New
Ancient civilisations
first edition
Digital Edition
Uncover e the peopl s e c a l & p ped that sha ld r our wo
contents 108
08 Lost Civilisations
Asia 16 The Indus Valley Civilisation 20 The Akkadian Empire 24 The Mauryan Empire 26 Babylon 597 BCE 28 Secrets from Ancient China 36 The Scythians 38 The Golden Ages of Persia 42 The Nabateans 44 The Three Kingdoms of Korea
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africa 56 The Kingdoms of Ancient Egypt 64 Kingdom of Kush
48 The Seleucid Empire
68 The Nok Culture
50 Rise and Fall of the Xiongnu
70 The Kingdom of Aksum
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europe 76 The Greek City-States 82 The Celts 84 Ancient Rome 94 Ancient Sea Peoples 96 The Mycenaeans 98 Introducing the Picts 102 The Kingdom of Macedonia the
americas
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108 Secrets of the Mayans 116 The Quimbaya Civilisation 118 The Olmecs 122 The ChavĂn Culture
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124 Norte Chico: Ancients in the Americas
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Asia An illustration of the Ishtar Gate, which was constructed in around 575 BCE
Society
The social separation between slaves and masters was integral in Babylon. The upper class, called the awilu, were free citizens of the city, while the wardu formed the slave class. The mushkenu made up a middling group of low-class free persons who experienced modest living conditions. Slavery was commonly used as a punishment, meaning citizens could be sold into bondage to atone for a crime, no matter which class they belonged to.
Government While Nebuchadnezzar II ruled his country and its capital as an absolute monarch and dictated most of the big decisions, from planning construction projects to waging wars, much of the city’s day-to-day running was handled by secretaries, elders and prefects. Regional governors and de-facto mayors were also used to handle the business of the city and the empire in the king’s absence.
Religion
It was believed each aspect of life and death was protected or antagonised by a supernatural being. Under Nebuchadnezzar II’s reign, hundreds of religious shrines were constructed, dedicated to the many Mesopotamian gods and demigods. Principal among these was Marduk, to whom the central ziggurat (temple) was dedicated.
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Ruins of the Ishtar Gat e, 1932
Law
The Code of Hammurabi, named after its creator, the first king of Babylonia, details the law. Stealing was often punishable by death, while a reduction to slavery was very common.
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Irrigation and agriculture inherited from Sumerian tradition helped Babylonian engineers maintain reservoirs and canals essential for successful crops. The core of the city’s economy was farm produce, which was traded as far as India. Textiles were also a key export of the city.
Military
Babylonia’s armies were supplemented through levies, with ordinary citizens drafted in to serve as archers or slingers for periods of time. Nebuchadnezzar II would lead his armies surrounded by officers in grand chariots, guards on horseback and members of his court.
Education
While vast portions of the population were illiterate, the administrative arms of the courts and the government were well read and could use the ancient cuneiform system of writing. As part of his training, a scribe or secretary would repeatedly copy out lists of words, phrases and whole passages in both Babylonian and Sumerian to perfect his writing.
Babylon 597 BCE The infamous capital of Mesopotamia’s most prolific ancient empire was home to law, riches and a powerful king Written by Tim Williamson
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name synonymous with wealth and decadence in the ancient world, for a long time Babylon was at the centre of the largest empire in the region of Mesopotamia and a jewel of civilisation. Rumoured as the architect of the supposed Hanging Gardens, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, King Nebuchadnezzar II ruled during the most prosperous period of Babylonia’s rich history. His military conquests expanded the empire as far as Egypt and saw him sack Jerusalem, destroying the First Temple and enslaving most of its population in 597 BCE.
This military success brought the spoils of war back to the capital city of the empire, which thrived from the king’s ambitious construction projects. During his reign, Nebuchadnezzar II had new walls built for the city, as well as shrines, temples and an improved network of canals to increase the productivity of the farmland. However, this golden period in Babylon’s history would prove to be its peak and within the following centuries the empire and its main city would be invaded by Persian, Greek and Muslim conquerors. Today, in modern-day Iraq, only ruins remain of this once-glorious capital.
© Alamy, Corbis, Science and Society
Economy
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The Golden Ages of Persia In the ancient world, pre-Islamic Persia was a beacon of political centrism and cultural diversity Written by April Madden
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Harpagus, to Anshan to bring his pregnant ne night in 600 BCE, Astyages, daughter home. king of Media, had a terrible dream. What happened next sounds like a fairytale, He dreamt that his daughter, and perhaps it is, because the Greek historian Mandane, gave birth to a vine that Herodotus related it. When Mandane’s son was overgrew his house. It spread all born, Harpagus found a shepherd with a stillborn over Media; it surged into neighbouring Lydia, the son, swapped them over and presented Astyages ancestral home of his queen, Aryenis, until it had with the body. Mandane returned to run rampant over all of the kingdoms Anshan; the shepherd, Mitridates, of the land that is today called raised her baby. The deception Iran. It was an omen, Astyages’ went according to plan until soothsayers told him. the young Cyrus was in Mandane would bear a Persepolis, the his teens, at which point child who would supplant ancient Persian the apparently genetic their grandfather. kingliness of his nature Astyages was capital, became asserted itself and brought perplexed. He had a UNESCO World him to the attention married Mandane off to one Heritage Site of Astyages again. The of his vassals. Cambyses, in 1979 shepherd confessed, the boy first of his name, was the was packed off home where ruler of a small Elamite cityhe immediately assumed his state called Anshan. It had battle-weary father’s throne and once been an important place, Harpagus’ own son was killed and wealthy and cultured, a prize that the served up to him on a plate in retribution. old empires had fought over. But that was Herodotus was never one to let the facts get in long ago. Whatever sons Mandane bore the way of a good yarn, and his version of events, to the upstart little monarchy that now ruled it, with all the conventions of Greek myth, owes the scions of these backwater client-kings could more to legend than it does to fact. Nevertheless, never rise to challenge mighty Astyages. Still, the people in the tale are real enough, particularly better safe than sorry. He sent one of his generals,
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Cyrus II, better known to posterity as Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Persian Empire. Cyrus’ empire, however, began almost by accident. He took some territories by fighting invasive forces back to the cities they’d come from; he inherited others. By the time Cyrus had developed a taste for conques, he had taken Sumer, Akkad and Babylonia; he swept through Asia Minor. He was proclaimed the king of the four corners of the world. But, unlike other empire builders, Cyrus didn’t demand homogenous unity from his conquests – vassal states retained their own cultures and cultural practices. When Cyrus took the ancient, fabled city of Babylon, he ensured religious freedoms for all of its culturally diverse peoples, meaning that the Jewish exiles there could practice their faith openly once more. Cyrus’ fledgling Achaemenid Empire was characterised by its embrace of diversity, and this was a social constant throughout the years that followed. People in its assorted city-states adopted styles of jewellery, clothing and other fashions from different parts of the empire; textiles and pottery embraced new designs from far-flung places. Key to this was the way that the empire was structured, maximising both peace and profit. Each region was governed by a local overlord called a satrap who combined local administration with imperial policy. All free subjects were
The Golden Ages of Persia
Today Persepolis lies in ruins, but it was once the capital of one of the world’s greatest empires
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Asia
The Goguryeo tombs While all three kingdoms had curious burial practices, Goguryeo royals and nobles began their journeys into the afterlife in the most spectacular fashion of all Though some 10,000 Goguryeo tombs have been discovered across North Korea and China, 100 stand out from the crowd. Adorned with intricate murals, they are not only some of the few extant samples of Goguryeo tangible heritage, but among the most fascinating from across the Three Kingdoms. While most Goguryeo burial chambers were built of stone and covered with soil, they ranged from single chambers to elaborate multi-chambered tombs, utilising advanced engineering to support heavy ceilings. One, for example, features an entrance room, an antechamber with two side chambers and then a main chamber at the rear, all connected by corridors – a veritable underground palace, designed for a dead couple. Inside such tombs, walls were adorned with remarkable murals, depicting the deceased, their loved ones, their accomplishments, their nature, their clothing, their food, their passions and their fates. Moments from their lives were captured, with colourful snapshots of hunting expeditions, wrestling bouts, battles, their staff and their homes. Inside the main chamber, each wall was adorned with one of the four Goguryeo deities – the Azure Dragon of the East, the White Tiger of the West, the Vermillion Phoenix of the South, and the Tortoise and Snake of the North. Ceilings would be decorated with celestial and natural imagery, complete with flying fish, birds, three-legged crows, toads and anthropomorphic cows.
The kolp’um, or ‘bone-rank’, system, meanwhile, and architects, playing a crucial role in the spread divided the ruling class into five strata, followed of continental culture. While this East Asian trade by commoners. Each specific caste had its own route transformed the Baekje into one of the prehereditary socio-economic role to play in the eminent Korean kingdoms, with tentacles as far service of the state and community. This preas Shandong across the Yellow Sea in China, the determination governed every aspect of daily life, nature of the state – with a foreign ruling class down to the use of utensils. Such social rigidity dominating the local masses – proved tenuous. After the Goguryeo finished subduing the northern neutered the forces of ambition and factionalism, proving a powerful tool for incorporating new nomadic tribes, they attacked the Baekje, forcing chiefdoms, while maintaining national unity. them to move their capital city southwards twice, By the 6th century, the Silla had landing at Sabi, or modern Buyeo, where already begun building warships, the kingdom began to truly thrive. and boosting agricultural output Meanwhile, the conservative with the development of ox Silla had a much slower start ploughs. However, the advent than its neighbours – at While there of Buddhism, which had times, even weaker than were three long taken root among their the confederacy of Gaya, kingdoms, there peasant populace, heralded nestled between them was also a small and the Baekje. However, confederation called in the absence of haste, The spread of Buddhism was they built their kingdom Gaya in the south of accompanied by a spate on a solid foundation. Silla the peninsula of great works, such as was centred around an the Baekje’s remarkable wooden pagoda at indigenous semi-democratic Mireuksa Temple institution, the council of hwabaek – a court of aristocrats descended from six communal chiefs, headed by a sacred leader. The hwabaek allowed the Silla to table national issues for debate and reach a compromise all leaders agreed on – a process augmented by the hwarang education system, which trained young aristocrats to become the leaders and generals of tomorrow. In the ensuing two centuries, the spirit of hwarangdo instilled the Silla with a strict warrior code, whereby death in battle was preferable to the shame of retreat. One story tells of a general who, on the verge of losing his fortress, made a desperate suicidal charge towards the Baekje, only to hit a pagoda tree and die. The Baekje settled in the fertile southwest reaches of the Korean Peninsula, uniting the local polities and pushing out the Chinese
The Goguryeo tomb mural paintings offer a glimpse into the culture, clothing, lifestyles and spirituality of its elites
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This gilt-bronze incense burner is a remarkable example of Baekje craftsmanship, boasting many layers of Buddhist and Taoist symbolism
The Three Kingdoms of Korea The Baekje sent numerous monks to Yamato Japan, playing a crucial role in the spread of Buddhism
a time of great reform as the Silla cast off old ‘barbaric’ traditions, such as burying children alive alongside dead kings. The grand chieftain changed his title to the Chinese ideogram ‘wang’, or ‘king’, and formally named his kingdom Silla – a Chinese proverb meaning ‘the newer the virtue, the broader the rule’. They also began making paper, and developed an intricate knowledge of astronomy, building Cheomseongdae, the world’s oldest surviving observatory. Around this time, the Three Kingdoms adopted Chinese metallurgy and ceramics methods. The Baekje produced high-quality steel weapons and tools with heating and water-quenching, utilising an advanced bellows system, and replacing casting with forging. Meanwhile, the quality of Silla ornamental craftsmanship earned it the moniker ‘the Country of Gold’. One bronze bowl, created in celebration of the Goguryeo king Gwanggaeto the Great, was discovered in a Silla tomb 100 years after its production, highlighting the flow of culture and goods between the rival powers. The former low-fired, plain and course style of pottery was also replaced by dojil stoneware, high-fired, wheel-thrown and greyish-blue. While the Goguryeo loved song and dance, the Baekje were fond of archery and letter-writing. All three kingdoms celebrated their new faith by commissioning grand buildings and artworks, infusing Chinese inspiration with indigenous flair; from the towering pagodas of Mireuksa Temple to Pensive Bodhisattva, a remarkable gilt-bronze statue almost one metre in height. Though the Silla had previously been a vassal under the protection of the Goguryeo, when a succession crisis hit their northern overlords, they struck while the iron was hot, declaring independence. In 532, they teamed up with the Baekje to subjugate the Gaya, and just two decades later would betray their erstwhile
ally, seizing the Han River Valley in the heart of the peninsula, the two powers turned on each other. A unanimous Silla victory in 676 finally handed them peninsula. The Baekje king was so infuriated that he launched a frenzied attack – only to be cut down control of the southern two-thirds of the peninsula. For more than three centuries, the Silla ruled in and defeated. With the Gaya out of the picture, peace and prosperity, continuing to adopt Chinese the remaining three kingdoms locked horns in customs, legal institutions and administrative an existentialist war for supremacy, each models – fashioning a Chinese-style desperately attempting to curry favour state with the help of the Tang, with China. while protecting their indigenous Of the three, the Silla were the culture. Silla monks, scholars most adept diplomats, allying and merchants travelled to with the resurgent Tang China and India, making dynasty in 648. Having their mark on the world, and defeated the Western Turks learning from it. However, in 657, the Tang threw in the 10th century, their weight behind the intellectuals began to grow Silla – simultaneously resentful of the hereditary attacking the troublesome bias of the bone-rank system. Goguryeo, and helping to These earrings from the Silla Joining with regional magnates, overcome the Baekje and their kingdom show the high level of they rebelled, throwing the Yamato allies in 660. Thousands craftsmanship in the kingdom country into civil war, and tearing of Baekje nobles, priests, scholars, it into three once again: Later Silla, craftsmen and refugees fled to Japan, Later Goguryeo and Later Baekje. Through a rather than live beneath the Silla yoke. Eight combination of deft military ability and diplomatic years later, after some back and forth, the Silla clout, a Later Goguryeo magnate-general emerged and Tang surrounded Pyongyang, killing scores of supreme, creating the Goryeo generals and capturing the king. After 70 years of constant war, the Goguryeo were finally spent, with dynasty, from which modern Korea takes its name. 8,000 survivors fleeing to Mount Dongmo, to form the Manchurian-Korean state of Parhae, ruled over by former Goguryeo aristocrats. When it became apparent the Tang had merely used the Silla to pave the way for their own conquest of the
Donggung Palace was built by Munmu, the first king of Unified Silla, in 674 CE, complete with artificial pond
© Alamy, Getty Images
The Baekje were the last of the Three Kingdoms to form, and the first to be wiped out
europe
The Celts Europe, 1200 BCE – c.500 CE
Who were they?
The Celts were a loosely defined group of tribes who collectively formed one of the largest groups of people in ancient Europe. They lived predominantly off the land in small communities, some of which gradually merged over time to become larger settlements, and were informally tied by a similar religion, language and culture.
Boudica’s uprising One of the most famous Celts was Boudica, the queen of the Iceni tribe. She rallied many of the tribes in a rebellion against Roman rule after her kingdom was annexed and her daughters raped. Despite destroying a number of large settlements – like London and Colchester – she was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Watling Street in 61 CE.
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To the ends of Europe
They were scattered over a wide area, with tribes settled in locations ranging from the British Isles to central Europe and the borders of Ukraine. Some groups reached even farther afield, settling in the Balkans and encroaching towardss west Asia.
The Celts Ancient origins
The earliest archaeological evidence of the Celts’ existence dates back to around 1200 BCE, although what we would refer to as the Celtic civilisation was in existence by around 750 BCE. They began to migrate to Britain around 500 BCE, and although they never truly ‘died out’ – many either migrated or merged with the Roman populace.
No mere barbarians
A reassembled calendar tablet found in Coligny
Warrior race
Celts made intricate chain armour
The Celts were ferocious warriors, with their people trained in battle from childhood. Their weapons were predominantly made of iron, and they prided themselves on who could collect the most enemy heads, which they believed contained a person’s soul.
Druids
82-46 BCE The chief of the Gallic Arverni tribe, who united the Gauls against the Romans during the Gallic Wars.
Caratacus
10-50 CE The chief of the Catuvellauni tribe evaded the Romans for years before being captured and ultimately pardoned.
Cassivellaunus
c.54 BCE He led the defence against Julius Caesar’s second expedition and military campaign in Britain in 54 BCE.
Commius
c.50 BCE The king of a number of tribes at various points, he allied with Roman leader Julius Caesar before later rebelling.
Major events Settling in Britain
500 BCE Around this time, the first Celtic tribes started to settle in Britain, having gradually migrated from central Europe.
Sacking Rome
387 BCE The Gallic Celts ransacked the city after defeating the Romans at the Battle of the Allia. 43 CE After crossing the English Channel, Romans ultimately replaced the Celts as the ruling force in Britain.
Boudica’s uprising
61 CE Under her leadership, an estimated 70,000 to 80,000 Celts unsuccessfully rebelled against Roman rule.
Road builders
Boudica led an army against Roman invaders
Vercingetorix
Romans in Britain
The Celts possessed a strong religious culture, with holy men called druids having a strong presence. They spent 20 years training for their position, gaining knowledge of Celtic customs, astronomy and philosophy, and often acted as advisers to their rulers and the general populace alike.
Although Romans generally take the credit for being master route planners, the Celts actually constructed a road system before them. Their paths were made out of wood, and connected the different settlements for purposes of trade.
Boudica
c.60 CE The warrior queen of the Iceni tribe who led the uprising against the Romans in 61 CE.
Collapse of the Roman Empire Druids were the Celts’ religious leaders
476 CE With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, much of the remnants of the two civilisations would come to merge together.
© Look and Learn; Alamy; Thinkstock
A stele for a deceased tribal aristocrat
Myth portrays them as savages, but they possessed impressive reserves of knowledge. For instance, their calendars were more accurate than the Romans’, proving they were capable of mathematical and scientific thought.
Key figures
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The Americas
Pok-Ta-Pok A common feature of many Mayan towns were the great masonry structures used to host grand feasts, conduct rituals and display wrestling matches. However, their primary purpose and most popular attraction was the deadly Mayan ball game of Pok-Ta-Pok. As the ancient game
An ancient game of life and death
was played, the stone slabs transformed into a battleground, a sacred place, a portal between this world and the one beyond. Two opposing teams would face each other with the aim of keeping the ball in play and, for an instant win, directing the ball through a high mounted vertical hoop.
The players could only use their hips, shoulders, head and knees as the use of feet or hands was forbidden. Players would dash around the court with lighting-quick speed in an attempt to lead their team to victory, as a single wrong move could mean the difference between life and death.
The ball court
The form of the court changed very little over 2,700 years. Although the variations in size between courts was massive, the shape remained largely the same. Ball courts were built in an ‘I’ shape with a long narrow alley flanked by sloping walls with enclosed end-zones. The Chichen Itza ball court was the largest at a massive 96.5 x 30 metres.
Uniform
Players would traditionally wear loincloths with leather hip guards. Occasionally, further protection would come in the form of kneepads and a thick wood or wicker girdle that would also help to propel the ball with more force. Elaborate ceremonial headdresses were also worn, though likely only for special, ritual occasions.
Steep steps
Unique to the Mayan ball game are the steps, which serve as a backdrop in many murals. Although their purpose has not been confirmed, it is thought they could have played a part in a separate game, or that they were used in the human sacrifice ceremonies following some games.
A frothy chocolatey drink was enjoyed by elite Mayans after meals and was also exchanged between bride and groom in marriage ceremonies
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Secrets of the Mayans
Artwork
The walls of the court were plastered and brightly painted, featuring many stone reliefs. These murals would tell the tales of games that had been played in the arena, and scenes of captives and sacrifice were also commonly depicted. Many of these stone artworks survive today and have provided insight into the Mayans.
Stone rings
The courts featured vertical stone rings on each side of the court. If the ball passed through the ring, a decisive victory was awarded to the scoring team. However, as the rings were barely bigger than the ball in play and were set high above the playing field – for example six metres at Chichen Itza – this was a rare event.
A matter of life and death
Rubber ball
Solid rubber balls were used in the game, usually made from latex of the rubber tree. These balls were not in uniform sizes but most were the size of a volleyball, however they were 15 times heavier at three to four kilograms. The balls were so heavy that the players risked serious injury or even death if struck by them. Several Mayan artefacts have also shown skulls used as balls.
Pok-Ta-Pok’s origins were rooted in the symbolism and myth that defined much of the Mayan society. The myth surrounding the game tells the tale of the hero twins who defeated the lords of death in the ball game and tricked them into decapitating themselves. The game told the story of the journey between life and death, and it was revered so highly that it was used to settle disputes within society. At times the game was used a means to defuse conflicts to avoid warfare, with kings playing against kings for domination, waging their battles on the ball court. Sacrifice was an important and revered aspect of the ball game and is depicted on the glyphs of many ball courts. Sometimes captives would be bound and forced to play a rigged ball game they could not win, after which the loser would be beheaded. However, practiced players were also sacrificed, and there is evidence to suggest that it was sometimes the winning team or captain who were chosen. The idea of a quick death and instant passage to paradise was regarded as an honour. However, sacrifice did not take place in every game, as star teams existed. It is likely that there were two versions of the game, one played as a sport with betting involved, and another as a sacred re-enactment of the mythical story complete with human sacrifice.
A ball-court mural depicting a scene of human sacrifice
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