Garden Culture Magazine AUS 14 by Garden Culture Magazine

AUSTRALIA EDITION · ISSUE 14 · 2019-20

How

Bright

are your

Lights?

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A D D I T I V E S Better Formulas, Better Ingredients Better Yields

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CONTENT

THE SECRET LIFE OF PLANT NUTRIENTS

CLEAN THE AIR WITH PLANTS

THE PPFD TRAP

PRODUCT SPOTLIGHTS

32 WHO’S GROWING WHAT WHERE

43 68 60 I N THIS ISSU E OF GA R D E N CU LTU RE :

EXPLORING CANNABIS CULTIVATION AROUND THE WORLD

9 Foreword

46 Seed Saving Part 3

10 Author Spotlight

55 Ask a PhD

11 Product Spotlights

56 5 Cool Ways to Give The Gift of plants

14 Understanding Nutrient Uptake

60 The PPFD Trap

18 Seed Saving Part 2

68 Best of the Blog - Exploring Cannabis Around the World

26 Flushing Out the Facts

73 Mycorrhizae and Plants - The Positive Co-Evolution

32 Clean the Air with Plants

74 The Secret Life of Plant Nutrients

38 Silicon and the Green Revolution

78 What is Food?

43 Who’s Growing What Where GARDENCULTUREMAGAZINE.COM

powerful soil for powerful plants www.highpoweredorganics.com

FOREWORD

n the ever-evolving world of indoor growing, the quest for perfection is the ultimate goal. There are so many factors to consider. Assume you have already selected

your genetics, and it’s a variety you are familiar with and have had success with before. Genetics is the most challenging thing to control or even understand. The environment, on the other hand, is quite simple. There are pre-determined parameters that have, for the most par t, been agreed upon by the world’s best growers. With the proper HVAC system, your environment should be easy to dial in. Lights, however, can be confusing. Not that lighting is all that difficult to understand, but the contradictory information from manufactures can make it so. Is it about efficiency, proximity to the plants, IR pros and cons, spectrum, or a combination of all? In the ar ticle The PPFD Trap, Everest Fernandez takes a fresh look at how we determine which lights are best for you and how light metres are not telling the whole story.

CREDITS SPECI A L TH A N KS TO: Albert Mondor, Anne Gibson, Catherine Sherriffs, Dr Callie Seaman, Dr Colin Bell, Eric Coulombe, Evan Folds, Everest Fernandez, Geneviève Bessette, Rich Hamilton, and Ryan Martinage. PRESIDENT Eric Coulombe eric@gardenculturemagazine.com +1-514-233-1539 E XECU T I V E ED I TO R Celia Sayers celia@gardenculturemagazine.com +1-514-754-1539 ED I TO R Catherine Sherriffs cat@gardenculturemagazine.com

The

PPFD Trap

In the age of commercial production and global competition, being “the best” has never been more critical. What about all the “new” nutrient/supplement products continuously hitting the market? If you are happy with your nutrients, I usually would not recommend changing brands. But now and then, there is something new; something created in a lab that works. After hearing some extravagant claims about a new kind of silicon (mono silicic acid), I decided to star t digging. It’s not that new, but it is fascinating and has the potential to change the game. Learn more in, Silicon and the Green Revolution. Beware of exaggerated claims, but don’t disregard them. Some might be true.

DESIGN Job Hugenholtz job@gardenculturemagazine.com D I G I TA L & SO CI A L MARKETING COORDINATOR Serena Sayers serena@gardenculturemagazine.com +1-514-754-0062 ADVERTISING ads@gardenculturemagazine.com PUBLISHER 325 Media 44 Hyde Rd., Milles Isles Québec, Canada t. +1 (844) GC GROWS info@gardenculturemagazine.com GardenCultureMagazine.com

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D I ST R I B U T I O N PA R T N ER S • Growhard Australia • Stealth Garden Supplies • Dome Garden Supplies • HY-GEN

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without prior permission in writing from 325 Media Inc.

Happy Gardening, Eric 3

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AUTHOR SPOTLIGHT

Author Spotlight

arden Culture wouldn’t be the magazine it is without our talented and knowledgeable contributors. From lighting specialists and

cannabis industry experts to environmentalists and master gardeners, we’ve got a stellar line-up of writers. Allow us to introduce you to this issue’s featured author, Evan Folds, of Be Agriculture.

What is your favourite plant to grow? Peppers! Do you prefer to grow indoors or outdoors, and why? Outdoors. There is no replacement for being outside in the elements and getting your hands dir ty. What is on your playlist right now? Radiohead, Gregory Alan Isakov, Rebelution, Death Cab, Nick Mulvey. Are you currently working on any cool projects? Yes. I am Campaign Manager for a local mayoral campaign, and I am working with Farmers Footprint and JustOne Organics. Farmers Footprint is developing a regenerative farming model and marketing it to the masses through a docuseries on their website www.farmersfootprint.us. JustOne Organics gently dries different crops into nutritional food powders, and they have a model to “hire farmers” based on the volume of drying capacity at their gentle drying centres (GDC). What is your favourite animal/insect? Praying mantis. They make eye contact! I think they are little aliens. 3

Evan Folds There is no replacement for being outside in the elements and getting your hands dirty Are you interested in writing for Garden Culture Magazine? We’d love to hear from you! Send us an email introducing yourself with a sample of your work. editor@gardenculturemagazine.com

GROWING PRODUCTS

PRODUCT SPOTLIGHTS Sleeps With The Fishez An oxyacid of chlorine solution better known as hypochlorous acid, Sleeps With The Fishez acts as an oxidising agent and destroys harmful bacterial, fungal and viral pathogens on contact. Regular use leaves your hydroponic system safe from infections and clear of biofilms and algae. It is also an excellent mineral de-scaler preventing the build-up of salts in feed lines, spray heads, growing mediums, pots and is the ultimate final flushing solution. It can be used to control pythium, fusarium, sooty mould and powdery mildew. Effective in treating botrytis (grey mould) on flowering plants, Sleeps With The Fishez has a neutral pH of 6.5 and does not affect the pH of your nutrient solution. Completely safe to handle, non-toxic, non-systemic and environmentally friendly, Sleeps With The Fishez puts the bad guys to bed fast so you can rest easy. Available in 1, 5 and 20 Litre drums. Visit WHG.net.au for more information.

DE-GNAT Natural Pest Prevention and Remedy The ultimate solution for organic pest control! Diatomaceous Earth (DE) is a unique fossilised compound that is processed into a fine (food-grade) dust and heated to create granular ‘pebbles’. DE’s unique microscopic jagged edges damage pest exoskeletons. Simply apply the dust to the leaves, and the granular as a layer over your substrate; job done! This provides physical barriers that will interrupt the life cycle of pests at multiple stages. Organic prevention and remedy in one-step. DE-GNAT works beautifully to stop fungus gnats in their tracks. Best applied immediately after transplant. Apply dust weekly or fortnightly to the canopy. DE-GNAT is available now in Australia’s leading hydroponic retailers. Follow @stealthgarden or visit Stealth-Garden.com for more info.

Avert Bumbag Trendsetting since 2019’ Known for the most smell-proof of the smell-proof bags, AVERT now brings you the ultra-hip waist bag! Keep up your super cool appearance, without unwanted odours. AVERT Odour-lock technology uses the finest grade of carbon lining, uniquely designed to ensure all surfaces are covered and all odours are trapped.AVERT Bumbags feature multiple pockets to separate your favourite belongings. AVERT full product range of carbon lined odour-proof bags are available now in leading retailers in over 9 countries. Check out Stealth-Garden.com for more info and follow @stealthgarden.

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GROWING PRODUCTS

PRODUCT SPOTLIGHTS Saboten Scissors

Insect Glue Traps

Established in 1932, Saboten is a multi-generational Japanese company with a powerful family history in expert steel processing and precision blades.The tradition of Japanese excellence was continued in 1956 when they branched out into the manufacturing of garden tools and gardening cutlery.

Well known for being the stickiest insect glue traps on the market, Insect Glue Traps now offers the Insect Glue Trap for Pots with a convenient mounting stick included. Size is a useable 6 x 8cm and supplied in packs of 8 and will trap and clearly indicate the first sign of Scarid Flies and other pests so you can implement effective pest control and limit the damage to your crop. Insect Glue Trap for Pots is the cheapest and most effective method to alert you to harmful pest infestation and avoid potential crop failure. Don’t grow indoors without them.

Japanese Excellence

for Pots

Today, Saboten has expanded its range to include processing of premium cut flowers and medicinal cannabis. Saboten scissors are designed for ultrasharp trimming, harvesting and processing, without damaging precious flower material. Coated so as to not stick, Saboten has also developed ingenious equipment for maintaining scissor hygiene during trimming including scissor holders, sharpeners and solventless cleaning solutions. Saboten is the new world standard in scissor and blade excellence that has just landed on Australian shores; stock available in limited retailers.

Visit WHG.net.au for more great products for your grow room.

Check out Stealth-Garden.com for more great products.

Pro Grow UFO LED’s 100 & 200 W Blending top bin SMD diodes from both Samsung and Osram for an outstanding efficacy of over 2.1 µmols/S, the Pro Grow UFO LED’s emit 4,000 Kelvin full spectrum light with an industry-leading CRI of 90. Coupled with ultra-reliable Optimum drivers, the lightweight and durable die-cast aluminium housings offer cool, fanless and totally silent operation. Extended reliability is assured with IP-55 water resistant, cleanable housings. Pro Grow UFO LED’s are available in both 100 W and 200 W configurations with outputs of PPF 210 & PPF 420 respectively.Total weight for either unit is well under 2.9 kgs making installation and mounting a breeze. Check out WHG.net.au for more details.

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BY RICH HAMILTON

r u o Y Do s t n a P la v e A H

Unders tanding nu t rient Up take 14

UNDERSTANDING UPTAKE

common misconception when feeding plants is that they consume everything we give them at once. Standard plant feeds are a mix of nutrient and additive concentrates, diluted to the required strength. The measurement of strength is referred to as EC (electric conductivity) or PPM (par ts per million) and indicates the total

amount of nutrient and additive salts contained in the solution. The higher the reading, the stronger the feed; the lower the reading, the weaker it is. It is essential to note that EC and PPM readers cannot read the strength levels of individual nutrient components; only the total amount contained within the solution.

EC and PPM’s are crucial because different crops require various strengths of nutrient solution to thrive. By taking regular readings with an EC reader, growers can fine-tune the strength of the feed and ensure that it remains within the optimum range for each plant. For example, an EC of three or above could pose considerable danger to crops and induce the onset of nutrient burn or nutrient lock. If EC levels are too low, a nutrient deficiency is likely, and your plants will starve. General EC ranges are as follows: • Herbs: 0.5-1.5 EC • Veg: 1.4-2.4 EC • Tomatoes: 2.2-2.8 EC

The measurement of strength is referred to as EC (electric conductivity) or PPM (parts per million) and indicates the total amount of nutrient and additive salts contained in the solution

Next, check the pH level, as it may have changed. If the pH is too high or too low (the perfect range is generally between 5.56.5, depending on what you are growing), certain nutrient and additive elements won’t be absorbed. The plant will likely take up more of the water content of the feeding solution. A pH that is too high can cause nitrogen lockout; a pH that is too low can cause magnesium lockout.

For example, an EC of three or above could pose considerable danger to crops and induce the onset of nutrient burn or nutrient lock. If EC levels a re t oo l ow, a nu t rien t d e f i c i e n c y i s l i k e ly, a n d y o u r pl an t s wil l s tarve

Each crop has its own preferred EC, which fluctuates throughout its life cycle. Always be sure to follow the crop’s feeding schedule as carefully as possible.

Understanding Uptake Let’s use the example of a single herb plant in a DWC (Deep Water Culture) system. The plant spends its entire lifecycle in a reservoir where the roots are suspended in water; no medium is involved. For this example, the herb plant is sitting in 10 litres of the fresh feed solution, and at the time of mixing, the pH is perfect, and the EC is at one. Let’s say that 24 hours after feeding the water level has dropped 50%, and the EC has risen to two. What has happened? The plant appears to have drunk half of the feed solution, but the EC has doubled. The first thing to do in a case like this is to check the growing environment. If the room is too warm, the plant may have been transpiring at a faster rate and is now demanding more water. As a result, the plant essentially un-mixes the feed formula, taking up only the water and leaving the nutrients behind. This process increases the EC strength in the reservoir.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

Moisture

Pulse. Change your game in the greenhouse. No More Pour-Throughs, Extractions Or Kicking Pots. Game On! The all-new Pulse™ Meter from Bluelab gives you faster moisture, EC and temperature measurements directly from the root zone in soils, coco coir blends and potting mixes. It’s handheld, so it goes where you grow, and connects directly to the Pulse™ app on your smartphone for instant and accurate crop-health management.

One press, three instant measurements In under 10 seconds, you can accurately measure moisture, EC and temperature directly in the root zone. It really means the end of pour-throughs, extractions or kicking pots!

Get your A game on. Order your new Pulse Meter today. bluelab.com/pulse

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UNDERSTANDING UPTAKE

r u o Y o D A e v a H s t n a Pl

aw s l e h t spec t ains t t hem e r s r ardene ant s, no t ag g l u f cces s t h t heir pl u s t s T he mo nd work wi a How pH affects Plant Nutrient Uptake n at u r e

What Not To Do Once the problem has been discovered, it’s time to correct it. Do not make a top-up feed with more EC; this will put the plant at risk of nutrient burn or nutrient lock.

Once the problem has been discovered, it’s time to correct it. Do not make a topup feed with more EC; this will put the plant at risk of nutrient burn or nutrient lock

Nutrient burn happens when the roots consume more nutrients than they can use. This causes issues with water flow in the plant and triggers brown or yellow “burns” on the tips of the leaves. A nutrient lock is when a plant halts further uptake of a feed after realising how strong the solution is. The plant will likely drink an excess of water to rehydrate itself and dilute the high number of nutrients and additives in its system.

Adding more water to the remaining food solution isn’t the answer, either. Unfortunately, EC and PPM readers only give the overall strength of the nutrient solution. They can’t break down what levels of each particular nutrient are present. Therefore, it’s essential to consider that the plant may have taken up excessive amounts of some nutrients, while others may have been partially or entirely locked out. Due to this ambiguity, it’s not clear what the individual nutrient and additive levels are in the solution left in the reservoir.

The Fix The only course of action, in this case, is to discard the remaining feed in the reservoir and make a fresh batch that has an EC of 1. Afterwards, check the environmental controls to ensure that temperatures and pH levels are where they need to be. Many nutrient brands are pH safe and self-regulate to an ideal pH range. This is an excellent precaution to take when struggling with managing the pH.

Plants should take up nutrients and water in balanced amounts. Measure the EC the day after replacing the feed and checking the environmental controls. If it remains consistent (in this case, 1), then the balance has been achieved. Plants are very selective and will not consume everything they are given. The most successful gardeners respect the laws of nature and work with their plants, not against them. 3

Bio

An industry veteran with over 20 years experience in a variety of roles, Rich Hamilton is currently a business development manager for a large UK hydroponics distributor. The author of Growers Guide book series, Rich also writes on all aspects of indoor gardening, as well as being an independent industry consultant working closely with hydroponic businesses worldwide.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

BY ANNE GIBSON

Seed Saving Selecting Seeds and Controlling Pollination

ur food security begins and ends with seeds. Heirloom and organic seeds, in particular, are under threat with the decrease in seed diversity. More growers are needed to develop and grow vegetables and

continue sharing the skills and knowledge required for seed conservation. There is an urgent necessity for the age-old tradition of seed saving, with growers playing the role of privileged seed stewards, to expand into backyards and farms everywhere. With climate conditions everchanging, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vital that all gardeners, growers, and farmers play a part in preserving seeds in their own patch to protect biodiversity and resilience in food crops.

Part 2

SEED SAVING

“Food plants, grown organically, that have adapted themselves to your garden over generations of seed saving, will perform noticeably better in your kitchen than generalised hybrid plants, grown (and possibly contaminated) by chemical methods far away from your region, and subject to transportation and storage. Good gardening produces good plants and good plants provide wholesome food.” Michael Boddy, author ‘Good Food Book’

Seed saving is an While some farmers save seed on-farm, Seeds to Avoid home gardeners and small horticultural investment, but one Hybrid (and F1) varieties are the growers are also getting involved. Seed result of breeding techniques that usually that returns rich saving groups have popped up all over the involve two highly inbred parent varieties world with small gatherings of dedicated that are genetically different, but the same rewards over time growers meeting regularly to swap, save, plant species. These plants have been and process seeds they’ve grown and collected. While the cultivated with specific characteristics such as high yield or size, steps are relatively simple, there is an ‘art’ to seed selection and but if you save seeds from them, they won’t grow true-to-type. plant pollination before seeds can be harvested, processed, and The results will be very unpredictable. stored. F1 Hybrids have to be created every time by crossing the same Seed saving is an investment, but one that returns rich rewards parents. They are bred for uniformity and ‘hybrid vigour’ – a over time. Food sovereignty is our greatest wealth and seeds are blend of qualities that enable the plant to grow more successfully valuable stock. Preserving our best plants for future generations than either of its parents. by careful seed selection and plant breeding yields an asset of great value. Hybrid plants do not give reliable results for seed saving. They So how does one determine which plant seeds to start with as will be sterile, or the next generation may vary widely in their breeding ‘stock’? characteristics, uniformity, vigour, and maturity. These types of seeds suit farmers who require uniform ripening and consistently sized produce to meet market deadlines and make harvesting What Seeds to Save and production much easier. However, they typically need high When so many plants provide a wealth of free seeds, it’s a waste inputs of fertilisers and pesticides to achieve such standardised not to harvest this potential bounty. However, not all seeds are production. equally valuable or suitable. GM (Genetically modified) seeds are the result of laboratory processes where genes from the DNA of one species Chilli paprika (such as a herbicide) are extracted and artificially inserted into seed variety the genes of an unrelated plant. Techniques involving genetic isolated with modification differ from traditional genetics using methods organza such as selective breeding, tissue cultures, and hybridisation that bag and assist nature but do not bypass natural laws. There are many labelled for documented studies on the health risks of GM crops, as well as identification ethical and environmental concerns about GM seeds and plants. From a seed saving perspective, they are not suitable. GM seeds are patented so cannot be legally reproduced without paying royalties.

Dry bean seeds in pod seed packet

SEED SAVING

So, if you avoid hybrid and GM seeds, what types of seeds are suitable for seed saving?

Best Seeds to Save

If you’re going to save seeds, it’s worth revising basic botany skills regarding plant pollination

Open-pollinated seeds. These seeds are pollinated naturally by insects, birds, animals, wind and moisture. They will produce plants that are ‘true-to-type’ or be clones of the parent. Open-pollinated seeds come from stable, non-hybrid varieties of plants resulting from pollination between the same or genetically similar parents. They are also known as ‘true’ or ‘pure-bred seeds’. The parent plants produce matching seeds – similar to identical siblings! All the plant family look and behave the same. To avoid chemically treated seeds when growing food crops, it’s ideal to source untreated, certified organic or heirloom varieties. Certified organic seeds mean they have not just been grown organically (without any chemicals) but originated from certified organic seeds.

Corn cobs with dried kernels save for seed Heirloom or heritage seeds are non-hybrid varieties that have been passed down from one generation to the next but are not usually used in modern agriculture. These are sometimes the weird and wonderful varieties we don’t see any more in the supermarket and are generally open-pollinated varieties. Heirlooms are preserved for their high-value characteristics including flavour, size, colour, aroma, resilience to pest or disease and high yields. Local varieties are cultivars that have been grown in one region over a long period. Sometimes, you can track down the history of regional varieties through seed companies that pride themselves on supporting local seed savers and have records of the origins, or seed saving organisations. From personal experience, I’ve noticed that when I first sow seeds from another region, the plants aren’t necessarily at their optimum in the first year. They’re acclimatising! However, after one season in my soil and microclimate, they have adapted to retain a new level of resilience. Sometimes, I’ve noticed the plant grows taller or beans have more flowers and pods, or they are more drought-resistant the second year.

Over time, this natural selection process encourages greater diversity and adaptation to the new environmental conditions with each generation, until the plants are strong and at their best.

Pollination If you’re going to save seeds, it’s worth revising basic botany skills regarding plant pollination. Most vegetables and herbs have complete flowers with both the male and female parts in the same flower. Some complete flowers, like lettuce, tomato, peas, and beans are self-pollinated. Because the male and female parts are so close to each other in tightly closed flowers, the slightest movement from wind, insects, or birds causes the pollen to transfer. Some self-pollinating varieties that will ‘inbreed’ naturally to a degree including lettuces, capsicum, chilli, and tomatoes. Spring onions in flower with maturing seed heads in sufficient numbers for variability

Cross-Pollination Other types of complete flowers are open, and they need their pollen to be transferred by bees, insects, humans, or wind. This is called open-pollination because these plants are incomplete and have imperfect flowers or male and female parts on separate plants, requiring cross-pollination. You can also hand pollinate many crops, including pumpkins, zucchinis, cucumbers, corn, and spinach. Some plants are quite promiscuous and will cross-pollinate freely with neighbouring varieties! Vegetables in the Brassica oleracea or cabbage family are a good example. If cabbages and cauliflower are going to seed in close proximity at the same time, the result may be a cauliflower-cabbage cross!

Most Plants Require Isolation for Purity Many vegetables and flowers must be kept isolated from similar varieties of the same species during flowering to avoid cross-pollinating and gene mixing. Seeds saved from plants that have been cross-pollinated by other varieties do not reproduce true-to-type. Instead, cross-pollinated seeds produce plants with an unpredictable mix of traits from both varieties.

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SEED SAVING

One factor to consider is the number of days of warm weather required to produce harvestable seed.

Annuals, Biennials and Perennials

Garden sketch design plan for spacing and isolation of plants for seed saving

Plan your garden to give plants the room they need to avoid crossing. Even if you are not saving seed from a particular variety, it may still pollinate other plants that you are growing for seed. A little time spent laying out your garden before planting can save time and effort later - and can make the difference between producing pure seeds or crossed ones. There are seed saving charts available with ideal distances and methods of isolation so you can choose a method that suits what you want to grow. It’s best to start with easy seeds like lettuce or radish and progress to more complicated varieties.

3 Ways to Keep Seeds Pure You can isolate these crops by: • Time. Stagger planting and saving seeds, so varieties don’t overlap; • Physical barriers. Cover the seed heads with a bag or cage with fine net or mesh to prevent insects carrying the pollen from one plant to the next; • Sufficient distance. Grow plants apart so pollen or insects carrying pollen won’t travel between them.

It’s vital to know what kind of plant you are saving seed from. They are divided into three types: • Annuals are plants that complete their life cycle or produce seed and die, in one growing season. For example, lettuce, beans, peas, pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, basil, coriander, broccoli, and annual radishes. • Biennials require two seasons to complete their life cycle and then produce seed and die. These include cabbages, onions, leeks, beetroot, parsnips, celery, parsley, and carrots. • Perennials live for a minimum of three years, but some can live for decades. They usually can produce seed and not die. Edible perennials include many herbs, such as oregano, thyme, and rosemary, as well as berries, rhubarb, artichoke, asparagus, tomatoes, eggplant, and chillis. Seed saving is not as imperative for these plants as it is for annuals.

Days to har vest One factor to consider is the number of days of warm weather required to produce harvestable seed. Short maturity crops like coriander can take only 100 days, whereas it could take bean pods 4-5 months before they are mature and ready. Cool climate growers may need to experiment to determine which vegetables and herbs can produce sufficient seeds. Using a greenhouse and sowing early may help extend the season.

Seed Location Know where to find seeds on the plant: • Seed heads - flowers develop on a stem and then seeds form. e.g. lettuce, parsley, basil, carrot, dill, silverbeet, beetroot, coriander, parsnip and fennel. • Pods - flowers develop then small elongated pods form. e.g. rocket, mustard, peas, beans, broccoli, tatsoi and cabbage. • Fruits - seeds are contained inside the skin. e.g. tomatoes, capsicums, chillies, cucumbers, pumpkin, eggplant, or in the case of strawberries on the fruit.

Selection Criteria You will need to make some tough decisions about which plants have ideal attributes. Also, be prepared to sometimes sacrifice your crop harvest to save seed. You need to think about the number of plants you’re going to grow carefully. The size of the gene pool impacts how many plants you dedicate for seed collection versus harvesting to eat. While you can technically get away with saving a small quantity of seed from one or two plants for some varieties, collecting seed from multiple plants will encourage maximum diversity. Even in the same garden, soil, moisture, pH, and microclimate conditions can differ significantly, and the more variability, the better the seed quality can be. Harvest of colourful heirloom tomato varieties

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

SEED SAVING

Just like we weed our garden, you also need to remove poor performers that are weak or have undesirable plant traits; a practice called roguing. Avoid weak, pest-attacked, droughtstressed plants or any that bolt to seed quickly. Saving seeds from specimens with ideal characteristics requires careful observation. Use tags early during the growing season to identify plants for saving with their variety name, dates and other criteria you are saving them for. • •

Choose healthy, robust disease-free plants to avoid passing disease pathogens onto new generations. Look for characteristics you do want, including superior flavour, colour, size and high yielding varieties. Save seeds from plants that bear early, are slow to bolt to seed, are drought-hardy, or disease-resistant.

Early Seed Formation Once you’ve chosen your ideal plant for saving seed, nurture it so it will be in the best health possible to produce a new generation of plants and seeds. During the reproduction phase of a plant’s life cycle, it has a greater need for water, nutrients, and protection until it is fully mature. The health of your seeds begins with the plants that produce them. The time when your plants are first beginning to flower is especially crucial to final seed viability. Plants should be strong, Dried bean pods on green bean vine - vital to maintain plant health right through to maturity

Organic farmers are particularly vulnerable to the reduction in seed availability and diversity healthy, and minimally stressed during early seed formation and development. Give seed-producing plants plenty of water, light and fertiliser early in their lives, so that they are healthy when flowering commences. When some plants mature, they send up a stem. With the additional weight of the flowers and seeds, they may fall over, so staking may be necessary for support to avoid damage.

Watering During Seed Formation Sufficient moisture at flowering time is essential to successful pollen development and flower set. Too little water during flower initiation and early seed development lowers seed yields, and can even hurt the health and vigour of your mature seeds. However, dry conditions are preferable during the latter stages of seed maturation. This is when seeds have formed and are drying in preparation for dormancy. Dry conditions are most favourable to the final vigour, viability, and storage life of your finished seeds. If mature seeds get wet from watering or rain, this slows their natural process of preparing for dormancy, extending the time during which their stored food reserves must be used for respiration. This lowers the seeds’ final dry weight and shortens their storage life. Repeated wetting and drying of mature seeds on the plant delays dormancy excessively, and can also damage seeds due to alternate swelling and shrinking of seed tissues. If they are left on the plant during rainy periods, seeds may even mould or mildew in their pods or husks. For these reasons, it is best to harvest your seeds and bring them inside for final drying as soon as they are fully mature and dry— especially if rains threaten. With a little planning and careful selection, your time and effort invested in saving seeds will pay off. Just like a nest egg for a rainy day, starting a seed ‘bank’ of your own can be a profitable way to secure your future food security. 3

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BY RYAN MARTINAGE

The Truth About Mineral Retention in Plants

FLUSHING

ithin the realm of indoor gardening, there are many practices held as canon and for a good reason. Growers around the world have the proper temperature ranges, humidity levels, canopy lighting coverage, and fertiliser distribution down to a science. The practice of flushing plants, however, seems

to exhibit a curious behaviour of evolving; there are several ways of doing it. Many growers believe the act of flushing leads to a superior end product. Where does fact diverge from fiction, though? Does flushing matter at all?

Many growers believe the act of flushing leads to a superior end product. Where does fact diverge from fiction, though? Does flushing matter at all? A mineral or element is considered Soil-derived micronutrients consist to be essential for plant growth of eight minerals including boron Soil-derived if it is removed, and a noticeable (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), iron micronutrients consist of deficiency appears as a result. (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum Though there is evidence of many (Mo), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Z). Soileight minerals including lesser-known, non-essential trace derived micronutrients numerically boron (B), chlorine minerals being utilised in enzyme represent the most diverse out of (Cl), copper (Cu), iron creation and by plant tissues, the the three categories of required (Fe), manganese (Mn), amounts are not adequate to nutrients for plant growth. The molybdenum (Mo), nickel determine the consumable quality importance of these nutrients of produce. For this reason, the cannot be understated. Boron (Ni), and zinc (Z) academically accepted 17 elements is directly responsible for sugar for plant growth will be considered transfer between plant cells; chlorine in identifying potential excess. is responsible in the functioning of Essential elements may be divided into three categories: the stomata; copper is essential to many enzymatic reactions; environment-derived macronutrient elements from water, iron is needed for chlorophyll production; manganese air, or both, soil-derived macronutrients, and soil-derived facilitates photolysis of water (splits into components H and micronutrients. O); molybdenum is essential for the synthesis of ammonia to make amino acids; nickel is required to make urease to use Environment-derived macronutrients are obtained primarily said ammonia; and finally, zinc is crucial for the regulation through the utilisation of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water of growth hormones. Overall, soil-derived micronutrients (H2O) in photosynthetic processes. These elements are enable many crucial plant functions. The amounts of these carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen(O). As plants collect nutrients in plant tissue average an incredibly small amount. environment-derived macronutrients, it allows for the Consider the following table published by the University of production of numerous base structures crucial to plant Idaho College of Agricultural and Life Sciences: life such as carbohydrates and proteins, as well as the base structures for the creation of complex compounds. One might recognise the pivotal role these nutrients play in base Essential Nutrient Plant Content Plant Content PPM Average PPM Range structure and consider carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen content as front runners for factors affecting finished products. There Boron (B) 20 2-100 is a gaping hole in this hypothesis, however, in that the primary Chlorine (Cl) 100 80-10,000 sources for these elements are obtained through the air and Copper (Cu) 6 2-20 would largely not be subject to decreasing levels within the Iron (Fe) 100 50-1000 plant from flushing practices. With additional water at the Manganese (Mn) 50 20-200 roots, one might even say the conditions would be favourable Molybdenum (Mo) 0.1 0.05-10 for the intake of (C) and (O). For this answer, letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s explore Nickel (Ni) <0.0001 ? the realms of soil-derived macro and micronutrients. Zinc (Zn) 20 10-100

Nitrogen is crucial to chlorophyll production, and without it, photosynthesis would not be possible

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FLUSHING

Soil-derived macronutrients are perhaps the most prevalent nutrients to be brought up in discussion and measured in the field. Their contained amounts are on the label of every fertiliser in the format of N-P-K.

Though numerically superior The University of Idaho’s published versus other categories of required data provides the above information I n t h e m atu r at i o n nutrients, it can be seen that on on the average and potential s t a g e, m a ny f r u it i n g average, the totality of the soilpercentage nutrient makeup derived micronutrients averages just of dry plant tissue. Considering a n d f lowe r i n g p l a nt s ~296 ppm in healthy plant tissue the soil-derived micronutrient re q u i re le s s n it ro g e n samples. The potential maximum categorisation flew only in the ppm su p p le m e nt at i o n for chlorine is very high, but at this range, the percentage of the total t h a n t h ey d o i n t h e point, signs of chlorine toxicity dry weight of each soil-derived g row t h s t a g e s would be prevalent on foliage leaving macronutrient being measured in a scorched appearance. With the single-digit percentages is a large sum of the average soil-derived jump. With these numbers, three micronutrients at similar levels as glaring suspects emerge. Nitrogen, tap water, is this really the turning point in identifying the potassium, and calcium all have higher than average content smoking gun on crop quality in relation to flushing practices? in dried plant tissue and also the highest potential. All three Let’s have a look at the nutrients many growers are very nutrients have an observed maximum of 5% of dry weight, familiar with, the more famous soil-derived macronutrients. but which ones would be most likely to lower the quality of finished products? Soil-derived macronutrients are perhaps the most prevalent nutrients to be brought up in discussion and measured in Calcium (Ca) is the least likely to affect the finished quality the field. Their contained amounts are on the label of every of plants. Calcium and silica are the primary components of fertiliser in the format of N-P-K. Soil-derived macronutrient the plant cell wall and lend to providing firm, crisp, and heavy elements are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium attributes to harvested products. Furthermore, calcium (K), but also include the lesser-known sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), toxicity is nearly impossible to induce. For a plant to shed and magnesium (Mg). Within this subset of macronutrient calcium means the plant would have to shed its internal elements, exists the nutrient basis for plant growth. structure. This would be disadvantageous to a final harvest Nitrogen is crucial to chlorophyll production, and without or the maintaining of its reproductive structures, including it, photosynthesis would not be possible. It is essential to fruits, seeds, and flowers. In extreme amounts, calcium amino acid structures, a component of energy-transfer can inhibit the intake of other macronutrients, and those compounds like ATP along with phosphorus, and is even deficiencies would be visible along with an empty bottle or a component of the plant’s DNA. Potassium regulates the bag of calcium (Ca) supplement. stomata’s function, controlling the CO2 intake responsible for utilizing the environment-derived macronutrients. Sulfur Along with calcium, nitrogen and potassium make up the is a crucial element to plant proteins, calcium is essential to highest potential percentages of dry weight in plants. At the plant structure, and magnesium is the central atom of the stage of maturity, potassium is used continuously to regulate chlorophyll molecule making plant growth possible. The the plant’s CO2 intake, activate enzymes, produce primary magnitude of these base functions is important to understand, energy-transfer compounds, regulate water intake, activate and these elements are required in much greater amounts growth-related enzymes, and is also utilised in starch and than soil-derived micronutrients. Our answer to the flushing protein synthesis. This laundry list of duties is maxed out conundrum seems to be around the corner. in the maturing stages of fruiting and flowering plants, as they burn their reserves to produce end products. In short, potassium is expended and metabolised much more in PLANT CONTENT (DRY WEIGHT) flowering than nitrogen (N) is. Essential Nutrient

Average %

Range %

Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K) Sulfur (S) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg)

1.5 0.2 1.0 0.1 0.5 0.2

0.5-5.0 0.1-0.5 0.5-5.0 0.05-0.5 0.5-5.0 0.1-1.0

I n ex t re m e a m o u nt s , c a lci u m c a n i n h i b it t h e i nt a ke of ot h e r m a cro n ut r i e nt s , a n d t h os e d ef i ci e n ci e s wo uld b e v i s i b le a lo n g w it h a n e m pt y b ot t le o r b a g of c a lci u m (C a ) su p p le m e nt . 29

FLUSHING

Have you fed the plants the exact nitrogen amounts without creating a deficiency or inhibiting fruit and flower development? Nitrogen accounts for the single So, as growers reach the end of greatest nutrient by weight in dr y their har vest, the question is often Flushing is not plant tissue. In addition, the nuwhether or not a flush is required. necessary, but how well trient spikes into higher numbers Have you measured plant sap (N) more consistently, of ten reachlevels across your crop? Have you do you think you did ing into the ~3%+ of total dr y fed the plants the exact nitrokeeping everything in weight. In the maturation stage, gen amounts without creating a the perfect balance? many fruiting and f lowering deficiency or inhibiting fruit and Well enough to forgo plants require less nitrogen supflower development? In addition a simple process to plementation than they do in the to consuming leftover nitrogen, grow th stages. That’s because the remaining soil-derived macro accentuate the flavours they are no longer producing and micronutrients present are you’ve cultivated for more leaves and expanding chloreduced in concentration. When months? rophyll production in heightened feeding ceases, the end product is photosynthetic activity. Wateraccentuated by complex flavours, soluble nitrates are a signif icant terpenes, and compounds. Flushcomponent in modern fer tilisers, ing is not necessary, but how well and if continuously added in excess, can lead to higher do you think you did keeping everything in the per fect above ground nitrogen content in plants. balance? Well enough to forgo a simple process to accentuate the flavours you’ve cultivated for months? I’ll let you be the judge of that. This author, however, will continue to err on the side of caution and do a flush. 3 Why the absence of phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), and magnesium (Mg)? Phosphorus is a primary element used in fer tilisers, but it makes up only a small percentage of a plant’s dry weight (just 0.5%). Although magnesium (Mg) and sulfur (S) are essential soil-derived macronutrients, they Ryan Martinage is the US Sales Director for are not needed in large amounts. In the age of Aptus Plant Tech USA, the exclusive importer of Aptus products in the United States, and has been active modern fer tilisers, manufacturers strive to balance within the indoor gardening community since 2010. Since the elements the plant can use for excellent completing his education in environmental science, Ryan results while also keeping their costs down and has been participating in ongoing agricultural research maximising their profit. With these products, involving trace mineral fertilisation and has been awarded utility & design patents for co-developing the GrowPCS growers get what they need without any leftovers Cultivation System. He continues to consult on matters of that can cause toxicity of either element.

Bio

regulation and compliance in agriculture.

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BY ALBERT MONDOR, HORTICULTURIST AND BIOLOGIST

credit: Wallemi Living Walls

clean the air

with plants

A living wall is an efficient ‘green machine’ that can clean the air inside buildings. 32

AIR CLEANING PLANTS

he atmosphere of buildings – especially new ones – where we live and work might be full of several chemical compounds that are

harmful to our health. In some places, there can be up to 60 different toxic gaseous substances. For tunately, plants can help purify the air of ill-ventilated buildings.

Several gaseous chemical substances circulate freely in our homes and offices. Some of them, including the infamous volatile organic compounds (VOC), are especially harmful to humans

Volatile Organic Compounds Several gaseous chemical substances circulate freely in our homes and offices. Some of them, including the infamous volatile organic compounds (VOC), are especially harmful to humans. For example, formaldehyde is a VOC commonly found in interior environments. It is mainly given off by medium density fiberboards (MDF), plywood panels, and wood particle boards, as well as by the adhesives used to fix counters and carpeting. In addition to causing eye, nose and respiratory tract irritation, this gas causes headaches, dizziness and nausea. Furthermore, formaldehyde is now recognised as being carcinogenic by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Others VOCs, such as acetone, benzene and toluene, are also present inside some homes and offices. Those pollutants can be given off by various construction materials such as adhesives, insulating foams, paints, varnishes, and carpeting, sometimes for several months or years. They are also given off by some cleaning sprays and various products required to operate photocopiers. In addition to severely irritating mucous membranes, these substances induce unpleasant effects such as drowsiness, headaches, dizziness, and nausea. All of those products can also cause more severe health problems through sustained exposure.

During his tests, Dr Wolverton placed various plants usually grown indoors in a hermetic climatic chamber. Then, he injected polluting substances similar to those found in the Skylab 3 space station – several of which are often found in our homes and office buildings – at comparable concentration levels. After 24 hours, under constant lighting, several plants, such as the golden pothos, English ivy, and peace lily, had accomplished remarkable work by reducing the VOC concentrations by up to 90%! Towards the end of the 1980s, other experiments on the capacities of air-purifying plants were conducted by NASA scientists in an airtight building called “Biohome”, made with materials giving off high VOC concentrations. The air inside was so polluted that it caused respiratory problems as well as eye and respiratory tract irritation in all who would come into contact with it. Potted house plants were installed around the house to verify their capacity to eliminate the pollutants contained in the air. The results were astonishing. After a few days, the VOCs had almost completely disappeared. One student even lived in the house for a few weeks without feeling any effects.

Scientific Studies In the early 1970s, NASA asked Dr B C. Wolverton to find a way to eliminate the volatile organic compounds present in the air of the Skylab 3 space station. The inner atmosphere of the space station was contaminated with over a hundred volatile organic compounds given off by the materials it was made with. To everyone’s surprise, the studies conducted by Dr Wolverton showed that most houseplants could clean the air of the chemical substances it contains.

Nasa’s ‘Biohome’

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credit: Wallemi Living Walls

This green wall located at the Biosphere in Montreal is planted with highly effective air-cleaning plants.

T o e v eryone’s s urp rise, t he s t udie s c onduc t ed by Dr W olv er t on show ed t h at mo s t housep l a n t s c oul d cl e a n t he a ir of t he chemic a l s ub s ta nce s i t c on ta ins Microorganisms In his most recent book entitled “Plants, why you can’t live without them”, Dr Wolverton states that the microorganisms surrounding plant roots also can eliminate air pollutants. In fact, according to him, the microorganisms associated with roots (this association is called “rhizosphere”) can eliminate up to 65% of the VOCs. The plant leaves absorb and metabolise the remaining quantity of air pollutants. Research recently conducted in Canada, Australia, and France confirm Dr Wolverton’s claims. According to those studies, it seems that the microorganisms contained in soil and water also act as air cleaning agents, sometimes more efficiently than plant leaves. As a high percentage of the air purifying work is done in the rhizosphere by the microorganisms associated with plant roots, Dr Wolverton does not recommend growing house plants in soil. Instead, he suggests placing them in containers filled with expanded clay pebbles which allow for proper 34

oxygenation of the roots and microorganisms. Also, the pebbles at the bottom of the containers soak in water, ensuring a constant supply of liquid and nutrients to plants. This growing method allows air cleaning efficiency to increase from 30% to 50%. However, the use of light, high-porosity soil that is rich in compost and sphagnum peat moss is a better environment to host a high number of microorganisms that associate with plant roots.

Ventilation The plants and the microorganisms associated with their roots have low air-purifying capacities in well-ventilated homes and buildings. This means plants have a maximum efficiency in cities where the atmosphere is highly polluted and in hermetic office buildings where a high proportion of the ventilated air is recycled – sometimes more than 90% – for energy-saving purposes. In most of the homes located in cities with less pollution, the use of non-polluting materials for construction or renovation works as well as a sound ventilation system (ideally including an air exchange system) to maintain acceptable air quality levels. 3

AIR CLEANING PLANTS

Areca palm tree

Five Effective Air-Cleaning Plants •

Areca palm tree (Chrysalidocarpus lutescens)

•

Rubber fig (Ficus elastica)

•

English ivy (Hedera helix)

•

Peace lily (Spathiphyllum wallisii)

•

Golden pothos (Epipremnum aureum)

A f t er 2 4 hour s, under c on s ta n t l igh t ing, s e v er a l p l a n t s, s u ch a s t he g ol den p o t ho s, Engl i s h i v y, a nd p e a ce l ily, h a d a c c omp l is hed r em a r k a bl e w or k by r ed ucing t he V O C c oncen t r at ion s by up t o 90%!

Golden pothos

Rubber fig

English ivy

Peace lily

BIO Passionate about environmental horticulture, urban agriculture and extreme landscape design, Albert Mondor has practised his craft for over 30 years and created numerous gardens in North America. In addition to teaching courses and lecturing at conferences across Canada, his weekly gardening column has appeared in the Journal de Montréal and the Journal de Québec since 1999. In April 2018, Albert Mondor published Le nouveau potager, his tenth horticultural book. He is a regular guest and contributor to radio and television programmes and his hosting The Trendy Gardener spots broadcasted on Météo Média and online. You can also read his blog called Extreme Horticulture at albertmondor.com. Follow Albert on Facebook: fb.com/albert.mondor

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Silicon and the

Green Revolution Plants raised without silicon are missing a part of their makeup. When the missing piece of the puzzle is put into place, the entire picture improves

SILICON

ilicon is defined in many different ways. Some describe it as microchips, and others believe it’s the product you put around the shower. In the hydro industry, silicon is said to be a new panacea: a product that enhances the entire growing experience. The hype surrounding silicon is real, but it has nothing to do with a product. It’s all about biology.

Silicon is not essential for growth [4]. Still, it is used by plants in higher volumes than any other nutrient except for nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus - as much as 10% of dry weight depending on the species [1] . Plants raised without silicon are missing a part of their makeup. When the missing piece of the puzzle is put into place, the entire picture improves.

In it s pure form, silic on is a shiny, me t allic-looking semi-c onduc ting me t alloid: It is neither a miner al nor a me t al

Many growers don’t use silicon and still have very productive plants. In the early 2000s, however, farmers were surprised to learn of research that had uncovered a worrying decline in bioavailable silicon levels in soil caused by the death of natural silicon processing microorganisms. And yet, their crops were successful. As a result, new silicon technology had to be marketed as a product leading to yield increases, and not what it is. This product is a way to restore plant-available silicon to preindustrial levels, bringing crop health and yield to optimal levels once considered normal.

What Is Silicon? Dubbed initially “Silicium” by Sir Humprey Davy in 1808, it is hard to find any information relating to silicon (Si) that

Silic on physic ally s treng thens c ell wall s and s tomat a , allowing f or f as ter gr ow th and b e t ter c ontr ol of water los s.

doesn’t describe it as the “second most abundant element both on the surface of the Earth’s crust and in soils”. In its pure form, silicon is a shiny, metallic-looking semi-conducting metalloid: It is neither a mineral nor a metal. When combined with hydrogen and oxygen, it forms an acid, and when that comes into contact with metal, it creates a salt, such as potassium silicate (K 2O3 Si). When combined with two oxygen molecules, silicon forms a dioxide known as white quar tz, everybody’s favourite beach sand ingredient. The only arrangement of silicon that plants can naturally take up is the least stable: mono-silicic acid (MSA). This uptake limit is imposed by the sheer size of silicon atoms and the difficulty of getting more than one at a time through cell walls. Besides nanotechnology, which shor t circuits natural uptake pathways, MSA is the only form of silicon that is naturally bioavailable. MSA is comprised of single silicon atoms surrounded by hydrogen and oxygen. It is formed by complex chemical reactions in seawater and on land by the liberation of individual silicon atoms from compounds by root or microbe chemistry. Molecular structure of mono-silicic acid (MSA)

Pure silicon is a shiny metalloid

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What Does Silicon Do For Plants? Silicon physically strengthens cell walls and stomata, allowing for faster growth and better control of water loss. It increases root mass, and therefore, indirectly increases nutrient uptake [3] . Phosphorus availability and absorption are also improved. All of these systemic benefits increase leaf size, growth rate, brix content, and yield, as any systemic component would. But silicon’s role doesn’t stop there.

Silicon physically streng thens cell walls and stomata, allowing for faster grow th and bet ter control of water loss. It increases root mass, and therefore, indirectly increases nutrient uptake

Silicon deposed in or between cell walls (phytoliths, or ‘plant opals’) doesn’t just work as scaffolding. It also provides direct protection against predation and fungal attack. Adequate silicon levels in xylem help heal wounds and eliminate transplant stress. When present in the waxy cuticle on leaves, mono-silicic acid polymerises to form a gel-like structure that physically repels penetration by mould spores and wears out the mouthpar ts of insect predators. Finally, bioavailable silicon also dramatically improves plant resistance to abiotic stress.

Not all plants take up silicon in the same way, and some use it to varying extents. Monocotyledons, for example, actively take silicon in through their roots, while dicots rely on passive transpor t and have lower silicon levels in their tissues. All plants are classed as either silicon accumulators, rejectors, or intermediates. But even silicon rejectors (plants requiring less than 0.1% SI dry weight), use silicon when it is available. They are weaker and less able to resist stress without it.

What Types of Silicon are Available for Gardeners? For any form of silicon to be useful internally, it must first be transformed into MSA. The only shor tcut available is nanotechnology, which essentially powders silicon so finely that it can fall through cellular defences. The following are excellent options for gardeners:

Silicate CREDIT: UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON

Phytoliths, or ‘plant opals’

Silicon deposed in or between cell walls doesn’t just work as scaf folding. It also provides direct protection against predation and fungal at tack.

Silicates are the traditional approach to getting silicon into plants. They are cheap by weight and are commonly available and effective when applied to roots after being transformed into MSA. When used as a foliar spray, they do not provide the suite of plant health benefits discussed previously. Still, they do provide a degree of protection against many pests and fungal infections in several crop species [6] . Silicates include industrial compounds like calcium and potassium silicate and organic sources such as rice hulls. The cons to using silicates include the time needed for transformation into active MSA, the limitations of the effectiveness against some pathogens, the aggressive acidity of some compounds, the lack of plant metabolism-boosting effects from a foliar application, and the volume of product needed to achieve given levels of bioavailable silicon.

Nano-silicates As the name suggests, nano-silicates star t as common raw materials and then undergo proprietary processes to create tiny par ticles that can pass through tissue. Nanotech represents enormous oppor tunities for the future because it provides a shor tcut past natural uptake pathways. But it also brings potential dangers. Nano is too expensive, and research suggests that much of “nano” sillicate’s effect may come from the transformation into MSA, anyway [5] .

SILICON

When present in the wax y cuticle on leaves, mono-silicic acid polymerises to form a gel-like structure that physically repels penetration by mould spores and wears out the mouthpar ts of insect predators.

Nano-silicates, when properly manufactured, can be very useful, but there are also cases where root-applied basic silicate is found to be just as effective [7] . While it may well be the future, for the moment, nano’s time has not yet come.

Stabilised Mono-silicic Acids

Major growers of previously vulnerable crops such as soft fruits and berries are finding they can ditch fungicide and the many pesticides they used formerly to control mould and biting pests

Originally introduced to the commercial agricultural market in the early 2000s, stabilised mono-silicic acid directly addresses the problem with the instability of naturally bioavailable silicon. By linking mono-silicic acid with a carrier, initially Peg or a similar innocuous compound in a liquid solution, manufacturers were able to provide immediately bioavailable silicon in the form that plants use. Applying a stabilised mono-silicic delivers all the results that silicon promises without the waiting time associated with silicates. Research has also shown additional benefits. For example, foliar application of stabilised MSA delivers superior protection to foliar silicate application. It also offers the benefits of increased root mass and plant growth associated with silicate application via the roots [8] . The cons to this product include high pricing, the lack of an organic option, and the problem of breaking down concentrations above 4% MSA. However, given the tiny amounts required compared to traditional silicates and their increased effectiveness, they have quickly taken off in commercial agriculture. Since the mid-2000s, mono-silicic stabilisation technology has moved forward again by addressing the 4% limit on aqueous solutions, bringing us the current market-leading products now using ethanols for stabilisation. With their help, a 40% MSA concentration is achieved.

This latest generation of monos is effective at less than 0.03 ml/L. It allows the delivery of targeted silicon levels in crops with thousands of times less product needing to be applied. With these nextgeneration mono-silicics, it is now possible to see the effects of silicon just hours after application. Even more significantly, major growers of previously vulnerable crops such as soft fruits and berries are finding they can ditch fungicide and the many pesticides they used formerly to control mould and biting pests. 3

Sources: 1) Epstein E. The anomaly of silicon in plant biology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 1994;91:11–17. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.1.11. 2) R.C. Ropp, in Encyclopedia of the Alkaline Earth Compounds, 2013 3) E. Epstein, “Silicon,” Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, vol. 50, pp. 641–664, 1999. 4) Mechanisms of silicon-mediated alleviation of abiotic stresses in higher plants: A review, Authors: Yongchao Liang, Wanchun Sun, Yong-Guan Zhub, Peter Christie 5) The Effects of Foliar Sprays with Different Silicon Compounds, ReXil Agro BV, Demmersweg 92a, 7556 BN Hengelo (OV), The Netherlands; 6) Rezende D.C., Rodrigues F.A., Carré-Missio V., Schurt D.A., Kawamura I.K., Korndörfer G.H. Effect of root and foliar applications of silicon on brown spot development in rice. Australas. Plant Pathol. 2009;38:67–73. doi: 10.1071/AP08080. / Rodrigues F.A., Duarte H.S.S., Domiciano G.P., Souza C.A., Korndörfer G.H., Zambolim L. Foliar application of potassium silicate reduces the intensity of soybean rust. Australas. Plant Pathol. 2009;38:366–372. doi: 10.1071/AP09010. 7) Suriyaprabha R., Karunakaran G., Yuvakkumar R., Rajendran V., Kannan N. Foliar application of silica nanoparticles on the phytochemical responses of Maize (Zea mays L.) and its toxicological behavior. J. Synth. React. Inorg. Metal-Org. Nano-Met. Chem. 2014;44:1128–1131. doi: 10.1080/15533174.2013.799197. 8) Liang Y.C., Sun W.C., Zhu Y.G., Christie P. Mechanisms of silicon-mediated alleviation of abiotic stresses in higher plants: A review. Environ. Pollut. 2007;147:422–428. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2006.06.008. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] / Deshmukh R.K., Ma J.F., Bélanger R.R. Editorial: Role of silicon in plants. Front. Plant Sci. 2017;8:1858. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01858. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] / Fauteux F., Rémus-Borel W., Menzies J.G., Bélanger R.R. Silicon and plant disease resistance against pathogenic fungi. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2005;249:1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.femsle.2005.06.034. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

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WHAT’S GROWING ON

Credit: Shambhala Farm

BY ANNE GIBSON, THE MICRO GARDENER

Who’s Growing

t a h W Wh

austin rali a & Ze N e w al an d

ere

Doonan, Queensland

Shambhala Farm

On 10 acres of fertile soils in Doonan, in the subtropical Noosa Hinterland on the Sunshine Coast, Craig Hubbard operates a dynamic food enterprise, growing nutrient-rich produce with natural farming methods. With a strong focus on soil health, Shambhala Farm produces up to 50 varieties of leafy greens, herbs, and vegetables throughout the year. Fresh produce is sold weekly at both Noosa and Kawana Waters Farmers Markets and via home-delivered made-to-order FarmBoxes. This initiative supports their own family farm and health-conscious customers. The Shambhala Farm Sustainable Food Hub is a collaboration of local and regional growers who also benefit. These producers have a shared vision for applying sustainable, holistic, and regenerative farming practices to grow fresh, nutritious food and supply produce for the food boxes, creating greater resilience for all farms involved. A win-win! Shambhala Farm also hosts yoga classes, workshops, Women’s Circles, and retreats to nourish the mind and body. Learn more: shambhalafarm.com.au

Blue Mountains, NSW

Most customers don’t stop to think whether their bunch of fragrant flowers are safe to smell. Celine Watz, a qualified florist and horticulturist and her husband Tristan do things a little differently in the Blue Mountains! They lovingly grow chemicalfree flowers using organic methods, without toxic chemicals or pesticides on their Kanimbla Valley farm. They offer their local community a healthier, eco-conscious alternative to massmarket Australian grown and imported fumigated, chemicalladen flowers with thousands of ‘flower miles.’ Floral by Nature grows many unusual and heirloom blooms outdoors, where the bees benefit without suffering from harmful insecticides. Celine specialises in organically grown edible flowers, wedding bouquets for eco-conscious brides, and cake roses. Their naturally grown cut flowers have beautiful fragrances, strong, healthy stems and long vase life. These blooms are not only good for the local environment, avoiding long-distance travel and poisoned petals, but are sustainable, seasonal and safe. That’s sweet. Learn more: floralbynature.com.au

Credit: Floral by Nature

Floral by Nature

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WHAT’S GROWING ON

Who’s Growing Quirindi, NSW

The Conscious Farmer

WhWaht

ere

Catering to conscious consumers is the key to success for beef cattle graziers, Derek and Kirrily Blomfield, who operate a 980-hectare family farm at Quirindi, northwest NSW. To counteract drought and economic uncertainties, they shifted from traditionally selling their product through butchers to selling directly to their customers. The Blomfields market their sustainably and ethically produced chemical-free, grassfed beef products to health-conscious consumers under ‘The Conscious Farmer’ brand. On-farm, they work on animal welfare, improving and regenerating soils, pastures, and biodiversity with rotational paddock grazing. These holistic practices allow perennial pastures to recover before cattle re-graze, covering the soil with diverse plant species, minimising erosion and annual weeds. The plant roots recover over time and push deep into the soil, drawing up minerals that feed healthier cows. Their pasture-finished beef is free of hormones, antibiotics and GMOs, with a healthier profile of fats, antioxidants, and trace minerals. Learn more: theconsciousfarmer.com.au

Credit: Highland Herbs

Great Western Tiers, Tasmania

& Ze a N e w la n d

Credit: The Conscious Farmer

in australia

Highland Herbs With herb imports lining our shelves, it’s refreshing to discover a pristine, authentic Australian herb farm that has been producing certified organic herbs of the highest quality for over 20 years. Herbalist Libby Reeckman and husband Greg Maulder operate their family-owned Highland Herbs, a 210-hectare farm nestled high in Tasmania’s Great Western Tiers. They have a reputation for creating beautiful loose-leaf herbal teas and blends that are knowledgeably and ethically produced. Herb and flower-filled paddocks are harvested seasonally by hand at the right stage of growth for each part of the plant used, optimising the medicinal benefits. Applying organic principles and building soil health with compost has resulted in high-quality herbs and their farm being virtually pest and diseasefree. Highland Herbs sells dried whole leaf herbs, flowers, roots and a skincare range all made from pure, natural organic ingredients with the majority grown on the farm. Learn more: highlandherbs.com.au

BY ANNE GIBSON

Seed Saving

Part 3

Harvesting and Processing Seeds

SEED SAVING

aving seeds starts with growing and nurturing healthy plants, so the seeds are ripe and mature. The next steps are to harvest, dry, clean and

process the seeds, ready for storage until you’re ready

Collect seeds only from the best quality plants you have identified for saving. Stop picking leaves or flowers from these plants. You’re growing them for seed only

to plant.

Har vesting Guidelines

It’s common to

Timing Your Seed

Collect seeds only from the best Har vesting harvest some dry quality plants you have identified for This is a balancing act. You want the seeds seed heads before saving. Stop picking leaves or flowers as mature as possible, so they are fully from these plants. You’re growing developed. However, you may decide to all their seed them for seed only. harvest earlier due to wet weather, hungry is sufficiently 2. Cover seed heads with organza, animals, or losing seed if mature seed dry and mature. paper bags, or old stockings. Tie pods shatter or the wind blows airborne tightly to the stalk with string, so seed heads away. It’s common to harvest These will need seeds are protected from wind and some dry seed heads before all their seed extra time to predators. is sufficiently dry and mature. These will 3. Identify each seed variety with plant need extra time to ‘cure’ before they are ‘cure’ before they labels as you collect and change ready for processing. are ready for containers. Many seeds look similar, processing. and it’s easy to forget or get confused. Rain or overhead watering may also 4. Seeds must be fully ripe before damage seed quality after seeds start to collection. This involves cutting off seed heads or the whole dry on the plant. You may need to wait until seed heads have plant when nearly ripe and drying undercover, or leaving to dried thoroughly after rain. However, there is a risk they may thoroughly dry on the plant before harvesting. over-ripen by this time. 5. Seeds harvested before their prime will often grow if you The seed must be dry and hard enough to withstand processing, plant them right away. However, those seeds with the and the plant material it’s attached to must be brittle enough maximum time to store more nutrients last longest in to shatter and break away from the seed easily. You need to storage. observe what stage your plants are at to get your timing right as 6. Harvest seeds or fruit containing seeds around 10 a.m., best you can. after the dew has evaporated when they are driest. 7. Those seed heads that need drying before the seed If you can’t manage multiple seed harvests, strike a balance extraction treatment should be thoroughly dried after between waiting for later maturing seed to ripen and picking collection to prevent mould or premature germination. earlier maturing seed before too much falls off the plant or becomes too brittle, shattering at harvest. As a general guide, collect when 60-80% of your seeds are ripe. Drying Brassica seeds in the field between rows 1.

All vegetable and herb crops have their unique clues as to when the fruit or seeds are ready to harvest. There are both ‘dry seeded’ and ‘wet seeded’ crops. It takes a little practice and experience to identify the traits of each plant so you can get your timing right for harvesting, but there are some basic guidelines. Saving chilli seed varieties by scraping out and drying

Dry ladyfinger okra pod with seeds ready to collect

SEED SAVING

Lettuce and dill are examples of plants where seeds mature at different times on the same plant Materials List for Seed Saving • • • • • • • • •

Sharp secateurs for collecting seed. Buckets, trays, and containers for collecting and winnowing. Tarps or geotextile drop cloths for drying seed heads, catching seed, or winnowing onto. Sieves or fine mesh strainers of different sizes to separate the chaff and drain water from wet seeds. Pastry brush, rolling pin, and cloth bags for seed cleaning. Box fan if there is no consistent wind for winnowing. Jars or small containers for fermenting and processing wet seed. Paper bags and string, trays, plates, or glass for drying seed. Marker pens and labels to record seed varieties when collecting and processing.

How do you know if dry seeded crops are ready for harvest? Indications include: • Colour of the seed pod/capsules, or seeds. As seeds mature and ripen, the colour may change from white or green to yellow, light brown, or darken to shades of brown or black. • How dry the pod or seed feels. Open to check if there is still some ‘give’ in the seed pod or whether it is crispy and dry. If you wait too long, the pods may shatter and release the seeds before you harvest. • How easily the seed or seedpod is removed from the stalk. If you rub the seed head vigorously with crops like beets, coriander and Swiss chard, the seed should come away effortlessly when ready. Seeds may ripen and mature unevenly within the pods, so you may need to individually harvest each plant when the timing is right. As your plants near harvesting, it’s best to check daily. Lettuce and dill are examples of plants where seeds mature at different times on the same plant. You can pull up the whole plant and hang bags tied on the seed heads upside down to allow them to dry and fully mature without losing seeds.

Wet Seeded Crops

Mature ripe brown allium seed head ready to collect Leek seed head ready for seed saving as husks are opening just before shattering

Dr y Seeded Crops These are crops where the seeds are contained in dried pods, husks, or the seed-bearing portion of the plant. Some seeds can be harvested before they are entirely brown and dry if weather conditions, birds, insects, or rodents are likely to damage them (e.g. Beans, peas, basil, broccoli, lettuce, onions, corn, okra, turnips and sunflowers). However, plants in the mustard (Brassicaceae or Cruciferae) family won’t continue ripening after harvesting. So ideally, leave these seeds on the plant until fully mature and dry if possible (e.g. broccoli, kale and cabbage). Finally, plants with seedpods that shatter, like lettuce and members of the onion and carrot families need to be picked progressively as they ripen, especially in windy or wet weather, which can ruin or distribute the seeds (e.g. spring onions, chives, parsley and dill). Dry processing techniques are used to extract the seeds from all ‘dry seeded’ crops.

These seeds mature inside fleshy fruit and are from the Solanaceae plant family (including tomatoes, capsicums, chillis and eggplants) and the Cucurbitaceae family (including melons, squashes and cucumbers). A variety of wet seed processing techniques can be used to remove and dry these seeds. Again, there are clues to help you identify when to pick your fruit to extract the mature seeds. • Fruiting crops that contain seeds inside their pulp, like tomatoes and eggplant, are best picked when the fruit is over-ripe, turning soft and just past being edible. • Cucumber, zucchini, okra, and sweetcorn are often picked young to eat but need to reach full mature size and then be left on the plant for another three weeks before seeds will be fully developed. • Pumpkin and capsicum are harvested when they are ready for eating and fully mature. The seeds for these crops are scraped out of the cavity inside after picking. • Generally, after the fruit first becomes edible, the seeds will continue increasing in size and quality for several days, weeks, or even 2-3 months for pumpkin and squash varieties. Full seed maturity increases the germination rate. It’s sometimes necessary to pick the fruit to protect against disease or damage and allow it to ripen in storage before processing seeds.

Wet seed processing - Ripe cucumber: scrape seeds out with spoon and rinse in water disgarding any unviable seeds that float

@greatwhitemyco

SEED SAVING

All seeds should be dried as quickly as possible by optimising airflow

Using a sieve to separate seeds from chaff

Collecting dr y seeds This is easy and fun. For small scale seed collection, use scissors or secateurs to snip seed heads off each plant. Alternatively, cut the whole plant off at ground level and hang upside down to dry or collect seeds in a bag tied over it. Keep only the part of the plant with the seed head needed for seed saving. Calico bags, paper bags and buckets are useful for collection along with a string for tying bags or bunches for drying. Geotextile fabric drop cloths can also be laid in rows, layering bulk plants on top, making it easier to collect seed in the field. Face the top of the plant towards the centre with roots outside the outer edge of the fabric. This makes seed catching effective while avoiding soil contamination from the roots. Geofabric material allows water from rain or dew to pass through, wicking moisture away from the plant material. Plants should be turned repeatedly for even drying in the pile.

Processing seeds for saving A table in a dry, protected undercover environment away from wind and high humidity is ideal to use as a working area. Hang any immature seeds in bags undercover where they are safe from rodents and can continue to mature and ripen before processing. Small quantities of seeds can be spread on a plate in a cool, shaded, and well-ventilated spot to dry out. Mature seed heads with dried seeds can be processed immediately. Fruit containing seeds will need to be processed separately. Seed cleaning techniques are dependent on whether the fruits and seeds are ‘dry’ or ‘wet’ when mature.

How to Process Dr y Seeds Seed cleaning methods. When your plant seed heads are dry enough, the seeds must be separated from the non-seed material they’re mixed with. This may include pods or husks (known as ‘chaff’), leaves, stems, soil, stones, insects, and weed seeds. It’s quite common for small insects to feed on seeds while they are drying. The aim is to achieve ‘clean seed’ with no chaff ready for packaging and long term storage. Some seeds are quick and easy to clean, while others take some work! Cleaning is accomplished using one or more techniques depending on the seed type: • ‘Winnowing’ separates seeds from plant material based on weight. This entails blowing air to disperse the heavier seeds as they fall from the lighter chaff. One method is to lay small quantities of seed material on a shallow tray then carefully blow the chaff away with your breath. Ideally, do this over a tablecloth or newspaper to catch any seeds blown out and then hand-clean. To winnow larger quantities, slowly drop the seed and chaff mixture from a few feet above a bucket or onto a tarp in front of a fan or cool hair dryer on low speed. Seeds should fall into the bucket while chaff blows away. A gentle wind can also achieve the same effect. • ‘Screening’ using sieves, strainers, or screens of different sizes over a tray or plate helps separate seeds based on size. Seeds fall through to the tray while the chaff is collected on the screen or sieve above. Use two screens – one with mesh just smaller than the seeds and the other a little larger. Shake and rub the seed over the first screen to filter any plant material smaller than the seeds, allowing it to fall through. The second screen lets the seeds through but prevents anything bigger. This may need to be repeated to achieve clean seed with no chaff. A pastry brush is also useful for quickly removing fine chaff and insects from trays. • ‘Threshing’ isolates larger seeds by releasing them from pods or plant material. Seeds are added to a sealed calico or plastic bag. Then, techniques like using a rolling pin, stomping with flat-soled shoes, hand rubbing, or whacking separates the seeds into the bag. Quite a therapeutic way to relieve stress! The separated seeds and chaff are then screened or winnowed for final cleaning. Sieves with different sized mesh are ideal for seed saving

Winnowing rice in the field using the wind to remove chaff

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SEED SAVING

Wet seeds need to be separated from the surrounding pulp or flesh, then washed and dried.

•

How to Process Wet Seeds Seed cleaning methods. Wet seeds need to be separated from the surrounding pulp or flesh, then washed and dried. For most seeds, this is pretty straight forward and involves scraping them out, rinsing, and drying. Other techniques may be required. • •

Fermenting tomato and cucumber seeds imitate the natural ripening cycle and process of fermentation that happens when these ripe fruits fall and rot or are eaten by animals. Fermentation is necessary to clean tomato seeds and remove the germination-inhibiting gel encapsulating each seed. Squash family and eggplant seeds may also benefit as fermenting can kill moulds, mildews, and other diseases that may be present, but it’s not necessary.

To ferment, scoop wet seeds and any pulp into a jar and cover with hot water. Shake or stir well several times a day. Wait one or more days until the seeds start to drop to the bottom of the jar and become separated from the flesh. You may notice bubbling, scum, or mould on the surface of the water. After a day or so, remove a few seeds to see if the pulpy coating has been separated. Rinse to test. If the seed is clean, you can rinse the whole batch in a sieve and dry on a plate. Don’t leave the seeds fermenting any longer than necessary to clean the seed or they may germinate. If seeds start sprouting, they have fermented too long.

•

Soaking helps make seed cleaning easier by loosening any pulpy residue clinging to the seed (e.g. pumpkin and melons). Place seeds and pulp in a container full of water and soak no longer than 8-12 hours to prevent germination. Rinse and dry. Decanting separates pulp and quality heavy seed from lightweight, less viable seed. First, rinse or crush the pulpy seed mixture to break up large, lumpy material. Add seeds and pulp to a container or large jar with at least ten times the volume of the pulp mixture. Add 4 parts water to 1 part pulp mixture. Shake well and stir until pulp separates. Allow the viable heavy seed to settle on the bottom. Pour off the top layer of floating pulp and less viable seeds. Repeat this process until the water is clear, and heavy seed goes to the bottom. Rinsing cleans the seed ready for drying and involves a colander, strainer or screen, pressurised water, and rubbing with your hands. Add wet seeds to a strainer. Under running water, rub away the pulp with your fingers while spraying the water to ease the pulp out of the strainer or colander. Strain it off until the seeds are cleaned and no pulp remains. Alternatively, rinsing over screens allows the seeds to fall through to a bowl while keeping the pulp on top. Drying. The seeds need to be extremely dry before storing. After cleaning, drain seeds fully in a strainer. Absorb any additional moisture by patting the base of the strainer with a paper towel. Next, spread seeds over any shiny surface (e.g. a tray, ceramic plate, or sheet of glass). Seeds stick to any kind of paper. Leave in a cool, shady, dry location for several days or longer as needed. Once fully dry, the seeds should slide easily off the shiny surface, ready for testing and storage.

Final Drying All seeds should be dried as quickly as possible by optimising airflow. Air conditioning, a food dehydrator set below 95°F (35°C), or a fan on low speed may assist. On a flat, non-stick surface such as glass, plastic tray, ceramic plate or wood, spread seeds out in a thin layer. Avoid materials that seeds stick to like paper towels or cardboard. Rotate seeds as necessary to encourage drying. Seeds will be compromised in temperatures >95°F (35°C).

Testing to see if Seeds are Sufficiently Dry 1. Tomato seeds are added to water and allowed to ferment for a few days and rinsed after scum appears

Wet fleshy fruits like passionfruit with pulp are fermented to separate seeds

Bend or Hammer Test: Try bending thin seeds like pumpkin or small, oblong seeds like lettuce. If they snap instead of bending, they are ‘very dry’. For large seeds (e.g. peas, beans or corn), place on a solid surface and hit with a hammer. They should shatter if they are ‘very dry’. If not dry enough, they will smash or mush instead. Paper Test: Add a piece of dry paper inside your container overnight and keep a control piece away from the seeds. The next morning, compare both to decide if the paper is still crisp or soft from moisture in the seeds. Al dente Test: When you bite a seed, it should feel very hard. It needs more drying time if you can make tooth marks on it.

Once your seeds are dried, they are ready for long-term storage. 3

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ASK A PH.D.

BY DR COLIN BELL

Garden Culture’s

A sk A Ph. D. !

Using Beneficial Bacteria In Soilless Growing Media

omeone recently asked me about using beneficial bacteria in soilless growing media. Their question was what kind of soilless mix (coco vs peat) is best

to help the soil microbiology thrive.

The most significant differences between coco and peat soilless media are their textures, buffering capacities, and water-holding capabilities. In any growing medium, with increased coarseness, there is lower water holding capacity, which can affect the biology in the substrate. As a simple example, peat soilless media typically hold water better than coco soilless media. This can affect media biology, especially if there are significant drought events, which are par ticularly stressful to soil bacteria, and fungi to a lesser degree. Coco coir Peat is typically more buffered than coco, which means it has a slightly better capacity to hold nutrients and to maintain pH. Because pH is one of the most influential environmental parameters that affect microbial biodiversity, The most significant the buffering capacity differences between coco and in the substrate has a peat soilless media are their strong influence on the soil’s health and biology. textures, buffering capacities,

biochar

and water-holding capabilities

Carbon is the currency of all life on ear th. Therefore, additives such as biochar and other organic inputs can help maximise soil health, including its cation exchange, water holding, and buffering capacities. Ultimately, the best habitat to suppor t soil biology is the plant rhizosphere or root zone. Regardless of the media that you use, as soon as the plant extends its roots into the substrate, it creates a carbon-rich habitat that shelters and feeds soil biology. Plant roots feed microbes by exuding carbon-rich substrates, stimulating microbial activity and nutrient cycling to create a thriving environment for soil microbes in soilless media. 3

Peat soil

Bio

Colin Bell is the co-founder, co-inventor and Chief Growth Officer at Mammoth Microbes. Colin is passionate about science, and received his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences, specializing in soil microbial ecology and plant-microbe interactions. He left his academic position at Colorado State University in March 2015 to launch Mammoth Microbes. When he’s not traveling the world interacting with and learning from cultivators, there is nothing Colin enjoys more than teaching and working with the team at Mammoth Microbes.You can find Colin on Instagram: @colinwbell

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

cool 1

Homemade Seed Packets

This gift takes some planning, but gardeners who think of doing it at the end of the growing season will undoubtedly spread some joy come the holidays. Who wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t love receiving packets of seeds saved from your garden? Select seeds from a variety of plants that attract different pollinators to the yard. Purchase some inexpensive envelopes, decorate them, label them with fun facts and growing instructions, and if you want, bundle them up in a pretty pot or basket! The effor t and thought that goes into this budgetfriendly and eco-conscious gift will go a long way.

Indoor Herb Garden

Anyone who enjoys cooking incorporates fresh herbs into their culinary creations. There are many countertop herb garden kits available for purchase, but you can also make one yourself with something as simple as a few mason jars. A quick online search will guide you through the basics of this DIY project; all youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll need is the jars, some rocks, pebbles, or marbles for drainage, organic potting mix, herb plants, and some labels. Make the garden standout with beautifully-decorated tags or with mason jars in various colours. An indoor herb garden is a gift that is sure to impress chefs of any level of expertise!

56 56

GREEN ADVICE

TO GIVE THE GIFT O F PLANTS

Black Go ld

When thinking of an appropriate gift to give to somebody over the holidays, worm poo isn’t usually the first thing that comes to mind. But vermicompost is so darn valuable that any gardener in your life will appreciate the opportunity to add it to their houseplants and outdoor beds. A little goes a long way; worm castings contain five times more nitrogen, seven times more phosphorus, and 11 times more potassium than other kinds of compost. If you have a home worm compost bin up and running, collecting batches of castings and sealing them in a paper bag or cute little container with a lid will be budgetfriendly and easy to accomplish. Vermicompost is also available for purchase at many greenhouses. You can also buy gift cards at various vermicompost companies that can help the recipient of your gift start up a worm composting centre of their own.

Ho usepl an ts

People are spending more time indoors than ever before; help them connect with Mother Nature with the gift of a beautiful houseplant. Houseplants add pops of green and other vibrant colours to spaces of all sizes. Beyond being significant mood boosters, many varieties are also found to purify the air we breathe, such as the Snake Plant, Peace Lily, and Spider Plant. Think past Poinsettias and Christmas Cactus; when it comes to selection, the possibilities are endless. Choose colours, shapes, sizes, and varieties the gift recipient will appreciate and enjoy for a long time to come.

Good Gardening Reads

The holidays are for taking the time to do things you don’t usually have the time to do, and for many of us, that means curling up with a good book. There are so many well-written and beautifully-photographed gardening books available that are not only educational but look fantastic on a coffee table too! Do you have a friend interested in the world of organic gardening? There’s a book for that. How about growing heirloom flowers, houseplants, herbal medicines, and thriving urban gardens? There are books for that too. The possibilities are endless. And while most of the above information is online, we believe there’s nothing sweeter than flipping the pages of something tangible (like this magazine!).

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BY EVEREST FERNANDEZ, JUST4GROWERS

The

PPFD Trap 60

THE PPFD TRAP

Everest Fernandez introduces the all-important quality of light known as “radiant intensity” — something our precious PAR metres and PPFD charts don’t see.

s recently as a decade or so ago, indoor growers changed the language they used to describe light intensity. Lux (lumens per square metre) was out; PPFD (micromoles per square metre per second) was in. Accordingly, you may have heard folks say stuff like:

“Lu me n s ar e fo r h u m a n s ! ”

“ L u x s u ck s ! ”

And if you’ve ever looked into why, you’ll know that lumens are based on the standard luminosity function of the human eye’s sensitivity to light. This sensitivity peaks in the green zone of the visual range at around 555 nanometres. However, as beneficial as our human evolutionar y capacity to see plant foliage is, it has nothing to do with photosynthesis or light intensity from a plant’s perspective.

Perhaps sensing the shortcomings “µ” symbol in “µmol” or the tiny of lumens and lux, growers began exponential values in superscript that Perhaps sensing to attach themselves to the concept imbues us with that fuzzy, freshlythe shortcomings of PAR (photosynthetically active laundered lab coat feeling. Still, of lumens and lux, radiation). They started measuring before we start swaggering around growers began to PPFD (photosynthetic photon flux industry tradeshows waving our PAR attach themselves to density) in micromoles per metre metres around, we might want to squared per second (µmol m-2 s-1) allow ourselves a moment of sober the concept of PAR using handy devices known as PAR reflection, so we don’t become too (photosynthetically metres (aka Quantum metres). These confident about these new metrics. active radiation) devices use a tiny silicon photodiode (think “reversed LED” as it takes light Okay, okay, I’ll cut to the chase. It as its input energy and transforms this seems many of us are mistaking our into electrical current) encased within a translucent, acrylic cap PAR metres for “photosynthesis prediction devices”. These to estimate the aggregate light intensity over a square metre. days, indoor growers in the market for a new grow light are The more light that hits the sensor, the greater the electrical bombarded with various, colourful “PPFD maps” showing current, and the higher the PPFD shown on the screen. The light intensity distributed across a two-dimension flat plane. acrylic cap diffuses incoming light, although light arriving from Great if you’re growing a plate of algae—but not so much directly above most stimulates the sensor. for a 3’ tall three-dimensional, light-loving plant! These PPFD maps are usually presented as illustrative evidence of In one sense, growers have moved from an energetic paradigm the output and uniformity of a given lighting fixture. Some (lumens are based on the Candela, the base unit of luminous lighting manufacturers go further and compare the efficiency intensity, which is defined using watts) to a quantitative of disparate light sources using “µmol per Joule”. In other approach where photons are counted as quantifiable elements. words, how many photons does my light source produce for PPFD, then, refers to how many photons are arriving on a each Joule of input electrical energy? The result is a bunch hypothetical flat square metre surface during one second. Each of very convincing pseudo-science leading to the inevitable photon (in the PAR range—between 400 and 700 nanometres) comparative and competitive glances over the urinal: is counted as equal rather than weighted according to the standard human eye, luminosity function, or anything else. Grower 1: “My new generation 315W CMH produces 1.93 µmol per Joule!” So, where does that leave us? Well, it’s easy to believe that Grower 2: “Not bad … but my 1000W DE-HPS achieves just we’ve automatically upgraded our level of scientific rigour by over 2 µmol per Joule!” moving from plain vanilla “Lux” to the far more exotic and Grower 1: “Yeah—but my CMH has more blue…” technical sounding “µmol m-2 s-1”. (Ooooh! Aaaaah!) You Grower 3: “Both of you shut up! My DIY Quantum Board with might even believe that PAR, PPF (total output), and PPFD Samsung [insert long, obtuse SKU] diodes is pushing 3 µmol represent the apex of precision when it comes to describing per Joule! Therefore, I am the victor! Kneel before me, Edison light intensity for plants. Maybe it’s the slightly esoteric looking globe luddites!”

The

PPFD Trap Not all plants use the sun in the same way Still, before we start swaggering around industry tradeshows waving our PAR metres around, we might want to allow ourselves a moment of sober reflection, so we don’t become too confident about these new metrics.

There are countless variants of this conversation on every growers’ forum out there showing, among other things, how easy it is to get drawn into the polemic, with growers arguing from the camp of their favoured lighting technology in an endless battle of contradictory anecdotes. However, these exchanges are a distraction from a far more fundamental logical fallacy that undermines and invalidates the whole conversation. This, ladies and gentlemen, is what I call the “PPFD trap”. First, the fallacy:

Premise 1 (TRUE): IF my PAR metre measures photons travelling between 400 and 700 nanometres and… Premise 2 (TRUE): IF my PLANTS use photons travelling between 400 and 700 nanometres for photosynthesis then... Conclusion (FALSE): My PAR metre predicts the rate of photosynthesis for my PLANTS.

Tempting, isn’t it? While both premises may be factually correct, the devilish detail lies in how we sleepwalk to the false conclusion. (The fallacy at hand, by the way, is known as “affirming the consequent”.) So, where does this deceptively simple-sounding logic fall, exactly? For one thing, you probably already know that photosynthesis is dependent on several other key variables, including leaf temperature, air temperature, cellular moisture content, atmospheric carbon dioxide, spectral quality, and relative humidity. But even when we consciously disregard these additional factors, there remains a huge elephant loitering in our grow rooms. To start patting down this elephant’s trunk (you keep telling yourself it’s a trunk), we need to step away from our PAR metres, just for a moment, and reconsider the fundamental, 62

Different plant species evolve specific adaptions enabling them to exploit all that’s on offer within their natural environment— that’s why it’s so important to consider the native habitat of your chosen species

core reality of plants, light, and photosynthesis. The two most important things to consider are, 1) the photosynthetic characteristics of our chosen plant species, and, 2) the energy source they have evolved over millions of years to exploit: the sun. Not all plants use the sun in the same way. Some species have evolved to brave the intensely lit and atmospherically harsh conditions of elevated, subtropical, mountainous terrains. Others are happier on the barely illuminated (but more forgiving) floors of temperate rain forests. Different plant species evolve specific adaptions enabling them to exploit all that’s on offer within their natural environment—that’s why it’s so important to consider the native habitat of your chosen species. Getting back to the light, we perceive the sun as a single, intensely bright yellowish-white blob in the sky, 93 million miles away from the Earth. As such, the vast majority of photons that reach our planet travel in a similar direction, along a similar path. Of course, some photons bounce off clouds, refract through water vapour, or bounce from leaf to leaf within a dense forest canopy to create a measure of diffusion. As an analogy for direct light, think of a garden hose emitting a powerful “soaker” style jet of water and think of diffuse light as the same hose with the nozzle set to the “mister” setting. For argument’s sake, the volume of water in both cases is the same. And yes, both will get you wet! But the fact remains, light-loving plants have evolved to exploit the “soaker” (direct light) not the “mister” (diffuse light). Unfortunately, your PAR metre, by design, does not “see” the difference. Science has only recently started to explore the difference between direct and diffuse light on plants. Craig Brodersen, assistant professor at Yale’s school of forestry and environmental studies, performed experiments on leaves using both direct and diffuse light and his results showed that direct light penetrates deeper into the leaf tissue—especially green light.

THE PPFD TRAP

As an analogy for direct light, think of a garden hose emitting a powerful “soaker” style jet of water and think of diffuse light as the same hose with the nozzle set to the “mister” setting

example, perched several thousand feet above sea level in places like Nepal, India or Afghanistan, needs to withstand both very high levels of PAR and increased ultraviolet radiation. From a plant’s perspective, the sun rises every day in the east, moves up towards its apex in the sky, and then heads west for sunset. Throughout the day, the sun sends its intense, angular rays towards the plant. As such, the whole plant benefits from being “soaker hosed” with light, drenching it from the side, the top, and then the other side. The incident sunlight has very high radiant intensity capable of penetrating deep into the plant, striking some leaves directly and passing between others, depending on the angle or time of day. The fascinating characteristic of light-loving plants, however, is found at the microscopic level. Here, deep inside the chloroplast, you will find tall “stacks” of light-harvesting compartments called “thylakoids”. These thylakoids are ubiquitous throughout the world of higher plants (as well as algae and bacteria) as the site of photosynthesis itself. But it’s worth noting that shade-loving species (e.g. ferns) develop short, stubby little stacks of thylakoids because the light they receive is low intensity and diffuse. The light that ferns capture doesn’t have much “punch” and neither does it need to as exploiting low light is encoded into the fern plant’s DNA, and therefore, reflected in its physiology.

The images on the left show the penetration of the light into the leaf surface from direct light sources — the pictures on the right are from diffuse light sources. It’s important to note that both the direct and diffuse light sources gave the same reading on a PAR metre—but here we can see clear evidence that leaves do not process direct and diffuse light in the same way. (We also see how green light penetrates deepest, but that’s a subject for another time!) If you choose to grow a plant which has evolved to cope with very high levels of solar intensity, then you must first acknowledge the fact that it must have developed specific mechanisms to deal with (and thrive in) this environment. A plant species native to elevated, subtropical habitats, for

The tall stacks of thylakoids characteristic of light-loving plant species (as well as a double-palisade layer) on the other hand are arguably a means of squeezing every last joule of incident energy from the intense solar beams they’ve evolved to exploit. Often, the stacks of thylakoids (known as “grana”) are positioned so that the top of the stack is closest to the adaxial plane of the leaf. To understand why you need to appreciate that there’s a finite limit to how much photosynthetic yield a single thylakoid can generate. So, if a thylakoid at the top of the stack, nearest to the leaf’s adaxial surface, is “maxed out” with incoming photons, these otherwise “surplus” photons can transmit through and be processed further down the stack. Tall stacks of thylakoids are light-loving plants’ evolutionary mechanism for dealing with lots of direct, intense sunlight. That’s what they do better than other lesser adapted plant species, and that’s why they exist in the first place. GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

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THE PPFD TRAP

The phenomena of “positive phototropism” (where a lightloving plant dynamically orientates its leaves, so they receive as much direct light as possible) shows us the lengths plants will go to grab their essential energy payload.

Remember, light-loving plants have evolved to exploit the ultimate soaker hose—the sun! If you’re not giving them the quality of light they crave, they won’t express their genetic potential to the full, as this can only be “unlocked” with the quality of light they want.

In an indoor growing environment where our plants are reliant on grow lights for every photon, it’s essential to give our plants not just the measured quantity but also the character of light they want. The first thing most growers think of when considering light quality is spectrum / spectral distribution, but that’s not the point I’m trying to make here. 700+ µmol measured 18 - 24 inches beneath a 630W DE-CMH lamp in an open, double-parabolic reflector is qualitatively very different from 700+ µmol measured 15 - 20 inches beneath a 600W multiarray LED, or four or six feet below a bunch of 1000W DE-HPS lamps in greenhouse style, deep-dish reflectors in a compound lighting plan. The key difference is found in the paths those photons travel along relative to each other to reach the leaf. Multi-array unlensed LED grow lights spread their photons out across hundreds of diodes—each diode representing just a fraction of the overall intensity of the lighting fixture, hence the total output is predominantly diffuse. A bunch of 1000W DE-HPS lamps bolted to a warehouse ceiling may well overlap footprints in a compound lighting plan but, once again, the incident photons measured at any given point have arrived from many different sources, and the resulting light is more diffuse). So, while the PPFD readings on our PAR metres can give us useful data in terms of grow light positioning, they tell us nothing about the angular quality of the light we’re measuring. A flat photodiode sensor in a consumer-grade PAR metre behaves in a very different way to a three-dimension leaf or a threedimensional plant. As such, it doesn’t “care” whether the 700+ µmol were extrapolated from a highly collimated, beam-like light source or a diffuse light arriving from multiple fixtures at various angles. Going back to our garden hose analogy, PPFD tells us nothing about whether the incident “water” has been delivered as a fine mist distributed from many different tiny nozzles or a girthy firemen’s hose emitting a powerful soaking stream!

The

PPFD Trap Remember, light-loving plants have evolved to exploit the ultimate soaker hose—the sun! If you’re not giving them the quality of light they crave, they won’t express their genetic potential to the full, as this can only be “unlocked” with the quality of light they want. Regrettably, all this fine detail is lost in those reassuringly simple and colourful PPFD charts.

The “radiant intensity” of a light source (the correct radiometric term we use to describe these angular qualities) has a significant bearing on a fixture’s ability to penetrate plants at both a micro and macro level. As already described, at the micro level, high radiant intensity “soaker hose light” will cause thylakoids deeper inside the plant to photosynthesise. More diffuse light lacks this penetrative power. At the macro level, high radiant intensity delivers many photons along narrow-angle ranges to penetrate past the canopy. This is the power needed to stimulate second and third-tier flower sites beneath the canopy, leading to more homogenous crop quality.

Radiant intensity is concerned with photons emanating from a light source within a specific angular range. As radiant intensity is a three-dimension phenomenon, it needs to be defined in terms of solid angles—the Steradian. From the light source’s point of view, radiant intensity is about limiting our count to photons travelling at certain angles from the light source. From a plant’s perspective, the ability of light to penetrate (at both the micro and macro levels described) is dependent on the range of incident angles in its photonic diet. In other words, are the photons arriving from a wide range of angles at any given moment, or do they conform to a tighter angular range, like the sun?

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

THE PPFD TRAP

The

PPFD Trap

Many growers and lighting manufacturers appear to be over-simplifying the complex relationship between plants and their light source into PPFD—as measured by a PAR metre—and spectrum—as measured by a spectroradiometre

Many growers and lighting manufacturers appear to be oversimplifying the complex relationship between plants and their light source into PPFD—as measured by a PAR metre—and spectrum—as measured by a spectroradiometre. Even given the exact same spectra, 700+ µmol of photons arriving from many different spatial origins (i.e. LED diodes or several greenhouse-style DE-HPS fixtures bolted to a warehouse ceiling) is very different to 700+ µmol measured underneath a single HID arc-tube positioned at close proximity. While your PAR metre may read the same value in either situation, your plants will experience and react to the two different light sources very differently. In conclusion, light with high radiant intensity has penetration power. It can penetrate the canopy itself and also into the leaves and flowers themselves. Light with high radiant intensity can be achieved with HID lighting (HPS, DE-HPS, MH, CMH, DE-MH, DE-CMH) in a well-designed reflector (i.e a reflector that facilitates close placement to the canopy rather than one that runs too hot to be under four feet away from the canopy.) It can also be realised with high power LED fixtures equipped with secondary lensing or a COB style unit when many diodes are packed into a single hemispherical lens. Note how this discussion isn’t centred around one lighting technology being “better” than the other. It’s about identifying and understanding the characteristics of your light source that matter and growing the right kind of plants in a style that suits it! Conversely, you could choose the right light source for growing your historically favoured plants! 3

For more information and explanation, please check out my videos below over at Just4Growers on YouTube.

Video references: • •

youtube.com/watch?v=rXo1cf_n5fE youtube.com/watch?v=CqOvasvZ8-E

Journal reference: A new paradigm in leaf-level photosynthesis: direct and diffuse lights are not equal Plant, Cell and Environment IF:4.666(2008) Craig R. Brodersen, Thomas C. Vogelmann, William E. Williams & Holly L. Gorton

Bio

Everest Fernandez is a well-respected industry educator, veteran hydroponic grower and grow light enthusiast, based in France. He works primarily as a marketing and cultivation consultant and was the founding editor of Urban Garden Magazine in the UK, US and Canada. He also writes and researches for the popular hobby horticulturalist YouTube channel, Just4Growers.

D EN M AGA E.COM M GA R D GA ENRCU LTCU U RLTEUMR EAGA Z I ZNI N E.CO

BY CATHERINE SHERRIFFS

EXPLORING CANNABIS C U LT I VAT I O N A R O U N D

THE GLOBE

The legalization of cannabis is taking place in many par ts of the world but to var ying degrees. 68

CANNABIS CULTIVATION GardenCultureMagazine.com

hat does cannabis cultivation look like around the world? The practices in this industry are remarkably different from one par t of the globe to the next. But one underlying theme translates across all borders: the need for

more research and practical policies. A Golden Opportunity The legalization of cannabis is taking place in many parts of the world but to varying degrees. One of Garden Culture’s contributors set out to learn more about the international cannabis community. In the opportunity of a lifetime, Tom Forrest was awarded the first-ever Churchill Fellowship for cannabis agronomy.

With his passpor t in hand, the research grant helped Tom travel to eight dif ferent countries where he got to explore 50 cannabis farms

With his passport in hand, the research grant helped Tom travel to eight different countries where he got to explore 50 cannabis farms and learn about their methods of cultivation and the challenges they face. If you’ve got 17 minutes, take a look at Tom’s great work. Our Garden Culture team is super proud of him. https://youtu.be/XJoRfRTqX1Q

best of

the blog

There’s also the issue of cultivating commercial quantities of cannabis and harvesting at regular intervals without any contamination. And just because it’s home to the world’s biggest and most technology-savvy cannabis plant doesn’t mean that everything is perfect in Canada’s market.

While in Vancouver, Tom also attended a massive 4/20 rally in which 120,000 people gathered to protest the country’s current approach to cannabis legalization. His interview with Jodie Emery, co-founder of Cannabis Culture, highlights how many feel Canada is amid “fake legalization.” Emery explains how the law forces people to buy from specific producers while forcing others to go out of business or go to jail. Emery also points out that cannabis is being treated as a new industry when it isn’t at all.

Vancouver Tom’s first destination was Vancouver, Canada, where recreational cannabis has been legal for over a year. In this leg of his journey, Tom had the chance to go into Aurora Sky, the world’s most technologically advanced cannabis facility. With 600,000 square feet of canopy space devoted to medical cannabis, the automation level in this building is something out of the future! Three hundred employees also help keep workflow operating at maximum efficiency. Preventing contamination from the outside world is essential to crop health. Much like a hospital’s operating room, anyone who enters the facility ‘scrubs in’. Fancy caps, masks, gowns, and shoe covers are mandatory. Don’t forget the grow room glasses!

She says Canada has failed to recognize the cannabis pioneers; the people who brought the plant to the frontlines at a great deal of risk to themselves.

Italy Frustrations over a lackadaisical entry into the legal market are common around the world. In Italy, for example, Tom learns about the few resources available to those in the industry from world-renown geneticist Gianpaolo Grassi.

Tom Forrest

The massive greenhouse is a hybrid, meaning it has a glass ceiling for natural light but uses grow lights to accommodate for cloudy or rainy days. Beneficial insects and organic sprays are used for pest prevention, and Aurora employees scout the plants regularly to see first if anything is affecting them before building their pest control program.

Nothing’s Perfect Does such a sophisticated facility have many challenges? Of course! Growing cannabis in an urban setting requires tight security and surveillance around the clock.

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CANNABIS CULTIVATION

That same restrictive, secretive at titude is seen ever y where in the cannabis industr y

GardenCultureMagazine.com

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Israel At the Research Center for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Grassi has just a handful of people working with him, including only two people to manage 62 hectares of plants. Grassi speaks about how little he’s able to accomplish with regards to the production of cannabis hemp with the few resources available to him. He expresses frustration over the approval of law without any thought into how it would be applied.

Israel is unique in the way that it is at the forefront of medical cannabinoid research. The country’s cannabis sector has been able to get the government onside due to the plant’s medicinal potential.

Tom tours a lab of 200 scientists working on various projects at the Volcani Institute of Plant Science; only none of what he sees can be shared due to the ‘top-secret’ nature of the industry.

Code Of Silence

Slovenia In Slovenia, an innovative spirit exists within the blossoming cannabis sector.

That same restrictive, secretive attitude is seen everywhere in the cannabis industry, no matter where you are in the world, thus hindering further growth and development.

Also faced with a lack of resources, the mini-doc introduces us to farmers who have created a harvester partially built with old machines from WWII. Others have made an extractor that separates the resin from the flowers without the use of any solvents.

Problematic legislation and impractical policies have led to a lack of research and knowledge. Without it, unlocking the full potential of cannabis is challenging.

Tom also meets a brilliant scientist who has developed a way to make CBD water-soluble; a world first!

What does the future hold? Only time will tell. But your future should include watching Tom’s educational video. https://youtu.be/XJoRfRTqX1Q 3

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BY GENEVIÈVE BESSETTE

All living organisms need nutrients to survive, and sometimes, they work together to get what they need. It’s a win-win situation

ustainable intensification hor ticulture uses beneficial soil microorganisms to reduce the need for fer tilisers and

pesticides. Microorganisms are fascinating because they have extraordinary abilities. I like to compare the plant root system to a digestive system. We know that our intestinal flora balance has an impact on our health and our capacity to digest and absorb the nutrients from food. All living organisms need nutrients to survive, and sometimes, they work together to get what they need. It’s a win-win situation.

MYCORRHIZAE

credit: groworganic.com

Mycorrhizae and Plants

The Positive Co-Evolution The symbiotic relationship between photosynthetic plants and fungi is positive. The word “mycorrhizae” means “fungus-root”. In 1998, a famous ar ticle in Nature magazine explained the role played by mycorrhizal fungus and gave the example of how trees communicate with each other by exchanging nutrients, water, and defence signals. Mycorrhizae colonised the roots of nearly all plants and helped them evolve. Some families, like the Brassicaceae and Chenopodiaceae, are exceptions, however, and dissociated themselves from plants. Mycorrhizal spores germinate and produce hyphae that penetrate root cells and star t the formation of an intra-radical and extra-radical network. This connection allows faster water and nutrient uptake for the plants. In exchange, the plant helps the fungus access carbohydrates. Plant roots are always growing and exploring the soil, but the contact sur face offered by root hairs is limited. The mycorrhizal filaments are smaller in diameter than the

tiniest root hair and cover every soil par ticle, providing higher absorption capacity. There are hundreds of kilometres of mycelium under a single footstep! Often, especially in clay soil, nutrients are present but unavailable; this is mainly the case with phosphorous. But the connection created by mycorrhizae improves nutrient cycling. Agricultural farms can no longer use high-phosphorous content fer tiliser due to the contamination of aquatic environments. So mycorrhiza is now widely used to tap into phosphorous-saturated soil and make it available to crops. What a saviour! Over the last ten years, numerous studies have shown that mycorrhizae lead to better nutrient use and healthy rhizosphere. The fungus helps breakdown organic matter, keeping the rhizosphere aerated and healthy. Mycorrhizae is like a mother and acts as bodyguard, pharmacist, and life-coach without asking for much in return. It helps growers achieve increased yields along with protected, healthy, and happy crops. 3 GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

73 73

BY DR CALLIE SEAMAN

T he S e cr e t L if e of

Plant Nutrients

C The

Big Boys

pa r t

P l a n t s need h y drogen (H), ca rbon ( C ), a nd ox ygen ( O ) in high concen t r at ions. 74

PLANT NUTRIENTS

ealthy, productive plants require several essential nutrients to function. In their most basic form, they are elements found in the periodic table and have properties that control their interactions, bioavailability, and state. Much like us, these nutrients each have individual personalities and behaviours. In this new Garden Culture series, we will reveal the

secret life of each element that plants consume. Our first edition focuses on the primary macro-elements, also known as the ‘big boys’. Plants need hydrogen (H), carbon (C), and oxygen (O) in high concentrations.

Hydrogen With only one electron in its outer shell, hydrogen (H) is highly reactive and positively charged. It is comparable to a hyperactive child that never sits still and annoys you to death. With the lowest molecular weight of all the elements, hydrogen is extremely light when it isn’t attached to another element. There are three naturally occurring isotopes, two of which are stable; the third has a halflife of 12 years, dying long before its time! 1H is the only element not to have any neutrons in its nucleus, making it prone to causing trouble. It has a very low boil point of -252 ∞C, close to absolute zero where all life ceases to exist! In its purest form, hydrogen is often found as a gas.

Carbon Carbon is the basis of all life, and something can only be described as ‘organic’ if it contains carbon. Being the fifteenth most abundant element in the earth crust, it considered one of the premier league elements. In the atmosphere, it is found in its gaseous form and combines with two oxygens to form carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon helps build everything within the plant, gathering up the hyperactive hydrogens and forcing them to work together. It is the life and soul of the positive charges. With a relative molecular mass of 12, carbon is fast-moving. Being supplied via the leaves in the form of CO2 through the stomata, it can also be taken up by the roots. A powerhouse, carbon is involved in respiration, transpiration, and is transformed into carbohydrate, proteins, and many other hydrocarbons such as terpenes and enzymes. Within the average plant, the dry mass concentration of carbon is around 40,000 mmol kg-1, which makes up a large proportion.

What is an Isotope? An isotope is an atom which has a different number of neutrons in the nucleus, increasing or decreasing the RMM of the atom. However, the proton number remains the same. The stability of each of these differs along with the abundancy. Over time, they decay and turn into another element. This is referred to as the half-life; the time it takes to break down to half the original amount of the isotope.

Carbon is a non-metal and contains three naturally occurring isotopes, including 12C,13C and 14C. Only two are stable, but there are 15 known isotopes, ranging from 8C to 22C.

Hydrogen is essential for life and is the most abundant element in the universe. It clings to its parents, oxygen and carbon, forming what is known as covalent bonds, which are very difficult to break. The increased number of free H+ ions decreases the pH in solutions, which is vital to some chemical reactions. Many plants receive their hydrogen from water through photosynthesis, typically at a concentration of 60,000 mmol kg-1 dry weight of plant material. Hydrogen can travel everywhere throughout the plant. This, along with its abundance and positive charges, allows it to open channels within membranes and change the pH and osmotic potential of a cell. Hydrogen is essential to photosynthesis and carbohydrate production and is also responsible for the turgor pressure in the cells and the exchange of many cations, including calcium and potassium.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

PLANT NUTRIENTS

C The

Big Boys

S ome w h at of a f ree-l oa der, ox ygen hi t che s a ride w i t h a n y t hing p o s sibl e t o ge t w here i t is needed a nd is v ery uns ta bl e, at tack ing t hing s t hrough ox idat ion Oxygen Oxygen is the only negatively charged element discussed in this article. It comes in concentrations of about 30,000 mmol kg-1 and is acquired by the plant through CO2, H2O, and O2. Somewhat of a free-loader, oxygen hitches a ride with anything possible to get where it is needed and is very unstable, attacking things through oxidation. Clinging to cations such as phosphorus and calcium helps calm it down and prevent it from causing damage. Oxygen, in its purest form, is toxic in high concentrations, yet is essential to life. I like to think of oxygen as that negative expartner, always being nasty, but the reality is you need them to help raise your kids! Oxygen is found in most organic compounds within plants and is involved in the uptake of other anions from the media through the roots. It is also engaged in aerobic respiration, binding to the H+ ions produced during this process, and is the gas released from the plant during respiration, which we all need to stay alive. With a molecular mass of 16, it is the heaviest of the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;big boyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; elements. However, it can be problematic when produced in excess in the plant in its free radical form, resulting in oxidative stress in the cells, damage, and then necrosis (or cell death). Look out for our next article in this series, where we explore the mineral elements. 3

What is an Atom? An atom is the smallest possible thing that exists, consisting of a nucleus with tightly packed neutrons and protons and orbiting shells of electrons. The protons are positively charged, the electrons negatively charged, and the neutrons are neutral. The number of protons dictates to the atomic number of the element and differs for each one. The combination of neutrons and protons in the nucleus gives rise to the relative molecular mass (RMM) of the element. If the number of electrons in the clouds circling the nucleus is equal to that of the protons, the element is neutral and does not have a charge. If the number of electrons is higher, it is negatively charged; lesser, and it is positively charged. These are referred to as ions; the things plants uptake from the soil and nutrient solution. Their charges give them their properties and help them react to and form molecules.

BIO

Dr Callie Seaman is a plant obsessed Formulation Chemist at AquaLabs â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the company behind SHOGUN Fertilisers and the Silver Bullet plant health range. She has been in the hydro industry for 15 years in research development and manufacturing and had previously worked on the VitaLink range. She has a PhD in fertiliser chemistry and a BSc (HONS) in Biomedical sciences and loves nothing more than applying this knowledge to pushing the boundaries of nutrient performance.

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BY EVAN FOLDS

There is a reason the root of “humility” is humble

FOOD

ometimes, the most familiar things are the most foreign. We have never seen the hydrogen bonds in a water molecule, we do not know the generative origin of electricity or magnetism, and most people know what soil is. Still, there are so many organisms in the ground that we will never get to know all of

them. There is a reason the root of “humility” is humble.

The same mystery is at play with what we eat. When it comes to food, we do a fantastic job of fooling ourselves. Food has become what is cheap and what tastes good, rather than what nourishes and regenerates. For sure, without discernment, we are eating dangerously.

Food has become what is cheap and what tastes good, rather than what nourishes and regenerates. For sure, without discernment, we are eating dangerously

The majority of what we eat is not natural. Food science and food marketing are at the heart of this phenomenon. According to the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), “food science is the study of the physical, biological, and chemical makeup of food; and the concepts underlying food processing. Food technology is the application of food science to the selection, preservation, processing, packaging, distribution, and use of safe food.”

What this means is that there is an enormous amount of money and energy being invested in making things that are safe to eat, but are not real food. No longer can we distinguish between foods that are fake or real with our senses alone. For instance, 70% of the average American diet is processed. More than 50% of what we eat is “ultra-processed”, meaning it is highly manipulated and contains additives. To make the reality of our food system appealing, we are inundated with advertisements from all angles. Advertising is a form of communication used to persuade an audience to take some action, often against their own will and interests. Nowhere is the power of advertising more prominent than it is with food. But the persuasion goes beyond marketing to the realm of incentive. The federal government spends more than $20 billion a year on subsidies for farm businesses. About 39% of the nation’s 2.1 million farms receive grants, with the majority of the payouts going to commodity crops such as corn, soybeans, wheat, cotton, and rice; and not food crops like fruits and vegetables. In short, we are encouraging the wrong things. But it goes beyond that to the lobbyists hired by global food and agriculture corporations to manipulate the government into allowing the current posture of conventional agriculture. And round and round we go.

The result of this cronyism, lobbying, and deal-making is a sort of twilight zone where “natural” does not mean “natural”, and the billions of dollars being spent by global food and agriculture corporations in advertising is intended to confuse, not inform. The effectiveness of this type of food manipulation has allowed us to reach a terrifying crescendo of toxicity from artificial ingredients and pesticides used in conventional agriculture that has consumed the modern food system.

The toxicity is alarming. A recent FDA report tells us that traces of pesticides were found in 84% of domestic samples of fruits, and 53% of vegetables, as well as 42% of grains. And these chemicals were less prevalent in food imported from other countries. There are 72 pesticides banned in the EU still allowed for use in the US. Then there are those chemicals that we are adding to what we eat on purpose. Artificial additives allow cheap food to avoid spoilage, look pretty, taste good, and also force the savvy food shopper to inspect labels and play detective. And for a good reason. The average diet in the modern world is not nourishing us; it is making us sick. Over 45% of people in the US have at least one chronic disease. More than half of all people alive will get cancer. Autism is now being found in 1 in 38 children. All of these numbers are way up and getting worse. Our health is in a full-on crisis. The most potent tool that we have to fight this crisis is how we eat. Food is one place that you can make a direct impact, not only in our health but on the agricultural landscape itself. But, as anyone that has undertaken a diet can attest, what we eat may also be one of the most challenging places for a change. One challenge is that we have never been busier, and food options have never been more convenient. At any one time in the modern world, you can pull off the highway and choose from dozens of food establishments with food preserved for purchase, many ready to serve you a hot meal 24/7. Cheap food aims to seduce.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

Gavita Master controller

Gavita Master controller ELF Get enhanced control of your grow room with the second generation Gavita Master controllers. The Gavita Master ELF is the latest addition to our controller line-up. You get everything the upgraded second generation Master controller offers, plus fan control. With the integrated fan controller, it can directly control your lights and fans for a stable temperature in your grow room. • Switch, dim, and boost your fixtures from a central unit • Independent cycle programming (EL2 only) • Separate sunrise and sunset settings • Direct control of EC fans (AC fan control with optional EFM1 module • Balance your intake and outtake fans with the Gavita Fan balancer (FB1)

FOOD

Nowhere is the power of advertising more prominent than it is with food.

How we eat has a tremendous impact on the world around us

The convenience of cheap food, when combined with a compromise in the quality and compounded by toxicity, results in a perfect storm for public health. We have to face this reality one way or another. As a first step, we would be well served to follow the “precautionary principle”, or the idea that the introduction of a new product or process whose ultimate effects are disputed or unknown should be resisted.

The toxicity is alarming. A recent FDA report tells us that traces of pesticides were found in 84% of domestic samples of fruits, and 53% of vegetables, as well as 42% of grains

It seems almost evident that healthy food should not contain ar tificial chemicals, yet there is no collective established understanding of this simple idea. So what is food? The concept of food is clear; we eat it every day. We know all about food, but do we understand the nature of food itself ? Are pesticides food? How about GMO’s? Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are engineered in a lab by having their DNA altered to express traits that allow them to withstand herbicide treatments and even act as pesticides themselves in the case of GMO Bt crops. The FDA calls GMO’s “essentially the same”, yet the global agricultural corporations who bioengineer the plants are allowed to patent the genes and market them for profit. Everything eats food in some form. Food webs are formed globally in what is called “trophic levels”, or life levels. Think big fish eating the little fish. In the same way, ecosystems are shaped in the realm of animals; we hold the same impact over the human food web. How we eat has a tremendous effect on the world around us.

Food is not the same for all people. The modern human diet varies considerably from vegans who eat only plant-based food to carnivores who consider eating their vegetables to be a plate of french fries. Competitive eater Joey Chestnut can eat 68 hot dogs in ten minutes. He can also eat 141 hardboiled eggs in only eight minutes. People like Joey have taken the human diet to an extreme. Food can be a competition.

Food is not what it used to be. As little as a century ago, food was local and wholesome by default because it spoiled if it travelled too far. There were limited technologies and no preservatives available that could keep foodstuff viable long enough to make food distribution a possibility. Before the onset of the modern global industrial food system, people had limited options that were more clearly defined by seasonal availability, market access, and income level. Fast food wasn’t invented until the early 1920s, and food processing didn’t star t to become the norm until the 1940s. One of the best sources of data for how our diets have changed us is Weston Price’s book Nutrition and Physical Degeneration (1939), where he chronicles the impact of the modern diet on aboriginal people. The influence of an empty diet of sugar and white bread is seen in the images and data that he collected in his world travels. Food can also be a form of enter tainment. Or a place of comfor t and trauma. Food can be different things to different people for various reasons, but without a proper definition of food, how do we hold ourselves accountable for eating it properly?

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

FOOD

Our food choices matter; the way we eat encourages the type of food that is grown. If we put our intentions to it, we can change the world for the better one bite at a time

Even the literal definition leaves much to be desired. Merriam-Webster Dictionary calls food, “material consisting essentially of protein, carbohydrate, and fat used in the body of an organism to sustain growth, repair, and vital processes and to furnish energy.”

Before the onset of the modern global industrial food system, people had limited options that were more clearly defined by seasonal availability, market access, and income level

How many who are reading this get hungry for chicken feet, tongue, huitlacoche (look it up), or, taken to an extreme, cannibalism. Does something become food merely when it is edible? In some cases, due to cultural differences, what one calls disgusting another calls a delicacy.

In the end, food is what you make it. It is a choice. We can choose to ignore the impact our diets have on our health and the world, or we can choose to view food as something more meaningful and vital to our potential as people. Let’s grow our own where possible, and eat our ideals by using our buying power to purchase clean, local foods. Wendell Berry said, “Eating is an agricultural act”. Our food choices matter; the way we eat encourages the type of food that is grown. If we put our intentions to it, we can change the world for the better one bite at a time. 3

Evan Folds is a regenerative agricultural consultant with a background across every facet of the farming and gardening spectrum. He has founded and operated many businesses over the years - including a retail hydroponics store he operated for over 14 years, a wholesale company that formulated beyond organic products and vortex-style compost tea brewers, an organic lawn care company, and a commercial organic wheatgrass growing operation.

Bio

He now works as a consultant in his new project Be Agriculture where he helps new and seasoned growers take their agronomy to the next level.What we think, we grow! Contact Evan at www.BeAgriculture.com or on Facebook and Instagram @beagriculture

ITâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S EASY TO GROW YOUR OWN SUPERFOODS www.house-garden.com.au

www.stealth-garden.com

REZIN AROMA & FLAVOUR ENHANCER

WHY?

HOW?

Rezin is an aroma and flavour enhancer that was formulated to increase the naturally occurring processes of flowering plants. Rezin accentuates the plants original flavonoid and terpene profiles rather than overriding them like a number of similarly aimed products. Rezin helps to regularly enhance those traits to levels usually found in only the most unique examples of each phenotype. Rezin improves trichome size and crystal production which results in sticky, resin laden flowers, better extractions and increased bag appeal.

Rezin is made from a combination of Ascorbic, Citric, Gluconic and Lactic Acids created through our fermentation process. What makes Rezin different is that it contains no PGR’s (Plant Growth Promoters) or restricted bio simulators. Rezin does not effect your EC levels. This allows you to use Rezin at full strength while other products will require you to back-off on the necessary base nutrients that your plants require for optimal growth. Producing a cup winning strain has never been easier.

See the results of our products ﬁrst hand on youtube: