Mahazo Loko 2007 Final Report by Fxpeditions Kernow

A University of Edinburgh Expedition

Madagascar 2007: Final Report A chameleon population & forest condition study in the littoral forests of Sainte Luce, Madagascar: June 9th to July 30th 2007

Authors : James Greenwood, Emily Woollen, Samuel Leigh, Christopher Beirne & Ariane Laporte-Bisquit Contact : Emily Woollen, e_woollen@yahoo.com

Report published 2008

Table of Contents Summary………………………………………………………………………………... 4

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….. 5 Expedition members……………………………………………………………….…. 8

Fieldwork and Research……………………………………………………………... 9 1. Background…………………………………………………………….. 1.1 Madagascar: a hot spot

p. 9

1.2 Land cover change and deforestation 1.3 Secondary forests and degradation 1.4 Human impacts

p. 9 p. 9

p. 10

1.5 Biodiversity and chameleons

p. 10

2. Planning………………………………………………………………….

3. Study area……………………………………………………………….

3.1 Littoral forests of Madagascar 3.2 Sainte Luce littoral forests

p. 12

p. 14

4. Aims………………………………………………………………………

5. Methods………………………………………………………………….

5.1 Assessing forest cover change and deforestation 5.2 Assessing forest condition 5.3 Chameleon ecology

p. 16

p. 17

p. 19

6. Results…………………………………………………………………… 21 6.1 Forest cover and deforestation assessment 6.2 Forest condition assessment

p. 21

p. 23

6.3 Chameleon abundance and distribution

p. 23

7. Discussion………………………………………………………………. 25 7.1 Forest cover change and deforestation 7.2 Forest condition

p. 25

p. 27

7.3 Chameleon ecology

p. 29

7.4 Conservation implications

p. 33

Administration and Logistics………………………………………………………. 1. Destination area………………………………………………………...

2. Research materials and information sources…………………….. 35 3. Training and equipment testing……………………………………... 36 4. Permission and permits……………………………………………….

5. Fund-raising……………………………………………………………..

6. Finances………………………………………………………………….

7. Insurance………………………………………………………………… 38 8. Travel, transport and freighting……………………………………... 39 9. Food and accommodation……………………………………………

10. Communications……………………………………………………… 39 11. Specialist equipment…………………………………………………

12. Risks and hazards…………………………………………………….

13. Medical arrangements……………………………………………….. 45 14. Environmental and social impact assessment………………….. 46

15. Itinerary…………………………………………………………………

16. Photography, sound recordings, video and film…….………….

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………… 48 Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………… 49

Appendices……………………………………………………………………………... 50 Appendix A: Enlarged map of study site……………………………..

Appendix B: Chameleon pictures………………………………………

Appendix C: Other pictures……………………………………………..

Address list and web-links…………………………………………………………..

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………….… 54 Distribution list………………………………………………………………………… 57

Summary The aim of this study was to assess the current forest loss, forest condition and chameleon population dynamics in four littoral forest fragments in Sainte Luce, Madagascar. Forest loss was assessed using remote sensing techniques. The current forest condition was quantified using ground measurements: stem density, basal area, canopy cover and stump counts. Chameleon population density values were obtained using the distance sampling technique, which was found to be a suitable method for sampling chameleons. Results showed that unsustainable rates of deforestation had occurred, at 33.80 ha year

-1

between 2002-2007. There was also a significant difference in forest conditions between the four forest fragments, which is indicative of the level of human disturbance within these fragments. It was inconclusive if forest conditions had worsened, as there were few previous studies for comparison. A low diversity of chameleons but a high density and abundance of one species of chameleon, Brookesia nasus, was found in the four forest fragments, despite varying degrees of forest disturbance. Moreover, the population of B. nasus appeared to be in good health and exhibited even male to female and adult to juvenile ratios. As a result, these littoral forest fragments may represent important habitats for B. nasus, making them a conservation priority.

Résumé L’objectif de cet étude était d’évaluer la récente dégradation ainsi que la condition des forêts et la dynamique des populations de caméléons dans quatre fragments de forêts du littoral à Sainte Luce, Madagascar. La dégradation des forêts fut déterminer par télédétection . La condition des forêts fut quantifiée en réalisant des mesures de base terrestre : surface de base, densité des tiges végétales, nombre de souches d’arbre et couverture de la canopée. La densité des populations de caméléons fut obtenue en utilisant les méthodes de « distance sampling » (échantillonnage par les distances), qui se montra efficace pour l’étude de caméléons. Les résultats montrèrent qu’il s’est produit un taux de dégradation des forêts non durable, de 33.80 ha/ans, entre 2002-2007. Il y avait des différences significatives entre les conditions des quatre fragments de forêts, ce qui est indicatif du niveau de perturbations humaines parmi ces fragments. Il fut impossible de conclure si la condition des forêts s’était aggravée, à cause du peu d’études précédentes pour comparaison. Le taux de diversité des caméléons fut bas mais la densité et l’abondance d’une espèce de caméléon, Brookesia nasus, furent élevées, malgré la variation du niveau de perturbations parmi les forêts. De plus, la population de B. nasus sembla être en bonne santé et contenir un nombre équivalent de mâles et de femelles, ainsi que de jeunes par rapport aux adultes. En conséquence, ces fragments de forêts du littoral pourraient représenter d’importants habitats pour B. nasus, ainsi devenant une priorité de conservation.

Introduction The expedition Mahazo Loko 2007 was an expedition that set out to study chameleon populations, forest degradation and deforestation in the unique but threatened littoral forests of Sainte Luce, in southeastern Madagascar (Fig. 1). This project started out with an idea and a lot of motivation. The idea was to go to Madagascar and study chameleons. Getting there was a long process that took a year of preparation, two months doing fieldwork, and another year finishing the research. This report is the final report of the expedition Mahazo Loko, which will lay out what the expedition was about, what we found, and how we went about it. The expedition arose through a lot of research into literature, the help of many different people, and the motivation of the team members. It started with a general idea of wanting to study chameleons in Madagascar, which then became a more solid idea as we researched the literature available on the subject. The study area also had to be chosen. We chose to study the littoral forests of southeastern Madagascar, as they were ideal for our study purposes. There had been some previous research in the littoral forests of the southeast, but not on the chameleon populations. This meant that if successful, our research would be unique and of interest to others. The idea to study forest degradation in the area came about after speaking to a lecturer who had previously done a study on this in the area. He suggested doing a study on the forest condition and degradation as well, as it would provide valuable information for conservationists interested in preserving the littoral forests. Our motivations for studying these aspects of the forests were mainly to be able to carry out unique and valuable research in a forest that is rapidly declining and under threat. The littoral forest ecosystems are inadequately protected at present, and if conservation efforts were to be implemented in the area in future, our findings could be useful for this purpose. In light of this, our main goals were to; 1) Investigate the chameleon populations of the Sainte Luce littoral forest fragments, 2) Investigate forest degradation and deforestation status, 3) And assess whether forest degradation has an impact on chameleon populations. Before we did our fieldwork, we expected that our scientific planning and methodology would not go as planned. We were prepared for the eventuality that there might not be any chameleons in the littoral forests, as it was the dry season, and the forests are highly fragmented and degraded habitats. We were therefore prepared with back-up plans in case our primary plans fell through. Luckily, we did find chameleons in the forests, and although they were not very diverse we did find quite a few. Our planned scientific methodology also worked well when in the field, and we were able to gather a good set of data on the chameleon populations in the littoral forests of Sainte Luce. Furthermore, our forest degradation study went to plan and we got interesting results. The only draw back was of course the time constraint. We did not manage to sample as many forest fragments as hoped for, causing some problems with the data analysis. Overall we met very few problems with our planned research and methodology, owing largely to keeping it simple, being prepared for anything, and a little luck. This project involved many different parties. The expedition team consisted of five University of Edinburgh students with varying backgrounds and roles. Each team member was in charge of various aspects of the

expedition, but was also involved in all the aspects of the expedition. Lecturers and staff at the University of Edinburgh were of great help to us in our planning of the project. We received a lot of guidance on our research area by Dr. Terrence Dawson, a lecturer at the University of Edinburgh, as he had already done some research in Madagascar in the past and was able to give us some useful first-hand advice while planning the expedition. He also provided us with the contact of the NGO Azafady in Fort Dauphin, who was of great help throughout the entire expedition. It is extremely useful to get in contact with an organisation or people who have the experience of working in the local study area, and therefore can help you with the logistical planning of the expedition. A scientific collaboration was also realised with the Botanical and Zoological Park of Tsimbazaza (PBZT). Jasmin Randrianirina, a herpetologist at PBZT, worked with us during the first week of our pilot study in the field and shared with us his knowledge about chameleons. It was very useful and enriching to be able to work with an expert in the field of our research. During the entire expedition we had a guide, Maka Andrianasolo, with us in the forest, which turned out to be very helpful, especially when wanting to reach very isolated forest fragments which sometimes required hiring a car or a pirogue. His local knowledge of the area and forests was of great help. An expedition usually needs a lot of different expertise, and therefore involves a lot of different people and partners who are all important in the success of an expedition. This final report will go through the fieldwork and research we did on littoral forests in Sainte Luce and their chameleon populations, and will show what we found and why it is important. This report also goes through our planning, administration, and logistics of the expedition to give future expeditions going to Madagascar some good advice and ideas. It is the intention of this report to disseminate our knowledge and findings to all who may find it useful in their own expeditions and in their research.

Fig.1. Map of the remaining primary vegetation on Madagascar, taken from Du Puy and Moat (1998), p. 211. The study area of Sainte Luce, in the region of Toalagnaro (also known as T么la帽aro) is shown with a red circle. The remaining littoral forest fragments can be seen highlighted in purple along the eastern coast.

Expedition members James Greenwood (25), Expedition Leader - New Zealand/British James Greenwood was the leader of the Expedition Mahazo Loko, and was responsible for most scientific planning and logistics. Furthermore, he was also a photographer of the Expedition. He had already been a leader of a small team in the Edinburgh University Expedition to Bolivia in 2006, Project Bosque. James was a third year Ecology and Environmental sciences student at the Institute of atmospheric sciences of Edinburgh University. On top of his current degree, James possesses a diploma in Sustainable Environmental Management at Unitec, New Zealand.

Emily Woollen (23), Scientific officer - Danish Emily Woollen was the scientific officer of the Expedition, and worked with James Greenwood on the scientific planning. Emily was a third year student in Ecological and Environmental Sciences at the Institute of atmospheric sciences of Edinburgh University. She had experience in fieldwork through the completion of two field courses, Field Biology and Ecological Measurements, and volunteer work over the summer 2007 with a University of Edinburgh PhD student, investigating site characteristics and vegetation structure of a Sitka spruce research forest in Scotland.

Samuel Leigh (21), Scientific assistant, Medic and Photographer - British Samuel Leigh was a scientific research assistant and medical assistant throughout the Expedition. He possesses qualifications in Basic Wilderness First Aid. Samuel was a third year Zoology student at the Institute of Evolutionary Biology of Edinburgh University. He had taken part of the Edinburgh University Expedition to Bolivia in 2006, Project Bosque, in which he was the photographer of the Expedition as well as being responsible of quantifying wastage, in terms of carbon, that came from the logging process.

Christopher Beirne (21), Scientific assistant, Medic - British Christopher Beirne was a scientific research assistant and medical assistant throughout the Expedition. He possesses qualifications in Basic Wilderness First Aid. Christopher was a third year student in Neurosciences at the Institute of Evolutionary Biology of Edinburgh University. He had taken part of the Edinburgh University Expedition to Bolivia in 2006, Project Bosque, in which he was a medical assistant and responsible of quantifying wastage, in terms of carbon, that came from the logging process.

Ariane Laporte-Bisquit (20), Interpreter and Scientific assistant â&#x20AC;&#x201C; French Ariane Laporte-Bisquit was a scientific research assistant and interpreter of the Expedition. She was also responsible for communicating with the local authorities and organisations throughout the Expedition, as she is bilingual in French and English. Ariane was a second year student in Zoology at the Institute of Evolutionary Biology of Edinburgh University.

Fieldwork and Research 1. Background 1.1 Madagascar: a hot spot Madagascar has a high level of endemism (more than 80% of species), an impressive biodiversity and rapidly disappearing primary vegetation (Ganzhorn et al., 2001; Myers et al., 2000). This makes it one of the worlds top five ‘hottest hot spots’ for biodiversity and conservation. The two biggest conservation concerns regarding the protection of Madagascar’s biodiversity are the rapid loss of habitat across all regions of Madagascar, and the increasing conversion of primary forests to secondary forests. In response to these concerns, this expedition set out to assess the forest cover change and modification caused by human disturbances to important forest habitats of Madagascar. This study focuses specifically on the highly biodiverse, yet threatened coastal forests found in the southeastern region of Toalagnaro, Madagascar. We attempted to quantify what effects human disturbances may have on biodiversity in the region by using the endemic chameleon family as an example. By assessing the rates of deforestation between short intervals of time, quantifying the current forest condition, and determining what effects the current human use of the forests may have on chameleon biodiversity, the drivers and processes of forest cover change, and its impacts, could be identified. These parameters are essential to understand if one wished to implement effective conservation and management schemes on in Sainte Luce to preserve the remaining littoral forest parcels and their biodiversity.

1.2 Land cover change and deforestation Estimates of forest cover extent show that only 10 % of Madagascar’s primary vegetation is left. Deforestation is a critical issue in Madagascar. It has been estimated that by 2040 forests will only exist in the most inaccessible areas and in nature reserves (Green and Sussman, 1990). Currently a total area of 2

approximately 11, 000 km of the remaining primary vegetation, only 3% of the land area, has been designated protected in all of Madagascar (Myers et al., 2000). Few studies have attempted to quantify Madagascar’s extent of land cover change and deforestation using remote sensing data (Du Puy and Moat, 1996; Green and Sussman, 1990; Mayaux et al., 2000; Nelson and Horning, 1993). It is important to monitor subtle changes to the forest by human disturbance, since it can have negative impacts on forest biodiversity and or resource sustainability, often resulting in primary forests being converted to secondary forests (Lambin, 1999). Taking ground measurements of forest degradation indicators allowed this study to monitor the more subtle changes of forest degradation and modification.

1.3 Secondary forests and degradation It is becoming increasingly important to conserve and manage secondary forests and disturbed habitats, since these forests have also been found to sustain a high biodiversity of flora and fauna (Hannah et al., 1998; Turner and Corlett, 1996). They can also be vital for human livelihoods (Ingram et al., 2005b).

Secondary forests arise from continuous human use of forest products for fuel wood, grazing, logging and burning (Brown and Lugo, 1990). Secondary forests are commonly described as being degraded habitats (Brown and Lugo, 1990). The most common form of forest cover change is that of modification or degradation, and not forest clearing (Lambin, 1999). Forest degradation is defined as a change in forest attributes that lowers productivity, most commonly caused by an increased disturbance, human or natural (Lambin, 1999).

1.4 Human impacts Madagascar has high rates of poverty and population growth, with approximately 80% of the population being rural (Ingram et al., 2005b). These rural populations are largely dependent on forests for their livelihoods, and this puts tremendous pressure on the forests (Hannah et al., 1998; Ingram et al., 2005b). Slash and burn agriculture for subsistence farming has been identified as one of the main reasons for forest degradation, fragmentation and loss of primary vegetation (Jenkins et al., 2003; Sussman et al., 1994). Deforestation is often blamed on the rural Malagasy populations (Bollen and Donati, 2006; Green and Sussman, 1990; Sussman et al., 1994), but local people can often be experienced resource managers and have incentive to sustain their resources for their own livelihoods (Colchester, 2000; Kull, 2000). Increased local management can be a very effective and cost-efficient way to achieve conservation goals (Colchester, 2000; Kull, 2000). The inclusion of local people has now been standard policy in conservation action in Madagascar for more than 10 years, and recent legislation has given community control over natural resources (Kull, 2000). To optimise both livelihoods and biodiversity protection there is a need to understand human interactions and use of forest resources, and their impacts on biodiversity. This understanding is also needed in order to develop sustainable resource management schemes in unprotected areas on a local scale (Ingram et al., 2005b). This paper hopes to identify whether the current use of littoral forest by humans is compatible with sustainable biodiversity conservation.

1.5 Biodiversity and chameleons Madagascar is one of the world’s ‘hottest hot spots’ for biodiversity not only due to its rapid loss of primary vegetation, but also due to its high endemicity of flora and fauna (>9000 species of plants, and >700 species of vertebrates) (Myers et al., 2000). The focus of this study is the chameleon species that exist on the island. The chameleons (family Chamaeleonidae) of Madagascar exemplify the unique diversity of flora and fauna on the island. Madagascar holds more than two-thirds of the world’s chameleon species, and is the main centre of diversity for these reptiles (Glaw and Vences, 1994). The island has three endemic genera of chameleons, Calumma, Furcifer and Brookesia. Of these genera Brookesia has been the least studied genera on Madagascar (Glaw and Vences, 1994; Raxworthy, 1991). Much of the diversity of the Chamaeleonidae family is still being uncovered, and thus very little is known about the conservation status of newly discovered species that are possibly being threatened by habitat

loss in Madagascar (Lehtinen et al., 2003; Raxworthy, 1988). Individual species can show very localised distributions and restrictions to specific niche characteristics (Jenkins et al., 2003; Raxworthy et al., 2003), and the vast majority are dependent on forest ecosystems (Brady and Griffiths, 1999; Carpenter and Robson, 2005; Raxworthy, 1988, 1991; Raxworthy and Nussbaum, 1995). The effects of seasonality, habitat and microhabitat preferences are also poorly documented, as is the effect of international trade in chameleons (Raxworthy, 1988, 1991). The uncertainty over the effects of trade is reflected in the fact that almost all Calumma, Furcifer and Brookesia species are on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Appendix II list, and a few species (e.g. Brookesia perarmata) are even on Appendix I (Brady and Griffiths, 1999; Carpenter and Robson, 2005; Jenkins et al., 1999). The rapid loss of primary vegetation and the trade of chameleons from Madagascar demand that further fieldwork are conducted in order to improve our biogeographical understanding and site-specific population estimates of chameleons. This is needed to be able to target effective conservation efforts to maintain the diverse chameleon populations (Brady and Griffiths, 1999; Jenkins et al., 2003; Raxworthy, 1988, 1991). Many of the species which show a localised distribution to primary vegetation and habitat types may be disproportionately affected by habitat degradation and harvesting (Jenkins et al., 1999, 2003). Site-specific quantifiable measures of chameleon populations have only been available for very few species (Jenkins et al., 1999, 2003), as studies have mostly been on site-specific inventories (Raxworthy 1988; Raxworthy and Nussbaum, 1995). In light of this, there have been increasing calls for research on regional population density, abundance, distribution and seasonality. These measurements are crucial in quantifying the long-term impacts of habitat disturbance and the harvesting of populations (Carpenter and Robson, 2005; Jenkins et al., 1999, 2003). As a result, this study chose to assess chameleon abundance and distribution in the little surveyed southeastern region of Madagascar (Raxworthy et al., 2003). Using chameleons as an indicator of biodiversity, it was possible to estimate what effects human disturbance may have on biodiversity within littoral forest fragments of the southeast.

2. Planning This project came about by a series of events. The first step, after having decided that Madagascar was our destination, was to decide what to study in Madagascar and where specifically. The idea to study chameleons was inspired by the well-known conservationist, Steve Irwin. At first this was a very rough idea but after investigating the idea further, by research into the literature, it became a more attractive idea. Doing a thorough study into what there is to study and where is overwhelming at first, and it can be hard to narrow it down to just one research topic. To help narrow down the project, we contacted one of the professors at the University of Edinburgh who had previously done some studies in Madagascar. This was a great way to get some first hand knowledge of Madagascar and some logistical information. It was by talking to Dr. Terrence Dawson that we decided to focus on the littoral forests found in the southeast of Madagascar. He also suggested doing a forest degradation and loss study to supplement our chameleon

research. We now had a research area to focus on, as well as some first hand information about the area and a contact to a local NGO in the area. Once we had decided on the subject of study and the area of study, we now had to consider the scientific methodology and the logistics. The scientific methodology required extensive research into what studies had previously been done on chameleons and forest degradation in Madagascar, and what methods of surveying had been recommended. We also had to consider what sort of data we were interested in getting (i.e. population structure, population numbers, diversity, etc.) and why it might be important information to gather. Only after you have decided what information you are looking for can you effectively design your experiment so that you will get the data needed to answer the questions posed. It is therefore very important to thoroughly consider what questions you are trying to answer, and how you are going to answer them effectively. Data analysis is a big part of this, and it is always disappointing when you find you cannot use the data you collected in the way you wanted, either because of bad sampling techniques or inadequate data for statistical analysis. It was also important to consider alternative plans, in case the first choice of study and the methodology didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t work in the field. For example, if there had been no chameleons in the forests, which was not guaranteed, we would have had to change our study completely. Be prepared for anything is the best advice we got whilst planning. Figuring out the logistics of an expedition can be a very lengthy process. Once deciding on the area of study, the logistics of how to get there, where to stay, how to travel, what to eat, health and safety are all important for the success of any expedition. In this expedition we had a lot of help from the local NGO Azafady, who helped us with gaining permits as well as giving good advice on travel and lodging in the Toalagnaro region. Gaining permits to study in Madagascar can be quite difficult, as well as a lengthy process. We were first certain of our permits right before we had to leave for Madagascar, without which we would not have been able to carry out the expedition. It is good advice to start applying for a permit early on in the expedition, as it can take a very long time to process. The logistics of any expedition is often a major part of it, and also the most important. All aspects need to be considered, specifically the health and safety, as when things do go wrong there is no room for mistakes in the planning, and being well prepared can mean a world of difference. The planning of an expedition is a very lengthy process and can be never ending. Choosing a suitable area of study, as well as a subject that is do-able in such a short time and on a tight budget is difficult. Once you have found an area of study, done all your logistics, researched, and found a good scientific methodology you are well prepared for a successful expedition.

3. Study area 3.1 Littoral forests of Madagascar A large amount of tropical secondary forest, degraded and disturbed by human use, exists as parcels of fragmented forest ecosystems on Madagascar. This expedition decided to use the highly biodiverse

littoral forest fragments of southeastern Madagascar as the study area. Littoral forests are unique ecosystems, and are also one of Madagascarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most threatened formations. A littoral forest was thought to have formed a continuous 1600 km habitat all along the east coast of Madagascar covering approximately 465,100 ha (0.8% of total land area) (Consiglio et al., 2006). Few studies have attempted to quantify the loss of littoral forests in Madagascar (Consiglio et al., 2006; Ingram and Dawson, 2006), but it has been estimated that of the original littoral forest, only 10.3% still remains as small fragmented forests. These fragmented habitats are currently insufficiently protected (only 1.5% (695 ha) lie within protected areas), and they have been described as being under imminent threat (Du Puy and Moat, 1996; Ganzhorn et al., 2001; Hannah et al., 1998). Of the protected littoral forests, none are located in southeastern Madagascar, where researchers have found high regional endemicity and biodiversity of flora and fauna (Cadotte et al., 2002; Consiglio et al., 2006; Dumetz, 1999; Ramanamanjato and Ganzhorn, 2001; Watson et al., 2005). In 2003, Madagascarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s president Marc Ravalomanana stated that 4.5 million ha was to be added to the protected-area network. The recommended areas for inclusion included 15 littoral forest parcels totalling 19,880 ha, which is 41.5% of the remaining littoral forest cover (Consiglio et al., 2006). Part of Sainte Luce, the site of this study, falls within the area recommended for incorporation. Human use and the clearing of forests have irreversible effects. The sandy soils quickly become unfavourable for forest regeneration after clearing (Dumetz, 1999). When conversion or loss of the forest cover is too rapid, local people stand to lose ecosystem services otherwise retained by the forest (Brown and Lugo, 1990). To slow deforestation of littoral forests, conservation efforts need to be inclusive of local people to develop sustainable use of the land (Hannah et al., 1998; Ingram et al., 2005b; Kull, 2000; Sussman et al., 1994). Formalized community management has already begun in the area of Sainte Luce (Ingram et al., 2005b). The remaining littoral forests of the southeast have been recommended by researchers to become a national conservation priority (Ganzhorn et al., 2001). This recommendation has been supported by studies, which have found a high degree of faunal biodiversity and unique assemblages of species within the fragments (Ramanamanjato and Ganzhorn, 2001; Watson et al., 2005). The forests have also been found to harbour one of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most biodiverse concentrations of plants, due to high tree species richness and species endemic to Madagascar (Cadotte et al., 2002; Dumetz, 1999). Furthermore, the high conservation value not only for biodiversity but also for human subsistence has been shown, with over 50% of tree species being of utilitarian use (Ingram et al., 2005b) Littoral forests have conservation value, since even in their current degraded states they continue to harbour large biodiversity and endemism of flora and fauna. Large heterogeneity in diversity and species composition of plants has been found between the fragments (Cadotte et al., 2002; Dumetz, 1999; Ingram et al, 2005b), illustrating the need to protect more than just a few fragments in order to conserve the full range of biodiversity. This highlights the need for identifying at the local scale the drivers and processes of forest cover change, and the impacts this may have on biodiversity if effective conservation efforts are to be implemented in the area of Sainte Luce.

3.2 Sainte luce littoral forests The southeastern region of Toalagnaro in which littoral forest fragments exist is comprised of a band of coastal plain extending to adjacent foothills averaging 7km in width, extending from about 24°35’S to 25°08’S latitude, with an elevation less than 50m (Ingram et al., 2005a). The area of Sainte Luce, the focus of this study, lies 50 km north of the town Fort Dauphin at 24° 48’ 47 08’ (S latitude E longitude) and has a total of 1580 ha of littoral forest fragments (Consiglio et al., 2006). The majority of the forest fragments grows on sandy soils and occurs within 2-3km of coast at an altitude of 0-20m (QMM, 2001). The flat coastal planes are delimited by the Indian Ocean on the east and by the steep, rocky slopes of the Anosy Mountains on the west. The area has a subtropical climate with mean annual minimum temperature of 15ºC, and mean maximum temperature of 28ºC. The wet season runs from November to May, with an average annual rainfall of 2400 mm (QMM, 2001). Natural disturbance of cyclones can occur between January and March (Ingram et al., 2005 b). This study was conducted in the colder, drier season between June and July. The littoral forests in the southeast are structurally and floristically distinguishable from other forest types in the region by their low, open or non-continuous canopy normally 6 to 12 m in height with emergents up to 20 m, and low diameter-at-breast-height (DBH) values rarely exceeding 30 to 40 cm (Dumetz, 1999). The forests in the Sainte Luce area are distinct from other littoral forest fragments in the southeast because they have been shown to harbour noticeably different plant compositions, stand densities and vegetation structures and are therefore a distinctive ‘sub-type’ of littoral forest (Dumetz, 1999). The littoral forest fragments are separated by low heath-type vegetation, consisting mainly of Erica spp., as well as swamps and wetland systems (Ramanamanjato and Ganzhorn, 2001). They range in size between approximately 17 ha to 464 ha and are considered to be some of the most intact littoral forests in Madagascar (QMM, 2001). The expanding human population in Sainte Luce depends on forest products on a daily basis for their livelihoods (Ingram et al., 2005b). Some of the forest fragments are protected areas, such as S17, and only deadwood is allowed to be collected. Cattle grazing within the forest fragments were also observed, particularly within S17. Slash and burn farming (tavy) is evident throughout the region and is considered by locals as an integral part for sustaining current farming practices, clearing large areas of forest in a short time (Bollen and Donati, 2006). Local community management in the area has been set up to try to encourage a sense of ownership and responsibility for the sustainable use of the forests (Ingram et al. 2005b). Each village has an elected person who is responsible for ensuring sustainable levels of forest use in an assigned forest fragment. Anthropogenic pressure on the remaining fragments has now caused the littoral forests to be characterised as secondary forests and most are considered degraded (Dumetz, 1999). Human pressure and the imminent threat of mining make the future of these forests uncertain (Ingram and Dawson, 2006). The mining company, QIT Madagascar Minerals (QMM) a subsidiary of Rio Tinto, has acquired permission from the Malagasy government to mine for illminite deposits in the under-bed of the littoral forest sandy soils (QMM, 2001). The planned mining project, commencing around 2050 in

Sainte Luce, will remove the majority of the current littoral forest cover, protecting only a couple of the fragments for regeneration purposes (Bollen and Donati, 2006). In 2001, the fragments were assessed by QMM defining five forest classes of forest condition in the area, based on forest structure (i.e. canopy openness) (Fig.2). This studyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s four principle research sites represent three of these pre-determined degradation levels, namely very good condition, good condition and moderate degradation. The study was conducted in the four fragments named, S7, S8, S9 and S17, all located within a few kilometres of each other near the village of Sainte Luce.

Fig. 2. The residual Littoral forest in the year 2000 in the coastal region of Sainte Luce, Toalagnaro, Madagascar. Forest fragment classification is based on canopy cover estimates. The boxed areas show the boundaries for the mining projects. Major rivers and roads are shown in blue and black lines respectively. Source: Adapted from QMM Social and environmental impact assessment (2001), Vol. 1, ch.3 p. 57.

4. Aims The remaining vestiges of littoral forests in southeastern Madagascar have been designated as an area in urgent need of protection and further biological research (Cadotte et al., 2002; Consiglio et al. 2006; Du Puy and Moats, 1996; Ganzhorn et al., 2001; Hannah et al., 1998; Ingram and Dawson, 2006). The chameleon diversity and abundance of this area has not been sufficiently studied (Raxworthy et al., 2003). To conserve these last remaining forest fragments effectively, local scale forest cover change estimations are crucial in determining the causes and processes of deforestation on the local scale. This

study was conducted at a local level, surveying four littoral forest fragments in the Sainte Luce area, in the southeastern region of Madagascar. The study had three main areas of focus, and their aims were; (1) Assessing forest cover change (i)

to determine forest cover change between 2002 and 2007, and

(ii)

to determine the rate of deforestation between 2002 and 2007.

(2) Assessing the current forest condition (i)

to assess the current forest condition and classification.

(3) Investigating chameleon ecology of the area (i)

to determine chameleon abundance and diversity,

(ii)

determine population demographics in terms of life stage and sex ratios, and

(iii)

to determine whether forest disturbance levels had any effect on chameleon abundance and distribution between the forest fragments.

These aims, across the three focuses, constitute the six objectives of this expedition. It is predicted that forest cover change and deforestation rates will be similar to those found in 1999-2002 by Ingram and Dawson (2006). It is also predicted that forest condition will be reflected in the level of human disturbance found within the forest fragments. Furthermore, chameleon distribution and abundance are both predicted to be negatively impacted by increased human disturbances within the forests.

5. Method 5.1 Assessing forest cover change and deforestation This expedition set out to use remote sensing techniques and Global Information Systems (GIS) to determine the extent of deforestation in the Sainte luce area. This analyses was conducted when we returned from Madagascar, as we had to use ground observations to be able to confirm or truth the results we got from the remote sensing analyses. It is sometimes difficult to determine if what you see on the satellite images really is forest, or something else like a plantation. Previous deforestation assessments done by Ingram and Dawson (2006) using remote sensing describes a systematic repeatable technique that allows comparative studies to be conducted on forest cover change in Sainte Luce. Therefore this expedition attempted to follow as closely as possible the same methodology of image pre-processing and detection of land cover change to be able to extrapolate and compare results into the year 2007. For a more detailed description please see Ingram and Dawson (2006). To conduct measurements of forest cover change, two scenes or images from the Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) satellite were used, taken on January 2002 and February 2007. All image processing was done using the program ERDAS Imagine 8.7 (Antoine et al., 2003). Only the red and near-infrared bands (bands 3 and 4) were used from the satellite sensor, and converted to the

Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). This produced two images with a spatial resolution of approximately 30 m. All NDVI values for both images were rescaled to byte format (0-256). NDVI was used as it is the most common remote sensing vegetation index, as it provides an estimate of vegetation greenness or biomass per pixel and is suitable for measuring forest cover change (Campbell, 2002). To minimize differences between the two images due to seasonal, geometric and atmospheric changes image pre-processing was done on both the images. Seasonal differences were controlled by both images being taken in the wet season, between November and May. However, slight differences between the images due to phenological differences may still have occurred, and also the rainy season may not have started at the exact same time. Both images were geo-rectified onto the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection system, and geo-referenced to each other. Pixels above an NDVI value greater than or equal to 165 allowed forest to be isolated from other land-cover types, which was found to be a suitable threshold for creating a forest vegetation mask from visual interpretation. The forest fragments S1 and S2 in the southern area of Sainte Luce were not included in this study, as they were indistinguishable from other vegetation on the satellite imagery. Atmospheric and illumination difference correction could not be performed in this study, as the technique is beyond the capabilities and time constraints of this study. This would have eliminated pixels that have undergone change due to atmospheric differences between the two years. Therefore, some error in measurements of forest cover change will be associated with atmospheric differences between the years, which are explained further in the discussion section. To detect land cover change, image differencing (subtracting the pixel digital values from one date from the corresponding pixel values of another date) was used. Vegetation index differencing in this manner was found to be a reliable method of identifying change in vegetation cover for the Sainte Luce area (Ingram and Dawson, 2006). The images were differenced in such a way that the 2007 image was subtracted from the 2002 image. The differenced image was then overlaid with the forest vegetation mask from 2002 to detect forest cover change within the forest boundaries. To capture significant littoral forest loss or gain the differenced image is set so only the pixels with a greater than 10% change in NDVI values are left. This discriminates between real land cover change and systematic change. From the number of significantly negatively changing pixels calculated one can then assess the forest loss between 2002 and 2007. Forest cover in 2007 was calculated by removing all the pixels that had undergone negative change from the forest boundary in the 2002 image.

5.2 Assessing forest condition Assessing forest condition using satellite imagery is difficult. Relatively coarse satellite imagery cannot easily detect the more subtle forest modification associated with human use and disturbance within the forest. Also to determine whether forest degradation is due to human disturbance is difficult, as the degradation may instead be due to annual variations in climate and or long-term climate change. Therefore to assess forest degradation there is a need for field observations of biophysical attributes that characterize forest condition and to assess the areas of human forest clearance (Lambin, 1999). Field

studies are also essential to find remnant forests as on satellite images they can merge with the surrounding vegetation (Dumetz, 1999). To assess forest condition fieldwork was undertaken during the dry season between June and July to measure biophysical attributes that characterize forest condition. Forest structure such as forest basal area and stem density can provide a measure of human impact, as they have been documented to respond to human impacts. Mean basal area tends to decrease with increasing disturbance, and stem density increases after disturbance due to increase in number of smaller trees. Other indicators include the number of cut stems observed (Bhat et al., 2000; Chittibabu and Parthasarathy, 2000; Ingram et al., 2005a; Macedo and Anderson, 1993). In this study four littoral forest fragments S7, S8, S9 and S17 were surveyed using line transects (Fig. 2). In this expedition we used industrial building tape, similar to that used by the Police to isolate a crime scene, for marking the transects. This was found to work very well as the tape is brightly coloured and visible at night, and is highly durable. It is important to note that reeling the tape back in again can be a nuisance, as it tends to get stuck on vegetation and will tangle easily. Due to the size differences between the fragments, total line transects length varied between the fragments (between 1120 m â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1620 m). Ten parallel transects were surveyed in S8 and S7, fifteen transects were surveyed in S9, and twelve transects were surveyed in S17. The existing trail system within the fragments was used where possible to gain access and to locate transects within the study site fragments. All transects were set up at greater than 50 m distances and the direction for all transects within a fragment was determined at a randomly selected compass bearing. The transects did not intersect forest trails, as they are not considered to be representative of the forest area (Jenkins et al., 1999), and were at least 20 m from any edge. The edge was defined as the first woody vegetation >2 m in height that was fully exposed to the surrounding matrix habitat on one side (Lehtinen et al., 2003). Each transect was 4 m wide and was surveyed along its length for three indicators of forest condition. The indicators measured for each transect were (i) diameter-at-breast-height (DBH, measured approx. 1.3 m from the floor) for all stems greater than 5 cm diameter, (ii) the number of cut stems was tallied, and (iii) canopy cover estimated at 10 m intervals along each transect. Canopy cover was estimated using a simple visual technique where ten holes, evenly spaced, are cut into a piece of cardboard. Holding the cardboard at a 90Â° angle to the canopy, percentage canopy cover can be estimated by how many holes are dark (i.e. showing canopy) and how many are bright (i.e. showing the gaps). Observers were randomly selected for each transect and to each task to minimise any observer variability associated with the measurement techniques. We also conducted line transect surveys on forest condition in five other forest fragments (S10, S11, S12, S15 and S16) in Sainte luce, but as the fragments were sometimes very small, we were not able to survey more than a few transects. This did not allow significance testing to be conducted on these fragments, and we were therefore not able to determine their condition at a reliable level. It is important to carefully consider how data will be interpreted before you conduct any fieldwork, or else you may find that

your data cannot be used as you would have liked. However, the data we did collect may still be valuable for any future interest. 5.2.1 Data Analysis 2

For each transect, mean basal area per m , mean stem density per m , mean percent canopy cover and 2

the number of cut stems per m was calculated. Each transect was used as a replicate sample within each fragment to allow significance testing of these forest characteristics. To determine whether the variability in the data was greater between the fragments than within the fragments, a one-way ANOVA was used on each measure of forest characteristic, to determine if there were any significant differences between the forest fragment characteristics. The data was found to be normally distributed and with similar variances. To determine the significance of pair-wise comparisons between the fragments, a Tukey test was performed for each of the forest characteristic measurements.

5.3 Chameleon ecology To assess chameleon abundance, diversity and population structure the Distance sampling method was used (fully described by Buckland et al., 1993) where a line transect is set out randomly within the forest parcel to be sampled. This method was identified by Jenkins et al. (1999) as a suitable method for estimating chameleon population densities. The same transects used for surveying forest condition (S7, S8, S9 and S17) were used to survey for chameleons. In order to reduce disturbance to the chameleons, all transects were left undisturbed for 24 hours before surveying for chameleons. Chameleons are more easily detected at night because that is when they roost, becoming immobile and pale, and making them more visible in torchlight (Brady and Griffiths, 1999; Jenkins et al., 1999; Raxworthy, 1988, 1991). Appropriately, this study took place from 1800-2300 pm. In teams of three, observers moved slowly along each transect. One observer was responsible for searching directly on the line followed by two observers responsible for searching opposite flanks. Observers were allocated randomly to a transect, and to a position, in order to reduce observer variability. When a chameleon was detected, its perpendicular distance from the line was measured accurately. The roosting height (distance from the ground to the nearest appendage), body length (distance from the tip of the snout to the end of the tail) and the tail length (distance from the pelvis to the end of the tail) were measured to help identify sex and maturity (adult or juvenile) of the individual. Observations past 6 meters perpendicular distance from the line were discarded, due to a decreasing detection rate at longer distances. The cut off point was determined after examination of the data, within which we were confident of observing all chameleons on the transect line. Identification of chameleons was based on illustrations and keys by Glaw and Vences (1994), as well as the expert help of our herpetologist Jasmin Randrianirina. The total time taken to complete each transect was recorded, which included the time taken for processing each observation.

5.3.1 Data analysis Estimating Chameleon Density The Distance sampling technique used allows for chameleon density estimates to be calculated using the computer program DISTANCE (Thomas et al., 2005) for each fragment. The Distance sampling and resultant density estimates allows for comparison between wide ranges of habitats. DISTANCE calculates density estimates by calculating a detection curve, from the measured perpendicular distances gathered in the field. This method was identified by Jenkins et al. (1999) as a suitable method for estimating chameleon population densities, provided that the assumptions are not violated. These assumptions are: 1. transect lines are placed at random in relation to the objects distribution; 2. all objects at zero distance from the line are observed or detected; 3. objects are detected at their original location before any movement has occurred as a result of disturbance from the observer; 4. perpendicular distances are accurately measured. All four assumptions can be easily held when surveying for chameleons, as they are relatively easy to detect at night by torchlight, and they are immobile when roosting. Littoral forest vegetation also allows easy access to individuals for accurate measurements. All transects were placed as randomly as possible, but limitations to randomness may have arisen from using existing trail systems to gain access to the interior of the forest fragments. We would highly recommend the distance sampling technique to anyone wanting to survey population densities of chameleons, as we found it highly efficient and appropriate to this reptile. The technique is also relatively easy to understand and to conduct in the field. Abundance indices Abundance indices were calculated for each species found to take account of any differences between habitats that may have affected detectability of chameleons (Eq. 1). Abundance (per 100 m) was calculated in accordance with Jenkins et al. (2003): (Number of individuals of speciesx on transecty /

-1

number of individuals of speciesx) * Density (ha )

(Eq. 1)

Thereby the proportional contributions made by each transect line to the total number of observations for that fragment was calculated. By multiplying by density it controls for differences in detectability between fragments and allows for significance testing by incorporating each transect as an independent replicate. A one-way ANOVA of abundance indices was used to determine if any significant difference between fragment abundance indices existed. A Tukey test will be performed on abundance indices to determine significance of pair-wise comparisons as well. Analyses were performed separately for each genus found.

6. Results 6.1 Forest cover and deforestation assessment A previous study by Ingram and Dawson (2006) assessed the forest cover and rates of deforestation through 1984-2002 in the Sainte Luce area (Table 1). They found forest loss and rates of deforestation varied spatially and temporally throughout the study period. There was a drastic increase in rates of -1

-1

deforestation going from 2.14 ha year (1992-1999) to 36.33 ha year (1999-2002). A total of 109 ha of forest were lost from 1999 - 2002 as a result. This study found larger estimates of forest cover in 2002 than Ingram and Dawson’s paper (Table 1), most likely caused by differences in image pre-processing, vegetation thresholds and vegetation masks used to determine the forest extent. The rate of deforestation estimate from 2002 - 2007 shows close correlation to the previous study at a rate of 33.8 ± 5 ha per year. Between 2002 and 2007 a total of 169 ha of littoral forest in the Sainte Luce area were lost. This shows that the increased deforestation rates observed from 1992 -1999 has continued up to 2007. Table 1: Estimates of littoral forest cover (ha) and rates of deforestation for Sainte Luce from 1984 to 2002, and from 2002 to 2007.

Estimates from Ingram and Dawson

Estimates from this study

Year

Forest cover (ha)

Rate of deforestation (ha/year)

1984

1404

1992

1388

2.00

1999

1373

2.14

2002

1264

36.33

2002

1445

2007

1276

33.80 ± 5

Notes: Rate of forest loss time intervals span 1984-1992, 1992-1999, 1999-2002, and 2002-2007. Rate of deforestation from 2002-2007 has en error of ± 15% associated with image processing errors. Source: Table adapted from Ingram and Dawson (2006), p. 205 NB: Any raw data is available from the contact as shown on the cover page.

Deforestation was also observed to be heterogeneous throughout the area (Fig. 3), occurring mostly along forest edges. The fragment S8 shows a large decrease in forest cover between 2002 and 2007. S8 is one of the smaller more fragmented littoral forests in the area and also has a road cutting through it. S17 shows most of its forest loss along its eastern coastal edge, where the forest is most exposed to natural disturbances such as cyclones. Significant forest gain was estimated at only 10.9 ha between 2002 and 2007 and is mainly seen in scattered pixels throughout the image, most likely due to phenological or atmospheric differences between the two images.

Fig. 3: Map of Sainte Luce littoral forest cover extent and forest cover change from 2002 - 2007 as estimated from Landsat 7 ETM+ imagery and NDVI values. Legend presents forest cover change where black patches show areas of significant (i.e. >10% change in NDVI values) forest cover loss, light grey areas show no significant change and dark grey patches show a significant increase in forest cover.

6.2 Forest condition assessment A total of 5.3 km was surveyed during this study. 1.3 km in S7, 1.1 km in S8, 1.3 km in S9 and 1.6 km in S17. The mean basal area, canopy cover and number of cut stems were significantly different between the studied fragments (P<0.01), but there was no significant difference found between fragment stem densities (P>0.05) (Table 2). However, pair wise comparisons (Tukey tests) between the fragments revealed no significant difference for mean basal areas between S7, S8 and S9 (P>0.05). Furthermore, S7 and S8 showed no significant difference in mean canopy cover or mean number of cut stems. Therefore S7 and S8 showed no significant difference (P>0.05) between any of the forest characteristics and were considered to be subject to similar levels of use by local people and to be of the same classification or condition. Table 2: Summary of means (± S.E.) of forest fragment vegetation characteristics and ANOVA significance tests in four littoral forest fragments, Sainte Luce region, Toalagnaro, Madagascar Vegetation characteristic Basal area m

-2

Stem density m

-2

Canopy cover (%) Cut stems m

-2

Forest fragment

P-value

S7 (n=10)

S8 (n=10)

S9 (n=15)

S17 (n=12)

31.61 ± 2.52

29.00 ± 1.88

28.96 ± 1.89

41.02 ± 1.85

<0.01

0.28 ± 0.03

0.23 ± 0.02

0.20 ± 0.01

0.22 ± 0.02

>0.05

61.48 ± 2.61

59.62 ± 1.56

68.86 ± 1.77

76.16 ± 2.01

<0.01

0.050 ± 0.006

0.049 ± 0.005

0.020 ± 0.004

0.004 ± 0.001

<0.01

NB: Any raw data is available from the contact as shown on the cover page.

In light of this, S7 and S8 were considered the most degraded fragments of this study; due to having the lowest mean basal areas and canopy covers, and the highest number of cut stems. S9 showed less degradation than S7 and S8, as it had a significantly higher mean canopy cover and fewer cut stems. Finally, S17 was considered the most intact forest fragment, owing to its high canopy cover, large basal area, and low number of cut stems. These results differ from the forest classification done by QMM in 2001 (Fig.2), where S7 was classified as in very good condition. In this study both fragments S7 and S8 were found to be of the same lowest condition, S9 as in medium condition and S17 in the best condition.

6.3 Chameleon abundance and distribution A total of 490 chameleons representing two species were found in the four forest fragments. Interestingly, of these, 97.5 % (478) were Brookesia nasus and only 2.5 % (12) were Furcifer oustaleti. Of the 1.3 km transect lines surveyed in S7, 1.1 km in S8, 1.3 km in S9 and 1.6 km in S17 post survey results showed that the search speed along transects were not significantly different between fragments (average search speed of 0.92 m min ¹, p-value > 0.05). Hence, the time taken to thoroughly survey each transect was not different between fragments indicating similar search efforts, vegetation density and detectability of chameleons. Of the F. oustaleti all individuals observed were juveniles. The population structure of B. nasus showed that there was no sex bias in fragments S7, S8 or S9 (ratios of 1:1), but S17 displayed a male biased sex ratio of 1:4 (Table 3). There was also no bias of juveniles to adults in fragments S7 and S17 (ratios of

1:1), but S8 and S9 showed a slight adult bias with ratios of 1:2 (Table 3). It was also found that B. nasus roosting height was between 0-66 cm (mean 8.89 cm) from the forest floor, and F. oustaleti roosting height was from 18 – 150 cm (mean 41.96 cm). Table 3. Population structure of Brookesia nasus within four forest fragments in the Sainte Luce region, Toalagnaro, Madagascar Sex Life-stage Fragment

Male

Female

Juvenile

Adult

0.51

0.49

145

0.46

0.54

0.44

0.56

0.32

0.68

114

0.47

0.53

187

0.35

0.65

S17

0.76

0.24

0.52

0.48

Notes: n does not correspond between sex and life-stage, as it was not possible to sex any of the juveniles. NB: Any raw data is available from the contact as shown on the cover page.

It was only possible to perform density estimates for B. nasus, as there were too few F. oustaleti found to conduct accurate density estimates. Therefore, it was not possible to discern abundance or density estimates for F. oustaleti in this study. Abundance indices for B. nasus revealed that there was a significant difference between fragments (P<0.05) (Table 4). However, pair-wise comparisons revealed that S17 and S7 were the only two fragments, which differed in B. nasus abundance to a significant degree (P<0.05). All other fragments were not significantly different (Fig. 4). -1

Table 4: Summary of Brookesia nasus abundance per 100 m and density ha for four littoral forest fragments in Sainte Luce, Toalagnaro, Madagascar. Forest fragments S7

S17

P-value <0.05

B. nasus abundance

Mean ± S.E.

19.24 ± 3.90

9.28 ± 1.54

12.65 ± 2.10

8.60 ± 2.61

(per 100 m)

145

187

Density

192.45

92.8

224.58

103.16

95% CI

127.43 - 290.63

58.23 - 147.88

162.26 - 310.83

55.58 - 191.46

% CV

18.94

22.60

16.16

29.13

-1

B. nasus density (ha )

Abundance index (per 100 m)

Notes: Means (± S.E) of B. nasus abundance per 100 m (ANOVA P-value) and number found (n). 95% confidence -1 intervals (CI) and percentage coefficient of variation (%CV) for density estimates ha shown. NB: Any raw data is available from the contact as shown on the cover page. 25 20 15 10 5 0 S7

S17

Fragment

Fig. 4: Mean abundance (± S.E.) index for Brookesia nasus in four littoral forest fragments, Toalagnaro, Madagascar.

Finally, Pearson’s correlations were done on chameleon abundance indices and the four forest characteristics measured (i.e. DBH, stem density, cut stems and canopy cover). It was found that there was no significant correlation between chameleon abundance indices and any of the forest characteristics (P>0.05 in all cases). An additional observation was that there was an abundance of arachnids in the forests. For any future expedition wishing to study the littoral forests in Madagascar it might be interesting to do a study on the many arachnid species, as very little if any studies have been done on them previously. There may be a great opportunity to supplement current faunal studies on littoral forest biodiversity in this way.

7. Discussion 7.1 Forest cover change and deforestation This study found that between the year 2002 and 2007 littoral forest cover in the Sainte Luce area declined by 169 hectares, at a rate of 33.80 ± 5 ha per year. Deforestation was found to vary spatially in the area, and the smaller fragments, such as S8, had a higher amount of deforestation. The loss of forest cover shows around the forest edges, indicating that the loss is most likely anthropogenically caused. Rates of deforestation and human disturbance have been linked with population density, human accessibility, the proximity of stands to villages and stand isolation (Cadotte et al., 2001; Ingram et al., 2005a; Sussman et al., 1994). The study by Ingram and Dawson (2006) estimated that 16 ha of forest -1

-1

had been lost from 1984-1992 (2 ha yr ) and from 1992-1999 (2.14 ha yr ). There was a sharp increase in forest loss observed from 1999-2002 where 109 ha of forest was lost at 36.33 ha per year. The deforestation rate found in this study was similar to the rate recorded by Ingram and Dawson. This shows that the increased rate has continued from 2002 to 2007, at a rate of 33.80 ± 5 ha per year. Littoral forest deforestation rates were also determined in a study by QMM (2001). Their study estimated deforestation across three sites of littoral forest cover along the southeastern coast of Madagascar; Petriky, Mandena and Sainte Luce. Their estimate was a lumped estimate comparing only two years of remote sensing data, from 1950 and 2000, and had no analyses of intermediary time intervals. They found that from 1950 - 2000 the rate of deforestation was 86 ha per year. This estimate lead to their prediction that littoral forest cover would be nonexistent in approximately 2040 at current rates of -1

deforestation (86 ha yr ) (QMM, 2001). This study found much lower rates of deforestation per year, most likely due to the different lengths in time intervals of the studies and differences in the spatial scales. QMM’s study also did not take into account variability in deforestation rates between the years 1950 and 2000, which may have provided indications of the drivers or processes of deforestation. As a result, QMM’s study does not help to explain why deforestation occurred or what can be done to slow it down. Traditionally the land in Sainte Luce has been used and managed by local populations. The arrival of the mining industry QMM in the area may have caused questions of traditional land tenure and land rights (Ingram and Dawson, 2006). An indication that this might be the case can be seen in the disparity

between the conditions of fragments where land ownership is not questioned, and the fragments where ownership is less clear. Fragment S17 is the only fragment that is privately owned, and therefore logging and other â&#x20AC;&#x153;destructiveâ&#x20AC;? uses of the forest are prohibited; local people do not cause as much disturbance in S17 as a result. In this case, land ownership is not questioned and this may be a reason why S17 shows the least deterioration of the four sites in this study. The forest cover loss along the eastern border of S17 may be due to natural causes, rather than human, as it borders directly onto the Indian Ocean where cyclones can hit. QMM's arrival in Sainte Luce in the mid to late 1990s, with the establishment of a field station for researchers at the base of S9, may have raised questions over the ownership of the forest fragments not under clearly defined ownership (Ingram and Dawson, 2006). Migrant charcoal makers to use the forests for their own purposes. An influx of migrant charcoal makers from the southern town of Fort Dauphin, who taken advantage of the blurred lines of ownership, has been identified as a driver of increased deforestation in the more southern littoral forests of Mandena (Ingram and Dawson, 2006). It was found that the unprotected forest stands in Mandena were completely devoid of any tree species used for charcoal making (Ingram et al., 2005b). The presence of a large mining cooperation has most likely unbalanced the traditional usage of the land by local people, since their property rights have been challenged, probably causing the increased deforestation rates observed from 1999 to 2007. -1

If deforestation is to continue at the rate found in this study (33.80 ha yr ), all the littoral forest fragments in Sainte Luce will disappear by approximately 2050. Just 40 years from now, deforestation could have huge implications for the livelihoods of local people, as they depend on forest products in everyday life. It will also cause a huge loss of biodiversity in the area. This estimate agrees with QMMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s prediction of when littoral forest cover would be nonexistent. However, when shorter time intervals are analysed, as done by Ingram and Dawson (2006), it was found that deforestation rates have not always been high. The most likely reason for a sudden increase in post 1999 rate is the changes to land ownership in the southeastern littoral forests, caused by the presence of a multi-national mining company. 7.1.1 Limitations of forest cover change estimates Some limitations of the deforestation estimates exist. No atmospheric correction was done during image pre-processing, as the methodology was above the level of experience with use of the ERDAS Imagine computer program. Atmospheric corrections to normalise both images for comparison would normally have occurred prior to any image processing. This means there is an error in the forest cover change measurement for 2007 associated with atmospheric and illumination differences between the two images. However, the degree of error is uncertain as it can vary depending on the method of change detection used, as well as the nature of the vegetation cover (Song et al., 2001). When using image differencing to estimate change in forest cover, atmospheric correction is necessary to avoid errors associated with the scattering and absorption of the spectral information travelling through the atmosphere to the satellite sensor (Song et al., 2001). Atmospheric contributions to NDVI can be significant, and usually decreases the NDVI values (Campbell, 2002). Geo-correction of the images was slightly flawed, and it is difficult to get the two images to match up precisely. This can cause errors in forest cover change measurements around the edges of the forest fragments by a few pixels. The shape of S17, long and thin, means there is a large amount of edge. If the images are not geo-corrected accurately it can cause the pixels along the

forest edges to register as forest cover loss. This study attempted to assess any under or over-reporting of change caused by inaccurate geo-correction by checking against forest cover in 2002. Errors associated with geo-correction mismatching are minimal, as visual interpretation suggests only a minor mismatching between the two images occurred. Differences of forest cover estimates from Ingram and Dawson’s study (2006) and this study is most likely due to differences in image pre-processing. The offset and scaling factors when rescaling NDVI images to byte format (0-256) may not be exactly the same as those used by Ingram and Dawson (2006). This can cause the forest delineation threshold in this study to be different from the recommended 184 value suggested, causing a potential difference in forest feature boundaries. In this paper, a threshold of 165 was visually selected as a suitable value to distinguish forest features from non-forest vegetation. Ideally, the same vegetation mask as used by Ingram and Dawson would have been used to minimise any difference in forest delineation, but it was not possible to gain access to the vegetation mask data. One of the most worrying errors when estimating land cover change from satellite imagery in this study comes from the 2003 failure of the Landsat 7 satellite’s instrumentation, caused by a Scan Line Corrector (SLC) malfunction. This means that all imagery taken after May 2003 has overlapping scan lines and large gaps at the edges of the image. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) (2003) reported on the value of Landsat 7 data following the malfunction. They claimed that by using algorithms to process the imagery, about 80% of the pixels can be contained and are radiometrically and geometrically in good order. Interpolation of the images by “filling in” the gaps of some of the missing pixels has also been shown to produce useful imagery for some scientific applications. However, the interpolated data may not be desirable for some uses as it is calculated by averaging the radiance of the surrounding pixels and is not real physical data. Despite this malfunction, some studies have found the anomalous imagery to retain enough good data to give good estimates of regional to global land cover change. But there may be a bigger problem for the more localised change assessments (USGS, 2003). Up to a 90% accuracy of estimating deforestation and land cover changes has been found using the interpolated anomalous data, meaning that estimates using data after the SLC malfunction are within 10% of the value of premalfunction data. This is considered to be within the normal range of error associated with estimates of land cover change (USGS, 2003). The image used in this study from 2007 has been interpolated to fill in the gaps around the edges of the image. However, the area of interest in this study (i.e. Sainte Luce) lies in the centre of the image, where the data is not as badly affected by the missing data gaps. Considering the errors associated with not correcting for atmospheric differences, possible inaccurate geo-correction and the SLC malfunction, the best-guess error associated with the 2007 forest cover change is estimated at ±15% of the measured values of forest cover loss.

7.2 Forest condition From the ground measurements of forest characteristics it was found that the four fragments showed significant differences in forest condition. Relative to each other, S7 and S8 were found to be in the worst

condition, S9 was of medium condition, and S17 was found to be in the best condition. Differences found in the condition of the forests in this study indicate the levels of human disturbance within the forests. S7 and S8 therefore showed the highest levels of human disturbance and use, followed by S9 and S17 respectively. The order of forest conditions from worst to best differs from the previous study done by QMM (2001) were S7 was classified as being in very good condition, rather than in the same state of moderate deterioration as S8. Even if this study based its estimates solely on canopy cover estimates, as QMM did, it would not change the order of the conditions of the forest fragments. The difference to QMMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s estimates could be due to the deterioration of S7 over time, but is most likely due to discrepancies in analyses and methodologies used between the two studies. 7.2.1 Limitations to assessing forest condition change The methodology used by QMM was subject to a high degree of observer variability, and was not easily replicable (Ingram and Dawson, 2006). The ground measurement technique used for canopy cover estimation in this study may also not have been a very robust measurement, since it was also sensitive to observer variability. However, it was attempted to reduce observer variability by allocating observers randomly to the task. The method used in this study for canopy cover estimation can be easily replicated, but its accuracy is questionable, and it is not recommended for use in studies needing a high degree of accuracy. However, the limitations of time and resources made this technique attractive as a quick and easy way to estimate canopy cover. Using canopy cover as the only determinant of forest condition, as done by QMM, may not be appropriate because it may not accurately represent deterioration and disturbance of the forest. The three additional measurements of forest condition used in this study (DBH, stem density and cut stems) further augment the assessment of the condition of the four forest fragments, and the levels of disturbance within them. However, this study is only a snapshot in time, and any long-term impacts that human disturbance of the forest may have on the condition of the forest are unclear. It cannot be said whether the current level of disturbance is unsustainable, or whether it could cause deterioration of the forest fragments in the longterm. This uncertainty is due to the fact that the conditions of the four studied fragments cannot be directly compared to QMMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s study in 2001. Furthermore, the methodology used in this study does not take account of any environmental variability between the sites, which may have influenced the forest characteristics (i.e. DBH and canopy cover). This study is therefore not able to determine whether the condition of the forests has changed over time. Further studies, using similar measuring techniques, are needed in order to compare findings to accurately quantify any change in forest condition caused by human disturbance and land use. 7.2.2 Human disturbance impacts on forest condition Despite the lack of quantifiable evidence for any change in forest condition over time, Ingram et al. (2005b) found that the forest fragments retained high biodiversity and basal area, of both utilitarian and endemic tree species, despite long term use of forest products by people. They found that 84% of individual trees recorded, and 54% of all species found, were of utilitarian tree species. It is argued that if

the degradation caused by human use was unsustainable, there would have been a low abundance and a low basal area among the utilitarian species, and higher values among non-utilitarian species. This was not found to be the case. It was found that there was a large diversity of the non-utilitarian species, indicating that people generally use the species that are most common. Local use of the forest may therefore even enhance the diversity of tree species by lowering competition through reducing the most common species in turn. Their study also showed that littoral forests have a high conservation value for human subsistence, in addition to biodiversity, as many of the tree species found were utilitarian. Interestingly Ingram et al. (2005b) found basal area to be the most useful structural measure for indicating tree species diversity and endemism of an area. This would indicate that, at the time of this study, S17 had the highest degree of species diversity and endemism of the four forest sites. This is useful for indicating areas of high conservation value for endemic species, and the continued protection of S17 may prove to be important in conserving endemic tree species, particularly for post-mining regeneration purposes. It was posited that fragments S9 and S17 had the highest conservation value, and therefore priority, as they represent two of the largest fragments in Sainte Luce and are in the best condition (Bollen and Donati, 2006). QMMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s proposed conservation zones in Sainte Luce include 190 ha of S9 and all of S17 (QMM, 2001). However, only protecting two of the forest fragments in Sainte Luce may not be enough to protect the full range of diversity. Sites of high species endemicity and utilitarian species were not found to be homogenous, so a wide range of forest fragments should be protected in order to conserve the full range of biodiversity and retain its use for humans (Cadotte et al., 2002; Ingram et al., 2005b). Another study by Ingram et al. (2005a) on forest condition found that there was a correlation between decreased basal area and centres of human populations coupled with accessibility of the forests. This may be a factor in this study, and could explain some of the variation in mean basal areas found for the four sites. S8 and S9 are both sites with easy access, containing roads that bisect parts of the forest and paths that run inside the forest fragments. S7 is also relatively easy to access, with a river running along its northern edge where boats can approach the forest and transport extracted products. S17 is less accessible, not only because it is privately owned, but also because one must canoe across an estuary to gain access on its western side, or walk on sand to approach its eastern side. The forest fragment itself lies on top of a steep hill, making it physically hard to enter the forest centre from either side. This may cause difficulties in extracting resources such as timber from the fragment, and may help to further deter any human disturbance of the forest.

7.3 Chameleon ecology This study found two species of chameleon in four littoral forest fragments in the Sainte Luce area, 97.5% percent of which were Brookesia nasus and 2.5 % of which were Furcifer oustaleti. All the F. oustaleti were juveniles, perhaps because the study took place in the dry season, when the adults tend to hibernate (Glaw and Vences, 1994). F. oustaleti is known to be widespread throughout Madagascar, as they have adapted to both dry and humid habitats. B. nasus is not as widespread, and are thought to prefer primary forests characterized by 20 m high trees and a dense understorey (Carpenter and Robson,

2005; Glaw and Vences, 1994; Raxworthy, 1991). This study, however, finds that this is not necessarily the case. The B. nasus sex ratios found in this study showed an even ratio of males to females. Only in S17 was the ratio uneven, with a larger proportion of males. It is unknown why S17 had more males, but it may have been due to the random error of the sampling method. The sex and life-stage ratios show that viable populations exist in the four fragments. A study by Jenkins et al. (1999) found a much lower juvenile to adult ratio (0.17: 0.83) than in this study, which showed closer to 1:1 ratios. This may be due to seasonal differences, as Jenkinsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; study took place in the wet season (November to January). This may indicate that breeding and hatching for B. nasus, in the Sainte Luce area, occurs in the colder, drier season of June and July, which is when this study took place. Further evidence of this was the observed mating of 15 pairs of B. nasus during the survey. However, Glaw and Vences (1994) observed mating to occur in February in a captive pair. This study agrees with the claim that Distance sampling is suitable for chameleon studies (Jenkins et al., 1999), with 491 individuals observed. It was found that the main criterion for the technique could easily be met, due to chameleon roosting behaviour at night. A low roosting height for B. nasus (mean = 8.8 cm) was found, which seems to confirm the observation that Brookesia are generally terrestrial. F. oustaleti juveniles showed a higher roosting height (mean = 43 cm), which seems to confirm that they are an arboreal species (Glaw and Vences, 1994). It is also of interest that Raxworthy (1991) observed that Brookesia did not become pale at night, which is in contrast to the findings of this study. B. nasus did become pale, and was observably paler at night than their brown colourations in the day. Jenkins et al. (1999) found similar observations. 7.3.1 Chameleons and forest disturbance Contrary to the prediction, it was found that the highest abundance of B. nasus was found in one of the most disturbed forest fragments. S7 had the highest abundance index of B. nasus whereas S17, the least disturbed habitat, had a significantly lower abundance index compared to S7. S8, however, had a low abundance index closer to that of S17, despite showing similar disturbance levels to S7. It is therefore difficult to ascertain whether or not there were any correlations between forest disturbance and chameleon abundance indices. There was also no correlation between abundance indices and individual forest characteristics, indicating no real relationships between, for example, chameleon abundance and the number of cut stems. Finding no real correlations between forest disturbance and chameleon abundance indices suggests that current forest disturbance does not have a negative impact on abundance indices for B. nasus. It is therefore possible that any difference in chameleon abundances found between the fragments may not be due to the current human disturbance and use of the forest, but may rather be due to other factors, such as edge effects, topographic differences, grazing impacts, fragment size and/or fragment isolation. Selective logging was also not found to negatively impact faunal species in the west of Madagascar. Ganzhorn et al. (1990) found that selective logging did not threaten the survival of two tenrec species in

the forests of western Madagascar. The forest structure alterations caused by selective logging in their study were significant on a small scale, but the large scale impacts were not considered more significant than variation of forest structure due to natural causes. All fragments in this study showed evidence of resource extraction (e.g. selective logging) and human disturbance similar to that of the Ganzhorn et al. (1990) study. The type of disturbance present in the Sainte Luce fragments may not alter forest structure to a degree significant enough to affect chameleon abundance or density. Evidence for this was found by Ingram et al. (2005b) in that selective logging did not negatively affect the biodiversity of tree species within the littoral forest fragments. Contrary to what was expected, it was found in this study that the more disturbed fragment S7 had a significantly higher chameleon abundance index than the less disturbed fragment S17. A large amount of disturbance caused by cattle was observed in S17, however, which may have influenced this finding. To the knowledge of the researchers, there have been no studies done on the impact that grazing has on chameleon distributions. Grazing pressure may be an influencing factor on the distribution and abundance of chameleons, particularly on the ground dwelling Brookesia genera. Trampling and disturbance of ground vegetation by these large herbivores may have a more serious impact on the living environment of B. nasus than the effects of selective logging. A similar study on chameleons and forest disturbance conducted by Jenkins et al. (2003) investigated the influence of forest disturbance and river proximity on chameleon abundance. It found that chameleons were more abundant in low-disturbance rainforest sites than in high disturbance forests that were recovering from burning. The higher chameleon abundance found in low-disturbance forests, which were subject to selective logging, demonstrates the resilience of some chameleon species to this type of disturbance. This study supports this claim, as high abundance measures of B. nasus were found even in the forest fragments affected by selective logging. This shows that littoral forests are still of conservation value, even if they are subjected to interference from people, as they are capable of supporting dense populations of forest-dependent chameleons. This study did not find a lower abundance in the more impacted forest sites as Jenkinsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; did. Instead, it found the opposite, most likely because the level and type of disturbance did not differ enough between the sites to have a significant impact on chameleon abundance indices. Jenkins also found that moist habitats close to small rivers had a higher abundance of chameleons. This finding indicates a preference of chameleons for moist conditions, perhaps due to better foraging conditions. In this study, all of the fragments, except S17, were observed to contain patches of very moist swampy conditions and small rivers. This study did not take into account any differences in observations, which may have occurred due to varying degrees of wet or swampy conditions between fragments. This could have caused a difference in abundance, as was observed by Jenkins et al. (2003). Edge-effects may also be an influential factor in determining chameleon abundance within each of the four sites. Lehtinen et al. (2003) conducted a study on the edge-effects and extinction proneness of herpetofauna in the coastal forest region of southeastern Madagascar. They found that the altered microclimates at the edges of forest fragments influenced the distribution of many herpetofauna, and that this effect was more apparent in the dry season. They also found that species avoiding the edge were more prone to extinction than those that did not. Their study identified B. nasus as an â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;edge-avoiderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, and also found the species to be highly prone to extinction, being present in only two of the six fragments

sampled. Conversely, F. oustaleti was not found to be an edge-avoider, and was not so prone to extinction, being found in all six of the fragments sampled. Interestingly F. oustaleti have been found to occur in degraded vegetation, and are rarely found in primary forests (Glaw and Vences, 1994). The influence that edge-effects may have on the distribution of these two chameleon species may explain why so few F. oustaleti were found in this study, as edges were not sampled. Furthermore, the low abundance of B. nasus found in S17 despite its large area may be explained by the fact that the fragment exhibits a large edge-effects per area of forest due to the slim shape of the fragment. Similarly, S8 may also exhibit large edge-effects due to its small size and irregular shape. S17 is also very isolated from the other littoral forest fragments in the area, situated as it is by the large estuary and river system. This may limit any immigration of chameleons to the fragment from neighbouring fragments, and could be a factor in its observed lower abundance of B. nasus. The more obvious factor possibly influencing chameleon abundances between fragments is the difference in the fragment sizes. The four fragments increase in size from S8, S7, S17 and S9. Following the classic island biogeography, it is predicted that fragments of larger size will contain more species (Begon et al., 2006). This study was not able to assess any correlations between fragments size and abundance or density estimates, as only four fragments were surveyed. This does not give enough data points to accurately assess any correlation between fragment size and abundance measures. This study is aware that fragment size may be a very real influencing factor in determining chameleon distributions and abundance. It is recommended that future studies sample a wider range of fragment sizes to be capable of assessing this aspect, and sample more than six fragments to gain a more statistically significant sample size. A paper by Raxworthy et al. (2003), which predicted the distribution of reptile species in Madagascar by modelling ecological niche distributions, showed that B. nasus was expected to exist in a very limited ecological niche area, restricted mainly to the largely unexplored southeast. The high extinction proneness and few observations of B. nasus found by Lehtinen et al. (2003) may indicate the endemicity of B. nasus to the few littoral forest fragments in the Sainte Luce area, as five of the six fragments in their study were in the Mandena region south of Sainte Luce. However, Jenkins et al. (1999) reported a widespread distribution of B. nasus in the southeast, and found the species to be abundant in the undisturbed forest within Ranomafana National Park, an area of primary sub-montane cloud forest -1

(Density ha = 26.8 Âą 5.4 and 37.8 Âą 7.4 within the forest and along paths respectively). This study -1

showed much higher density estimates for B. nasus (mean density ha = 166.28), which may be a seasonal observation. This disagreement between studies shows the need for further research into the distribution and abundance of chameleon species, particularly for B. nasus as it is one of the least studied chameleon species in Madagascar (Jenkins et al., 1999; Raxworthy 1991). In addition, seasonality needs to be considered further. This short two-month study in the dry season did not facilitate an accurate assessment of chameleon diversity or their response to disturbance over time and between seasons. This is problematic, as most reptiles have been shown to be strongly seasonal (Raxworthy, 1988). Furthermore, this study could not assess the abundance of chameleons in pristine habitat, as none was

available. This prevents any assessment of the affects of habitat disturbance across a wider range of disturbance levels on chameleon abundance indices. The lack of information on reproductive rates, clutch size, or migration for Malagasy chameleons also makes it hard to assess whether differences in abundance between forest fragments was due to differing recruitment patterns (Jenkins et al., 2003). Future work on chameleon abundance measures should consider surveying over longer periods of time, in a larger range of forest conditions, and in all seasons to accurately assess any impacts forest degradation might have on chameleon distributions, diversity, demographics, and abundance.

7.4 Conservation implications The littoral forests of Sainte Luce may provide an example of a case where multiple-use forestry and biodiversity conservation are compatible, as was suggested by Ingram et al. (2005b). However, this study found that it was unclear whether the current human uses within the forest fragments were detrimental to forest condition in the long-term. Despite this, it was found that the current human disturbance did not negatively impact the abundance of chameleon species found in the area. It is still unclear, however, whether the high abundance of chameleons, yet low species diversity, found in this study was a true reflection of what the littoral forests comprised until now, or if it was instead a reflection of recent species loss. This study found that current levels of deforestation are unsustainable and will result in total forest cover loss by about 2050 if it is not countered or reduced. Whether the current multiple-use of the forest is compatible with biodiversity conservation in the long-term is still uncertain. There is a delicate balance between the level of human use of the forest and biodiversity conservation. Where the threshold lies is unclear, and further studies are needed to clarify this for use in multiple-use conservation schemes. However, it is clear that one of the most urgent priorities for Madagascar is to protect areas of remaining lowland littoral forest, as they show high biodiversity of flora and fauna and are inadequately protected at present (Dumetz, 1999; Ganzhorn et al., 2001; Raxworthy, 1988; Turner and Corlett, 1996; Watson et al., 2005). It has been stated that it is unlikely that the littoral forest ecosystems will maintain the present levels of biodiversity over time (Ganzhorn et al., 2001). Evidence suggests that any further loss of forest cover and forest degradation will negatively impact the biodiversity of bird species, lemur species, reptile species and amphibian species within the littoral forests (Ramanamanjato et al., 2002; Ramanamanjato and Ganzhorn, 2001; Watson et al., 2005; Watson et al., 2004). Littoral forests represent an area of Madagascarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s forested habitats that, if protected adequately, can yield large benefits for humans and for biodiversity of the island. To accomplish this, local ownership and stewardship of the forests needs to be re-established in Sainte Luce. This would prevent immigrants from using forest products for the external market of coal production, which was identified as one of the main drivers of deforestation in the littoral forests of southeastern Madagascar since 1999 (Ingram and Dawson, 2006). The QMM mining project may yet eliminate these last remaining littoral forests despite any conservation efforts. Until then, effective conservation management schemes can help to ensure that the current biodiversity and forest cover does not deteriorate further, and can safeguard many endemic floral and faunal species unique to the local habitat.

Madagascar is important to global chameleon diversity. The lack of ecological knowledge about many of the species, particularly Brookesia species, calls for more detailed population studies on chameleons found in different habitats, and in areas of differing forest disturbance. This is necessary in order to assess the impacts that habitat degradation and destruction may have on chameleon biodiversity and distribution. This study found large abundances of forest-dependent chameleons, even in secondary degraded forests. This means that it will only be possible to safeguard against future chameleon extinctions by conserving multiple areas of forest habitat, and not only primary vegetation (Raxworthy, 1988). This study found a large abundance of B. nasus and only few F. oustaleti in the remaining littoral forests of Sainte Luce. No other study has found such a high density of B. nasus in secondary forests. These fragments may be important habitats for B. nasus, and the chameleon populations within them could be important for future conservation efforts of this chameleon species. The future mining project, aimed at extracting the illminite deposits from the forest bed, will have a serious impact on Madagascarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s B. nasus populations, and threatens some of the most abundant populations studied so far. QMM plans to spare S17 and most of S9 due to the good condition of these fragments (QMM, 2001), but it should not be ignored that even the fragments showing higher levels of degradation are able to support high densities and abundances of these chameleons.

Administration and Logistics 1. Destination area This study was centred in a fragmented littoral (coastal) forest in Saint Luce (24°45’S 47°11’E) located on the southeastern coast of Madagascar, which lies 50km up the coast form Fort Dauphin. The greater region, Toalagnaro (Fig 1), supports approximately 4,000 ha of littoral forest. The research area in which our forest exists comprises of a band of coastal plain and adjacent foothills averaging 7km in length and 2km in width extending from about 24°35’S to 25°08’S latitude. It is delimited by the Indian Ocean to the East and by the steep, rocky slopes of the Anosy Mountains to the West. The littoral forest is characterized by open or noncontinuous canopy, which are normally 6 to 12m with emergents up to 20m. The DBH of the trees rarely exceeds 30-40cm. The forests grow on sandy soils and occur within 2-3km of coast at an altitude of 0-20m (QMM, 2001).

2. Research materials and information sources (Please see Address list and web-links section for more information)

•

We bought a Landsat ETM+ satellite image of south eastern Madagascar from the U.S. Geological Survey.

•

Used GIS software (ERDAS Imagine, ArcGIS, IDRISI ™) to process the image, create vegetation maps of the area for orientation, looked at the vegetation greenness, and determined locations (lat., long.) for sample sites to navigate to using the GPS.

•

The Global Positioning System (GPS) we used was a Garmin GPS 60.

•

DBH tapes, 100m tape, 30m tape and waterproof notebooks were all borrowed from the University of Edinburgh.

•

The satellite phone was hired from Adams’ Phones in London, which was significantly cheaper than any other rental company and were very efficient with communication and postage.

•

Head torches, tents, solar panels, rechargeable batteries, and other equipment were bought from Blacks outdoor gear shop, where we received a 15% discount due to the nature of our purchase.

•

The book by Glaw and Vences (1994) “A Fieldguide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of Madagascar” was used to identify chameleons in the field. It had very useful keys and was easy to follow.

•

Sources of information of the research site were mainly gained from individuals. Dr Terrence Dawson gave information on littoral forests in Sainte Luce and gave advice on the logistical aspects of researching in these ecosystems, as well as giving information on research opportunities in the area. He also gave information on where to get satellite imagery and supplied the satellite image taken in 2002.

•

The NGO Azafady in Fort Dauphin was a huge help to us. They were a source of knowledge on the Toalagnaro region and gave a lot of assistance when in Toalagnaro, helping us with getting

camp sites, research permits, hiring cars for travel, getting guides, buying supplies, and were a source of assistance in emergencies. •

Whilst in the field we had a lot of help from the herpetologist specialist, Jasmin Randrianirina, from Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza in Antananarivo. He helped us identify chameleons as well as helping us to determine their sex and life stage. He also showed us the diversity of reptiles that could be found in the forests, and was a great help to us in the field.

3. Training and equipment testing •

Two members of the team attended the GIS course hosted by the Royal Geographic Society and had small tutorials with Dr. Terry Dawson on using GIS software.

•

Two members also attended the Wilderness Medical course hosted by the Royal Geographical Society amongst other medical training courses (Please see Medical arrangements section).

•

Equipment (i.e. GIS software, Distance programme, and the GPS) were all tested before we left by simulating a sample plot. Methodology was also tested in this way.

4. Permission and permits To conduct research in Madagascar, researchers must obtain a Research Permit. The process for obtaining research permits in Madagascar is lengthy and rigorous. This expedition did not collect any specimens from the field. A committee (CAFE/CORE) consisting of representatives of the ANGAP (National Association for the Management of Protected Areas), the Department of Water and Forests (DEF), the Ministry of Higher Education and about ten other bodies oversee the requirements for Research Permits in Madagascar. All researchers working in any protected area in Madagascar or in the peripheral zone around the protected area will need a research permit. To obtain these permits, a researcher must submit a proposal to CAFÉ (see web-links) at least 2-3 months before initiating research. After the ANGAP approves your research proposal you then have to meet a series of requirements that allow your permit to be valid. Most of these requirements are to bring benefits to the Madagascar people by spreading researcher’s results to the governmental organisations that make environmental policy and the scientific education/training of Malagasy people by researchers. Under the permit process you must be connected to an organisation recognised with the government. We were affiliated with the NGO Azafady, which has for the last seven years had a contract of collaboration with a department of the Ministry of Higher Education, that department being Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza (PBZT). The collaboration contract is signed by both the Director of the Park and the Minister himself. Because of this, Azafady gained a research permit for our project as the facilitating partner.

5. Fund-raising All team members of the expedition made a personal contribution of £500 towards the costs of the project. We also set up a lucrative fundraising scheme selling glow sticks at the University of Edinburgh’s

student union. We also hosted a club night inviting friends on Facebook, giving out fliers, putting up posters and making announcements in lectures to promote the event. We made an arrangement with a venue to take all payment at the door whilst the venue took all revenue at the bar. These activities also gave an opportunity to raise the profile of the project within the University. We also applied and successfully secured funds from several bodies at the University including the Davis’ fund, British Travel Fund, Weir fund. We were also successful in securing funds from the nationally available Carnegie and Gilchrist trusts.

6. Finances Before departure all finances where carried out by the expedition leader James Greenwood. On project, our expenditures were monitored and kept up to date daily by another member of the team. For security, we gave ourselves three different forms of accessing money. The majority of the money was accessible through an expedition monetary account, which only James Greenwood could access, as well as euro travellers’ cheques in this name. On arrival we also changed euros into Malagasy Ariary to see the project through the initial week. We then used mainly the traveller’s cheques and ATM’s depending on their availability, to take out sufficient finances for 2-3 week periods. The project received a total of £17,900 from eight grants available to students of The University of Edinburgh. This amount was sufficient for a five-person research team to conduct a 10-week expedition.

Fund Contributions: The Davis Fund The Weir Fund The James Rennie Bequest The Alumni and Development, small projects grants The British Travel Fund The Carnegie Fund RGS RSGS Combined total

Item

Cost (£)

Comments

Expedition Kit

765

Headtorches, generator, solar panels, digital camera etc.

Tents International Flights Insurance Internal flights

50 (x4) 999 (x5) 125 (x5) 152 (x6)

£ 8,000 £ 3,600 £ 2,000 £ 1,000 £ 400 £ 2,000 £ 500 £ 400 £ 17,900

Negative cumulative total £17,900 17,135

16,935 11,940 Return flights from Antananarivo to Fort Dauphin, incl. the herpetologist.

11,315 10,403

Research Permit + expert Visas Conference +Research trips Vehicle hire + driver + fuel Taxis Hotels Research camp site Food Medical equipment Vaccinations Guides + Cook + Equipment

521

9,882

45 (x5) 180

9,657

230 10 (x25) 2 (x 305) 1250 180

7,277 7,047 5 nights – 5 people 6,797 £2 per person per night 6,187 4,937 4,757

120 (x5), 90 (x2) Rabies (all), Hep B (for 2) 790 Cook - 7 weeks Guide - 7 weeks Other guides - 10 days 160 480 136 150

Canoe hire Laptop and Bag GPS Satellite image 2007 Satellite phone 138 hire Mobile phone + 70 credit Internet + printing 120 Medical Training GIS training Production of final report Money remaining

9,477

110 (x 20)

180 (x2) 100 (x2) 350

4,067

3,277 3,117 2,637 2,501 2,351 2,213 2,143

In Madagascar whilst writing report Estimate of cost

2,023 1,663 1,463 1,113

£1,113*

*The majority of receipts will be available on request, although due to our leader being incapacitated and also in charge of the funds we do not have access to any information on exact spending and funding. We are working closely with his family to get more reliable figures. Therefore some items are estimates and some costs unknown. We apologize to any funding bodies, which may have been missed out.

7. Insurance All team members had the same comprehensive travel insurance package from STA travel, which cost £125 per person. This covered us for personal injury and personal property up to £200. Individuals were encouraged to take additional policies to insure expensive personal items such as cameras and mp3 players. During our expedition we required a medical evacuation for our expedition leader James Greenwood from Fort Dauphin to South Africa. STA travel was very efficient as he was taken to a high quality hospital in Johannesburg, South Africa 10 hours after the initial emergency. However, James had a previous medical condition that he did not declare which contributed significantly to the problem and therefore breached his contract with STA. No settlement was made with STA travel and his family

incurred costs reaching £60,000. STA travel acted rapidly and appropriately in this emergency and the decision made by them was fully understandable.

8. Travel, transport and freighting All equipment taken on expedition was taken as hold luggage on the flights taken by the team. We booked our flight through Dial-A-flight traveling from London Heathrow to Mauritius via Air Mauritius, then from Mauritius to Antananarivo, Madagascar via Air Madagascar. In country we flew from the capital Antananarivo to Fort Dauphin where we hired vehicles to take us to our research station in Sainte Luce, which received fuel in Fort Dauphin. O.N.G Azafady facilitated the hiring of vehicles and guides. After the emergency incident with James Greenwood we sent James’ belongings by airfreight via TAM (Transports et Travaux Aeriens de Madagascar) to Antananarivo and then paid excess baggage with Air Madagascar on our flights for his belongings.

9. Food and accommodation Whilst in Antananarivo, we ate in restaurants or went to the supermarket for food, which was all of good quality. In Fort Dauphin we went to restaurants where the food varied in quality, but was generally well served and tasty. For food at the research station we went to the local market in Fort Dauphin, which was very cheap and served a variety of foods including many staples, vegetables and fruit. As Sainte Luce was a fishing village, we occasionally arranged for our cook to purchase fish for our meals from local fishermen that day. In Antananarivo we stayed at a midrange hotel called Jean Lebourde suggested to us by O.N.G Azafady. Whilst in Fort Dauphin and Sainte Luce we stayed in campsites owned by O.N.G Azafady and paid for all our accommodation at the end of the project.

10. Communications We communicated primarily via e-mail with our in host partners and on the telephone and e-mail with the organisation’s London office, visiting them in person to transport some items on their behalf. We rented a satellite telephone from Adams’ Phones in London, which was significantly cheaper than any other rental company and were very efficient with communication and postage. This was used solely for expedition matters and was mainly used to communicate with Azafady in Fort Dauphin from the research station in Sainte Luce. There were no mobile signal or Internet facilities in Sainte Luce, but there were in Fort Dauphin and Antananarivo. We did not use the mail or fax facilities for the duration of the project.

11. Specialist equipment The nature of our study required the use of transects. We used industrial building tape, similar to that used by the Police to isolate a crime scene and found this particularly durable and useful for this purpose and would recommend this to others. Especially where transects need to be left after they have been laid.

The Garmin GPS 60 was also very good. It was easy to use and was not overly expensive. We can recommend this model and make to others. The GIS software was not very easy to use, and requires some training to use effectively. However, we can recommend using satellite imagery to create maps of the area in which you are studying, if non are available. In this way you can gain information on the area, which is up-to-date, as well as gain exact positions (i.e. lat long coordinates) and use the GPS to navigate to these. Creating road maps is a little more difficult, and using satellite imagery is mainly useful as a supplement to other maps of the area.

12. Risks and hazards This is the published formal risk assessment made prior to departure and sent to the University of Edinburgh’s Expedition Committee for approval: Brief Description of the Nature of the Fieldwork The nature of the study requires the team to carry out ecological surveys in littoral forests during nighttime hours. The sampling techniques used include handling chameleons to gather necessary information. The fieldwork will involve camping and living in close proximately to our study sites. Travel around the country will be by bus or a hired vehicle. During the expedition some time will be spent in urban areas. The various possible hazards are identified, with an evaluation of their relative risk and the appropriate control measures to be taken are outlined. Physical Hazards (Medium risk) Littoral Forest (Medium risk) The areas where the ecological study will take place will have varying degrees of forest degradation, where the canopy’s structure may be unstable. Carrying out the survey in darkness will reduce our ability to identify potential danger areas. Extreme Weather Conditions (Low risk) Cyclone season in Madagascar usually runs from January to March, with coastal areas most affected. Temperatures will be generally mild having extremes of 10-20° C during June to August. Madagascar is a tropical country with periods of strong sunshine, where dehydration and sunstroke may occur. The dry season occurs during the months of August to October. Control measures •

All study areas will be surveyed for canopy stability during the day, whilst wearing safety helmets.

•

In the event of any form of rain, wind or other inclement weather, work will be postponed for the day as this may lead to disruption of the canopy. In the event of extreme weather conditions work in the forest will be postponed for the next two days. In this period other tasks will be completed.

•

The expedition leader and a medical officer will consult with a local guide to decide whether the study area is safe. If there is any doubt by any party, this will result in a change to a more suitable survey area.

â&#x20AC;˘

Sunstroke is a problem, however due to the nature of the survey, no fieldwork and therefore no strenuous activity will take place during the day. However all expedition team members will wear at least factor 30 sun cream whenever they risk being exposed to the sun, and should drink around 4 litres a day.

â&#x20AC;˘

It should be noted that no member of the expedition will be climbing the trees in effort to conduct research.

Biological Hazards (Low/Medium risk) Poisonous Animals (Low risk) The Golden mantella (Mantella aurantiacea), Tomato frog (Dyscophus antongili) and other related species secrete toxic alkaloids from their skin. If they come into contact with human skin it can cause irritation and even in some cases, an allergic reaction. The Assassin spiders and Madagascan Widow Spider (Lactrodectus mednevodi) are dangerous (fatal in some cases of the Widow spider) but are relatively rare. There are no clinically poisonous snakes in Madagascar. Dangerous Animals (Low risk) Madagascar is home to 80 species of snake including vipers, pythons, adders, cobras or mambas. None of these should pose a problem expect maybe the Boas. They are quite harmless to humans apart from the Ground boa, which feeds on chameleons and could be a possible complication. The Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) was present in the surrounding waters of our study site. This network of rivers will be used to transport the team from one forest fragment to another. Ants, caterpillars, wasps, bees, mosquitoes and centipedes are all present in the forest, all of which can trigger varying degrees of painful bites, skin irritation and allergic responses. The nature of our survey may often require the handling of chameleons for extensive periods of time, which can induce a painful bite and contribute to bacterial infections of skin wounds. Diseases & Illnesses (Medium risk) Malaria is endemic to Madagascar and is found especially in coastal areas where we will carry out our fieldwork. It is transmitted by the painless bite of the female Anopheles mosquito. Both the cerebral and mild forms of the disease are found in Madagascar. The disease is characterised by a cyclic appearance of fever and nausea but can be often diagnosed incorrectly unless an experienced doctor screens a blood sample. Bilharzia, tuberculosis and bubonic plague are all endemic in Madagascar, with other bacterial waterborne and food derived illnesses common.

There have been a few reported cases of dengue fever and Chikungunya virus in Madagascar. Rabies is endemic in Madagascar. The rabies virus is transmitted through the saliva of infected animals and transmitted to humans through bites, scratches or contact of saliva with broken skin and can be fatal once symptoms manifest themselves. The virus is carried by rabies primarily in warm-blooded animals (both domestic and wild). Dogs and bats are common carriers of the disease in Madagascar. Control measures •

All expedition members should be able to recognise Mantella species (striking yellow and orange body coloration) and the Tomato frog (red coloration), as well as the Madagascan Widow spider (identified by the red hour glass marking on their abdomen). All expedition members will avoid direct contact with any of the dangerous or poisonous animals listed above. Contact with wild or domestic animals during travel should be avoided. Sturdy thick boots and gaiters will be worn, and adopt sensible field skills whilst carrying out fieldwork and during any activity around the camp. Further consultation will occur with experienced local guides, on dangerous or poisonous animals specific to the area.

•

Each medical officer will carry an epi-pen containing 300 ml of adrenaline in the eventuality of a severe allergic shock as well as some anti-venom. All expedition members will carry their own personal amount of anti-histamine tablets and cream.

•

Each expedition member will also carry at least 30 % DEET to prevent mosquito bites, which transmit the several diseases as listed above. As a precaution all team members will adopt longsleeve clothing

•

During the day, the expedition leader, a medical officer and a local guide will survey the area for these animals, looking in leaf litter and making loud trampling noises to alert the animals to our presence, as snakes in particular only attack when startled. This will be repeated during the night, just before a transect is to be studied.

•

All expedition members will carry out good hygienic practice at all times. Iodine solution will be added to all water as well as being boiled for 10 minutes to destroy all bacteria present, unless the water is bought bottled and sealed. Ice, salads and poorly cooked meat will all be avoided. The medical officer, in the likely event of traveller’s diarrhoea or food poisoning, will issue Ciprofloxacin anti-biotic.

•

Still water lakes and rivers should be seen with some caution. Avoid entering these as they are a potential hazard for incurring water-borne diseases and are possibly habituated by crocodiles. Avoid especially during sunrise and sunset when crocodiles are most active.

•

Before departure, the expedition team will practise the handling of chameleons, of a range of sizes and species applicable to our fieldwork study at Edinburgh Zoo. Surgical gloves should be used whilst handling the chameleons and anti-bacterial solution will be administered immediately after any skin-to-skin contact with the chameleons.

•

Preventative vaccinations and other such medical treatments are discussed in the, “before departure” section of the assessment form.

Chemical Hazards (Low risk) No site shall be used if it has experienced or contains high levels of dangerous chemicals. The information we have from local sources and communications of our scientific consultants experienced in the area does not lead us to believe that the sites we intend to study shall have experienced intensive chemicals therefore this is not a major cause of concern. Man-made Hazards (Medium/High risk) Road & Vehicle Safety (High Risk) There have been incidences of armed robbery in some National Parks. We do not intend to visit a National Park. However in case of an excursion from fieldwork we will seek advice from the park administration in advance. Road conditions vary greatly but are only impassable during the rainy season (December to April). Most of the major roads out of Antananarivo carry heavy freight traffic and have a number of steep gradients and sharp bends. Civil Disorder (Low Risk) On 17/18 November 2006 Antananarivo International Airport was closed briefly following a disturbance involving a retired army commander at a military barracks near the airport. The airport has now re-opened and the situation in Antananarivo is reported to be calm. Presidential elections were held on 3 December 2006. There have been political demonstrations and rallies throughout the election campaign. While attacks are not directed at foreign nationals, there have been incidences of violence during demonstrations. The threat from terrorism is low. However there is a global risk of indiscriminate terrorist attacks that could be against civilian targets, including places frequented by foreigners. This will be more of a concern during our brief stay in the capital city, Antananarivo. Insecure Buildings (Medium risk) Security in hotels and hostels will probably be far from what is considered secure by British standards. The research station is also unlikely to be insecure, with relative location in respect to the small local population. It will be highly likely that we will be the only ones using the station. Control Measures •

The local authorities will be consulted before setting off to find out whether the chosen route is passable.

•

A four-wheel drive vehicle will be hired, fully fitted with seat belts, from a reputable company. Recommendation by Azafady will be essential.

•

Driving during the night will be avoided, and British standards for driving will be observed. Driving after extreme weather will be avoided.

•

All members of the team will make sure the driver is in a suitable state to drive, and if there is any doubt about the standard and safety of the driving, then the driver’s suitability will be reviewed.

•

In case of incident with our driver there are three people in the team with driving experience and licences, which includes the expedition leader. The Expedition leader also has off road driving experience.

•

Demonstrations and rallies should be avoided and local media should be monitored for any events that may disturb or pose a threat to the safety of expedition team members.

•

Where possible all expensive equipment, important personal documents and cash will be placed in a safe. At the very least these items will be placed out of direct view.

Personal Safety (Medium risk) Personal attacks and robberies are more likely in urban areas than rural ones. As most of the expedition will be spent doing fieldwork our time spent in the more high-risk areas is no more than 2 weeks maximum. All team members may find themselves in a situation of having to navigate in the field. Control Measures •

During periods spent in towns and cities of Madagascar the group shall travel in threes at all times. Sensible precautions in crowded areas such as markets will be taken as well as avoiding walking in the city centres after dark. Two mobile phones will be issued to team members, in case immediate contact is required when team is separated.

•

Team members will always be working in groups of at least two people during fieldwork. Every member should carry a compass, map and a whistle and a small amount of food and lots of water. Competence in using a compass and map must be displayed before leaving on expedition.

•

GPS will be carried in the field by the team. Team members will be attending the course run by the Royal Geographical Society on GPS and GIS use.

•

A small amount of cash will be held on each member of the expedition at all times to appease in the event of any actual robbery. Insurance policies will cover any valuable equipment with supplements purchased to cover special items. Large amounts of money, especially jewellery, cameras and cell phones will be kept out of sight when walking in town centres.

•

Three members of the team will receive Basic Wilderness medical training with the Royal Geographical Society, which includes the administering of anti-venom. Other members of the team will be trained in basic first aid, through courses in Edinburgh. At least one (Probably two) of the three with Wilderness medical training will go onto advance medical training. A team medical kit will be available at all times carried by the designated medical officers. A full log of all medical supplies will be kept in order to facilitate replenishing.

Environmental impact During our stay in the research station it will unavoidable to create waste and litter. We will be using a high petrol consumption vehicle during our fieldwork. We will also be working and moving through the forest environment. Machetes may be used to ease our fieldwork. Control measures •

The project will at all times seek to minimise its ecological and environmental impact. Refuse at the research station will be collected and burnt in refuse pits.

•

The team will be purchasing the majority of their food and supplies in local markets. In this way we will endeavour to minimise the amount of packaging associated with consumption.

•

Polluting activities involved in the project may include excessive use of the vehicle under heavy loads and washing in the stream. At times where long journeys are required the team will travel by public transport to minimise petrol consumption. Students will be discouraged from washing in the stream and encouraged to use the showers and avoid potentially harmful detergents.

•

The team will be involved in moving through forest environments. The nature of littoral forests means no machetes will be needed to gain access to the forests. However, students will take care not to go off the main tracks to reduce trampling of vegetation. When going off-track students will walk in single file to reduce damage caused.

Amendments to the published risk assessment with hindsight:

•

James was not taking his medication as prescribed before the incident occurred due to sideeffects. Although the medical officers were aware of this, we were unaware of the great risk to James’ health. Greater communication with James about this may have made the medical officers more adamant with him about his medication and reduced the chances of the incident, but James’ nature made this difficult. All team members were aware of his condition and knew that he had not notified Azafady properly and the insurance company. Declaring his illness would have speeded up proceedings with the insurance company in getting medical help from South Africa and have saved all costs incurred by the evacuation and subsequent hospitalisation. In future I would recommend total honesty with host partners and insurance companies about preexisting medical conditions and full communication about the risks involved.

•

In general, the risk assessment was compiled using online material, guidebook advice and FCO guidelines. More extensive communication with the host partner would have helped identify risks more specific to the area and may have speeded up the time taken to complete it. This was due to Azafady advice on the drugs available in Fort Dauphin and a specific insect to the area, which can cause harm.

13. Medical arrangements Samuel Greig Leigh and Christopher Beirne were the medical officers for the expedition. They had taken part in three courses in the past two years including the Wilderness Medical Training course and the Far From Help 1 course, which was another expedition medical course hosted by Lifesytems. Another weekend was spent learning more practical techniques such as setting up a drip, giving IM and IV injections, fractures and triage scenarios. We took an extensive medical kit summarised here and based heavily on WMT advice:

•

Needles, syringes and cannulars

•

A variety of bandages, wound pads and plasters

•

A Neck brace

•

Pain killers (ibuprofen, co-codamol, paracetamol)

•

Immodium

•

Saline fluids

•

Dehydration saches

•

Epi-pens, hydrocortisone cream, anti-histamines

•

Anti-malarials (doxycycline)

•

Forceps

•

Iodine solution

•

Suturing kit

•

Blister poppers

•

Anti-biotics (metronidazole, ciprofloxacin, co-amoxiclav, penicillin)

•

Sphygmanometer and a stethescope

•

Ressucitation masks

•

Bactoban solution for burns

The satellite phone was kept with contact details for three members of Azafady, insurance details for all members and the STA insurance emergency number. Sainte Luce was 1 hour 30 minutes from Fort Dauphin, which had an airport and hospital. All injections taken by the group are outlined in the risk assessment. James Greenwood suffered from a brain haemorrhage and was treated intensively and appropriately at a hospital in Johannesburg, South Africa. Apart from this there were no notable illnesses to any of the expedition members.

14. Environmental and social impact assessment Prior to our departure, all expedition members were present at a meeting where possible impacts of the project were discussed. This included offsetting our flights, our conduct in Fort Dauphin and Sainte Luce and the sensitive issue concerning the mining company that was working in Fort Dauphin. It was also decided to hire a cook, not only to offer employment to the local community and relieve us of the task but also as he was more efficient at making fires reducing the amount of wood burning that occurred. We regularly discussed issues concerning the purchasing of goods at the small shop in Sainte Luce and its impacts on the community, when buying large amounts of sweets at one time (which we avoided doing as best we could) then we made sure it was done subtly and that children outside the shop were unaware. We agreed that giving beggars (especially children) money was not a good idea as it keeps children out of school and is unsustainable. We minimised car usage as much as possible to reduce our environmental impact as best we could. In hindsight, our involvement with O.N.G Azafady was priceless it was not always beneficial as it involved us making a clear statement about what side we supported in reference to a long running conflict between the organisation and the mining company Rio Tinto. During the incident with James the most medically equipped ambulance was Rio Tinto’s, but when we said we were affiliated with Azafady, they withdrew treatment believing us to be part of Azafady. Admittedly all team members often described

themselves as part of Azafady to outsiders through ease and mainly due to a great fondness for the organisation. Greater independence at this time may have benefited us although the support they gave was immeasurable throughout this difficult time.

15. Itinerary September 2006: Made contact with local NGO in Madagascar, discuss project with professors. November 2006: Wrote Proposal for Expeditions Committee and for the research permit application process, started fundraising, made contact with Antanavia University, Applied for Grants. December 2006/January 2007: Applied for grants, selected team members from Madagascar, Fund-raised, carried out team-bonding activities. February/March: Applied for grants, Fund-raised, First Aid and Wilderness Medical Training Courses, GIS training courses, Vaccination Programs, Booked transport and other logistical requirements. 4

June: Arrived in Antananarivo to obtain visas and finish the research permit process; met the team

members from Madagascar, carried out more team-bonding activities. th

7 /8 June: Flew to Fort Dauphin, Met with local Azafady constituents, organised the guide, gathered supplies (e.g. generator, food and wood) 10

June: Drive to Research site near Saint Luce.

10 -13 14

June: Pilot studies, species familiarisation with herpetologist expert. th

June - 5 July: Data Collection.

6 July: Break from research, travel in local area. th

10 - 26 July: Data collection. th

26 July: Returned to Fort Dauphin. th

28 July: Emergency evacuation of James Greenwood st

1 -7 August: Wrote some of the report. Alerted funding bodies of the situation. th

8 August: Return to Antananarivo th

10 August: Flew to UK. September/October: Tried to follow up all funding bodies and alert them to the situation with James. October 2007 - July 2008: Finish research and data analysis, finish all reports to funding bodies.

16. Photography, sound-recordings, video and film There were no sound recordings, video or filming on this expedition. There were two high specification digital SLRs owned by Samuel Leigh and James Greenwood. No permission was required when taking photographs during our expedition. Large memory cards and the expedition PC was used to store images. Most images were of wildlife encountered on the expedition, some integral to the project whereas some simply for personal documentation. As most of our research was carried out at night we photographed a lot of wildlife at night. We found that using several head-torches illuminating the subject from a variety of angles gave better results than simply using the built on flashes (Please see appendices for pictures).

Conclusion Rapid, unsustainable deforestation of littoral forests in Sainte Luce was observed between 2002-2007. If the rates of forest clearing continued unabated, littoral forests would be nonexistent in Sainte Luce by about 2050. The deforestation rates found in this study show that the increase in rates observed since 1999 has continued through 2007, at a rate of 33.80 Âą 5 ha per year. The observed increase in forest clearing is most likely due to the presence of a multi-national mining company, which obscures the traditional land ownership rights and tenure of the forests. A varied degree of human disturbance was also found between forest fragments of close proximity. From the ground measurements of forest characteristics it was found that the four fragments showed significant differences in forest condition. The heterogeneity observed in forest disturbance and areas of deforestation have been linked to the proximity of human settlements and ease of access for humans. However, it could not be determined whether the current levels of disturbance are unsustainable, as previous studies could not be compared with this study. Continued human disturbance of the forests could potentially cause further deterioration of the fragments in the long-term. This study found a very high density and abundance of B. nasus in all four of the forest fragments, which is unprecedented. Moreover, these populations were in a stable state showing reproductive success, and even male to female ratios. These littoral forest fragments are important habitats for many plant and animal species, and have now been shown to harbour large populations of forest dependent chameleons, despite human disturbances. The future mining project will have a serious impact on Madagascarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s B. nasus populations, and threatens some of the most abundant populations studied so far. More than just two proposed fragments (S9 and S17) should to be incorporated as protected areas, as it has been shown that species composition, diversity and the potential for human use is variable between fragments. To protect the full range of biodiversity, and continued human livelihoods, a wide range of forest fragments needs to be under protection, and effective management implemented. To protect these fragile habitats, conservation attempts need to be made in cooperation with local communities as multiple-use forests. It has been shown that current levels of human use do not decrease the diversity of tree species, and the Madagascan littoral forests may yet prove to be an example of a place where multiple-use and biodiversity conservation can co-exist. However, further monitoring of deforestation rates, changes to forest conditions, and their possible impacts on biodiversity need to be conducted in order to continually monitor these unique forest habitats in the future. In doing so, it will be possible to determine whether any implemented conservation efforts have been successful. These last vestiges of littoral forest on Madagascar are too unique, too crucial for the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biodiversity, and too important for the livelihoods of local people to allow them to be lost as a result of poor management or callous indifference.

Acknowledgements We are grateful to the Association National pour la Gestion des Aires Protegees (ANGAP) for permission to conduct this research in Madagascar. This study was grant aided by Royal Geographical Society and the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, and funded by the University of Edinburghâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Davis fund, Carnegie Trust, Weir fund, James Rennie Bequest, Small Projects Grant and the British Travel fund. We are grateful to the University of Edinburgh for supporting this research. We acknowledge Christopher Place for all his extensive help and guidance in using ERDAS Imagine 8.7 software and for taking so much time to show us how to get the results we needed. It would not have been possible to conduct the forest cover change study without his help. Thanks to Dr. Terence Dawson for supplying remote sensing data and imagery for the year 2002, as well as his guidance in project development. Personal thanks go to Dr. Graham Russell, Dr. Jill Lancaster and Dr. Colin Legg for all their guidance and support in the development of the project. Within Madagascar we would like to thank NGO Azafady for their logistical support, provision of facilities, and extensive help and support during our emergency evacuation. We are very grateful for their friendship. Special thanks to Maka Andrianasolo and Jasmin Randrianirina for their expertise and invaluable assistance in the field.

Finally, we would like to acknowledge James Greenwood, expedition leader, for all his hard work in planning and carrying out this expedition. He is a great leader, a source of motivation, and kept us all in good spirits throughout the long process of the expedition. Thank you Kiwi for being such an amazing person.

Appendices Appendix A: Enlarged map of study site

Fig. 5. Enlarged map of Sainte Luce littoral forest fragments S7, S8, S9 and S17 showing forest cover change from 2002 - 2007 as estimated from Landsat 7 ETM+ imagery and NDVI values. Legend presents forest cover change where black patches show areas of significant (i.e. >10% change in NDVI values) forest cover loss, light grey areas show no significant change and dark grey patches show a significant increase in forest cover.

Appendix B: Chameleon pictures (Many more pictures are available on request. See title page for contact.)

Furcifer oustaleti juveniles at night (left) and in the day (right)

Brookesia nasus juveniles found at night

Appendix C: Other pictures The team: Ariane, Sam, James, Jasmin, Chris, Emily and Maka.

Setting up transects (left) and taking forest measurements (right)

Water purification process at camp (left) and travelling in a pirogue to the forest sites (right)

Address list and web-links NGO Azafady contacts: http://www.madagascar.co.uk/ Mark Jacobs, Azafady, Studio 7, 1a Beethoven Street, London, W10 4LG Brett Massoud, Azafady, ONG Azafady, BP 318 Tolagnaro (614), Azafady Madagascar, Madagascar ANGAP: http://www.parcs-madagascar.com/angap.htm Proposal to ANGAP: http://icte.bio.sunysb.edu/pdf_files/angap_format.doc PBZT: http://www.refer.mg/edu/minesup/organe/pbztbien.htm DISTANCE information and downloads: http://www.ruwpa.st-and.ac.uk/distance/ U.S. Geological Survey: http://www.usgs.gov/ Satellite phone hire: www.adamphones.com Other web links: http://www.wildmadagascar.org/home.html http://earth.google.com/ (useful for getting a rough idea of the area of study)

Bibliography Antoine, L., Blanton, K., Boetger, M., Brantley, L., Crider, J., Desetty, M., Del Gaudio, J., Gou, Z., Hanley, J., Hao, S., Hundley, W., Kloer, B., Kulkarni, A., Leason, A., Lutz, R., Martinez, M., Skelton, J., Stareev, V., Sweat, T., Thattikota, T., Wang, K., Woehler, J., Yang, X., and Zhou, Y. (2003). ERDAS Imagine (8.7) [computer program]. Leica Geosystems GIS & Mapping LLC. Begon, M., Townsend, C. R. and Harper, J. L. (2006). Ecology: from individuals to ecosystems (fourth edition). Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. Bhat, D.M., Naik. M.B., Patager, S.G., Hedge, G.T., Kanade, Y.G., Hegde, G.N., Shastri, C.M., Shetti, D.M. and Furtado, R.M. (2000). Forest dynamics in tropical rain forest of Uttara Kannada district in Western Ghats, India. Current Science, 79, 975-985. Bollen A, and Donati G. (2006). Conservation status of the littoral forest of southeast Madagascar: a review. Oryx, 40, 57-66. Brady L.D. and Griffiths R.A. (1999). Status Assessment of Chameleons in Madagascar. IUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Brown, S. and Lugo, A. E. (1990). Tropical secondary forests. Journal of tropical ecology, 6, 1-32. Buckland S.T, Anderson D.R., Burnham K.P., Laake, J.L. (1993). Distance Sampling: Estimating abundance of biological populations. Chapman and Hall, London, UK. Cadotte, M.W., Franck, R., Reza, L. and Lovett-Doust, J. (2002). Tree and shrub diversity and abundance in fragmented littoral forest of southeastern Madagascar. Biodiversity and Conservation, 11, 1417-1436. rd

Campbell, J.B. (2002). Introduction to Remote Sensing (3 edition). Taylor and Frances, London. Carpenter, A. I. and Robson, O. (2005). A review of the endemic chameleon genus Brookesia from Madagascar, and the rationale for its listing on CITES Appendix II. Oryx, 39, 1-6. Chittibabu, C.V. and Parthasarathy, N. (2000). Attenuated tree species diversity in human-impacted tropical evergreen forest sties in Kolli hills, Eastern Ghat, India. Biodiversity and Conservation, 9, 14931519. Colchester, M. (2000). Self-determination or environmental determinism for indigenous people in tropical forest conservation. Conservation Biology, 14, 1365-1367. Consiglio T, Schatz G.E, McPherson G, Lowry P.P, Rabenantoandro J, Rogers Z.S, Rabevohitra R, Rabehevitra D. (2006). Deforestation and Plant Diversity of Madagascarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Littoral Forests. Conservation Biology, 20, 1799-1803. Dumetz, N. (1999). High plant diversity of lowland rainforest vestiges in eastern Madagascar. Biodiversity and Conservation, 8, 273-315. Du Puy, D.J. and Moat, J. (1996). A refined classification of the primary vegetation of Madagascar based on the underlying geology: using GIS to map its distribution and to assess its conservation status. In Biogeography of Madagascar (ed. W.R. Lourenco), pp. 205-218. ORSTOM, Paris. Ganzhorn J.U, Lowry P.P, Schatz G.E, Sommer S. (2001). The Biodiversity of Madagascar: one of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hottest hotspots on its way out. Oryx, 35, 346-348. Ganzhorn, J.U., Ganzhorn, A.W., Abraham, J.-P. Andriamanarivo, L. and Ramanamanjato, A. (1990). The impact of selective logging on forest structure and tenrec populations in western Madagascar. Oecologia, 84, 126-133. Glaw, F. & Vences, M. (1994). A Fieldguide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of Madagascar, 2nd edn. M. Vences and F. Glaw, Cologne.

Green, G.M. & Sussman, R.W. (1990). Deforestation history of the eastern rainforest of Madagascar from satellite images. Science, 248, 212-215. Hannah, L., Rakotosamimanana, B., Ganzhorn, J., Mittermeier, R.A., Olivieri, S., Lyer, L., Rajaobelima, S., Hough, J., Andriamialiasoa, F., Bowles, I., and Tilkin, G. (1998). Participatory planning, scientific priorities, and landscape conservation in Madagascar. Environmental Conservation, 25, 30-36. Ingram, J. C. and Dawson, T. P. (2006). Forest cover, condition, and ecology in human-impacted forests, south-eastern Madagascar. Conservation and Society, 4, 194-230. Ingram J.C, Dawson T.P, Whittaker R.J. (2005a). Mapping tropical forest structure in southeastern Madagascar using remote sensing and artificial neural networks. Remote Sensing of Environment, 94, 491-507. Ingram, C., Whittaker, R. J., and Dawson, T. P. (2005b). Tree structure and diversity in human-impacted littoral forests, Madagascar. Environmental Management, 35, 779-798. Jenkins, R.K.B., Brady, L.D., Bisoa, M., Rabearivony, J. and Griffiths, R.A. (2003). Forest disturbance and river proximity influence chameleon abundance in Madagascar. Biological Conservation, 109, 407- 415. Jenkins R.K.B, Brady L.D., Huston K., Kauffmann J.L.D., Rabearivony J., Raveloson G., and Rowcliffe M. (1999). The population status of chameleons within Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar, and recommendations for future monitoring. Oryx, 33, 38 – 46. Kull, C. A. (2000). Deforestation, erosion, and fire: degradation myths in the environmental history of Madagascar. Environment and History, 6, 423-450. Lambin, E.F. (1999). Monitoring forest degradation in tropical regions by remote sensing: some methodological issues. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 8, 191-198. Lehtinen, R. M., Ramanamanjato, J-B. And Raveloarison, J. G. (2003). Edge effects and extinction proneness in a herpetofauna from Madagascar. Biodiversity and Conservation, 12, 1357-1370. Macedo, D.S and Anderson, A.B. (1993). Early ecological changes associated with logging in an Amazon floodplain. Biotropica, 25, 151-163. Mayaux, P., Gond, V. and Bartholomé, E. (2002). A near-real time forest cover map of Madagascar derived from SPOT-4 VEGETATION data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 21, 3139-3144. Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., da Fonseca, G.A.B., and Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403, 853-858. Nelson, R., and Horning, N. (1993). AVHRR_LAC estimates of forest cover are in Madagascar, 1990. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 14, 1463-1475. QMM (2001). Social and Environmental Impact Assessment. Montreal, Canada: QIT-Madagascar Minerals. Ramanamanjato, J.-B., McIntyre, P.B. and Nussbaum, R.A. (2002). Reptile, amphibian, and lemur diversity of the Malahelo forest, a biogeographical transition zone in southeastern Madagascar. Biodiversity and Conservation, 11, 1791-1807. Ramanamanjato J.-B, Ganzhorn J.U. (2001). Effects of forest fragmentation, introduced Rattus rattus and the role of exotic tree plantations and secondary vegetation for the conservation of an endemic rodent and a small lemur in littoral forests of southeastern Madagascar. Animal Conservation, 4, 175-183. Raxworhty, C. J. (1991). Field observations on some dwarf chameleons (Brookesia spp.) from rainforest areas of Madagascar, with the description of a new species. Journal of Zoology, 224, 11-25. Raxworthy, C.J. (1988). Reptiles, rainforests and conservation in Madagascar. Biological Conservation, 43, 181–211.

Raxworthy, C. J., Martinez-Meyer, E., Horning, N., Nussbaum, R. A., Schenider, G. E., Ortega-Huerta, M. A., Peterson, A. T. (2003). Predicting distributions of known and unknown reptile species in Madagascar. Nature, 426, 837-841. Raxworthy, C.J. & Nussbaum, R.A. (1995). Systematics, speciation and biogeography of the dwarf chameleons (Brookesia; Reptilia, Squamata, Chamaeleontidae) of northern Madagascar. Journal of Zoology, London, 235, 525â&#x20AC;&#x201C;528. Song, C., Woodcock, C. E., Seto, K.C., Leney, M.P. and Macomber,S.A. (2001). Classification and change detection using Landsat TM data: When and how to correct atmospheric effects? Remote Sensing of Environment, 75, 230-244. Sussman, R. W., Green, G. M. and Sussman, L. K. (1994). Satellite imagery, human ecology, anthropology, and deforestation in Madagascar. Human Ecology, 22, 333-354. Thomas, L., Laake, J.L., Strindberg, S., Marques, F.F.C., Buckland, S.T., Borchers, D.L., Anderson, D.R., Burnham, K.P., Hedley, S.L., Pollard, J.H., Bishop, J.R.B. and Marques, T.A. (2005). Distance (Beta 5.0) [computer program]. Research Unit for Wildlife Population Assessment, University of St. Andrews, UK. Available at http://www.ruwpa.stand.ac.uk/distance/ Turner, I. M. and Corlett, R. T. (1996). The conservation value of small, isolated fragments of lowland tropical rain forest. TREE, 11, 330-333. U.S.G.S (2003). Preliminary assessment of the value of Landsat 7 ETM+ data following scan line corrector malfunction. U.S.G.S. Available from: http://landsat.usgs.gov/products_slcoffusabilityassess.php [Accessed 21st March 2008]. Watson J.E.M, Whittaker R.J, and Dawson T.P. (2004). Habitat structure and proximity to forest edge affect the abundance and distribution of forest-dependent birds in tropical coastal forests of southeastern Madagascar. Biological Conservation, 120, 311-327. Watson J.E.M, Whittaker R.J, and Dawson T.P. (2005). The importance of littoral forest remnants for indigenous bird conservation in southeastern Madagascar. Biodiversity and Conservation, 14, 523-545.

Distribution list •

The University of Edinburgh, Expeditions Committee and the Darwin library

•

Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)

•

Royal Scottish Geographical Society

•

Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza (PBZT), Jasmin Randrianirina, Madagascar

•

National Association for the Management of Protected Areas (ANGAP), Madagascar

•

ONG Azafady, Fort Dauphin, Madagascar