who handle the subject in a regular manner are educated about the Metaphorical thinking technique, its practice and educational implications in teaching-learning process. Teachers are encouraged by the investigator to use statements which would induce Metaphorical thinking relevant to the content that the teacher teaches in the class. This is done by asking the teachers to observe the class of the investigator. The investigator interacts with the teachers, asking them how they plan the lesson for a particular period, modifying their lesson plan by incorporating statements which initiate metaphorical thinking without disturbing their routine slowly inculcating the habit of using statements which would initiate Metaphorical thinking . The following model shows how the investigator planned the design of the study. Regular teachers observe the lesson

Investigator delivers the lesson

Learners are the beneficiary of the lesson

Figure 4: Shows the design of the experiment The procedure of teachers observing the class of the investigator is carried out for a period of six weeks. At the end of six weeks the investigator conducted the survey among the teacher sample by distributing the questionnaire evaluating the cognitive structures as well as collecting pre and post academic performance of students in the subject concerned. The scores thus obtained are evaluated for its relationship with academic performance. RESEARCH TOOL Cognitive structure questionnaire was designed by the investigator based on the dimensions a) content b) activity and c) assessment. The questionnaire consists of 45 statements evaluates each of these dimensions. Each statement is evaluated on five point likert scale such as not important (1), somewhat important (2), Important (3), Very important (4), extremely important (5). The negative statements are scored in the reverse order. A pilot study was conducted to find the reliability and the validity of the questionnaire. The reliability is calculated by half split method and was found to be 0.689 and the validity was found to be square of the reliability was found to be 0.475. The scores obtained by the survey method 39

C. Girija Navaneedhan & T. J. Kamalanabhan

were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis using Microsoft Office 365 software. The results of the experiment are tabulated as follows. RESULTS OF THE STUDY Table 1: To show the correlation-coefficient “r” values between the dimensions of Cognitive Structures and the pre and post academic performance.

S.No

“r” for content and academic performance

“r” for activity and academic performance

“r”for assessment and academic performance

Pre

Post

Pre

Post

Pre

Post

100

0.312N.S

0.456**

0.256N.S

0.524**

0.345N.S

0.643**

25(Males)

0.256N.S

0.467**

0.325N.S

0.634**

0.278N.S

0.569**

75(Females

0.275N.S

0.587**

0.378N.S

0.689**”

0.298N.S

0.756**

*P<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, N. S= Not Significant Figure 5: To show graphically the relationship between cognitive structure and academic performance

0.6 0.5 0.4 pre 0.3

Post

0.2 0.1 0

Relationship is shown between content, activity, and assessment with academic performance for pre and post tests

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

From the table 1 and the graph it could be interpreted that the implementation of metaphorical thinking through associations has an impact on cognitive structure as well as the academic performance of the learners. In this experiment statistical study is limited to finding the “r” values for pre and post academic performance with content, activity and assessment dimensions of the cognitive structure. The post test values were found to be significant for both male and female teachers as well as the entire sample. DISCUSSION The significant positive correlation coefficient values “r” for post test of academic performance and cognitive structure shows that practice of metaphorical thinking in teaching –learning process enables the learners to develop a sense of the given information that is the application and the synthesis level of the information. Association for supervision and curriculum development has mentioned a few case studies in which the teachers practicing teaching – learning methodology involving statements that make creative comparison (metaphorical thinking), explaining cause- effect relation, quoting observations and experiences proved to be effective improving the grades of the learners. A regular practice of metaphorical thinking statements during teaching –learning process develops independent thinking among learners. Osborne and Brady (2000) in their study reported the case study of a four year old child who could make a truck from Styrofoam egg carton, a moulded plastic tray, cardboard cylinders and glue by connecting them together to make sense of appearance of a truck .The child probably got the idea comparing it to a train . Promoting metaphorical thinking statements in the lesson plan enables to process new ideas as it is self directed and not governed by positive as well as negative reinforcement by the teacher where the distinction between brain and mind dissolves (Churchland .P.S 2002). Many studies proved that implementing metaphorical thinking in teaching – learning process enables the teacher to present the knowledge through experiences facilitating teaching as an enjoyable task as it promotes the student’s accountability as they develop their own meaning by their experiences in terms of casual, logical and interpersonal relationships (Habermas 1990). The mechanism proposed in this paper explaining how metaphorical thinking is linked to Neuro Chemistry of learning is shown by the research work carried out by Goleman(1995) states that stimulus that is the given information by the teacher perceived by the sense organs eyes and ears travel first in the brain to the thalamus and then across a single synapse to the amygdala; a second signal from the thalamus is routed to the neocortex or the prefrontal lobe the thinking brain. Several empirical research studies carried out in metaphorical thinking revealed that comparison-initiated transfer of structured knowledge plays a critical role in a broad array of cognitive tasks, such as solving math word problems (Reed 1987), forming legal arguments (Marchant et al 1991), and predicting an individual’s behavior (Read 1987). In another study conducted by Janice Hansen & Lindsey E. 41

C. Girija Navaneedhan & T. J. Kamalanabhan

Richland (2011), “Metaphor and creativity in learning Science” concluded that engaging students in metaphorical thinking enhances their creativity and conceptual understanding of Science content in depth being the major objective of teachinglearning Science. CONCLUSIONS Neuroscience studies on human cognition in recent years gave several insights to promote learning in a variety of means suggested by several researches in this field , an attempt made by the authors reveal that practice of metaphorical statements through associations is one of effective way to promote teaching learning of science. The authors argued that the teacher stimulating the senses of the learners could achieve desirable learning outcome by careful planning of the content, activities and assessment related to the content so that the learners engage themselves in creative thinking. The ability of learners to develop creative thinking pattern is reflected from the ability of teacher who frame the lesson plan incorporating metaphorical thinking statements through associations. As we all know that learning is a very complex phenomenon which involves several simultaneous processes occurring in the conscious as well as subconscious level of brain a simple model explaining the neuro-chemistry of learning gives an understanding how metaphorical thinking promotes learning?

References Churchland .P.S, (2002) Brain-Wise: Studies in Neurophilosophy , Cambridge, MA:MITpress. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence, New York: Bantam Books. Gurian, M. & Stevens, K. (2005). The Minds of Boys: Saving Our Sons from Falling Behind in School and Life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Habermas .J (1990), Moral consciousness and communicative action , Trans C. Lenhardt & S. Weber Nicholson , Cambridge, Mass: MIT press. Inhoff, A., S. Lima, and P. Carroll (1984), "Contextual Effects on Metaphor Comprehension in Reading," Memory and Cognition, 12 (6), 550-567. James, Abigail Norfleet (2007).Teaching the Male Brain: How Boys Think, Feel, and Learn in School. JaniceHansen&LindseyE.Richland,EricP.S.Baumer,WilliamTomlison,(2011), “Metaphor and creativity in learning Science”http://www.ics.uci.edu/Wmt/Pubs/Tomilson_CF17pdf. Marchant, Garry, John Robinson, Urton Anderson, and Michael Schadewald (1991), "Analogical Transfer and Expertise in Legal Reasoning," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 48, 272-290. 42

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McCabe, A. (1983), "Conceptual Similarity and the Quality of Metaphor in Isolated Sentences Versus Extended Context," Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 12 (1), 41-60. McKinnon, AM. (2012). 'Metaphors in and for the Sociology of Religion: Towards a Theory after Nietzsche'. Journal of Contemporary Religion, vol 27, no. 2, pp. 203â&#x20AC;&#x201C;216. Lakoff G., Johnson M. (2003) [1980]. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-46801-1. Michaels C. F. & Carello C.(1981) Direct Perception, Prentice Hall p2. [pdf online] available at; http://ione.psy.uconn.edu/MC.pdf Osborne M.D & Brady D. J(2000), Joy and pradox of control, International journal of Education and Arts, Vol 1, No1, Retrieved March 2004, http://ijea.asu.edu/index.html. Read, Stephan (1987), "Similarity and Causality in the Use of Social Analogies," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 189-207. Shinjo, M. and J. Myers (1987), "The Role of Context in Metaphor Comprehension," Journal of Memory and Language, 26, 226-241.

C. Girija Navaneedhan & T. J. Kamalanabhan

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377 http://fssh-journal.org

IMPACT OF SCHOOL BASED MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE ON THE MANAGEMENT OF PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN NASARAWA STATE NUHU ISHAQ LAWAL Department of Science and Vocational Education, Usman Danfodio University, Sokoto

DAUDA ABDULMUTALIB GAMBO Department of Vocational and Technical Education Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

SULEIMAN AMINU Department of Vocational and Technical Education Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria Abstract This study assessed the impact of School Based Management Committees (SBMCs) in the management of public primary schools in Nasarawa State. To serve as a guide, 2 specific objectives, 2 research questions and 2 null hypotheses were formulated and tested. Descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. Population of the study was 350 SBMCs members randomly selected from the sampled schools. Structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Simple descriptive statistics and Pearson product moment correlation relationship (PPMC) were used for data analysis. All null hypotheses were tested at 5% level of significant. Results indicated that, SBMCs played a great role in providing facilities for teaching and learning in the study area. The test of null hypothesis further confirmed that the impact of this SBMC on the provision of facilities for teaching and learning was statistically significant. Findings further showed that, SBMCs also help in the supervision of teachers during teaching and learning session and checkmating the punctuality of school children. The researcher concluded that, SBMCs play a significant role to instructional delivery in public primary schools in the study area. As a result government should ensure enabling environment to consolidate their activities and also the school management appreciate and encourage them to do more. It is also recommended that, to avoid power bloc and tussle between the SBMCs and school heads, terms of reference stating the limitations of SBMCs in a school system should be made clear and available. Keywords: School, management, committee, facilities, teaching, learning

Nuhu Ishaq Lawal, Dauda Abdulmutalib Gambo, and Suleiman Aminu

INTRODUCTION Education is the vital instrument for social and economic mobility at the personal level and an instrument for transformation of society at the local and national levels. For this transformation to be achieved the school based management team in conjunction with the immediate community has to work hand in hand to improve and maintain the quality of education. The Schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Based Management (SBM) concept is defined as the systematic decentralization or devolution of authority and responsibility to enable decisionâ&#x20AC;?making at the school level with the active participation of the community. This school reform approach is expected to lead to school improvement through the efficient use of school resources as local needs would be prioritized, involvement of parents and community members in monitoring and evaluating school activities including school staff and increased focus on improved educational quality, amongst others. Thus the expected outcomes of SBMs are increased parent and community participation, empowered principals/head teachers and teachers, built up local capacity and improved school quality and efficiency. In line with this global education reform, the National Council on Education (NCE) at its 52nd Session in 2005 approved the establishment of School Based Management Committees (SBMCs) for all schools in the country. It also provided the guidelines for the establishment of SBMCs, stated the composition and tenure for the SBMCs and recommended a SBMCs structure for schools in the country. School-Based Management Committees (SBMCs) are an essential link between schools and the communities they serve. SBMCs are made up of a range of local people involved with their school. SBMCs work to increase communities' involvement with education, and to help improve the quality and effectiveness of schools. They provide a way of helping the education authorities to listen to what adults and children want from schools, and a way of increasing the contributions of everyone in the local area to making education work well. SBMCs are intended to contribute to school development planning and decision-making at the school level for improved learning outcomes. SBMCs are voluntary groups made up of people who represent the school community and may include pupils, teachers, parents, community leaders as well as other community-based groups interested in education. SBMCs meet regularly and organize activities to improve the way schools operate and support the government's responsibility of ensuring quality education for all. SBMCs are usually involved in contributing to the overall planning, management and monitoring of schools and to the decision-making process, encouraging the interest of both community and government to support school improvement, enabling the wider community to have a voice in the improvement of education, monitoring and communicating issues to the community and to local and state governments (Toboho, 2000). Apart from home as the first agent of socialization, primary school is the first place that introduces formal education or literacy to the children. In other words, primary school education is a foundation upon which all other levels of education 46

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

are built. Raouf, (2008) opines that quality assurance in education is the continual improvement in the methods of implementing the various aspects of educational programs and activities in an institution of learning to meet the desires of the stakeholders in education. This perspective is premised on the principle of Deming's cycle of continuous improvement, which is fundamentally based upon Plan, Do, Check and Act cycle (PDCA). This process enables the school-based management committee to strategically articulate educational programs, systematically monitor the implementation process and critically assess and evaluate the quality of resource inputs, teaching-learning process and students' learning outcomes in line with the set standards. Interventions are provided by identifying the key issues that need to be reviewed and improved upon in the course of implementing the plan so as to ensure that significant agreement exists between the original goals and what is actually achieved, and acting on the plan full scale in a systematic process to facilitate feedback and reviews with those concerned (Deming, 1986; Stahl, 1998; & Temponi, 2005). Statement of the Problem The management of primary education in Nigeria passed through different stages and different authorities exercised its control from time to time. Ab initio, the church missionaries who introduced Western or Formal Education to Nigeria in 1842 handled the management of primary education system. After much criticism from different quarters about the crude and lack of proper coordination of the system by these missionaries, the British government intervened through establishment of various Education Ordinances and Codes. It is estimated that about 80% of the primary schools are located in the rural areas. Schools are subsidized through additional funds contributed by communities to their local schools through Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs), Schools, Councils, and Community based Organizations. These funds are used for infrastructure construction, maintenance, and supply of basic equipment. The infrastructure and facilities remain inadequate for coping with a system that is growing at a rapid pace. The school environment is therefore generally not conducive to learning due to the physical condition of most schools and lack of teaching and learning resources, acute shortage of infrastructures, non-payment of teachers' salary and security problem. Some primary schools have no enough classrooms and furniture to the extent that classes are held under shades of trees, some pupils carry-home their benches and desks and bring them to school every morning. The instructional materials needed to aid teaching-learning activities are not available. The teachers also are no longer committed to their jobs because they are not well paid. The problems of Nigeria's education system are well documented. There is poor access to education, particularly for girls and the poorest citizens. Net primary school attendance was only 64% for boys and 57% for girls in 2003. For those who do have access, the quality of education is poor. School Based Management Committees are promoted in international and national development 47

Nuhu Ishaq Lawal, Dauda Abdulmutalib Gambo, and Suleiman Aminu

policy as a way to improve the quality of education provision and to promote democracy at the local level. International experience suggests that SBMCs can, in certain conditions, be linked to improvements but the evidence is limited and in some cases contradictory. In Nigeria, recent changes in education policy have sought to introduce School Based Management Committees (SBMCs) across the country. Despite efforts by the government to alleviate the glaring problems facing the management of public primary schools, the emergence of School Based Management Committee also contribute to reducing these challenges. Looking at this fact, the researcher deemed it necessary to assess "the impact of School Based Management Committee in the management of public primary schools in Nasarawa State." Objectives of the Study The specific objectives of this study are: 1. To assess the role of School Based Management Committee on the provision of facilities for teaching and learning in public primary schools. 2. To determine the role of School Based Management Committee on the supervision of teaching and learning in public primary schools. Research Questions In line with each specific objective, the researcher raised the following research questions as guide: 1. Has School Based Management Committee any role on the provision of facilities for teaching and learning in public primary schools? 2. Has School Based Management Committee any role on the supervision of teaching and learning in public primary schools? Null hypotheses 1. School Based Management Committee has no significant role on the provision of facilities for teaching and learning in public primary schools. 2. School Based Management Committee has no significant role on supervision of teaching and learning in public primary schools. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This research work is based on the community participation theory of learning postulated by United Nations, (1981). The theory stressed that, for the development of education, communities and societies must support parents and families in the upbringing, socializing, and educating of children. Parents and families cannot be the only group of people for children's education as long as they interact and learn from the world outside their families. Education takes place not only in schools but also within families, communities, and society. United Nations, (1981) views community participation as: "the creation of opportunities to enable all 48

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

members of a community and the larger society to actively contribute to and influence the development process and to share equitably in the fruits of development". Anokye (2004) views community participation as all forms of involvement and support that parents, the collective body of parents and teachers, local leadership and residents in a school neighbourhood offer to the enhancement of learning and teaching in a school. Community participation in education in this study is defined to mean the level or extent of community involvement in the decision-making process, management, activities or running of schools. That is the level to which parents and other identifiable community groups contribute towards creating an environment conducive for efficient and effective teaching and learning. In other words, it refers to the involvement by the community in education programmes within the framework of the national development programme. Shaeffer (1994) in Uemura (1999) further provides specific activities that involve a high degree of participation in a wider development context, which can also be applied in the education sector, these include: collecting and analyzing information, defining priorities and setting goals, assessing available resources, deciding on and planning resources, designing strategies to implement these programs and dividing responsibilities among participants. Literature review In Great Britain, the 1988 Education Reform Act under the Thatcher government devolved power and authority to school communities to constitute management boards as mandatory corporate bodies consisting of the head teacher and governors elected by the parents, teachers, and representatives of the local authority. Under the Act, public secondary schools became autonomous and grantmaintained (GM) schools, owned and managed solely by each school's governing board, composed of 10-to-15-member entity, including the head teacher and parents' representatives; devoid of local education authority control. The study on this approach revealed that student achievement improved by 0.25 of a standard deviation in pass rates on standardized examinations (Clark, 2009). In Belgium, Denmark, Finland, and Netherlands, the Central Governments enacted appropriate legislation to decentralize power and authority with full autonomy to schools to establish and operate managing bodies in partnership with the Local stakeholders to manage, regulate and take decisions on education policy matters; curriculum and teaching methods; learners' evaluation; personnel selection, dismissal and discipline; infrastructure; and other learning resources to guarantee the best use of public funds; and the raising and judicious use of private funds for the overall well-being of the citizenry and production of quality outputs from the educational institutions (Eurydice, 2007). Research on School-Based Management in Indonesia indicated that there is a dramatic improvement in students' achievement due to the effective operation of government's policy guidelines to establish mandatory corporate school governing 49

Nuhu Ishaq Lawal, Dauda Abdulmutalib Gambo, and Suleiman Aminu

councils in accordance with Education Act 20/2003 on National Education System which allows maximum involvement of local communities in the management of the school to achieve better quality education. Article 56 of the Act provides that the communities members are required to participate actively in the quality improvement of educational services, which include: strategic planning, curriculum implementation, and monitoring and evaluation of educational programmes through the educational council and school council, while the Government through the Ministry of National Education regulates the power and authority vested in the school councils, as well as the operational procedures/characteristics and formation of membership and structure of a school council (Agustinus, 2008). The Indonesian Education Act 20/2003 describes a school council as an independent body established to provide technical advice, directions and support for personnel, facilities and equipment, and monitoring of a school (Article 56). The power and authority of a school council relates to its four major roles, which are: i) to be an advisory agency in determining and/or approving educational policies at the school level; ii) serving as supporting agency in the school both in financial and non-financial matters; iii) functioning as controlling agency both for the purpose of transparency and accountability at school level; and iv) to be a mediator between school, government, and community on educational matters (Agustinus, 2008). The school thrives on effective interrelationships within it and with its relevant publics. The school requires a lot of human, materials, physical facilities and financial resources for building the capacity of the education system to be able to deliver high quality and relevant curriculum to learners of all ages. Consequently, the School-Based Management Committee (SBMC) is recognized as a viable tool for promoting effective community participation, commitment, transparency, accountability, supportive services and best practices in school planning, management, monitoring and evaluation of performance of school administrators, teachers and learners to ensure quality service delivery and learning outcomes. In a bid to ensure effective participation of local communities in the management of affairs of schools, the National Council on Education (NCE) in 2006 approved the establishment of SBMCs in all primary and secondary schools in Nigeria, as part of government strategy to re-structure the school administrative process and ensure inclusive participation of stakeholders in the school management at the community level. The SBMC is made up of 12 to 19 people in each school. This is expected to be achieved through the involvement of meaningful, close, strong and goal-oriented partnership between the school authority and other relevant stakeholders (Parent-Teachers Association (PTA), Old Students Association, Communities, Traditional Institution, Civil Society Organizations, Faith-Based Organizations, Ministries, and other professional and social institutions). This synergy is necessary because a virile and responsive schoolcommunity relationship is a building block for a sustainable quality education (Ayeni, 2010; Aggarwal, 1981; Balogun et al, 1981; Universal Basic Education Commission, 2011).

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

METHODOLOGY This study was conducted in five (5) local governments of Nasarawa state namely, Lafia, Doma, Akwanga, Keffi and Toto local government areas. The five sampled local governments were selected using purposive random sampling. Descriptive survey design was used for the study. The population of the study was twelve thousand five hundred (12,500) members of school based management committees. Three hundred and fifty (350) respondents were randomly selected to form the sample size. The instrument used to collect data from the respondents was self designed structured questionnaire. The researcher and four (4) research assistants each from the sampled local government covered the study. The study was piloted in Kuje Area Council where 50 copies of questionnaire were distributed to members of school based management committees of selected primary schools. The data obtained from the pilot study was used to determine the reliability of the instrument. The researcher informed the school management of the exercise few days before the administration of the instrument so that respondents can avail themselves within the school premises for easy delivery. Respondents were informed in a cover letter accompanying the survey instrument and also verbally during the distribution that, participation in the survey was optional and their responses will be handled with high level of secrecy. Descriptive statistics of frequency distribution and percentages were used to analyze the bio-data of the respondents and research questions. Pearson moment correlation coefficient was used to test the null hypotheses. RESULT OF THE STUDY Analysis of data used to answer research questions and null hypotheses was as presented in table 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 4 Research Question 1: has School Based Management Committee on the provision of facilities for teaching and learning in public primary schools? Table 1. Level of role play by School Based Management Committee on the provision of facilities for teaching and learning in public primary schools Item

Agree %

Disagree %

SBMCs assist the school with chalks where necessary

80.0

19.9

Instructional materials like charts and locally made items for 44.3 teaching and learning are improvised by SBMCs

55.7

Sits, benches and tables found in the classroom are also 57.1 provided by SBMCs in addition to what government supply .

42.9

Nuhu Ishaq Lawal, Dauda Abdulmutalib Gambo, and Suleiman Aminu

Item

Agree %

SBMCs also lobby for the building of classrooms from 65.7 government and other philanthropists

Disagree % 34.3

Source: Field work 2015 In this section, the results indicated a high level of role played by school based management committees in providing facilities for teaching and learning. Respondents generally agreed with statements describing SBMCs assist the school with chalks where necessary (80%) as well as SBMCs also lobby for the building of classrooms from government and other philanthropists (65.7%). This implies that, SBMCs has impact on provision of facilities for teaching and learning but the test of hypothesis will indicate whether the impact is statistically significant. Null Hypothesis 1: SBMCs has no significant impact on the provision of facilities for teaching and learning. Table 2: Impact of SBMCs on the provision of facilities for teaching and learning Variables

Mean

SBMCs

16.6026

5.3122

of Agric courses. Provision of Facilities

20.6779

r-cal

r-crit

350

348

0.409

0.195

Sig. (2-tailed)

0.000

5.1908

Source: Field work 2015 Analysis of test of null hypothesis showed that calculated r- value was 0.409 found to be greater than critical value of 0.195 even at 0.05 levels of significance. This means that, SBMCs has significant impact on the provision of facilities for teaching and learning. Hence the null hypothesis was not retained. Research Question 2: Has School Based Management Committee any role on supervision of teaching and learning in public primary schools? Table 3: Role of SBMCs on the supervision of teaching and learning in public primary schools Item

Agree %

SBMCs time to time do visit the school to assess the 87.1 activities of teachers in their respective classrooms

Disagree % 12.9

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377

Item

Agree %

Disagree %

SBMCs checkmate teachers' lesson note and lesson 72.8 plan to ascertain whether they are in line with the scheme of work

27.2

SBMCs liaises with the school management to evaluate 74.3 punctuality of teachers and school pupils

25.7

SBMCs supervise the effective utilization of the 70.0 available instructional materials by the teachers

30.0

Source: Field work 2015 The overall results in table 2 indicated a high level of role played by SBMCs on the supervision of teaching and learning in public schools. Respondents generally agreed with statements describing SBMCs time to time do visit the school to assess the activities of teachers in their respective classrooms 87.1 and SBMCs supervise the effective utilization of the available instructional materials by the teachers also stood at 70.0%. This implies that, SBMCs has impact on the supervision of teaching and learning but the test of hypothesis will indicate whether the impact is statistically significant. Null Hypothesis 2: SBMCs has no significant impact on the supervision of teaching and learning. Table 4: Impact of SBMCs on the provision of facilities for teaching and learning Variables

Mean

SBMCs

16.5364

5.22043

of Agric courses. Provision of Facilities

20.5831

r-cal

r-crit

350

348

0.422

0.195

Sig. (2-tailed)

0.000

5.1772

Source: Field work 2015 Analysis of test of null hypothesis showed that calculated r- value was 0.422 found to be greater than critical value of 0.195 even at 0.05 levels of significance. This means that, SBMCs has significant impact on the supervision of teaching and learning. Hence the null hypothesis was not retained.

Nuhu Ishaq Lawal, Dauda Abdulmutalib Gambo, and Suleiman Aminu

DISCUSSION The analysis of the data in table 1 and 2 revealed that, SBMCs played a great role in providing facilities for teaching and learning in the study area as seen in answers to research question one. The test of null hypothesis 1 further confirmed that the impact of this SBMC on the provision of facilities for teaching and learning was statistically significant. Findings from this research study further showed that, SBMCs also help in the supervision of teachers during teaching and learning session and seldom checkmating the punctuality of school children in order to ensure effective teaching and learning. These findings were in term with the report of Agustinus, 2008 who averred that, SBMCs are a viable tool for promoting effective community participation, commitment, transparency, accountability, supportive services and best practices in school planning, management, monitoring and evaluation of performance of school administrators, teachers and learners to ensure quality service delivery and learning outcomes. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The researcher concluded based on the findings of this study that, SBMCs play a significant role to service delivery in public primary schools in the study area. As a result government should ensure enabling environment to consolidate their activities and also the school management appreciate and encourage them to do more. It is also recommended that, to avoid power bloc and tussle between the SBMCs and school heads, terms of reference stating the limitations of SBMCs in a school system should be made clear and available. References Aggawral, J. F. (1981). Theory and practice of education: Philosophical and sociological bases of education (p.104). New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, PVT, Ltd. Agustinus, B. (2008). The implementation of school-based management in Indonesia: Creating conflicts inregional levels. Journal of NTT Studies, 1(1), 1627. Anokye, Bernice Otaah (Unpublished, 2004) "Participation in Basic Education: A Study of Community participation in Primary Schools in the Ga District of Ghana". M .Phil. Thesis, Department of Administration and Organization Theory, University of Bergen. Norway. Ayeni. A. J. (2010). Teachers' instructional task performance and principals' supervisory roles as correlates of quality assurance in secondary schools in Ondo State. Doctoral dissertation, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Balogun, D. A., Okon, S. E., Musaazi, J. C. S., & Thakur, A. S. (1981). Principles and Practice of Education. Lagos: Macmillan Nigeria Ltd

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Clark, D. (2009). The performance and competitive effects of school autonomy. Journal of Political Economy, 117(4), 745-783. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/605604 Deming, W. E. (1986). Out of the crisis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eurydice European Unit. (2007). School autonomy in Europe: Policies and measures. Brussels: Eurydice Information Network on Education. Raouf, A. (2008). Continuous improvement of higher education quality. Retrieved from http://www.aacsb.edu/accreditation/default.asp Shaeffer, Sheldon (Ed.). 1994. Partnerships and Participation in Basic Education: A Series of Training Modules and Case Study Abstracts for Educational Planners and Managers". Paris: UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Planning. Stahl, T. (1998). Self assessment: A road to quality assurance for continuing training. Vocational training. European Journal (pp.33-45). Retrieved from http://www. abet.org/thebasics.shtml Teboho, M. (2000). Nigeria Education Sector Analysis: An analytical synthesis of performance and main issues. New York: World Bank. Temponi, C. (2005). Continuous improvement framework: Implications for academia. Quality assurance in education, 13, 17-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ 09684880510578632 Uemura, Mitsue. 1999. "Community Participation in Education: What do we know?" HDNED, The World Bank UNESCO website: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/ICE/natrap/Ghana.pdf Universal Basic Education Commission. (2011). Revised national guidelines for the development of school-based management committees in Nigeria. Abuja: Social Mobilization Department, Universal Basic Education Commission with the support of esspin/UKaid.

Nuhu Ishaq Lawal, Dauda Abdulmutalib Gambo, and Suleiman Aminu

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377 http://fssh-journal.org

TIME ALLOTMENT AND SCOPE OF THE STUDENT TEACHER PRACTICUM PROGRAM OF A PHILIPPINE UNIVERSITY: IMPLEMENTERS’ PERSPECTIVES GENEROSO N. MAZO, Ph.D. Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City, Philippines 6500

Abstract This study sought to determine the perspectives of the 316 program implementers of the Student Teacher Practicum Program in the Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City. Using the descriptive survey method the inquiry focused on the time allotment and scope/coverage of the program. The scope/coverage include the orientation, observation, participation, and actual teaching phases. The Statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to test the level of significance between the perspectives of “in-campus” and “off-campus” respondents. The implementers construed the time allotment as Just Sufficient, while they perceived the scope/coverage as Moderately Adequate in its orientation phase, Largely Adequate in its observation, participation, and actual teaching phases. The null hypotheses was not rejected on the aspect of time allotment while on the aspect of scope/coverage it was rejected.. Keywords: Student teaching program, perspectives, time allotment, scope

INTRODUCTION Education as a profession is considered the most important as other professions highly depend on teachers. Training of future teachers is thus of equal importance as it orients students to the reality of the world of work in the classroom. The Leyte Normal University (LNU) is a state university recognized as a teacher training institution in the Eastern Visayas Region in the Philippines. It was awarded the Center of Excellence (COE) in teacher training status by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). As such, it is tasked to produce quality graduates in education both in the fields of Bachelor in Elementary Education (BEED) and Bachelor in Secondary Education (BSED).

Generoso N. Mazo, Ph.D.

One of the most important trainings that each education student must undergo is the Student Teaching Practicum/Internship Program. This is part of the curriculum in both the elementary and secondary education programs. Under this program students are assigned to different participating schools for their practicum/internship assignments. They are required to finish a total of two (2) shifts. The final stage before certification, student teaching, emphasizes the processes of becoming a teacher and its purpose is the full assumption of the teacher’s role in a learning community. The Student Teaching Program provides an opportunity to develop and evaluate the student’s competence in an actual school setting. Student teaching is intended to bridge theory and practice. Perspectives (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1993) are set in the concrete world of actual situations and refer to particular actions. It is imperative that the perspectives of the people involved in the program implementation are taken into consideration in order to have bases for changes that may be adapted in the program under scrutiny. The different viewpoints of the people involved in the program are based on the meaning that the program has impressed upon them. Meanings are the bases of perspectives. Meaning is what Beard (1934) referred to as the frame of reference on which thought and action are consciously or unconsciously based. The Student Teaching Program aims to acquaint future teachers with the professional and social responsibilities of a regular teacher, orient them on the needs, interests, and conditions of the community where they expect to teach, provide them with relevant experiences to develop desirable professional interests, attitudes, ideals, character and skills. The program includes an “in-campus” and “off-campus” actual teaching experience. The “In Campus” is done in the Integrated Laboratory School (ILS) of the University. The student finds himself in an educational environment where he has ample opportunity to engage in profitable experience in observation, in sharing and participating, and in teaching with the guidance and supervision of college and laboratory personnel. It I an environment established to enable the students to gain self-confidence and self-direction as they work with children. The “Off-Campus” teaching experience is done in cooperating schools. These cooperating schools are public elementary and secondary schools operated by the Department of Education (DepEd) which assists the University with some phase of the teacher education program. These public schools receive student teachers under some agreements with the University. This study aims to gather the perspectives of the implementers of the program to improve the program to make it more effective as a tool for producing high caliber teachers who are well-imbued with knowledge, skills, and attitudes for effective development of the children. This study sought to answers the following questions: 1. What is the Profile of the implementers in terms of the a) age; b) sex; c) civil status; d) highest educational attainment, and; e) work experience. 2. How do the implementers view 58

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the program along it’s a) importance; b) objectives; c) relevance, and; d) competencies. 3. Do implementers from “in-campus” and “off-campus” differ in their perspectives of the Student Teaching Practicum Program? This study will utilize the “Improvement-Focused Model” as adopted by Posavac and Carey (2003). It is a model of evaluation in which program improvement is the focus rather than particular methodologies. Improvements can be made in programs when discrepancies are noted between what is observed and what was planned, projected, or needed. Evaluators help program staff to discover discrepancies between program objectives and the needs of the target population, between program implementation and program plans, between expectations of the target population and the services actually delivered, or between outcomes achieved and outcomes projected. The improvement-focused model best meets the criteria necessary for effective evaluation: serving the needs of stakeholders, providing valid information, and offering alternative point of view to those doing the really hard work of serving program participants. THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework This study sought to prove the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the perspectives of stakeholders from “in-campus” and “off-campus” on the Student Teaching Program. The study covered the Student Teaching Practicum/Internship program implementation during the 1st and 2nd semesters of school year 2007-2008. The implementation of the Student Teaching program is a collaborative effort of supervisors of student teaching and the cooperating teachers for mentors. This is the phase of teacher education during which a student teacher receives

Generoso N. Mazo, Ph.D.

guidance in learning to assume responsibility for the major activities of real teachers. Bago (2001) asserted that curriculum planning involves participation of various stakeholders. Some participants are school-based (teacher, students, administrators, curriculum specialists); and the others are community-based (parents, community leaders, national government officials, non-government organizations). They provide valuable inputs needed in developing the implementation scheme. Ochave (2003) in his article in the Journal of Southeast Asian Education said the stakeholders-friendly evaluation model is anchored on the principle of stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation as the right subjects in the evaluation process of the program for the simple reason that they are part of the program. Hence they are the beneficiaries, processors, and recipients of the products of the program. The evaluation of the effectiveness of the teacher education program should possess the criteria of simplicity, comprehensiveness, flexibility, isomorphism, efficiency, intuitive appeal, and validity. Llamas (2007) in her dissertation evaluated the current status of the Education Program of the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Pasay (PLP) of which the results were used as the baseline data for a five-year strategic management plan. A total of two hundred nineteen (219) respondents from the top management, faculty, and students participated in the study. Eight (8) were from the top management, 14 faculty members, 197 senior students of which 101 were from the BSEED and 96 were from the BSSED. Evaluation provides strong basis for decision makers whether a particular program is accomplishing its goals and objectives or not. If not, then it is up to them to terminate, change, or modify the program. To attain the ultimate goals of producing quality education, an in-depth evaluation of the extent of implementation of the programs and projects of an institution would provide the data in which future and improved plans can be promulgated. It is imperative that learning institutions should undergo assessment or evaluation to attain quality and excellence. Their existing laws, policies, and standards are improved or superseded to adapt to the needs of the changing times. Castro (2006) in his dissertation analyzed the determinants of the performance of the student teachers in selected SUCs and used its results as inputs to student teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; enhancement program. His respondents included 265 fourth year education students of University of Rizal System who finished student teaching in the 1st semester of SY 2005-2006 and 25 professors and instructors of the Professional Education Unit. The study concluded that the perceptions of the professionals and beginning teachers differ. The faculty, school, student, and cooperating school related factors influence the performance of the student teachers while the personal qualities, professional qualities, and managerial qualities of a teacher, organizational climate, facilities and physical plant, curriculum, student teaching program, student teaching supervision, and administrative support, political factors, social factors, economic factors, and technological factors of school, personal qualities, and managerial qualities of student, venue or place of assignment, 60

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methodology, physical facilities, and control mechanism of the cooperating school are predictors of the performance of the student teacher. The descriptive survey research method was used in this study. The data gathered were subjected to statistical processing to determine the perspectives of the implementers. Analysis of the data was then made to determine whether there was significant difference between the perspectives of the in-campus and offcampus stakeholders. This study was conducted at the Leyte Normal University and the eighteen (18) cooperating schools of the Tacloban City Division, specifically, seven (7) high schools and eleven (11) elementary schools. From in-campus, a total of 10 respondents divided into the following: 3 Program Coordinators; 6 Teachers of the LNU-Integrated Laboratory School (LNU-ILS), and; (c) the Program In-Charge. From off-campus, a total of 306 respondents divided into the following: (a) 18 school principals or heads of cooperating schools, and; (c) 288 cooperating teachers. The main data gathering instrument was a questionnaire prepared by the researcher utilizing the student teaching/internship manual in identifying the essential aspects of the program then proceeded to formulate the questions relative thereto. The questionnaire was designed to solicit and document the perspectives of the program coordinator, the program director, the heads of cooperating schools, and the cooperating teachers on the aspects of time allotment and scope/coverage of the student teacher practicum program. The researcher sought permission from the University President to conduct the study. Permission was also sought from the Tacloban City Schools Superintendent for the study to be conducted in the schools in the City Division. The overall retrieval rate stands at 89.38 percent. To determine the average perceptions of the implementers on the importance, objectives, relevance, and competencies, frequency counting, percentages, and weighted means were used. The Statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS) was resorted to compute and determine the mean and standard deviation. The T-test was used to test the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the perspectives of stakeholders from “in-campus” and “off-campus” on the Student Teaching Program. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The respondents are classified as “in-campus” and “off-campus” stakeholders. From the in-campus, respondents include 10 teacher educators. The off-campus respondents include 18 school heads and 288 STE/CTE or a total of 316 implementers. Majority, 299 or 94 percent of the 316 were from Tacloban City. 61

Generoso N. Mazo, Ph.D.

Only 2 or 1 percent came from the Province of Leyte. Some 17 or 5 percent did not indicate their place of residence. The Average age of the implementers stood at 42.77. Out of the 316, 280 or 88 percent were females while only 34 or 11 percent were males. Two (2) failed to indicate their gender. Majority at 244 or 77 percent were married while 45 or 14 percent were single, 13 or 4 percent were widow/er(s) and 12 or 4 percent did not indicate their status. Majority of implementers at 274 or 88 percent had Baccalaureate Degrees, only 6 or 2 percent had Doctorate Degrees, 26 or 8 percent had Masters Degrees, while 10 or 3 percent had taken subjects in post graduate programs. On work experience, 43 or 13.84 percent had been in the service from 1-5 years, 58 or 18.55 percent had 6-10 work experience, 42 or 13.21 percent had 11-15 years, 34 or 10.69 percent had 16-20 years, 15 or 5 percent had 21-25 years experience, and 34 or 10.69 percent claimed 26 and above years of teaching experience. The perspectives of the implementers as to the time allotment of the program is presented in Table 1. The overall mean of their perspectives stood at 2.81 with a description of Just Sufficient (JS). It may be noted that the program is a one semester’s course or an 18-week course which runs to a 54 hours. Among the 4 indicators the 3-weeks general orientation got the highest mean of 2.88 described as Just Sufficient (JS). The 7 weeks of in-campus experience for student teachers got the lowest mean of 2.70 interpreted as Just Sufficient (JS). Notably the in-campus administrators regarded the 7-week of in-campus experience for student teachers and the week evaluation as Insufficient with a mean of 2.25 and 2.50 (Table 1), respectively while the off-campus administrators viewed all the variables in the Time Allotment of the program as Insufficient. The mean perspectives of the implementers on the orientation phase under the coverage/scope of the program are presented in Table 2. It may be noted that the overall mean of the implementers’ perspective stood at 3.73 described as Largely Adequate (LA). Among the variables, the item on knowing available instructional materials got the highest mean of 3.87 interpreted as Largely Adequate (LA) while the item on being introduced as a student teacher got the lowest mean of 3.58 construed as Largely Adequate (LA). Notably the “in-campus” administrators identified the item on being introduced as a student teacher with a mean of 3.50 described as Moderately Adequate (MA). The STE/CTE from “off-campus” considered items on being introduced as a student teacher with a mean of 3.30; acquaintance with school policies, rules, and regulations with a mean of 3.49; acquaintance with in-campus ST and off campus cooperating teacher with a mean of 3.46, and; knowing available instructional materials with a mean of 3.49, all construed as Moderately Adequate (MA).

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Table 1. Implementers perspectives on the time allotment of the program PERSPECTIVES INDICATOR

Three (3) weeks general orientation Seven (7) weeks of "in-campus" experience for student teachers Seven weeks of "offcampus" experience for student teachers 1 week Evaluation of the knowledge, skills and attitudes of the student teacher Overall Mean Legend:

In-Campus Administrators ILS Teachers D D x x

Submean D x

Off-Campus Administrators STE/CTE D D x x

Submean D x

Overall x

3.25

2.67

2.96

2.50

3.11

2.81

2.88

2.25

3.00

2.63

2.44

3.11

2.78

2.70

3.00

2.50

2.98

2.74

2.87

2.50

3.17

2.84

2.50

2.95

2.73

2.78

2.75

2.96

2.86

2.49

3.04

2.76

2.81

3.51 - 4.0 - More than Sufficient (MS) 2.51 - 3.50 - Just Sufficient (JS) 1.51 - 2.50 - Insufficient (I); 1.00 - 1.50 - Very Insufficient (VI) 63

Generoso N. Mazo, Ph.D.

Table 2. Implementers perspectives on the coverage/scope of the program (Orientation Phase) PERSPECTIVES INDICATOR

Being introduced as a student teacher Acquaintance with school policies, rules, and regulations Acquaintance with incampus ST and off-campus cooperating teacher Knowing available instructional materials Acquaintance with the class Overall Mean Legend:

In-Campus Administrators ILS Teachers D D x x

Submean D x

Off-Campus Administrators STE/CTE D D x x

Submean D x

Overall x

3.50

4.00

3.30

3.65

3.58

3.75

3.67

3.71

3.89

3.49

3.69

3.70

4.00

3.33

3.67

3.78

3.46

3.62

3.64

4.00

3.49

3.75

3.87

4.00

3.78

3.56

3.67

3.84

3.85 3.51 2.51 1.51 1.00

LA 4.00 3.50 2.50 1.50 -

3.70 LA 3.78 LA Largely Adequate (LA) Moderately Adequate (MA) Slightly Adequate (SA) Poor (P)

3.89

3.46

3.68

3.73

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Table 3. Implementers perspectives on the coverage/scope of the program (Observation Phase) PERSPECTIVES In-Campus Administrators ILS Teachers D D x x

submean D x

4.00

3.83

3.92

3.89

3.50 MA 3.70

3.81

4.00

3.67

3.84

3.89

3.45 MA 3.67

3.75

3.50

3.00

3.25 MA

3.00

3.31 MA 3.16 MA 3.20 MA

Observing meetings and attending school assemblies

3.75

3.17

3.46 MA

3.39

3.33 MA 3.36 MA 3.41 MA

Observing the use of different motivation techniques by the CTE/STE

3.25

3.83

3.54

3.39

3.62

3.51

3.52

3.25

4.00

3.63

3.56

3.59

4.00

3.56

3.48 MA 3.52

3.76

INDICATOR

Observing in-campus STE or off-campus cooperating teacher Observing pupils/students in various situations Observing other classes

Observing classroom strategies used by the CTE/STE Observing learning evaluation techniques applied by the CTE/STE

Off-Campus Administrators STE/CTE D D x x

submean D x

Overall D x

Generoso N. Mazo, Ph.D.

Observing classroom management styles Overall Mean Legend:

3.75

3.69 3.51 2.51 1.51 1.00

LA 4.00 3.50 2.50 1.50

4.00 -

3.88

3.44

3.56

3.50 MA 3.69

3.69 LA 3.69 LA Largely Adequate (LA) Moderately Adequate (MA) Slightly Adequate (SA) Poor (P)

3.52

3.48 MA 3.50 MA 3.59

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Table 4. Implementers perspectives on the coverage/scope of the program (Participation Phase) PERSPECTIVES In-Campus Administrators ILS Teachers D D x x

Submean D x

4.00

3.72

3.59

3.66

3.83

4.00

3.28

3.57

3.43 MA 3.71

3.25

4.00

3.63

3.61

3.17 MA 3.39 MA 3.51

4.00

3.56

3.57

3.78

3.75

4.00

3.88

3.17

3.59

3.38 MA 3.63

Administering and interpreting test results

3.50

4.00

3.75

3.50

3.48 MA 3.49 MA 3.62

Helping pupils/students evaluate their work

4.00

3.83

3.92

4.00

3.44 MA 3.72

3.82

Assisting in communityschool related activities

3.25

2.67

2.96 MA

4.00

3.27 MA 3.64

3.30 MA

INDICATOR

Assisting in routine activities Arranging the classroom for the activities Doing clerical work Preparing instructional materials Preparing evaluative materials

Off-Campus Administrators STE/CTE D D x x

Submean D x LA

Overall D x

Generoso N. Mazo, Ph.D.

Assisting in PTCA meetings and other group activities Conducting home visitation Assisting in various school activities Accomplishing and safekeeping class forms and records Overall mean Legend:

3.00

3.33

3.17 MA

3.39

3.18 MA 3.29 MA 3.23 MA

3.00

3.00 MA

3.33

3.08 MA 3.21 MA 3.10 MA

4.00

3.00

3.50 MA

4.00

3.27 MA 3.64

3.57

4.00

3.67

3.84

3.61

3.36 MA 3.49 MA 3.66

3.65 3.51 2.51 1.51 1.00

LA 4.00 3.50 2.50 1.50

3.63 LA 3.64 LA Largely Adequate (LA) Moderately Adequate (MA) Slightly Adequate (SA) Poor (P)

3.60

3.38 MA 3.49 MA 3.56

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Table 5. Implementers perspectives on the coverage/scope of the program (Actual Teaching Phase) PERSPECTIVES INDICATOR

Tutoring pupils and/or remedial lessons to slow learners Working with small groups of learners Handling the class for short periods Straight teaching and demonstration Lesson planning Execution of plans Managing the class Overall Mean Legend:

In-Campus Administrators ILS Teachers D D x x

submean D x

Off-Campus Administrators STE/CTE D D x x

submean D x

Overall D x

4.00

4.00 LA

4.00

3.24 MA 3.62 LA 3.81 LA

4.00

3.83

3.92 LA

3.72

3.50 MA 3.61 LA 3.76 LA

4.00

4.00 LA

3.83

3.27 MA 3.55 LA 3.78 LA

4.00

4.00 LA

3.61

3.40 MA 3.51 LA 3.75 LA

4.00 3.75 4.00 3.96 3.51 2.51 1.51 1.00 -

LA LA LA LA 4.00 3.50 2.50 1.50 -

4.00 3.83 4.00 3.86

LA LA LA LA

3.54 LA 3.58 LA 3.55 LA 3.44 MA

4.00 LA 4.00 LA 4.00 LA 3.88 LA 4.00 LA 4.00 LA 3.98 LA 3.97 LA Largely Adequate (LA) Moderately Adequate (MA) Slightly Adequate (SA) Poor (P) 69

3.77 3.71 3.78 3.65

LA LA LA LA

3.89 3.79 3.89 3.81

LA LA LA LA

International Journal of Educational Studies | Vol. 13, No. 1, 2016 ISSN 1682-4377 http://fssh-journal.org

Both the “in-campus” and “off-campus” implementers identified the items on observing other classes as Moderately Adequate (MA) with a mean of 3.00 and 3.20 respectively and on observing meetings and attending school activities as Moderately Adequate (MA) with a mean of 3.46 and 3.41, respectively. The mean perspectives of the implementers on the participation phase under the coverage/scope of the program are presented in Table 4. The overall mean of the implementers’ perspective stood at 3.56 described as Largely Adequate (LA). Among the variables, the item on assisting in routine activities got the highest mean of 3.83 interpreted as Largely Adequate (LA) while the items on assisting in community-school related activities, assisting in PTCA meetings and other group activities, and conducting home visitation got the lowest mean of 3.30, 3.23, and 3.10 respectively construed as Moderately Adequate (MA). The mean perspectives of the implementers on the actual teaching phase under the coverage/scope of the program are presented in Table 5. The overall mean of the implementers’ perspective stood at 3.81 described as Largely Adequate (LA). Among the variables, the items on lesson planning and managing the class had the highest mean as both got 3.89 interpreted as Largely Adequate (LA) while the items on straight teaching and demonstration as both got the lowest mean of 3.75 construed as Largely Adequate (LA). As all the other variables were perceived as Largely Adequate (LA), the “offcampus” STE/CTE viewed the items on tutoring pupils and/or remedial lessons to slow learners, working with small groups of learners, handling the class for short periods, and straight teaching and demonstration as Moderately Adequate (MA) with a mean of 3.24, 3.50, 3.27 and, 3.40, respectively The null hypothesis was not rejected on the aspect of time allotment as no significant difference between the perspectives of the “in-campus” and “off-campus” implementers was determined. The null hypothesis was rejected on the aspect of Scope/Coverage of the program as a significant difference between the perspectives of the “in-campus” and “off-campus” implementers was determined. Table 6. Statistical significance of the difference of the means of the perspectives of implementers on the two aspects of the student teacher practicum program between the in-campus and off-campus implementers Variables

t-value

p-value

Interpretation

Time Allotment

0.918

0.359

Not Significant

Scope/Coverage

-3.109

0.002

Significant

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Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions are formulated: 1.

Program implementers are mostly residents of Tacloban City, a clear evidence that as professionals they are serving in their place of residence. They are mostly married females, with average age of 43 years old, mostly with Baccalaureate Degrees and 6-10 years of work experience.

Both the “in-campus” and “off-campus” implementers perceive the Time Allotment of the Student Practicum Program as Just Sufficient. The Coverage/Scope of the program is perceived as Moderately Adequate.

No significant difference was noted between the perspectives of the “incampus” and “off-campus” implementers on the aspect of time allotment. However, on the aspect of coverage/scope of the program a significant difference between the perspectives of the “in-campus” and “off-campus” implementers was noted.

As a Center of Excellence in Teacher Education, the university must exceed the minimum requirements in terms of the time allotment of the program in its desire to provide invaluable actual classroom experience to future teachers. The university need to re-emphasize and strengthen the experiences of the student teachers on aspects perceived as Moderately Adequate in the coverage/scope of the program. Acknowledgement This paper was made possible through the help of Dr. Nenita Tamayo, Dr. Manuel Espina, and my mother and “in-house” editor Dr. Leatriz Mazo. The inspiration of my father Dr. Jose V. Mazo (+). Special thanks to Rafaelita CumpioMazo, my wife, my inspiration, my all. Above all to God be the Glory.

Generoso N. Mazo, Ph.D.

References Bago, A.L. (2001) Curriculum Development The Philippine Experience. De La Salle University Press, Inc. Manila. Best, J.W. and Kahn, J.V. (2007) Research in Education. Tenth Edition. Singapore: Pearson Education Inc. Castro, R.R. (2006) “Determinants of the Performance of the Student Teachers in Selected SUCs: Input to Teacher’s Enhancement Program.” Unpublished Dissertation. University of Rizal System. Fraenkel, J.R. and Wallen, N.E. (2006). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. Sixth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Llamas, R.M. (2007) “Evaluation of the Education Program of a Public Tertiary Institution: Basis for a Five-Year Strategic Management Plan.” Unpublished Dissertation. Philippine Normal University, Manila. Melchor, L.S. (2004) “Cooperating Teachers’ Perception on the Teaching Competencies of Student Teachers of LSU Alangalang Campus.” Graduate Research Abstracts. Vol. 5. 2004. Graduate School, Leyte State University. VISCA 6521-A, Baybay, Leyte. ISSN 1656-6459. Ochave, J.A. (2003). “Towards the Development of a Blue-Print Stakeholder-Friendly Evaluation Model for Training and Education Programmers.” Journal of Southeast Asian education: Vol. 4, No. 2. Posavac, E.J. and Carey, R.G. (2003). Program Evaluation Methods and Case Studies. Sixth Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. New Jersey.

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INFLUENCE OF FADAMA I PROJECT ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARMERS IN KEBBI AND SOKOTO STATES, NIGERIA B.I. OKEH, Ph.D. Department of Vocational and Technical Education Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

C. UGURU, Ph.D. Department of Vocational and Technical Education Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

N. I. LAWAL Department of Science and Vocational Education Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto Abstract Fadama I project in Nigeria has attracted assistance (funds) from the World Bank. Kebbi and Sokoto states are two of the beneficiaries of the funds. This study therefore, assessed the Influence of Fadama I Project on socio-economic status of farmers in Kebbi and Sokoto states, Nigeria. Specific objectives included: assess the influence of Fadama I project on the socio-economic status of participating farmers. Multistage sampling technique was used to select 400 respondents from 14,600 participating farmers. Structured questionnaire was used to elicit information from respondents. Descriptive statistics such as frequency counts and percentages were used for bio-data analysis while t-test was used for analyzing the null hypothesis at Pâ&#x2030;¤ 0.05 level of significance. Fadama I project has led to an increment in the overall farm yield of the participating farmers in Kebbi and Sokoto states, High cost of farm inputs such as improved seeds, improved breeds of animals, herbicides, pesticides, inorganic fertilizer have affected the general adoption of Fadama I project, There is significant influence of Fadama 1 project on the socio-economic status of farmers in the study areas. Therefore, the entire null hypotheses were rejected, since all the P-Values were positive and the alternative hypotheses were accepted. This shows that there was significant influence of Fadama I project on the socio-economic status of the participants'. The study therefore concluded that the influence of Fadama I project on the socio-economic status of the participant is positive, hence improvement on the living standard of the participating farmers in Kebbi and Sokoto states. It therefore, recommended that Fadama farmers should be provided with agricultural inputs irrespective of joining any association. Keywords: Fadama I project, socio-economic status, farmers

B. I. Okeh, C. Uguru, and N. I. Lawal

INTRODUCTION The ultimate goal of Nigerian agricultural policy is the attainment of selfsustainable growth in all sectors of agriculture as well as the realization of the structural transformation necessary for the overall socio-economic development of the rural areas. As part of these measures, government has continued to accord high priority to irrigated agriculture since the Third National Development Plan 1976-1980 (Umaru, 1994). The previous irrigation projects in Nigeria have been largely attributed with top-down bureaucracy approach that resulted to failures of such programs. This led to the development of fadama irrigation development program in 1990s which involved farmers in identifying their agricultural needs and problems, on which policy formulations were based. The concept of irrigation connotes the science of economical utilization of water to supplement natural rainfall for the production of crop (Douthwaite, 2001). In an attempt to boost the traditional irrigation system, the Federal Government of Nigeria has contracted a loan of US$67.9 million from the World Bank to finance the development of the fadama land under the National Fadama Development Project (NFDP). The pioneer beneficiaries included Bauchi, Jigawa, Sokoto and Kebbi States. (Bawa, Ani, & Nuhu, 2010). The First National Fadama Development project (Fadama I programme) involved assisting farmers on how to implement recommended practices, motivate them to adapt some and evaluate production constraints and also advice farmers on how to overcome such problems. The National Fadama Development Project (NFDP) is a project of the Federal Government of Nigeria through the pooled World Bank loan established to finance the development of fadama lands by introducing small-scale irrigation in states with fadama development potentials. The project aims at boosting incremental food production and raises the standard of living of the beneficiaries. Fadama are low laying lands subject to seasonal flooding or water logging along the banks of streams or depressions. It is a Hausa word meaning, the seasonally flooded or floodable plains along major savannah rivers and or depressions or adjacent to seasonally or perennially flowing streams and rivers. Fadama lands have high potentials and agricultural values several times more than the adjacent upland. Fadama development is a typical form of small scale irrigation practice characterized by flexibility of farming operations, low inputs requirement, high economic values, and minimum social and environmental impact and hence conforms to the general criteria for sustainable development (Rank, 2010). The National Fadama Development Programme (NFDP) was established consequent to the failure of large scale irrigated schemes, which the country has pursued for the last 2 decades to yield the anticipated increase in food production. Presently, the NFDP is widely being implemented in all the 36 states of the federation and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), which have been categorized into the core states and the facility states. The core states include Bauchi, Gombe, Jigawa, Kano, Kebbi, Sokoto and Zamfara, while the remaining states and the FCT constitute the facility states. 74

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Statement of the Problem Self-sufficiency in food production based only in rain-fed agriculture is difficult to achieve. This is particularly true for Nigeria. So, for self-sufficiency in food production, there is need to extend the farming season beyond the rainy season through irrigated agriculture (Rank, 2010). To ensure that this laudable objective of self-sufficiency in food production is achieved, the Federal Government approved the implementation of the National Fadama Development Project (Bello, 2006). The fadama I Project was launched in early 1990s no remarkable change seen in terms life style of farmers in the study areas. In view of the vital roles of fadama I project as one of the solutions of meeting the national food needs, it becomes imperative to evaluate the effects of the fadama I project on the farmers of the of Kebbi and Sokoto states and ascertain why all effort made by previous government couldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t yield much result. Objectives of the Study The main objective of this study was to determine the influence of Fadama I Project on the ssocio-economic status of farmers in Kebbi and Sokoto states, while the specific objectives were to: 1. Describe the socio-economic characteristics of the fadama I participating farmers. 2. Assess the socio-economic benefits of fadama I programme. 3. Examine the improved technology provided to the participating farmers. Research Questions This study is setup to provide answers to the following questions. 1. What are the socio- economic characteristics of fadama I participating farmers in Kebbi and Sokoto States? 2. What are the socio- economic benefits derived by participating farmers from fadama I programme in Kebbi and Sokoto States? 3. What are the improved technologies provided to the participating farmers of fadama I program in Kebbi and Sokoto States? Research Hypothesis The following null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study and be tested using appropriate statistical tools. 1. Fadama I project has no significant influence of on the socio-economic status of Farmers in Kebbi and Sokoto states 2. There is no significant difference in the technologies adopted by Fadama I project participating farmers before and after the project. 3. There is no significant difference between the lands cultivated by Fadama I project participating farmers before and after the project.

B. I. Okeh, C. Uguru, and N. I. Lawal

METHODOLOGY Kebbi and Sokoto States were carved out of North-west province in 1972 and they lay between latitude 10⁰ and 13.3⁰N and longitude 3.30N and 6.130E. They share a common boundary with two of Nigerians neighbouring countries, Benin Republic and Republic of Niger to the west and North. Within the country, they border Zamfara State to the east. The climate of the areas is generally characterized by high temperatures ranging between March and May, with annual temperatures varying between 38⁰C to 42⁰C and the areas experience harmattan wind between late November to early February, with temperatures as low as 23⁰C. They are located in the sudano-sahelian ecological zone and experiences serious moisture deficiency for greater part of the year (Singh, 1995). Rainfall usually begins in early May, while heavy fall is experienced between July and October with mean annual rainfall varying between 500mm to 800mm.The climate of the study areas encourages the production of crops and animals both during rainy and dry seasons of the year, which makes majority of the inhabitants to choose farming as an occupation (Ango, Illo& Jibrin 1999).As for alternative sources of water, this covers mainly River Niger and Sokoto River with many of their important tributaries, which continue to supply the areas with underground and surface water. Descriptive survey research design was used for the study. This design allowed the researchers to collect data from respondents using questionnaires and subject them to statistical analysis. Multistage sampling technique was employed in to select two agricultural zones out threes. From each zone two blocks were randomly selected and one ward was selected from each block given a total of twenty (20) circles (villages). From each village twenty participating farmers were selected to give four hundred farmers. Three hundred and seventy five (375) questionnaires out of four hundred (400) were retrieved and data collected analyzed in three stages. The bio-data of the respondents were analyzed using frequencies and percentages. All the research questions were answered using descriptive statistics including mean, frequency distribution, percentages and chi-square was used to test relationship between farmers demographic characteristics, technology provided and land cultivated before and after project take off., while t-test was used to test all the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Socio-Economic Status of the Farmers Table 1.: Distribution of respondents demographic characteristics (n=375) Variable Gender