Water Is Life AUS25 by Garden Culture Magazine

AU ST R A L I A ED I T I O N · I S SU E 25 · 20 21 · F R EE CO P Y

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CONTENTS

KNOW SOIL, KNOW LIFE 28

TAKING ON THE GLOBAL CLIMATE CRISIS

MARKETpLACE

WAYS TO FEED YOUR PLANTS NATURALLY

OKE CHARITY

MASTERING THE ART OF WATERING

I N TH IS ISSU E O F GA R D EN C U LT U R E :

9 Foreword

49 Hug Some Trees Before They Disappear

11 Author Spotlight

53 Crop Steering Through Flowering and Fruiting

13 MARKETPLACE Spotlights

54 There Will Be Rain

16 Quality Time!

58 Water and Light: Hydrophilic Physiology

18 Know Soil, Know Life

63 Lovely Lavender - Aromatic and Soothing Herb

23 Hard and Soft Water - The Differences and How It Impacts A Grow

66 How Water Quality Impacts Your Garden

26 Environmental Control and the Human Experience

68 Indoor Farms Offer Food Autonomy

32 Ways To Feed Your Plants Naturally

72 Chemistry Basics - A Water Primer

38 Taking On The Global Climate Crisis

75 Oke Charity - Growing Mighty Kids

44 Mastering The Art of Watering

76 Seeds of Yesterday Preserved for Tomorrow

46 Rainwater Collection for Gardening

78 The Autopot in Kenya

47 Climate Goals

80 5 Cool Ways Xeriscaping Works

Serious Supplies for your Hydroponic Store

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FOREWORD & CREDITS

CREDITS

FOREWORD

Water is Life solvent and collects just about everything in

CU LTU R E

its path. We go to great lengths to ensure that

U K ED I T I O N · I S SU E 4 3 · 20 21 · F R EE CO P Y

PRESIDENT The gods Eric Coulombe must be crazy eric@gardenculturemagazine.com +1-514-233-1539

G A R D E N

ater is never just water. It is the universal

SPECI A L TH A N KS TO: Albert Mondor, Andrew Abramson, Anne Gibson, Brian Gandy, Caroline Rivard, Catherine Sherriffs, Cody J. GarrettTait, Doug Jacobs, Evan Folds, Jennifer Cole, Joanna Berg, Luke Regan, Martyna Krol, Philip McIntosh, Rich Hamilton, Sarah Schuette, and Sean Basalyga.

CANNAUK_CMP_DBLOCK_GC_ADV.indd 2

Fortunately, testing and treating your water has never been easier. But, unfortunately, that is just the beginning. HOW, WHEN, and WHAT you feed your plants is equally essential when it comes to gardening. And there is no one answer for how to do it. The kind of plant, the substrate, and your environment will dictate how best to manage your water and nutrient schedule. In this edition, we will try to help you create the best watering practices for your garden. Light always plays a role in plant morphology and plant physiology. Water and Light: Hydrophilic Physiology by Brian Gandy explains the relationship between light, heat, and water. To complicate things, many plants require different watering methods for different stages of their life. Doug Jacob’s gets more specific in Crop Steering Through Flowering and Fruiting. In light of COP26 and all that is going on globally, everyone should read Environmental Control and the Human Experience by Evan Folds.

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quantity, and in extreme cases, death.

ED I TO R Catherine Sherriffs canna-uk.com cat@gardenculturemagazine.com

ISSUE 43

health of your plants. The result is a reduction in quality and

and pathogenic, anaerobic microbes can negatively impact the

ED I TO R Celia Sayers celia@gardenculturemagazine.com +1-514-754-1539

UK EDITION

Heavy metals, chemical contamination, poor oxygen levels,

THE ART OF GROWING

The gods tainted water can make us sick. The same goes for ourmust plants. be crazy EXECUTIVE our drinking water is clean and safe because we know that

GCMAG.CO 10-09-21 17:43

DESIGN Job Hugenholtz job@gardenculturemagazine.com D I G I TA L & SO CI A L M A R K E T I N G CO O R D I N ATO R Serena Sayers serena@gardenculturemagazine.com +1-514-754-0062 ADVERTISING ads@gardenculturemagazine.com PUBLISHER 325 Media INC 44 Hyde Rd., Mille-Isles QC, Canada J0R 1A0 GardenCultureMagazine.com ISSN 2562-3540 (Print) ISSN 2562-3559 (Online) Garden Culture is published six times a year, both in print and online.

He has once again quite eloquently described our plight and shown us the light. Not to preach from my soapbox, but according to most climate scientists, time is running out, and we need to act. One of the top things we can do is to grow our own food. If everyone takes

@GardenCulture

@GardenCultureMagazine

@Garden_Culture

one small step, it will equal a giant leap. Happy Gardening, Eric 3

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AUTHOR SPOTLIGHT

Nothing needs our attention more at this very moment than the erosion of democracy

Author Spotlight Andrew Abramson

arden Culture Magazine isn’t only about gardening; we like to dabble in politics too! When it comes to governmental and

environmental policies, we trust Andrew Abramson to break it all down for us. He has his fingers on the pulse of the political landscape in the U.S. and beyond. But, of course, there’s more to Andrew than just politics; here’s your chance to get to know him a little better.

What is your favourite plant to grow? I’ve lived my entire life in Florida, and almost all of it in tropical South Florida. My wife and I love fruit trees. In our backyard, we have mangos, papaya, coconuts and starfruit. I consider the mango harvest season a holiday. We also have an avocado tree and lots of hibiscus flowers. In your opinion, what’s the most significant issue needing our attention right now? There is no question that climate change is the most crucial challenge facing the world now and throughout the rest of the century. But nothing needs our attention more at this very moment than the erosion of democracy. Here in the United States, there’s an entire political party embracing authoritarianism and making it more difficult to vote. If it can happen in the U.S., it can happen to any democracy worldwide. What is your favourite food? I’m a seafood fanatic and am thrilled to see seafood boil restaurants popping up all over South Florida, seemingly overnight -- not that we ever lacked good seafood in Florida. I could also eat tacos any day of the week.

What’s your favourite pastime? I love to travel and experience different cultures. BC (before children), I went overseas at least once a year. Most of my travels were focused on Europe and Asia, but I hope to explore more of South America and share my love of travelling with my kids. What is your favourite podcast? I’m about the last person out there who doesn’t regularly listen to podcasts. I’m a news junkie constantly checking Twitter, but I haven’t dug deep into the podcast world. When I’m in my car or wearing my Airpods, I’m usually listening to music. I’m always making Spotify playlists and sharing them with the world. 3

Are you interested in writing for Garden Culture Magazine? We’d love to hear from you! Send us an email introducing yourself with a sample of your work. editor@gardenculturemagazine.com

Invasion OSA BREAKING NEWS: Invasion OSA has landed on earth! A potent, powerful, and yet affordable silicic acid for your space-age garden.Activate by mixing with water to produce fast-acting monosilicic acid, readily available silicon that will provide a crucial element for powerful plant development. Suitable for all plant types, Invasion OSA will improve crop growth and vigour, strengthen pest and disease resistance, and promote drastic leaf and flower size increases. Invasion OSA will also enhance the potency of resin-producing plants. Works with all cultivation systems and substrates, Invasion OSA is available now in all leading hydroponic retailers. Manufactured by Green Zone, Distributed by Stealth Garden Wholesale. See complete information at Stealth-Garden.com

Hygrozyme

HYSHIELD™ A unique formula derived from exoskeletons of crustaceans. Chitosan is extracted from crab shells, a non-toxic, biocompatible, and biodegradable waste from the seafood industry. HYSHIELD™offers broad-spectrum disease and pathogen control by tricking plants into thinking pests are attacking them. As a result, the plant’s immune system goes into protective mode. In agriculture, HYSHIELD™ has been used in seed, leaf, fruit, and vegetable sprays and as fertiliser with astounding results. Chitosan not only protects plants against harmful microorganisms but it helps to increase plant productivity. For you, this means a bigger yield and higher quality product come harvest. When applied to crops as a foliar spray or drench, HYSHIELD™ increases your plant’s resilience to survive in high heat and cold stress environments. HYSHIELD™ reduces transpiration without lowering plant functions which dramatically increases strike rates of cuttings. Compatible with all nutrients and supplement programs. Find a retailer near you: WHG.net.au

Pinelab 5x5 & 5x9 - New Sizes The BEST just got BIGGER! Pinelab tents have a reputation as ’the Swiss army knife of grow tents’ with more functions, features, and slick design engineering than any other tent on the market. Now available in two new sizes: 5x5 (1.5 x 1.5m) and 5x9 (1.5 x 2.75m) - perfect for growers scaling up their gardens! The ultra-effective cleanroom standard of cultivation, Pinelab tents are built for craft gardeners, featuring productive spatial design and patented duct outlets, unique drainage solutions, window filters, cable grommets, and an in-built gear board. Available now in all leading hydroponic stores and web stores. Distributed by Stealth Garden - see the entire range and accessories online at Stealth-Garden.com

Growee

pH Balancer & Nutrient Doser Monitors your nutrients with real-time pH, EC, and water temp measurements to save precious time and prevent mistakes that detract from maximum growth and premium yields. Growee features a smartphone app that controls the monitoring sensors for the home grower. Growee software allows even the novice grower access to hydroponic growing methods that were once perceived as too complicated.Via special sensors, the electronic system monitors the state of the water and nutrients 24/7, refreshing real-time data every 30 seconds. This data is anonymously collated in the company’s secure cloud platform, which analyses it and immediately fixes the relevant parameters. For example, if the pH probe indicates a high pH in the reservoir, the Growee pH balancer will inject the precise dose of pH down into the water to remedy the situation. Comes with a 2-year warranty on the modules and a 1-year warranty on the probes. Visit WHG.net.au to find out more about Growee.

Hortivision 630w LED Affordable excellence in LED Lighting - the Hor tivision 630w LED is helping growers get big yields with ease! The Hor tivision 630w LED is a 1700 μmol/s fixture with an impressive efficiency of 2.7 μmol per watt. A proven workhorse with hundreds of growers worldwide adopting this fixture with excellent feedback. A true spectrum output and total power efficiency - the Hor tivision 630w is an LED light that exceeds expectations. Providing affordable excellence in agricultural lighting, Hor tivision utilises Samsung and Osram components. Backed by a 3-year warranty, ask for it at your local hydroponic store to see what these fixtures have to offer! Available now via Stealth Garden retailers in Australia and New Zealand. Check out Stealth-Garden.com for more details.

H&G Starter Kits

Hygrozyme Hygrozyme™ is North America’s #1 selling horticultural enzyme formula. A powerful blend of concentrated, beneficial enzymes that work synergistically to ensure plants achieve their full genetic potential, Hygrozyme™ unique proprietary formula contains the highest units/mL of cellulase, which rapidly breaks down dead root matter and converts it into simple sugars which feed your beneficial bacteria. Hygrozyme™ is effective in all growing media and growth stages and is compatible with all nutrient and supplement programs.

With decades of Dutch science and research combined with Californian expertise in medicinal plants, House & Garden is a world leader in precision nutrient formulations. The House & Garden Range combines the very best organic biostimulants with unique blends of chelated minerals. The result? Cup-winning quality and recordbreaking yields. The H&G Starter Kit allows you to use their entire nutrient regime with all formulations provided in the correct size for a small/medium home gardener. House & Garden is used by the very best growers, from California to Europe, South Africa to New Zealand, and everywhere in between! Australian’s have been seeing success with this cup-winning range since 2007. See the entire collection at Stealth-Garden.com

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BY CODY J. GARRETT-TAIT

Quality Time! “W

ater water everywhere but not a drop to drink”, the rhyme of the Old Mariner reads, coined

because out at sea, even though water is all around, it is rarely ever suitable for drinking. Many gardeners face a similar problem. No matter the cultivation style, the quality of the water given to plants makes a profound difference, from the garden’s overall health to resulting yields, especially when growing organically.

No matter the cultivation style, the quality of the water given to plants makes a profound difference, from the garden’s overall health to resulting yields, especially when growing organically

They’re Just Like Us!? Just as drinking tainted water can make humans sick, the same can happen to plants. Heavy metal and chemical contamination, poor oxygen levels, and pathogenic, anaerobic microbes can cause severe damage to a plant’s rhizosphere. With organics, the deliberate contamination of municipal water with sterilants (chlorine/chloramine) can shut down and outright kill beneficial microbe colonies, resulting in dead soil that doesn’t function. This impaired microbe functioning means compromised nutrient cycling. In short, plants starve despite having plenty of food around. So just like for our bodies, we try to choose the cleanest, healthiest water possible. Similarly, you should strive to give your garden the best source of water available to you. Sure, we might prefer different things (I certainly don’t want to choke down a glass of compost tea!), but the focus should be on quality. We want a pure source, with the only hitchhikers being the things we add in ourselves.

Rainwater There are many options for water supplies. The most obvious (and arguably the best) choice for many people is the stuff that falls out of the sky. Rainwater harvesting is encouraged in many dry climates; it has the advantage of no sterilants added to it, which is especially helpful when watering organic living soil and brewing aerated compost teas, where killing microbes is of concern. Depending on the cleanliness of the area where your water is harvested and how it is stored, there can be many impurities present, everything from leaf debris and dirt to mosquito larvae, which, while organic, is better to avoid. Unfortunately, rainwater also has no buffering for pH. It is often quite acidic, which depending on the cultivation style, may facilitate the addition of something like a carbonate source to prevent it from dropping down too far. For soil, this generally isn’t as much an issue as it is in

WATER QUALITY

a salt-based grow, as microbes can supply plants with nutrients over a much wider range than the narrow band of salts. Most people store their water in tanks. However, larger gardens take advantage of open dams, making them vulnerable to more significant amounts of contamination. When using this water source, filtration is the way to go. A particulate filter, coupled with a polishing stage (usually charcoal) filter, will give you some high-quality H2O. Some people also incorporate a UVC globe to sterilise the water directly. For soil, this is probably overkill, but more sterile cultivation methods are recommended.

You can fix chlorinated water sources by filling your watering vessel 24 hours in advance and adding an airstone to keep it oxygenated

City Water Often, a municipal or town water supply is the most convenient option for gardeners, as not everyone can harvest rainwater or has a place to store it. Municipal water has the advantage of coming right out of a tap in a clean, drinkable manner. Still, chemicals and minerals have been added at the water treatment plant to prevent the growth of microbes, adjust pH, and prevent dental decay in the case of fluoride. These things can be detrimental, especially in soil gardens. You can fix chlorinated water sources by filling your watering vessel 24 hours in advance and adding an airstone to keep it oxygenated. This will off-gas the chlorine to very low levels but will not remove the chloramine portion, which some states and councils have started using. To clear this additive and others like fluoride, consider a filtration method. A particulate filter may not be required as with the rainwater. Still, a specific anti chlorination and chloramine filter along with a charcoal polishing stage will provide fantastic water quality suited to organics. A reverse osmosis filter also works wonders on this type of water source. However, while RO gives immaculately clean water, it takes a while to process, and as a result, wastes a lot of water. It is also expensive to replace parts on this kind of filter.

Well Water Well water is often the only option for some inland, rural towns, with neither enough rain to harvest regularly nor enough people living in the area for a municipal reservoir. Unfortunately, of all the sources, this one comes with the most impurities and potential for problems. The quality of well water varies considerably. Very rarely is it top quality coming right out of the tap; it’s often loaded with sulphur, iron, and other underground minerals (even heavy metals) that make their way into the supply from underground aquifers. This kind of water often stains surfaces it lands on and has a pronounced rotten egg odour.

You can make anything work, but you’ll have to put a lot of effort into a water source like this. A progressive particulate filtration system is paramount to catching the sediment. A cleaning stage such as charcoal is also needed to take out whatever is left. Additionally, a UVC light for sterilisation is highly recommended to kill off any bad anaerobes that are brewing in the mix. RO is not recommended as the first form of filtration in this case because the water needs to be cleaned before it can be deep cleaned. If you use an RO filter before cleaning the water, you will find yourself replacing the membranes rapidly. But it can be beneficial as a final stage. Pure water is the cornerstone of life and a significant component in a healthy, productive and flourishing garden. So don’t skimp on your source! 3

BIO Cody is the owner of High Powered Organics

and a second-generation Australian grower with more than a decade of experience in the horticulture industry. Cody works closely with growers locally and abroad, creating organic solutions for high output cropping. He achieves maximum results by combining aspects from permaculture, biodynamic farming, and Korean natural farming techniques. Cody’s main focus is finding natural, and sustainable ways to produce high-quality plants with a minimum of input.

BY SARAH SCHUETTE

Know Soil, Know Life C lean water is something that most of us take for granted, but the fragility, dependence, and vitalness of water to humans should put water quality and security higher on our priority list. According to the WHO, “By 2025, half of the

world’s population will be living in water-stressed areas.”

Water is life, and both are precious. “No water, No life; Know water, Know life

WATER IS LIFE

What if we were to run out of clean water? What if all of the clean water becomes owned and controlled by corporations and sold back to us? These are questions we should all be asking ourselves right now. Our water health and independence are crucial now more than ever. Exercise water stewardship and independence with these six water-conserving gardening techniques.

According to the WHO, “By 2025, half of the world’s population will be living in waterstressed areas

Build Hugelkultur Beds There are many different types of growing vessels depending on your growing style and site-specific limitations. In-ground, raised beds, grow pots, etc. Pots have more surface area and tend to lose water quickly. Any above-ground containers will have higher exposure to evaporative losses, but the native in-ground soils are not always arable or usable for growing crops. What to do? Hugelkultur is the best of both worlds. They are like a raised bed with an internal watering and fertiliser system, a great way to conserve water and reduce fertiliser inputs. It is also a great way to build soil on marginal lands.

Reduce Evaporation Through Irrigation and Mulch The goal with water conservation is to reduce evaporation, not to be confused with evapotranspiration. We want the water to pull nutrients up through the plant before being released into the atmosphere. Therefore, any water going directly into the atmosphere from the irrigation source or soil surface is “wasted” water.

Some cultivators are fortunate enough to grow on flood plain soils naturally irrigated by the river’s groundwater system. This is by far the best way to get water into the ground and bypass the need for irrigation altogether. And some have employed the hugel beds to soak up and retain incoming water from irrigation events, but not every cultivation site is available for that type of infrastructure. The best way to get water directly to the plant root system and reduce losses is subsoil irrigation and tensiometer-based watering technology that relies on specified soil moisture to trigger irrigation events. The most

Hugelkultur is a German word meaning “Hill Culture”, and mounds are shaped into long windrows. They are created by digging down into the earth to form a trench filled with logs. The logs are stacked with the largest diameter on the bottom, getting sequentially smaller towards the top of the pile until you have a mounded pile of wood, half-submerged in the ground. The hugel is then covered with soil and compost. It can take 20+ years to completely break down, all the while adding nutrients and improving its water-holding capacity as it decomposes. This creates a self-sustaining system that gets easier to maintain over time, not only conserving water and reducing watering events but saving on labour too. This is a great thing to do with downed trees and logs that fall during the winter or need to come down for other reasons. Chip the smaller branches to use as mulch or in compost, and bury the larger logs, giving them a second life as their bodies return to the nutrient, carbon, and water cycles.

Hugelkultur is a German word meaning “Hill Culture”, and mounds are shaped into long windrows

wasteful way to irrigate is with sprinkler systems, especially on a large scale, and can be the source of water loss. You are throwing 35-50% of your water into the air to evaporate away as water that never makes it to the plant. Ditching and flooding methods also leave the water exposed above ground, providing more surface area for evaporation. Covering the soil surface with mulch or cover crops reduce evaporative losses by allowing water to remain in the soil. In addition, this provides a shade cover that protects from hot direct sunlight that will increase evaporation from bare soil surfaces. The cover crop, or top of the mulch, takes the brunt of the sunlight, protecting the cool, damp soil beneath. This not only keeps plant available water in the earth, but it also creates excellent living conditions for microorganisms to thrive.

Hugelkultur Bed 19

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WATER IS LIFE

Planting Drought Tolerant Species Turfgrass lawns are one of the most water wasteful ground coverings. Often, it is not native or adapted for the area it is being applied. Better to plant low-maintenance native grass species adapted to low water conditions. Every time you cut your lawn, there are massive amounts of evaporative losses through the open wound of the cut grass blades. There are many different types of drought-tolerant plants, including shrubs, certain grass species, and

succulents. Drought resistant gardens are not only great for water conservation but are also low maintenance. Keep the soil covered by planting everything close together to prevent bare soil from being exposed for maximum water retention.

Carbon Additions Carbon inputs such as biochar and compost improve multiple issues with our soils today. Not only do they sequester carbon and increase the nutrient and water-holding ability of the soil, but they also create a microclimate for microorganisms to thrive. Food, shelter, water, and warmth in the soil allow soil life to increase and flourish, carbon being the primary food source for these organisms. Compost and biochar can hold approximately 50% or more of their volume in water, reducing the need for watering events while keeping consistent moisture for healthy plant roots. These inputs are great additions to a drought-tolerant garden to further reduce the need for irrigation.

Greywater Systems - Recycling Water Greywater is gently used water from your sinks, showers, tubs, and washing machines at home that we can recycle back into the natural system rather than through our human-created sewage infrastructure. You can use greywater in your garden to offset irrigation usage. Essentially, you are using the water twice, which is excellent for areas rationing water usage. Due to the nutritional quality of greywater, releasing it into water bodies is a pollutant. But by watering it onto your plants or compost, it becomes a fer-

I could list multiple reasons why one should want to conserve water, but I’m going to sum it all up with one very good reason: Survival. Water is life, and both are precious. “No water, No life; Know water, Know life” tiliser and food source for microbes. If we divert some of our used household water, we can reduce our freshwater consumption and let nature do the work to repurify while returning it to the soil.

Catching and Storing Rainwater Catching and storing rainwater has many benefits, like reducing the energy costs of pumping or using municipal water systems. In natural environments, 90% of the rainwater soaks into the soil to recharge our groundwater. In urban areas, due to enormous amounts of surfaces not being permeable to water, 90% of the rainwater runs off into the drain sewers to rivers and never makes it into the groundwater recharge process. Oddly enough, we then pay to have it cleaned, pumped, then piped back to our homes. Why don’t we catch it on its way to the drain and use it a couple of times before giving it back to the earth? It would be the most responsible use of our rainwater supply. Our water is in a crisis and is quickly becoming one of the most precious resources on the planet, without which we would all cease to exist. Research each of these techniques further to make a water-wise investment plan for you and your family. Stay healthy, stay free. 3

BIO After receiving her degree in Soil Science from Humboldt State University, Sarah Schuette and her business partner Joanna Berg start-

ed an agricultural laboratory to serve the local farming and gardening community in Humboldt County, California. From building an OSHA compliant soil testing laboratory to designing custom fertiliser blends and IPM programmes, they have helped local and international growers implement sustainable, cost-effective cultivation practices for over a decade. With extensive knowledge of indoor, outdoor, and greenhouse cultivation, they believe education is key to completing the information gap and supporting healthy people, plants, and a healthy planet.

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HARD AND SOFT WATER

BY RICH HAMILTON

Hard and Soft Water The Differences and How It Impacts A Grow

o you know if you have hard or soft water and what the difference is between the two? And how can it affect your plants if you rely on a domestic water supply to feed an indoor grow? Let’s take a look!

There is nothing to worry about regardSoft water reaches Soft water reaches our household taps ing human health, with the World Health our household taps with low mineral content, much like Organisation stating that “there does not with low mineral when it fell as rain. Soft water is rainwaappear to be any convincing evidence that ter that falls onto bedrock made up of water hardness causes adverse health efcontent, much like metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rock fects in humans”. Minerals such as calcium when it fell as rain has been compressed over thousands of and magnesium are essential for maintainyears and is not very porous. So rainwater runs off it and does ing health, so drinking hard water contributes to the recomnot pick up any extra minerals along the way. mended daily allowance.

Soft Water

Hard Water

Water Harness and Plant Health

High mineral content is what defines hard water. Hard water is created when rainwater falls onto porous sedimentary rock such as chalk, limestone, flint and sandstone. From there, it seeps through the ground and retains small amounts of chemical compounds as it goes. The main chemical compounds that make up hard water are calcium and magnesium. However, other minerals, such as iron, manganese and chloride can also be present.

Unfortunately, the same cannot be said for growing equipment or a plant’s health if hard water is used in an indoor garden. Hard water can cause limescale build-up that damages growing systems by reducing water flow, pressure, efficiency and lifespan. Limescale is visible as a white, chalky build-up that accumulates quickly. So it’s no surprise that hard water is not recommended for use in recirculation systems or similar.

Measuring Water Hardness and Human Health Water hardness is measured in calcium carbonate parts per million. Soft water has under 60ppm, while very hard water registers at more than 180ppm.

Hard water can have a detrimental impact on plants if left untreated. While high levels of calcium and magnesium aren’t problematic, they can lead to nutrient imbalance. The more calcium and magnesium the water contains, the higher the possibility that other nutrients such as potassium and phosphorous will be locked out. This can lead to a whole host of nutrient deficiencies that can cause growth and development issues.

HARD AND SOFT WATER

Hard water is created when rainwater falls onto porous sedimentary rock such as chalk, limestone, flint and sandstone

The positive ions in the calcium and magnesium will increase the pH level of the feed solution, as will any excess CO2 carbonates in the water. As a result, the pH will become more alkaline, and you will have to monitor and adjust it carefully to keep it within plant-friendly levels.

Fixing Water

If you live in a hard water area, there are plenty of ways to manage the situation and still run a successful indoor grow with fantastic results

whether you live in a hard or soft water area. You should be able to check this information easily online. Then, check if you should be using a hard or soft water feed. If this doesn’t do the trick, consider RO. RO is great for having ultimate control over your plant’s nutrition, as you will be adding everything they need to your water source. Be meticulous; the results will be more than worth it.

So how do you combat the effects of hard water on your indoor grow if you live in a hard water area? Hard water feeds are available; they work by reducing the overall pH of the feed solution. If the pH remains too high, you can use ‘pH down’ to reduce it further. There are also feeds available for those growing in soft water areas. However, keep in mind that soft water is not a problem. Soft, slightly acidic water is the perfect condition for nutrient uptake in plants. It causes no issues to equipment, so unless your water is incredibly soft and your pH is very low, a standard feed will work just fine. Likewise, standard feed works well in soft to modestly hard water areas. If you decide that you need a soft water feed, however, take note that they do not alter the pH of the feed solution, and it will require changing through the use of ‘pH up.’

Reverse Osmosis Another solution for hard water is reverse osmosis or RO. Reverse osmosis is a filtering system where the water is forced through a membrane, trapping particles and removing impurities down to 0.0009 microns. Having water free from contaminants and minerals offers a more controlled grow. Nutrients can be better managed without the worry of what was in the water source at the beginning. If you can afford RO, the results make it worth the initial expenditure. However, growers can address most moderate problems by other, less expensive means. First, establish

Up For a Challenge? There’s nothing to fear! If you live in a hard water area, there are plenty of ways to manage the situation and still run a successful indoor grow with fantastic results. If anything, overcoming the extra challenge will only make you a better gardener. 3

BY EVAN FOLDS

Environmental Control and the Human Experience

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

True story humans are actively destroying the potential for human experience on Earth.

his is not hyperbole. The environment is failing, coercion and the misery that it manifests is rising, we consume far more than we produce, chronic disease is an epidemic on its way to being normalised, and wealth is being centralised at seemingly exponential rates. As a result, all of the metrics we use

to evaluate the health of human and environmental systems are moving swiftly in the wrong direction, we are losing the thread of our humanity, and we are driving our species towards oblivion.

It is surreal to type those words and mean them, and it is even more alarming that, given the state of emergency that we are in, we are far too complacent. But the good news is that the solutions are relatively simple. The basis for these critical circumstances is that we humans have a control problem.

Control is the basis of narcissism. Control is at the heart of the fact that the world’s richest eight men now own more than the bottom 4 billion people

Some Examples

The very act of farming is an example of our control problems. Industrial agriculture is the single most destructive force on the planet today, and, at the same time, humanity is eating what is being served. We are being subjected to false choices, but we also need accountability. We are all a part of the agricultural system; as the great Wendell Berry reminds us, “Eating is an agricultural act”.

Our attempt to control Afghanistan resulted in the US recently retreating from a 20-year war that saw our military first take power from the Taliban, then give it back at the cost of $8 trillion. A single trillion dollars would cover the salaries of the estimated two million school teachers in the US for nine years. With $8 trillion, you could spend more than $432 million every day for 50 years (or 18,250 times). Would anyone other than the few who profited from this military exercise say this effectively expresses our resources and priorities?

Mr Berry was also correct when he said, “People are fed by the food industry, which pays no attention to health, and are treated by the health industry, which pays no attention to food”. But, unfortunately, the reality is that neither side – humans or industry – is standing up for responsible farming and human nourishment.

The attempt to control a virus is at the root of the unprecedented tyranny and coercion alive during the Covid Moment. Control is the basis of narcissism. Control is at the heart of the fact that the world’s richest eight men now own more than the bottom 4 billion people. Control is responsible for the toxic rescue chemistry of medicine and farming that has completely lost the thread of health and nourishment and has us believing that man-made synthetic systems are superior to Nature. What could we be if we allowed ourselves to be what we can be?

Sense-Making

Out of Control It doesn’t take rocket science to see that our attempts to control will result in disaster – fracking, pharmaceutical approach to health, single-use plastic, weather modification, corporate personhood, artificial lawn care, GMO mosquitoes, conventional agriculture, blocking out the sun to cool the Earth, and the list goes on. How do we not know better?

We have lost control when the point of our agriculture no longer makes human sense.

The first step in sense-making is to think for ourselves. Trust the “experts” who have lost touch with healthy priorities at your own risk, given the framework presented here. The second step in sense-making is to define the landscape. Anyone who has read my articles over the years is familiar with the concept of egolution that I use to describe a blind spot in our collective understanding of ourselves. Without identity, we are vulnerable to manipulation, and, again, unless we can see ourselves for what we are, how are we to know what we can be? In Issue 42 of Garden Culture, I wrote about Rudolf Steiner’s articulation of the four-fold human being and how the human ego and our ability to self-reflect distinguish us from the animal kingdom. This time, I want to further explore the concept through how our identity crisis contributes to our control problem.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

We have lost control when the point of our agriculture no longer makes human sense

Human beings can control our environment; our challenge is whether we can keep our capacities under control. Can we control our ability to control? At this moment in human history, the question is: Are we responsible enough for our potential?

The future of our presence on Earth is in our hands. Yet, we are obliterating the living systems that provide us sustenance

intelligence and genetic modification to perpetuate this destruction with no conscience. The tragic irony of the Anthropocene is that, in full consciousness, we are actively undermining what we would want if we were asked. I made up a word for this also – depructive.

We have built a world that takes advantage of the Earth and our fellow humans in an unsustainable and unjust way. Unless we can recognise our complicity within this system, we will remain stuck at the mercy of the crippling social and economic webs that have been woven as a container for our existence, and we will be unable to realise our potential.

Surely we are not here to destroy ourselves. The beauty of consciousness is that because at our core we are generative spiritual beings with great power, we can begin to make up our own minds in new ways, and we can then change the world with our will. Indeed, our perspective drives our actions - what we think, we grow. But we have to think first.

The Antidote

Evolution

We are far more powerful than we realise, especially when we are free. But, unfortunately, control does not allow for freedom; it is a false drug. The good news is that when it comes to human shadow work, the antidote often is to become aware. Rather than any specific set of actions, our awareness and ability to amend the actions can help us take ownership of our place within the universe.

It is interesting to investigate this unparalleled human capacity through the lens of evolution. There is a general agreement in human understanding and grade school textbooks that humans evolved from monkeys as if we inhabit an ecological niche within a balanced web of life like other animals. Beyond this, there is very little modern collective academic or philosophical recognition that we are anything more than intelligent animals going through the evolutionary motions.

We are the only organisms on Earth that can change our minds and have the capacity to generate new actionable ideas. We have an ego that allows us to see ourselves in the mirror and say “I”. The ultimate evidence for this is found in the name that we have given our current era – the Anthropocene, or the “age of humanity”. Human consciousness is unique on Earth; it is special, and with this extraordinary ability comes great responsibility, and in this responsibility, we are failing. The future of our presence on Earth is in our hands. Yet, we are obliterating the living systems that provide us sustenance. We are doubling down by unleashing unnatural forces like artificial

But in a Darwinian sense, humans do not evolve. Even Charles Darwin avoided humans in On the Origin of Species, saving his thoughts on humans for the Descent of Man, where he argued that the moral sense of humans was derived by biological descent from animal instinct, particularly from the social instincts developed by natural selection. However, there is no real consensus for the incentive for this moral descent, nor any rational explanation why human social instincts that do not produce biological fitness as demanded by evolution would have been selected for.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

We have built a world that takes advantage of the Earth and our fellow humans in an unsustainable and unjust way

Natural selection assumes that what is being selected for increases biological fitness in the population in balance with the food web, but humans are growing sicker and our population is exponentially out of balance with Nature. In other words, the theory does not fit the application.

Egolution is the solution for the human identity crisis; it allows us to become conscious of our ability to control

The basis of evolution is that animals adapt and are biologically shaped and enhanced by their environment via the mechanism of survival of the fittest. For humans, the opposite is true. Rarely is our mortality in play when it comes to reproduction, and instead of being manipulated by our environment, we are the manipulators. If we get cold, we put a coat on. If we have poor vision, we wear glasses or have corrective surgery. What if a bird of prey that relied on its eyesight to hunt had 20/40 vision? Human beings are not animals; we are humans. The ego presents us with the riddle of seeing ourselves as separate from the whole; what a glorious and painful gift. Humans are not a parasite or cancer to the Earth. Humans are to the Earth what the light is to the darkness. We are not a grain of sand in a sea of stars; in a spiritual context, we are the centre of the universe. The ego is not evil, it is merely a tool that we can use for bad or good, and it is the premise of these words to say that when we are not aware of ourselves, we are extremely dangerous.

The Game of Earth

To gain control of our control problems and win at the game of Earth, we must begin to see ourselves in a new light. This will not be easy. The world is entrenched in the intoxication of written history, creature comforts and the status quo. We are distracted by identity culture and what is outside of ourselves, we are hypnotised by generations of guru-based religious indoctrination, our health is subjected to sick care, and we are malnourished from a chemicalised food system not built on nourishment that has left us dazed and confused. The antidote is our awareness, and often the limitations of language are the gatekeeper. The process for human development needs a name. Animals evolve, humans egolve. Egolution is the celebration of the human spirit. Egolution calls for an end to the shaming of the human ego and allows us to define humanity distinctly from animals while serving as a makeweight for materialism by recognising our spiritual nature. Egolution is the solution for the human identity crisis; it allows us to become conscious of our ability to control. Adaptation and biodiversity are the entire secret of life on Earth. If we take this to heart and follow the thread, the destination is freedom. Let us not lose sight of this truth at all costs. Most corruption is in the comfort and expectation of control. If we do not think for ourselves, someone else will do it for us. We have been sold a bill of goods, and we need to wake up and let go. 3

Bio

Evan Folds is a regenerative agricultural consultant with a background across every facet of the farming and gardening spectrum. He has founded and operated many businesses over the years - including a retail hydroponics store he operated for over 14 years, a wholesale company that formulated beyond organic products and vortex-style compost tea brewers, an organic lawn care company, and a commercial organic wheatgrass growing operation. He now works as a consultant in his new project Be Agriculture where he helps new and seasoned growers take their agronomy to the next level.What we think, we grow! Contact Evan at www.BeAgriculture.com or on Facebook and Instagram @beagriculture

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

BY ANNE GIBSON

Ways to Feed your Plants

Naturally I enjoy connecting deeply with nature in my garden and using my senses and creativity

NATURAL NUTRITION

ll plants need 17 naturally occurring elements to grow, flower, fruit and reproduce successfully. However, they require different quantities depending on the stage of growth.

Macronutrients are elements plants need in large quantities. Non-mineral macronutrients are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They make up around 96% of a plant’s mass and are obtained as carbon dioxide and water. The other essential elements are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulfur.

Feeding potted seedlings with organic pelletized fertiliser

Micronutrients are only needed in trace amounts but are all essential for healthy plant growth and reproduction. These are boron, zinc, manganese, chlorine, copper, iron, molybdenum and nickel. Plants access these nutrients in ionic form in the soil water via tiny root hairs that absorb soluble nutrients from the soil. Ninety per cent of plants have a relationship with mycorrhizal fungi in the soil around their roots. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi help deliver nutrients to plant roots for uptake. It’s a symbiotic relationship, so an active soil food web is essential for plants to access nutrients. A moist, well-drained soil high in organic matter provides a healthy environment for microbes. They decompose nutrients in compost, decaying leaves, grass clippings, garden prunings, mulch and worm castings and make them available to plants when needed. As the organic matter breaks down over time, it converts into humus (‘black gold’ - the end product of composting). Few organic gardeners have perfect soil. Improving our soil with natural amendments rather than synthetic chemical additives has a significant advantage. Natural fertilisers feed the soil microbiology that, in turn, improve soil structure. Chemical fertilisers, however, can lock up nutrients, harm soil biota, change the pH and often result in nutrient deficiencies in plants. There are safe ways to feed our plants without collateral damage!

How do Plants get the Nutrients they Need? Soil is made up of crushed rock particles that contain many of the minerals and elements plants need. However, soil structure, pH, weather conditions, temperature, microorganisms, and soil oxygen and moisture availability all play roles in how plants access that ‘food bank’. You can improve all soils by supplementing the soil’ pantry’ with nutrients your plants can take up when they need them.

Just like we go to the fridge when we’re hungry, as plants grow, they have nutritional demands The soil becomes depleted in certain nutrients over time as plants take them to grow. A bit like ‘withdrawing’ from a ‘soil bank account’. We effectively make a ‘deposit’ to top up that nutrient ‘account’ by fertilising or replenishing the soil storehouse. Natural ecosystems constantly recycle nutrients to build soil. For example, trees, plants, animals, and insects fall to the forest floor when they die and are gradually composted by fungi and bacteria in a rich web of life. The decomposed soil (humus) is rich in soluble nutrients, moisture and microorganisms. We can imitate the principles of this self-mulching, composting system in our gardens. The cheapest sustainable method is simply layering organic plant matter like dried or fresh green grass clippings, chopped prunings or kitchen scraps over the soil and covering it with mulch. There are many other options, though.

Just like we go to the fridge when we’re hungry, as plants grow, they have nutritional demands. Plants’ drink’ these elements via their roots in a soluble form diluted in soil water and through stomata or leaf pores when applied as a foliar spray. Leaf pores also let in carbon dioxide and release water vapour and oxygen through transpiration.

Worms and vermicast are soil improvers 33

Macronutrients are elements plants need in large quantities. Non-mineral macronutrients are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen Slow release organic pelletised fertiliser and rock mineral powder inputs

Applying Dry Fertilisers Natural fertilisers come from crushed rocks, plants and animal by-products and are applied in either dry or liquid forms. Dry fertilisers include: • soft rock phosphate (rock minerals); • blood and bone; • seaweed and alfalfa meal; • aged manures; • pelletised, granular or powdered slow-release soil conditioners; • compost and vermicast. We spread these over the soil surface or mix them into the soil, add to potting mixes or around the root zone when planting.

Immobile nutrients like phosphorus and potassium are best applied deeper in the ground or pot before planting, so they will be available where roots can take them up. I also side-dress dry fertilisers around plants under the mulch to top up nutrients during the growing season. Slow-release soil conditioners are often soluble and usually in a pelletised form that wet easily and soften with watering or rain. Most are based on chicken manure because it is so rich in many nutrients. This form of fertiliser becomes bioavailable quickly as it dissolves. Apply this type of plant food seasonally under the mulch and water well. Mulches (e.g. dried hay, sugarcane, pea straw, Lucerne and native wood chip) cover the soil to lock in moisture. Mulches provide shelter for microbes while adding nutrients for the plants that, over time, turn into soil. Nutrients in these forms tend to decompose slowly and are broken down by microorganisms.

NATURAL NUTRITION

Garden beds can be mulched heavily to feed soil minimise weeds and retain moisture until it rains

Aged horse manure

Wet Soil Amendments

How to Apply to Soil and Plant Leaves

Liquid fertilisers such as kelp or seaweed extract and fish emulsion contain micronutrients in a concentrated form. Diluted kelp tends to last one to three weeks, whereas fish emulsion provides value for one to four months. Liquid or powdered seaweed contains around 60 vital trace elements that build plant immunity to disease and plant health. Liquid seaweed is also a handy pick-me-up ‘Rescue Remedy’ or ‘tonic’ for plants.

Powdered or pelletised fertilisers should be applied to wet soil - ideally after rain or if your soil is well watered. Water in well before covering with mulch, or if preparing a garden bed to start planting, apply and work into the soil.

Diluted compost, manure and vermicast ‘teas’ and microbial solutions release nutrients quickly. Apply these to the soil and spray over leaves as a foliar feed. We need to apply liquid nutrients in both forms because plants need a higher intake of macronutrients than they can absorb just through their leaves. Foliar feeding only goes so far as some nutrients are immobile once inside the plant. Regular application is needed. I often use foliar feeding as a quick fix, particularly for nutrient deficiencies in mobile elements like iron and zinc.

An advantage of using a water-soluble fertiliser is that we can apply it directly to the plants in the soil. This gives an instant effect, and it’s possible to see results within a week. I apply liquid fertilisers as a foliar spray over the leaves directly for a quick fix. I generally spray early in the morning by wetting both upper and lower leaf surfaces. The nutrients enter through the leaf cuticle, mainly in the area around the stomata. You can also spray in the late afternoon or early evening unless the plants are easily attacked by fungal diseases (like the Curcubit family). Avoid creating a humid environment for mildew to thrive!

For larger gardens, you may want to use a fertigation tank or dedicated water tank for adding soluble nutrients. Liquid fertilisers are reticulated via an irrigation system directly to your plants.

Applying organic matter like aged manure and mulch helps feed the soil

An advantage of using a water-soluble fertiliser is that we can apply it directly to the plants in the soil. Liquid fertilising coriander seedlings with seaweed in spray bottle

This gives an instant effect, and it’s possible to see results within a week

NATURAL NUTRITION

Working with nature to feed our plants is the most economical, sustainable way to grow a healthy garden

How To Ensure Soil Has The Full Spectrum Of Nutrients The only way to know what mineral elements are present is to get a professional soil test done. Every soil is unique, and this will give you data to work with, so you know what’s missing and how much of each element you have present. It’s a delicate balancing act! Too little of some elements can cause mineral deficiencies. Too much of others can create an imbalance, causing some nutrients to become unavailable to your plants. Soil tests take the guesswork out of it! You can then get a customised blend of minerals to suit your specific soil. This is a bit of an investment, so there’s another option if this isn’t within your budget. Apply a balanced powdered or granular rock mineral blend with all the nutrients plants need. Water well because it takes time before microbes convert them into a soluble form. This fertilising is a storehouse or ‘insurance’ against potential nutrient

deficiencies. At least you will know the minerals are all in the soil. The finer the blend, the quicker it will be absorbed into your soil, worm farm, compost or potting mix. I add rock minerals when starting a garden or at least annually.

Building Soil with Humus The best way to feed any garden is to make your own compost and, ideally, have a worm farm to recycle your kitchen waste. Worms aerate your soil, tunnelling and recycling organic matter to provide a rich plant food (humus). They produce worm ‘castings’ or manure as a free plant food you can apply to your soil, as well as a liquid fertiliser. Working with nature to feed our plants is the most economical, sustainable way to grow a healthy garden. 3

BIO

Soil test kit showing slightly acidic to neutral pH

Anne Gibson, The Micro Gardener, is an author, speaker and urban garden community educator on the Sunshine Coast, in Queensland, Australia. Anne is passionate about inspiring people to improve health and wellbeing, by growing nutrient-dense food gardens in creative containers and small spaces. Anne regularly presents workshops, speaks at sustainable living events, coaches private clients and teaches community education classes about organic gardening and ways to live sustainably. She has authored several eBooks and gardening guides. Anne shares organic gardening tips and tutorials to save time, money and energy on her popular website - TheMicroGardener.com.

BY ANDREW ABRAMSON

Taking On The Global Climate Crisis

A 38

The world needs to reach net-zero by 2050 to keep warming under 1.5 degrees

fter four years of apathy toward the United States’ climate crisis, a new administration in Washington tries to make good on the country’s years-old pledge to reduce carbon emissions drastically.

GLOBAL CLIMATE CRISIS

China, America’s top rival politically and as world polluters, sees an opening to exploit the U.S.’ erratic climate policy. China’s demands that the U.S. improve its ties with the world’s most populated country before they work together on combating climate change shows just how much has changed in the last year.

Former President Donald Trump, beholden to the gas and oil industries, cared so little about climate issues that he pulled the U.S. out of the Paris Accord and rolled back environmental regulations that set the country back years in its fight against global warming

Turning the Page

climate change.” Wang said the U.S. “should pay attention and actively respond” to its list of demands it made over the summer for improved relations. Those demands included ending Visa restrictions on Chinese students and Communist members and ending the U.S. attempt to extradite Huawei CFO Meng Wanzhou from Canada. China also called on the U.S. to remove sanctions and the ban on technology trade.

Don’t expect the U.S. to heed China’s demands. But the Chinese will continue using climate change as a negotiation tool with the United States for issues that have nothing to do with the environment. It’s less clear if either country can do enough to roll back decades of damage.

No one will mistake Trump’s predecessor, Joe Biden, as a champion of environmental issues. He’s a moderate Democrat who doesn’t support the progressives’ dream of a massive Green New Deal. But he’s a significant improvement from Trump on climate change. Biden has brought the U.S. back in the Paris Accord and backs climate-related provisions in the infrastructure bill that remains his largest policy focus.

Failed Obligations

U.S. officials know they can’t combat climate change without assistance from China, whose CO2 emissions from fossil fuels accounted for a whopping 27.9% of the world’s total in 2019, according to figures from the Global Carbon Atlas. The United States was responsible for 14.5%.

Climate Action Tracker found that six countries, including the U.K., have a climate plan that is “nearly sufficient.” That means minor improvements could put them on pace to meet their climate obligations.

In another departure from Trump, Biden created a new position, the U.S. special presidential envoy for climate. John Kerry, a former secretary of state and presidential candidate, was tapped to fill the role. Kerry travelled to China to discuss carbon emissions ahead of the U.N.’s November climate conference in Glasgow, Scotland. According to various reports from the meetings, the negotiations between Kerry and his Chinese counterparts did not go smoothly, and China feels it has leverage to get more from the Americans. Hanging at the balance is arguably the most pressing issue facing the world this century.

Deteriorating Relations After the meeting with Kerry, China Foreign Minister Wang Yi released a statement warning that “deteriorating U.S.-China relations could undermine cooperation between the two on

Not only are the U.S. and China failing to meet their obligations under the 2015 Paris Agreement, but not a single other country in the G20 is on pace to contain global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, according to a CNN study. The G20 includes the world’s top 20 economies, which make up 80% of the earth’s emissions.

U.S. officials know they can’t combat climate change without assistance from China, whose CO2 emissions from fossil fuels accounted for a whopping 27.9% of the world’s total in 2019

The U.S. is at least improving. Under Trump, CAT labelled the U.S. as “critically insufficient.” Since Biden took office, the U.S. has been upgraded to “almost sufficient” domestically but “insufficient” on an international level, which takes into account a country’s “responsibility and capability.”

All countries bound by the Paris Agreement were supposed to update their Nationally Determined Contributions report by July 31. However, several countries, including India, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey, missed the deadline. China says it is working on its report but has not submitted it to the U.N.

GLOBAL CLIMATE CRISIS

Australia, Brazil, Indonesia, Mexico, New Zealand, Russia, Singapore, Switzerland, and Vietnam submitted the same or less ambitious plans than their original 2015 targets, derailing the Paris Agreement. In addition, the use of coal continues to be a significant obstacle, with China and India retaining major coal pipelines and the other countries continuing their use of coal.

Net-Zero The world needs to reach net-zero by 2050 to keep warming under 1.5 degrees. That’s when the amount of greenhouse gas emitted is not greater than the amount removed from the atmosphere.

The Middle Man

Under all countries’ current pledges, temperatures would still reach 2 degrees, far higher than net-zero. Current temperatures are around 1.2 degrees higher than before the burning of fossil fuels.

The U.S. is publicly pledging to help on a global level. Biden announced in late September that he would work with Congress to double funds by 2024 to $11.4 billion per year to help developing countries combat the climate crisis. While Biden received tepid praise following his announcement, not everyone was impressed at the $11.4 billion figure. As the world’s second-biggest polluter, there’s a belief the U.S. needs to do more. The E.U., by comparison, spent $24.5 billion on climate aid in 2019. “The U.S. is still woefully short of what it owes and this needs to be increased urgently,” Mohamed Adow, director of Power Shift Africa, told Reuters. Greta Thunberg, the young Swedish climate activist, was even more direct. “It’s quite easy to understand why the world’s top emitters of CO2 and the biggest producers of fossil fuels want to make it seem like they’re taking sufficient climate action with fancy speeches,” Thunberg wrote on Twitter. “The fact that they still get away with it is another matter.”

Biden is stuck in the middle. Republicans in Congress, who could retake the majority in 2022, have little appetite for spending big dollars on climate issues. Progressive Democrats believe climate should be the country’s top priority. Democrats initially hoped to pass a massive $3 million-plus infrastructure bill that would include numerous provisions to thwart climate change – especially in the wake of deadly flooding in Tennessee and fires on the west coast. But the infrastructure bill would need to pass a filibuster-proof majority in the Senate, meaning at least nine Republicans would have to vote in favour of it.

Instead, Biden now favours a smaller $1 trillion infrastructure bill that would garner bipartisan support. Democrats could then push through a much larger $3.5 trillion climate and social safety net bill that could pass through the budget reconciliation, requiring a simple majority. That bill would include tax breaks for clean energy and clean transportation fuels while abolishing tax breaks for oil, gas, and coal production. But there’s no guarantee that would pass, considering the Democrats hold just a one-vote majority in the Senate. Moderates want the infrastructure bill to pass first, and then they’ll consider the climate and social safety net bill. Progressives want assurances on the climate bill before they vote on the scaled-down infrastructure bill. There’s a chance Biden could head to the U.N.’s climate conference without either bill passed, which would be a major blow to his agenda. There’s no doubt the U.S. is in a better place on environmental issues than it was a year ago. But between cross and intra-party fighting, and limited cooperation from China, the U.S. is nowhere near where it should be as a world leader in combating climate change. 3

BIO Andrew Abramson is a South Florida-based journalist. Follow him on Twitter: @AbramsonFL

WATTAGE: 680W

PPF: 1919 umol/s

AMPERAGE: 2.75A

PPE: 2.82 umol/ j

SAMSUNG LM301H & OSRAM HYPER-RED LED DIODES

Mastering The Art of Watering BY CODY J GARRETT-TAIT

When too much moisture is present, the oxygen content of the soil drops, resulting in slow biology, sluggish nutrient uptake, and even pathogens

ith the growing popularity of living organic soil gardening, a factor that can easily be an after thought but

can make an enormous difference to your harvest is the way you water! Living soil can produce mind-blowing quality with less maintenance than similar cultivation systems. But if you have recently swapped to using soil from other media types, determining the best way to apply waterings and how much to apply at any given time takes some practice.

WATERING

The Secret? For the deep soak, use a watering can or Living soil is an ecosystem, and you are if you have recently a hose watering wand with a fine shower (especially in an indoor or greenhouse swapped to using nozzle. Bring the soil up to field capacity in environment) the custodian of all of that soil from other this watering, meaning wet the earth thorlife. Taking care of it will lead to bountioughly and then allow it to drain freely. ful harvests. You are the provider of the media types, rain in this ecosystem, so waterings should determining the The aim is to simulate a steady rain. Apbe measured and applied with deliberbest way to apply plications should be slow and evenly disate care in a way that doesn’t pulverise waterings and how tributed around the surface of the soil. A your surface feeder roots. These days, much to apply at small amount of runoff is permissible, but many automated watering systems do any given time try to keep it to a bare minimum. Feel free an excellent job of keeping the soil moist, to double the previous recommendation whether by drippers, capillary mats or takes some practice and shoot for 10% of the container volspecialised float systems. But old-school ume, which should be enough to saturate “manual watering” is still something that the media unless it was excessively dry. many pros prefer and is a skill all growers Splitting the amount of water into a couple of rounds is also good should master because the power can go out, pumps can fail, and practice; do one round, applying a quarter to a third of the comsystems need to be taken down for inevitable maintenance. The plete application for the day, then split the rest up over another act of physically watering also means growers spend time with couple of rounds. This allows the soil’s capillary action to work their plants and better understand them. Observation is always more efficiently, especially if starting from dryer states. critical in a grow. There are several different ways to water the soil, depending on the plant’s phase of growth.

Clones and Seedlings The newly-emerging root system is delicate during the early establishment phases of growth. Watering should resemble fine, misty rain. Use a spray bottle rather than a watering can. For larger plant quantities, spray packs that run on rechargeable batteries make this task relatively easy. The small size of the droplets helps keep the soil structure together so the roots can rapidly accumulate. As the water seeps into the soil, it also oxygenates, and because it takes much longer to apply large amounts of water this way, it isn’t easy to overwater young plants. Therefore, they will establish faster and grow stronger.

Vegetative Growth Once the plants have reached vegetative growth, watering needs to be stepped up, but that doesn’t mean drowning them. Soil tends to hold moisture more deeply and in a more complex way than soil-less media. Compost, amendments, minerals, different drainage aggregates, and even the microbial glue affect water-holding capacity. Therefore, the “two light rains and one deep soak” schedule is very effective. Use a pump pack sprayer (of appropriate capacity) or misting nozzle. This will be the light rain watering. Don’t saturate the soil to the point of runoff. Apply enough water, so the soil is evenly moist. Take the volume of the plant container and aim for about 5% of that. After, wait a day or two, then repeat before the deep soak.

Once the soil has been brought up to field capacity, the light rain waterings effectively top it up, and as the plants grow, shorten the days between waterings.

The Bloom Stage In the bloom stage, it’s essential to account for the plant’s rapid building and its slow decline into ripening. This is the most crucial point in the growing cycle, so good management of the soil and the roots, in particular, will help achieve excellent results. Plants will do well following the vegetative cycle watering schedule until midway through bloom. With many common cultivars, this will mean modifying the technique around weeks four or five when the plant enters senescence. As the plant ripens during the mid to end bloom phase, the roots are in a state of preservation. The chances of them recovering from overwatering are minimal. When too much moisture is present, the oxygen content of the soil drops, resulting in slow biology, sluggish nutrient uptake, and even pathogens. At this point, reduce any deep soakings to once a week. Eliminate them in the final weeks, watering very sparingly, which also works wonders for keeping humidity down. Allowing the soil to dry will help keep the oxygen content high; plants will feed more optimally. Proper nutrient uptake in this stage needs to be well managed so the garden can stack good weight and produce quality flowers.

What Are You Waiting For? If you’ve been looking for an excuse to spend more time in the garden, try these watering techniques! I promise it’s a skill wellworth mastering. 3

BY SEAN BASALYGA

Rainwater Collection F

or gardeners striving to conserve water due to regulations or to become more environmentally sustainable, collecting rainwater is one of the cheapest, easiest ways to improve efficiency. This method taps into one of nature’s most abundant yet under-utilised pure water sources.

Human beings have been collecting rainwaWhile the limiting factor for collecting by collecting rainwater ter since the stone age, but with pressing rainwater is typically the storage capacity and using less water water quality issues of the modern era, govrequired, the storage space can be reernments are now starting to encourage from the city, the energy duced if the rainwater is used throughout collecting rainwater to help alleviate several the rainy season. In hydroponic facilities, used by municipalities serious environmental problems. Rainwater this directly transfers the rainwater into to collect, store, treat, collection is hugely beneficial in regions that the facility as if it was raining inside! Alterdeal with drought, flooding, or groundwanatively, we can store excess rainwater in and distribute water is ter depletion. In the UK, climate change will water butts to supplement water througheliminated, making your out the drier seasons, when water usage is cause longer droughts during the summer and flooding from heavier rains during the garden more sustainable! more restricted or expensive. winter. Cities and governments are beginning to depend more on water conservaFurthermore, by collecting rainwater and tion to solve the dwindling availability of purified water. using less water from the city, the energy used by municipalities to collect, store, treat, and distribute water is eliminated, making your garden more sustainable!

Rainwater Collection

Many people believe that collecting rainwater is illegal or requires extensive permitting. However, this is often not true. Online rainwater harvesting calculators make it very easy to calculate how much rainwater can be collected from the roof and surrounding infrastructure.

Rainwater Quality for Gardening While rainwater is typically one of the purest water sources, it can still cause problems while gardening, especially within highly controlled hydroponic systems. Most importantly, rainwater can become contaminated by bacteria from bird poop that gets washed off the collection roof and surfaces. Leaves, sticks, and dirt can accumulate during the dry season, creating an initially high sediment load, so use a first flush diverter. Rainwater can also be acidic and strip heavy metals from the roof or plumbing equipment, a characteristic of water that has little to no TDS (total dissolved solids). Additionally, all rainwater contains some nitrates (some up to 8 ppm), which can throw off nutrient balances for hydroponics. Some of the nitrates found in rainwater form when lightning shocks the nitrogen gas in the atmosphere to combine with oxygen, fertilising plants when it rains after a thunderstorm!

RAINWATER COLLECTION

ENVIRONMENT BY CATHERINE SHERRIFFS

Climate Goals

for Gardening

Countries Pledge To Cut Methane Emissions By 2030

Rainwater collection is hugely beneficial in regions that deal with drought, flooding, or groundwater depletion

ore than 100 countries are taking significant environmental action by promising to cut their methane emissions by 30% by 2030.The Global

Methane Pledge was signed by global leaders at the COP26 climate meeting in Glasgow last month. Methane is a highly-polluting greenhouse gas; according to an Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report, the gas accounts for half of the 1°C net rise in global average temperature since pre industrialisation. Experts say any effort to reduce those emissions can make an immediate and long-term impact. Major methane sources include oil, gas, coal, agriculture, and landfills. If achieved, the goal could help keep global warming levels below 1.5°C (2.7°F). But, unfortunately, some of the world’s largest greenhouse gas emitters haven’t yet signed the deal, including China, Russia, and India. The United States and the European Union are on board with Canada, Brazil, Indonesia, Nigeria. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, those countries alone account for more than 40% of global methane emissions. Are we finally heading in the right direction? Time will tell. 3

Rainwater Filtration Although very low TDS from rainwater makes it an ideal water source for gardening, it should never be used untreated. Various systems on the market can properly treat rainwater, transforming it into a highly purified and sustainable water source for gardening. Some of the technology can also treat reclaimed condensate water, adding more water reclamation and conservation benefits to hydroponic gardens! For gardeners located in regions with abundant rainfall, who need to conserve water or want to garden more sustainably, harvesting rainwater is the ideal way to utilise an untapped and environmentally friendly water source. 3

BIO Sean Basalyga is a WQA certified water specialist, earth scientist, and permaculture practitioner in Santa

Cruz, CA, where the redwood trees meet the roaring seas. For the past five years at HydroLogic, he has worked to spread awareness about water quality issues, sustainable water use management, and plant science within the controlled environment agriculture industry. As a specialist in water quality and cannabis, he has developed specialised water tests that cover every aspect of cannabis plant science and cultivation. He is also passionate about wastewater reclamation and pushing the cannabis industry to be more sustainable with its water usage.

Sources: • •

Joint EU-US Press Release on the Global Methane Pledge (bit.ly/3BGaGKa) National Geographic: Why methane cuts pledged by COP26 may be key to meeting climate goals (on.natgeo.com/3wa7khn)

TREES

BY RICH HAMILTON

HUG SOME TREES

BEFORE THEY DISAPPEAR I

its ‘State of the World’s Trees’ repor t. The findings

“We have nearly 60,000 tree species on the planet, and for the first time, we now know which of these species need conservation action, what are the greatest threats to them and where they are.”

are based on a five-year study where hundreds of

-Dr Malin Rivers, Botanic Gardens Conservation International. London.

f you aren’t already a tree hugger, it might be time to star t hugging. The Botanic Gardens Conser vation International (BGCI) has published

exper ts and dozens of institutions examined the extinction risk faced by the world’s 60,000 tree species, and the news isn’t very good. Nearly 30% of the world’s tree species are facing extinction in the wild. It is estimated that 17,500 species of trees are at risk, ranging from tropical timber trees to traditional oaks and maples. The number of tree species facing extinction is twice the number of at-risk birds, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals combined. As a result, conservation groups are urgently calling for protection measures in the face of threats such as climate change, logging and deforestation.

Nearly 30% of the world’s tree species are facing extinction in the wild

Crucial To Life As the largest plants on earth, trees are vital to survival. They benefit human health by trapping dust and absorbing pollutants in the air (up to 1.7 kg per year per tree), providing shade from the sun’s rays, and even reducing noise. In addition, they can provide food for nutrition, and some also have medicinal properties. Trees produce oxygen, absorb carbon dioxide, and store carbon, which helps slow down the rate of climate change. Trees can also slow wind speeds and cool the air temperature. Research estimates that trees can reduce the temperature in a city by as much as 7°C. They also offer excellent protection against flooding and soil erosion by absorbing enormous volumes of rain and stormwater. Trees offer habitats and food for birds, small mammals, insects and fungi; one mature oak tree can house up to 500 different species! Over time, the hollow trunks of trees can also provide the cover needed by bats, woodboring insects, owls and woodpeckers. 49

TREES

Conservation groups are urgently calling for protection measures in the face of threats such as climate change, logging and deforestation

The biggest threats to the global tree population: • • • • •

We must also follow tree planting and reforestation guidelines; suitable trees must go to the right places The longest living species on earth, trees are also a link between the past, the present and the future and have many social and economic benefits. For example, green areas such as parks and local woods bring communities together and encourage outdoor pursuits. They can also help increase property prices and the desirability of places with access to an abundance of green space.

The Most At-Risk Trees at a higher risk of extinction include oak trees in Mexico, Chile, and Argentina, lost to farming and development. Dipterocarps are large tropical trees disappearing rapidly due to the demand for palm oil and the expansion of plantations. Rosewood and Ebony trees have fallen victim to timber logging in Madagascar; Magnolia trees are also dying off due to unsustainable plant collecting. Natural pests and diseases kill Ash trees in many parts of North America and the UK.

Forest clearing for crops (29%) Logging (27%) Land clearance for livestock (14%) Land clearance for building development (13%) Fire destruction (13%)

There’s Hope With conservation action, however, there is hope for the future. The World Trees report identifies the issues clearly and is an excellent tool for raising awareness and mobilising the community to address these threats immediately. Environmental experts say expanding protected areas worldwide will help, as will storing endangered tree genetics in botanic gardens or seed banks. We must also follow tree planting and reforestation guidelines; suitable trees must go to the right places. If this all sounds a bit urgent, that’s because it is! Around 142 species have already disappeared from the wild, and hundreds more are headed for the same fate. All living things need a healthy, diverse range of trees. Each one has a unique role within the ecosystem - let’s all do our part to save them. 3

BIO An industry veteran with over 20 years of experience in a variety of roles, Rich is currently a business development manager for a large UK hydroponics distributor. The author of the Growers Guide book series, Rich also writes on all aspects of indoor gardening. He is also an independent industry consultant, working closely with hydroponic businesses worldwide.

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

BY DOUG JACOBS

CROP STEERING

When using climate and irrigation as tools, crop steering can be applied to plants at every growth stage, from cuttings and seedlings to fruit and flower production.

eople often ask me what my recommended recipe is for managing irrigation, climate, and nutrients. Growers are often understandably

disappointed with my reply: it depends! It all comes back to the foundations of precision growing; everything revolves around the cultivar growing, where it came from, and how it was bred. The local climate, light intensity, air movement, humidity and temperature levels all come into play. And finally, the root zone, the size, composition and type of the growing media, its water-holding capabilities and the irrigation system used also matter. The interaction of all these factors and how you physically prune your crops will influence how you steer your plants.

Generative vs Vegetative While working with hundreds of growers over the last few years, I’ve seen many different approaches. Most commonly, I see growers steer toward the generative side throughout the plant’s lifecycle, irrigating heavily but infrequently. While this method produces some potent, high-quality flowers, it is challenging to reproduce results, maximise yields, and does not efficiently use water, nutrients, or substrate. In addition, you can do irreparable damage if the plant dries down too much too early. Some cultivars have an extreme drought tolerance, and depending on the environmental conditions, will not exhibit signs of being too dry until it is too late. More often, growers are turning to root zone sensors to help boost yields and quality. Growers are rarely completely vegetative throughout the lifecycle of their plants, at least not intentionally. Using only a vegetative irrigation strategy can negatively impact yield and quality. The flower takes longer to develop and may also lack resin, potency, and bag appeal. However, being vegetative in the flowering stage can benefit plant health and increase yields by bulking up the flowers.

A Combo Platter A combination of generative and vegetative steering throughout the flowering stage offers excellent results. Growers will go back and forth between generative and vegetative steering to keep the plant healthy and balanced until harvest. I’ve seen growers making this change weekly. Others have discovered through experience the best moments to switch from generative growth to set flowers and create tighter inter-nodal spacing, before going back to vegetative growth to bulk the flowers,

and then back to generative again to finish the crop. The result is increased yields and potency in a shorter timeframe with less water and nutrient usage. The challenge is that not all plants react the same way, and every farm environment is different. It takes time and crop measurement to figure out exactly what your plants need.

Most commonly, I see growers steer toward the generative side throughout the plant’s lifecycle, irrigating heavily but infrequently

Make gradual changes over several days when applying crop steering to your garden. Changing too many things at once means you may not know what worked and what didn’t. Also, tweaking the irrigation and climate too quickly can shock your plants and make it difficult for them to recover.

Keep a Journal Recording what went well and what didn’t for a crop is essential. Growing is challenging; it is nearly impossible to remember everything that happened over the many months it took to grow the plant. Having the historical data of the climate and rootzone is a game-changer for many growers. Good note-taking means you can see how various strategies and nutrient types or concentrations influenced the health and final yield of the crop. 3

Doug Jacobs is a Technical Advisor with Grodan. He provides expert consulting on proven Precision Growing methods to optimise crop production with Grodan Rockwool growing media and proper irrigation, producing the best quality plants using the least amount of inputs. He has experience with indoor, outdoor, and greenhouse hydroponics, vertical farms, aquaculture, and CEA system design, helping to design farms across North America. Doug showcases his passion and expertise as a feature writer in various national industry publications and as a conference speaker at US events.

Bio

BY MARTYNA KROL

And There Will Be

RAIN For growers on the green British Isles, there’s one dominant element that springs to mind: Rain -- a hell of a lot of it

RAIN

n urban farming, the conversation around environmental control is constant, but ‘old school’ soil growers tend not to engage in the topic as much. Growers worldwide cultivate a wide range of types of land in their gardens, allotments, smallholdings or farms, be it private or for profit. Ideally, these will be easy to access, with water and some shelter.

However, some of us grow in the most challenging climates and have to make the most of the resources, like watersaving techniques in hot deserts and maximising sunlight in arctic gardens. For growers on the green British Isles, there’s one dominant element that springs to mind: Rain -- a hell of a lot of it.

Rain, Rain, Go Away When it comes to the topic of rain, the British certainly have a few things to say. When I moved here over a decade ago, people always told me to carry sunglasses and a brolly (that’s an umbrella, if you are unfamiliar with this term) in my bag. When I complain about the miserable Yorkshire rain that comes in at you sideways and infiltrates scarves like an icy ninja, my husband tells me, “if you don’t like the weather in Yorkshire, wait five minutes”. He is usually right - the sun never hides for long in the world’s most temperate climate. These two lines came to mind as I was driving to visit a unique market garden, right in the middle of the soggy moor. The October rain was lashing viciously despite the absence of any scary-looking clouds; a second later, the most beautiful double rainbow appeared, and I had to stop the car and admire the glowing arc of joy. I was slightly late for my visit, but the contrast between the downpour and the rainbow highlighted the rawness and unpredictability the weather serves us up here.

Gimme Shelter The garden I was visiting is unique in many ways, and of course, water plays a significant part in its existence. Long Causeway Market Garden is a nerve-wracking exposed piece of land. It may be ‘only’ 320 metres above sea level, but being right at the edge of the Pennine moor between Yorkshire and Lancashire, there’s no shelter from the elements. Strong winds, plenty of rain and scorching summer heat make it difficult for a grower to supply the locals with fresh produce. However, for Will Johnson, working on such rugged land is a fact of life and chatting with him brought a picture of a humble man with true resilience.

A Love For Gardening Will’s growing adventure started with an apprenticeship near the Swedish student town of Uppsala, where he worked with an organic veg grower for a year. He began with a WWOOFing experience (World Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms) in Europe before working with an organic veg grower at Coleshill National Trust Estate in Oxfordshire. He went on to manage a Community Supported Agriculture project in Leamington Spa.

Long Causeway Market Garden

Will’s resume certainly paints a picture of a keen learner and a passionate grower. In September 2017, his travels brought him to Yorkshire, where he met Hywel, the owner of the garden’s land. Based on a mutual approach to land management, they agreed that this is the place for Will’s market garden. In his eyes, all land comes with its challenges, but the main thing that made it possible was trust and cooperation between the pair.

Water Diversion With the land being rather wet, covered in grass and rushes in most places, the work on the garden began with digging a series of drains to get rid of some groundwater. A mini digger dug a 250-metre culvert through the site, with two side ‘ribs’ forking out to the left and right, all filled with stones to take the excess water. Will describes his time during this period as ‘ef

Drainage

ficiently divided’ – he worked four days in a warehouse to earn a living and spent his three days off shaping the garden. His definition of ‘efficient’ sounds closer to most people’s definition of ‘exhausting’ if you ask me, but it seems to have worked out well.

Stream catchment

around 25 litres per minute, the stream from up the hill gently irrigates the crops. Initially diverted this way 500 years ago, it used to supply water to a house down the mountain but now is primarily used to irrigate the garden. We hiked to the point where the water entered the pipe. While I hadn’t expected much in the way of sophisticated pump mechanisms, I still smiled to discover a genuinely homespun contraption consisting of a plastic crate, a metal bottle with holes drilled in it, and a sock. Simple solutions are often the most effective, though, and Will proudly reports that it has never been blocked with any silt or debris and flows perfectly through its labyrinth of pipes to the irrigation system in the polytunnel.

With the land being rather wet, covered in grass and rushes in most places, the work on the garden began with digging a series of drains to get rid of some groundwater

All this work allowed the main garden area to be dry enough to plant crops. Now, Will has three polytunnels neatly planted with winter salads featuring crunchy leaves of claytonia, mustard frills and chard. The outdoor garden area has stunning purple cabbages, winter leeks, parsnips and winter leaves, right next to beds planted with courgettes and squash in the summer. Last year, the average weight of the squash was just over a kilo each. This summer’s yield has increased that almost threefold, with 200 squashes weighing over 500 kilograms in total. Managing the land in a permaculture style, building up soil layers, and growing organically is paying off as the garden’s delicious produce is distributed to the nearby market towns. And the demand isn’t slowing down.

Gentle, Natural Irrigation As we walked through the garden, I saw one of the polytunnels being watered through a low-pressure standpipe. Flowing at 56

Land drain

Living Soil As a believer in goodness coming from quality soil, Will’s composting operation is already producing black gold used to mulch the beds. However, his plan for this winter is to improve the vehicle access to increase the composting capacity by taking woodchip deliveries. Realistically, there will still be the need to buy some mulch, but the more he produces on-site, the better for the environment and the pocket, not to mention his learning process.

RAIN

Poly-chard

Fennel

If Will concentrates his time on growing only salad leaves, his earnings will be higher. But by having a variety of crops from root veg and summer Propagation

squashes to sweet tomatoes, he provides a variety of flowers for

Profits I wondered how profitable and manCabbages ageable running a garden on top of the moor could be. There are no neat gravel paths but a lot of grass no further than ten metres from the veg beds, representing a real slug control challenge. Also, with a constant trickling of water a few metres away, the ground is always moist enough to give slugs a chance. Ever-positive, though, Will says neither he nor the customers mind the odd hole in their salad. After all, with everything being organically grown, we can’t blame the slugs for having a go.

the pollinators and increases biodiversity in the area

In his third year of growing, Will works the garden full time and can make a living out of it for one person. In his growing plan, he considers the needs of the land and the potential profit. If Will concentrates his time on growing only salad leaves, his earnings will be higher. But by having a variety of crops from root veg and summer squashes to sweet tomatoes, he provides a variety of flowers for the pollinators and increases biodiversity in the area. With the help of his dad during the summer months, he steadily tends the land, slowly shaping it to be a truly unique space. Will Johnson, a humble man with true resilience

Resilience At Its Best Moors always made me think of resilience. The trees that grow here are hard as nails, and the wildlife stands through the harshest conditions. And amongst this rawness, there stands this beautiful island of resilience, changing the land respectfully and with great purpose. 3

BIO Martyna Krol is a vegetable grower, natural beekeeper, and edible

spaces designer. She is a lover of all soil and urban farming techniques and is the former head of growing at Incredible Aquagarden.

BY BRIAN GANDY

Water and Light

Hydrophilic Physiology

The crux of lighting and water in the air is VPD 58

HYDROPHILIC PHYSIOLOGY

ormed through an exothermic reaction that is powerful enough to launch rockets into space, the elemental combination of two hydrogens and one oxygen is the basis of all life on earth. Plants and the photosynthetic reaction are the most efficient mechanisms capable of breaking this powerful bond and providing all of us meat

sacks the air we breathe.

6CO2 + 6H2O Before the mudskipper emerged from the muck, dinosaurs, Caribbean fireballs, and before cockroach cousins and baby sharks, plants covered the world. Terra Verde. We owe a huge thanks to algae “lichenising” with fungal and bacterial cohorts for figuring out how to capture energy from the sun. We owe them for every waking moment we have as humans, literally, every breath.

SUNLIGHT

→ C6H12O6 + 6O2

Formed through an exothermic reaction that is powerful enough to launch rockets into space, the elemental combination of two hydrogens and one oxygen is the basis of all life on earth

Now that we have creatures capable of this magic, let’s fuck with them. Controlled Environmental Agriculture (CEA) is the art and science of growing plants by turning knobs, injecting solutions, and pushing all the buttons to make the best plants possible. Whatever the growers’ definitions of quality are, they are achievable by manipulating inputs to generate predictable and ever-improving outputs.

-(Photosynthetic formula).

gate cells, wreaking havoc on your crop. With this unfettered “dieseling”, unwanted amounts of other compounds like Na+ may come in through the vacuum. Just like a diesel engine will self-destruct if parameters are not in tune, a plant will quickly run out of water in an unbalanced system.

The Holy Trinity: Water, Plants and Light

Plants consist of 70-90% water. It is a solvent for all metabolic reactions, critical for photosynthesis and CO2 exchange, cell support and structure, and temperature regulation.

A key point to know about ET is that it helps regulate the temperature of leaves. There is a natural gradient from excellent to warm from the roots of plants to the leaves. If a canopy is overheated, it will increase the rate of transpiration. This is important, especially considering the differences in “traditional” light sources (HPS, CMH and LED sources). High-Pressure Sodium lamps, in particular, have what is referred to as “forward throw” heat in horticultural lighting circles. Plants, especially sub-tropical fast-growing annuals, grow better when they are warmed to their ideal temperature ranges. LED sources lack this output, focusing purely on delivering photons in the PAR range. The type of light you use affects the amount of water your plants will need.

Evapotranspiration (ET) moves water against its natural propensity going from low to high, roots to leaves. Nutrients and natural compounds come into the plant’s system through this natural draw. As water migrates north in the Xylem, it carries up nutrition to deliver food to areas of new (apical, meristematic) and old growth. Specific molecules are more soluble and thus mobile (N+, K+, Mg+, etc.), and others are stickier and immobile (P, Ca2+, etc.). This is why you see nutrient deficiencies in differing parts of plants based on water’s ability to move them around.

In the field and under the sun, plants are bombarded with energy. Some of this falls within the PAR range, but much of it comes in infrared heat energy. Think about standing under the sun in the summertime. You metabolise and sweat to regulate temperature. Camping in the desert gets much cooler after sunset. We have a centralised coronary system, whereas plants are linear from roots to shoots. Photosynthesis in leaves is where water is drawn by hydrostatic tension and thermodynamic gradients to engage in a profound interaction.

The other layer of tissue in the vascular cambium responsible for moving nutrients around is the Phloem in translocation through osmosis and mass flow. Adequate amounts of water are required to keep the plants’ internal systems lubed up and running well. Nutrients move from areas of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration through osmosis. For example, you apply a high potassium fertiliser to the root zone. Along the evapotranspiration river, K+ ions slide in on some tasty waves to head up and feed your plant. Potassium, by the way, is instrumental in stomatal conductance. Without enough K+, stomata cannot maintain their turgor pressure to modulate their opening and closing. A plant may chug more water through unregulated

6CO2+6H2O

A Polar Molecule

SUNLIGHT

C6H12O6+6O2

How sweet it is when we come into the light. Turning water and CO2 into sugar and oxygen. How we feed photons to a plant indoors directly affects how efficiently this reaction happens. Historically, growers focused on the 1000 mmol on canopy target for fast-growing, annual fruiting crops for ideal return on inputs. This is an artefact of the days of growing under HPS when delivering anything higher would also mean providing too much-infrared heat energy. You see double-enders mounted 3 ft above the canopy for a reason. Scorch, desiccation, and wilt will occur if the lights are mounted much closer. So that was it; until now.

MARKET

PLACE PRODUCT SPOTLIGHTS

See what’s new in the growers MARKETPLACE

visit: GCmag.co/Product-Spotlight

HYDROPHILIC PHYSIOLOGY

With the ability to throttle cultivation systems through precision water and nutrient delivery, optimised environmental controls allow for new heights that are outpacing even the best academics in crop science Modern cultivators are now seeing an ROI up to 1800 mmol on canopy (this is an arbitrary setpoint, by the way, and one metric that deserves an article all on its own: PPFD v PPF/DLI). With the ability to throttle cultivation systems through precision water and nutrient delivery, optimised environmental controls allow for new heights that are outpacing even the best academics in crop science.

You Can’t Manage What You Don’t Measure Before this turns into an exercise in accounting, let’s think more about water’s role in Controlled Environmental Agriculture.

zone temps through irrigation, some LED rooms can run very hot and very (relatively) humid.

Now that your grow is vibrating on a higher level, it’s time to do some soul searching. You’ve found the fastest path to enlightenment. Now, you can start to think about wilding out. Herbs and tobacco will enhance their aromatic and Herbs and tobacco oil properties when exposed to a bit of stress. This is key, and the emerging science of crop will enhance their steering is commonplace in state-of-the-art cultivation facilities. aromatic and oil

properties when exposed to a bit of stress

Relative humidity is relative to the temperature it’s being held in. One hundred per cent RH is different at 75 and 85°F. The latter can retain more moisture. That’s why when you toggle off your HPS for the night, the temp drops quickly. As a result, your data logger sees a spike, and your PLC-driven HVAC system has to work overtime to remove all that extra water from the air that was ten degrees cooler ten minutes ago. The same goes when you fire up those fixtures; all the dew that has set on the leaves overnight is instantly vapourised in an indoor setting. Without some predictive analytics or preset trigger time, most HVACs cannot handle that load, and humidity can spike in a room, leading to a host of problems like pests and pathogens running wild. LED fixtures take time to warm their heatsinks and then warm the air. A much more natural gradient both for plants and dehumidifiers at lights on and lights out. When commercial cultivators and consultants are designing systems these days, they will be presented with psychrometric charts and a hefty price tag to mitigate RH and temp to the nth degree. Failure to pay upfront will mean paying on the back end. As growers get better and better at running LED, the first thing I always hear is, “you were right about the dehu; I just had to hang a few more to keep up with my girls at full tilt”. The crux of lighting and water in the air is VPD. Vapour Pressure Deficit (more accurately, Vapour Pressure Gradient) is key to success in any successful indoor cultivation facility. These charts and strict adherence are the difference between “meh” and “oh MAN” when a crop comes down. Log, rinse, and repeat. Once you find the sweet spot for your genetics, you can begin to tick every other input up: CO2, nutrients, and temperature to see positive returns. You’ll want to focus on leaf canopy temperature rather than ambient. You can draw some correlations after you tweak your system but remember that plants are actively going to try and cool themselves down if overclocked. HPS canopies will run up to 7°F over ambient, and a well-oiled LED grow will run 2 degrees below ambient. As long as you control your root

Non-Linear Equation

Keeping your crop moist and crisp or drying to the perfect moisture content is what can take A-grade to hay-grade in a matter of days. Crops like lettuce need to be high and tight to the plate, and other flowering crops need to be done just right to keep the end-user crisp. Water doesn’t stop working after you cut down your crop. In a sense, you want to slowly assist your crop in slowing metabolism down while aromatics remain intact and metabolites ripen to their fullest potential. With growers, water, plants, and lights, it’s all about intention. So who will be the first to apply human consciousness into their water’s molecular structure to improve crop quality? Have some growers already released this secret by keeping the vibe high in the garden with music and mindfulness? 3

“The memory of life arrived on this earth carried by the soul of water. From this memory, life awoke, the human being emerged...” - Masaru Emoto

BIO

Brian Gandy is a proud father and horticulturist with a penchant for permaculture, sustainable business, and technology.

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Gavita Remote Switch 1

BY CAROLINE RIVARD

y l e v o L

r e d n e v La

LAVENDER

Lavender was precious to the Romans, who used it in thermal baths as a cleanser and medicine

avender is often associated with scented candles that encourage restful moods and relaxation. But these beautiful purple flowers are good for more than candles! For thousands of years, several different nations have taken advantage of all the benefits lavender offers.

A Little History Egyptians were the first people to cultivate lavender more than two thousand years ago. They incorporated the flower into holy ointments used in embalming and mummification rituals. Lavender was precious to the Romans, who used it in thermal baths as a cleanser and medicine. It makes sense when you consider the word lavender comes from the Latin lavare, meaning to wash! The Romans believed the plant made them more attractive and used it as an aphrodisiac as well. In the middle ages, lavender was a weapon against infectious diseases, as many people believed sickness was linked to foul odours. With its strong fragrance, it’s no wonder lavender was considered an essential ally in the Materia medica! And before modern medicine, people used lavender to clean open wounds. At the beginning of the 20th century, lavender crops grew in abundance in France to be distilled and added to various perfumes. Even today, this aromatic herb is highly appreciated in phytotherapy for its many medicinal virtues.

Stress Relief Lavender’s tiny purple-blue flowers are rich in essential oils, which are highly medicinal. Scientific studies show that lavender may slow activity in the nervous system, so if you’re feeling rattled, this plant is for you! Reap the benefits of the essential oils by making a herbal infusion. Add one teaspoon of dried flowers to a cup of hot water and infuse for ten minutes before sipping your way to a restful sleep.

In addition to making us feel calmer, lavender also helps relieve stiff and aching muscles. Soaking in a lavender bath will work wonders on a sore body! Just add ¼ cup of dried flower buds into a small cotton bag and drop it into the tub. Incorporating macerated dried flower buds into a good quality vegetable oil is perfect for massages as well. Lavender’s essential oil is wildly popular in aromatherapy, with some studies showing that inhaling the scent through an air infuser boosts moods and improves the state of mind.

Lavender for Bobos Lavender is an antiseptic, disinfectant, analgesic, and antiinflammatory, so it is often used to take the sting away from minor cuts, heal insect bites, and soothe a light sunburn. Make a strong flower bud infusion and let it cool before application. If you use the essential oil instead, be sure to dilute it in vegetable oil, as the essential oil can cause skin irritation.

Vibrant shades and different tones of purple will bring a beautiful punch of colour to your flower beds and attract pollinators to the garden

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LAVENDER

Pamper Yourself Lavender has long been included in beauty rituals as it leads to beautiful skin. A decoction of the flower buds, about 50 grams per litre of boiling water, cooled and sprayed on the face hydrates dry and sensitive skin. Lavender can also protect against free radicals, and the above recipe is perfect to use as a base in a green clay mask to help fight acne. For those suffering from hair loss, a couple of drops of lavender essential oil mixed with one teaspoon of vegetable oil can help with regrowth if rubbed into the scalp regularly.

Sweet Emotions Scientific and herbal research indicates that lavender can help women suffering from premenstrual syndrome. Lavender herbal tea offers relief from the anxiety, irritability, insomnia, and depression that accompany PMS.

Digestion, Nausea, and Tummy Aches Lavender is a member of the mint family, so it is helpful when it comes to soothing upset stomachs. A warm cup of tea made from flower buds soothes the digestive tract and reduces bloating. It also promotes bile flow, facilitating fat digestion after heavy meals.

Scientific studies show that lavender may slow activity in the nervous system, so if you’re feeling rattled, this plant is for you! A Must-Have In The Garden Vibrant shades and different tones of purple will bring a beautiful punch of colour to your flower beds and attract pollinators to the garden. As a bonus, some lavender properties will keep pests, moths, and flies away, with scientific studies finding the plant has insecticidal capabilities. The herb’s strong scent also deters deer from the garden. 3

A warm cup of tea made from flower buds soothes the digestive tract and reduces bloating

Disclaimer: Lavender is both gentle and safe. However, mild allergic reactions can happen. Ask a healthcare provider before taking any medicinal herb or essential oil. In addition, lavender can interfere with blood pressure and sedative medications. Avoid use if pregnant or breastfeeding, and stop using lavender two weeks before a scheduled surgery.

A therapist and healer for over 15 years, Caroline’s passion for medicinal plants only began after leaving the city for the quiet country life in Quebec, Canada. Eager to learn, she’s never looked back, using forests and wildflower fields as her classroom ever since. In a time where reconnecting with plants and nature is badly needed, she spreads her love for herbalism by holding teaching workshops about the powers of medicinal herbs and natural remedies.

Bio

BY JOANNA BERG

How Water Quality Impacts Your Garden Water Sources, Potential Issues, and Solutions

ver y water source has a distinctive profile that interplays with your soil/substrate and plants. It can be complicated to unravel all the variables affecting your water. Still, there are some basics we can learn about each water source type, what their most common issues are, and the strategies for

detecting and dealing with potential crop health factors the water sources may be causing.

Disinfectants used in water treatment can concern gardeners, especially gardeners focused on building soil biology Municipal Water Source –Disinfectants and Fluoride

You would think issues with a municipal water source are much less likely to exist. This is true, to some degree, because our municipal water sources have been cleaned of any biological contamination. Still, the process of water treatment does not result in totally clean, empty water. It uses disinfectants, either chlorine or chloramine, and often, municipalities add fluoride to the water as well.

chloramine has an ammonia ion stacked into its molecular form, which creates more stability, so it is much less prone to breaking down and stays active in the water longer. Granular activated carbon filters and reverse osmosis systems are the most effective for removing chloramines. Fluoride can also be an issue in the garden, even at low levels. Fluoride is not an essential plant nutrient, and it accumulates in a plant over time. If fluoride accumulates too heavily in your plants, it can inhibit photosynthesis and cause damage to your plants. If you do not know whether your city adds fluoride, give them a call, or go dig up that water quality report to see if it is added. Reverse osmosis systems are the most effective for removing fluoride.

Well Water

Geology and Mineral Profile Disinfectants used in water treatment can concern gardeners, especially gardeners focused on building soil biology. Your management approach will depend on which disinfecting agent is used. Often your municipality’s website will have the annual drinking water quality report posted. If not, call your city and inquire about receiving a copy of this report, which will provide the details on which disinfectant they are using (chlorine or chloramine) and whether fluoride is added to the water. Chlorine is a much more unstable molecule than chloramine, thus much easier to remove. It evaporates quickly from water when aerated and can be captured and bound up by humic acid when added to chlorinated water. On the other hand, 66

Geology plays a massive role in the water quality found in a particular well and is reflected in the mineral profile. Therefore, routine water testing will help sidestep potential nutrient issues with your crops.

WATER QUALITY

Well water can also change from year to year and throughout the year– a drought year versus non-drought, the dry season versus the rainy season. Monitoring your well water in different seasons will give you great information on how it may change or impact your garden or farm throughout the year. Newly drilled wells have a much higher level of mineral content. This heightened mineral content will persist for the first few years after drilling. If you have a new well, it should be tested regularly to track how this profile settles out over time.

Building an understanding of your local environment and its unique qualities will help you successfully manage the limitations of any water source

Pond Water Source

Pollution, Mineral Profile, and Algae Growth Since ponds collect water that has moved over a landscape, the surrounding environment may negatively impact its quality. A good starting point is to test pond water for potential contaminants such as herbicides or petroleum-based residues, as well as the pH and mineral make-up.

and temperature parameters, this will be the perfect environment for supporting algae growth. The barley straw extract on its own may not be powerful enough to combat the algae. In these cases, using aeration and barley extracts together may be more effective to produce algae-free results.

Spring Water

Spring Type, Biology, and Mineral Profile

There are many different types of springs – depression springs, fracture springs, Karst springs, fault springs, or contact springs. They are all defined by geology, subsurface location, and landscape position. Springs are site-specific, so it is best to distinguish what type is occurring to unravel its influences and assess water quality risks. Spring water is essentially a shallow groundwater source, and quality issues centre mostly around biological contaminants from surface contamination. If you are considering using spring water, it is wise to have it tested for biological hazards like E. coli and faecal coliform. Spring water should also be tested for Giardia and Cryptosporidium if you are drinking or irrigating food or livestock. Like well and pond water, geology plays a central role in the mineral profile of spring water. Testing will help you understand how to manage any potential issues your crops or equipment may face. Additionally, just like the other natural water sources, spring water can change from year to year and throughout the year. Therefore, monitoring water quality at different times of year will provide good information on water quality fluctuations. Water quality issues are extensive and heavily dependent on site-specific factors, but it all starts with getting to know your watershed and its geology. Building an understanding of your local environment and its unique qualities will help you successfully manage the limitations of any water source. 3

If you have a deeper pond, be aware that as the growing season progresses, the lower depths of your pond may become anoxic, meaning oxygen-free. This can cause the mobilisation of certain metals, like manganese and iron. Oxygen-deprived water causes these minerals typically bound to the soil sediment to become soluble. Testing your pond water at different points in the season will help you understand how the mineral profile might fluctuate throughout the year. Algae growth is another common pond water issue, and there are two common ways of dealing with it. First, you can install pond aerators to increase oxygen in your pond water, which will arrest the algal growth rate. However, aeration is not often economically viable as it can be expensive and require maintenance. Another option for algae control is decomposing barley straw in your pond water or applying barley straw extracts. This method has proven successful in clarifying ponds, although there can be some limitations to its application. For instance, if a pond is heavily loaded with nutrients and has the right light exposure

Bio

Joanna Berg is a Certified Professional Soil Scientist specialising in pest and disease diagnosis and integrated crop management solutions through her firm in Northern California, Dirty Business Soil, LLC.

BY ALBERT MONDOR, HORTICULTURIST AND BIOLOGIST

Click and Grow system

Indoor Farms Offer

Food Autonomy

Rise Gardens 68

Ava Byte

INDOOR FARMS

ith food shor tages threatening some par ts of the world and grocery bills rising dramatically, indoor urban gardening is increasing in popularity as people strive for food autonomy. Several technological products - commonly referred to as indoor farms - make cultivating fruits

and vegetables easy. Some indoor farms are equipped with aeroponic or hydroponic systems, while others include potting soil. They can be purchased online, in garden centres or in hydroponic shops.

Some indoor farms are equipped with aeroponic or hydroponic systems, while others include potting soil Kitchen Farms

Indoor Vertical Farms

Some small hydroponic kitchen farms, such as AeroGarden and AVA Byte, work with compostable capsules containing seeds and a growing medium similar to those developed by Nespresso and which have revolutionised the world of coffee.

More elaborate indoor growing systems rely on vertical hydroponics. Indoor vertical farms manufactured by Click and Grow, LG and Rise Gardens are modular and are arranged in series on a shelf or in a glass cabinet fitted with LED lamps. Most of these systems are freestanding and can be installed directly on the floor, while some built-in indoor farms can be stylishly integrated into a kitchen.

These compact growing systems are equipped with adjustable LED lights and produce various leafy vegetables and herbs in small spaces such as a kitchen counter. However, growing larger, more demanding crops like tomatoes and peppers in these units is challenging. Rotating indoor farms are also available on the market. For example, OGarden is a growing system created in Quebec consisting of a veggie wheel that turns slowly. A lamp placed in the centre of the wheel provides the light for the plants’ growth and development. Using a rotating indoor farm is relatively simple. All you need to do is put the seeds in the cabinet space provided and water regularly. Then, two to three weeks later, the seedlings are ready to be transplanted into the wheel.

The Vertikaroma vertical cultivation system works with aeroponic technology. If you equip it with artificial LED lighting, this Quebec-designed system helps edible plants grow even in the darkest places. Nutrient-rich water is sprayed onto the roots of the plants. Developed in the United States, the Aerospring and Tower Garden systems are growing towers. Plants are placed in a plastic cylinder pierced with holes; each column is equipped with a water tank at its base. Water is provided to the plants using a pump and piping. Like Vertikaroma, these growing systems work with aeroponics. Lights, which in some cases move as plants grow, are usually included.

Most of these systems are freestanding Credit: Albert Mondor

and can be installed directly on the floor, while some built-in indoor farms can be stylishly integrated into a kitchen

Corn sprouts 69

Credit: Albert Mondor

INDOOR FARMS

Pea Shoots

Edible plants of tropical origin, such as eggplants, peppers and tomatoes, require a higher temperature than most other vegetables and herbs

Build Your Own Indoor Farm You don’t have to buy a sophisticated growing system to produce edible plants indoors. It is possible to grow various herbs and vegetables in simple boxes or pots filled with potting soil, installed on a kitchen counter or in a basement. However, the use of an artificial lighting system is a crucial part of growing edible plants indoors. The sunlight that enters through the windows of a house or apartment is often not sufficient to ensure the proper growth of these plants. This is why you should use LED lamps, which offer a light spectrum similar to that of the sun. LEDs have many advantages since they require little energy (24V) and have a lifespan exceeding fluorescent tubes. They give off very little heat and can be placed at a greater distance from the plants, between 60 and 100 cm (23” -39”). Another factor that affects the growth of edible plants indoors is temperature. In winter, the warm, dry air in our homes is not very suitable for most edible plants, especially herbs. So make sure you grow your herbs and leafy greens in a cool room - a temperature of 18ºC (64°F) is ideal - and a humidity level above 40%, ideally closer to 50%. Water your edible plants once every week during fall and winter if you grow them in potting soil. It is essential to remove any dead or diseased leaves regularly. Also, if your home’s air is relatively dry, regularly spray lukewarm water on and around the foliage of the plants you are growing.

Edible plants of tropical origin, such as eggplants, peppers and tomatoes, require a higher temperature than most other vegetables and herbs. So be sure to grow them under bright artificial light at a temperature between 20 and 24ºC (68-75°F). Grow these plants in a soil consisting of compost, sphagnum peat moss and perlite, then add a few handfuls (100 ml per plant) of slow-release natural granular fertiliser rich in nitrogen and potassium (5-3-8).

Edible Plants Suitable for Indoor Growing Most edible plants can be grown in an indoor farm. Those best suited are usually herbs and fast-growing leafy vegetables such as Swiss chard, spinach, kale, lettuce, oregano and parsley. You can also grow other crops that take a little longer to develop, such as broccoli, corn, peas and sunflowers, but they are always harvested before their maturity in the form of sprouts or young shoots. Tomatoes can also give good production when grown in bigger indoor farms. However, opt for compact shrubby cultivars, such as ‘Tiny Tim’, ‘Totem’ or ‘Tumbling Tom’, for example. With a good fertilising regiment, you can also grow eggplants, cucumbers and peppers that produce small fruits, such as Mini Bell and Lunch Box cultivars. Remember, the pollination of fruiting vegetables must be carried out by hand with a small brush! Otherwise, yields will be low or non-existent. 3

BIO Passionate about environmental horticulture, urban agriculture and extreme landscape design, Albert Mondor has practised his craft for over 30 years and created numerous gardens in North America. In addition to teaching courses and lecturing at conferences across Canada, his weekly gardening column has appeared in the Journal de Montréal and the Journal de Québec since 1999. In April 2018, Albert Mondor published Le nouveau potager, his tenth horticultural book. He is a regular guest and contributor to radio and television programmes and his hosting The Trendy Gardener spots broadcasted on Météo Média and online. You can also read his blog called Extreme Horticulture at albertmondor.com. Follow Albert on Facebook: fb.com/albert.mondor

GA R D EN CU LT U R E M AGA Z I N E.CO M

BY PHILIP MCINTOSH

Chemistry Basics

A Water Primer 72

A WATER PRIMER

Water, Water Everywhere

arth has a lot of water. Ocean water covers about 71% of the Earth’s surface and makes up a whopping 97% of all the planet’s water. Oceans are salty, though, and of limited use outside of ocean biomes. Freshwater, required by landdwelling organisms (and those that live in lakes, rivers, and streams), is a different story, making up only about 3% of all

the water on Earth. Of that 3%, most is frozen in ice pack and glaciers and is not readily available.

We are lucky to have so much liquid water. Earth is in a planetary Goldilocks Zone, just the right distance from the sun. The temperature is not so high that it boils our water away, not so low as to freeze it all, but just right to keep it mainly in the liquid state.

Given its importance not only for living systems but for many human pursuits, water is one of the most studied and well-understood substances

Of course, all living things require water. Plants need water to create turgor pressure in their cells to keep them erect. Water is also a critical reagent in photosynthesis, where it is oxidised and split to create the gaseous oxygen that is released for us animals to breathe. Given its importance not only for living systems but for many human pursuits, water is one of the most studied and well-understood substances.

The Structure of Water The chemical formula for water is H2O but don’t be fooled by its apparent simplicity. There is something about the way those three atoms combine that gives water special properties. A water molecule is bent, with the two hydrogen atoms separated by a bond angle of 104.5°. Why is a water molecule not linear like carbon dioxide, consisting of three atoms (see figure below)? It has to do with electrons, the negatively charged subatomic particles that orbit the positively charged nuclei of all atoms. It is energetically favourable for atoms to be surrounded by either two or eight electrons (the octet rule). This is why we find hydrogen naturally in the diatomic state (H2). Since a hydrogen atom consists of one proton and one electron, two come together to share their electrons, so they “feel” like they have two electrons between them (sorry for anthropomorphising). We find oxygen (O2) and chlorine (Cl2) in the diatomic state for similar reasons, although they like the number eight instead of two. In water, the number of electrons around the oxygen atom is eight, with one oxygen electron shared with each of the hydrogen atoms (that’s two pairs, four electrons). Oxygen’s other four electrons are arranged in pairs on the other side of the oxygen atom. The negatively charged electron pairs repel each other, pushing each other apart as far as the hydrogens and their electronic bonds allow. This forces the hydrogens closer together, creating the aforementioned bond angle of 104.5°.

Polarity These two pairs of electrons that hang out on one side of a water molecule create a region that is more negatively charged than the side of the molecule where the hydrogens are. Since the bonding electrons that keep the hydrogens linked to the oxygen tend to be between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms, the positively charged protons of the hydrogen nuclei are somewhat exposed on the other side, making that part of the molecule slightly positive. A water molecule is electrically neutral, but the charge is not distributed equally. Thus, we say that water is “polarised.” And what an effect this polarity has. The negatively charged side of one water molecule is attracted to the positively charged side of another in a phenomenon called hydrogen bonding. This gives rise to a kind of microscopic structure. However, it is constantly in flux as water molecules weakly link together only to break apart and form links to other molecules as they all spin and vibrate together. This self stickiness can be directly observed as surface tension, a kind of “skin” on the surface of a body of water.

A WATER PRIMER

It can also be seen in capillary action, the tendency of water molecules to collectively crawl up a glass surface for a short distance or move into a tiny crack in a soil particle. This stickiness helps maintain the transpiration stream in a plant’s xylem tissue; as water flows up toward the stomata, the molecules above provide an electrostatic tug on the ones below. The polarity of water also contributes to its relatively high boiling point. Water also exists as a liquid over a wide temperature range, and it does not evaporate as fast as less polar substances (such as alcohols) or non-polar compounds such as gasoline.

The Universal Solvent Water can dissolve more substances than any other liquid, so it is sometimes called the universal solvent. It is especially good at dissolving other polar compounds, which is a source of the old chemistry adage “like dissolves like.” It is not so good at dissolving non-polar substances like fats and oils.

The Colligative Properties of Water

Until we begin harvesting ice or mining the solar system for it, the water we have is what we’ve got, so we better take good care of it

Colligative properties are those that depend on the amount of a substance in a system. Dissolving something in water creates a solution, and the properties of the solution depend on what and how much is dissolved in it. If any substance, salt, for example, is dissolved in water, it lowers the solution freezing point. This is why salt is spread on roads before a winter storm to try and keep them from freezing over as quickly as they otherwise would. In the other direction (even though temperature doesn’t have a direction), boiling points are elevated, meaning that salt water boils at a slightly higher temperature than pure water. Useful to know when cooking pasta.

Acid-Base Behaviour

According to the simplest definition (the Arrhenius definition), an acid is a substance that provides H+ ions when dissolved in water, and a base provides OH- ions. So to neutralise an acid (H+), one adds a base (OH-). What do you get when you combine H+ and OH-? Why H2O, of course, which is why water is always a product in any neutralisation reaction.

Don’t Take it for Granted This little collection of three atoms is special. Because of the polarity resulting from how two hydrogen atoms bond to one oxygen atom, water behaves like no other known compound. Until we begin harvesting ice or mining the solar system for it, the water we have is what we’ve got, so we better take good care of it. 3

This stickiness helps maintain the transpiration stream in a plant’s xylem tissue; as water flows up toward the stomata, the molecules above provide an electrostatic tug on the ones below

Bio

Philip McIntosh holds a B.Sc. in Botany and Chemistry from Texas State University and an MA in Biological Science from the University of Texas at Austin. He has been publishing professionally for over 30 years in magazines, journals, and on the web on topics relating to botany, mycology, general biology, and technology. As a STEM (Science,Technology, Engineering, and Math) educator, Phil enjoys working with students to help them advance their knowledge and skills in relevant fields of learning.

CHARITY BY CATHERINE SHERRIFFS

Oke Charity Builds Gardens And Little Growers For A Better Future

n Manukau, Auckland, a truly formidable charity is making a difference for New Zealand’s youth. The Oke Charity offers kiwi kids the opportunity to learn life and social skills through school gardens. By giving primary school-aged children an outdoor space to grow, they develop the skills to produce nutritious food and begin to understand a

wide range of subjects, from sustainability to STEM topics. In addition, working in the gardens improves their overall wellbeing, reducing stress and anxiety levels and giving the students a sense of place.

The concept is simple, but making it happen is no easy feat. A stay-at-home dad, Paul Dickson launched the Oke Charity in 2016, a year after building a veggie patch for a Garden to Table programme at Papatoetoe West School. Dickson made it all happen, his background in project management helping him put all pieces of the puzzle together in a single day. The school principal was so impressed she suggested Dickson do the same for other schools that needed help setting up gardens; the rest is history. In case you’re wondering, Oke is the Maori word for the oak tree, and the organisation’s tagline, “Growing Mighty Kids”, comes from the old saying, “from acorns mighty oaks doth grow.” Both the title and tagline could not be more fitting when you see what the charity has accomplished in such a short time.

The Oke Charity empowers schools and communities to grow essential life and social skills, making the world a better place for us all. You can learn more about the mission and lend your support at oke.org.nz. 3

By giving primary school-aged children an outdoor space to grow, they develop the skills to produce nutritious food and begin to understand a wide range of subjects, from sustainability to STEM topics

Today, Oke Charity is working with 20 schools from Onehunga to Drury, and by the end of this year, 12,500 local kids will have access to an outdoor learning and growing space. Through Growing A Future, the gardens are built in just one day and include everything from raised beds, greenhouses, and composting solutions to student and teacher tools, irrigation systems, fruit trees, and more. In addition, some of the schools are raising pigs and chickens, and one recently set up a beehive. A majority of the schools also run Pātaka Kai stands to share the fresh food grown on-site with the broader school community. Each project is worth a total of $25,000, but Oke Charity, its tireless volunteers, sponsors, funders, and contributors work hard all year to make sure the gardens don’t cost the schools a cent. Although nothing replaces the kids getting their hands dirty in the garden, Dickson teamed up with a local developer to create an app for the charity that teaches skills to the kids. The app guides the young gardeners on what to do every week and from season to season, making sure no stone is left unturned. The last two years have presented many challenges, but Oke’s founder has been able to find the silver lining in it all. “I have to say, it isn’t easy being a charity in this current climate,” Dickson says. “But if anything positive has come out of this global pandemic, it is that people and communities both globally and locally are beginning to see the benefits of access to outdoor spaces to grow.”

BY JENNIFER COLE

Seeds of Yesterday Preserved for Tomorrow G

ood things come in small packages; this couldn’t be truer of the growing trend among home gardeners to plant addictively flavourful heirloom vegetables. These little packets are a throwback to an era when seeds were preserved at the end of each growing season and handed down through generations. Finding these small

wonders isn’t always easy, but the seed’s adaptability to localised growing conditions and the sustainability and biodiversity they add to the home garden makes the effort worthwhile.

The Heirloom’s Decline

only one use, meaning crops must be These little packets resown with new seeds every season. The shift towards large scale intensive Even though the seeds of the genetically agriculture has meant seed production are a throwback to an modified plant hold unspecified traits being taken over by multinational era when seeds were from one or both parents, their companies focused on the synthetic manufacture of seed to produce uniform, preserved at the end of commercial use cannot be guaranteed. high yielding crops. This trickles down each growing season to the home gardener’s ability to find a Open-Pollinating Seeds wide range of seeds. A 1999 study by the and handed down Open-pollinating plants produce seeds UN Food and Agriculture Organisation through generations whose pollen has transferred between revealed that since the beginning of the plants by natural means: wind, bees, 20th century, 75% of agricultural seed has insects etc. The genetic traits of the parent plant remain intact, disappeared. In the United States, 93% of seed varieties sold in and if the pollen is not shared between different varieties of 1903 were extinct by 1983. Of the 7,098 apple varieties grown the same species, tomatoes grown using grandma’s heirloom in Canadian orchards between 1804-1904, 86% no longer seeds should maintain a similar flavour to their ancestor. exist. Because pollinators go where they like, new characteristics from other varieties and species get added into the genetic This is dangerous. The greater a plant’s ability to naturally mix. This is biodiversity. Over generations, parent plants have produce viable, sustainable seed, the greater the diversity of evolved and adapted to their specific and localised growing a crop and its chance of survival on a farm or home garden conditions. It’s become encoded into their DNA. A seed should, for example, a natural disaster occur and damage it. produced in a warm climate year-round, such as Mexico, is unlikely to do well in a colder climate with fluctuating weather, such as Canada. Hybrid Seeds The transfer of pollen from the male anther of one flower to the The new seeds produced by an open-pollinating plant can female stigma of the same or different plant causes fertilisation be harvested and used the following year, continuing the and seed production. This process has occurred naturally and cycle. This gives them a sustainable edge over hybrid seeds. unhampered for millions of years. Hybrid seeds change that. Heirloom seeds are open-pollinating seeds. The seed itself They’re a product of human manipulation designed to create isn’t necessarily old, but its lineage and cultural history must a plant with a predominance to a specific trait: colour, yield be traceable from grower to grower. capability etc. Hybrid seeds are typically manufactured for

SEED PRESERVATION

The home gardener is, without a doubt, a hero when it comes to seed preservation

Promote biodiversity and make a difference to world food sustainability by planting locally sourced openpollinating heirloom vegetable seeds

Patent Restrictions Not all open-pollinated seeds are heirloom. Bob Wildfong, Executive Director of Seeds of Diversity, Canada’s most prominent seed conservation organisation, says it boils down to patent restrictions. Seed companies don’t want their stock regrown, or new seed lines created that take from their market share of profits. So they make it illegal to sell or reproduce their seeds. Most varieties before the mid-20th century don’t have proprietary restrictions. If a seed has a documented history, no ownership rights and is open-pollinating, Wildfong says, he’d consider it an heirloom.

The Year of the Garden The Canadian Garden Council (CGC) has designated 2022 the Year of the Garden to celebrate the centenary of the Canadian Nursery Landscape Association. Michel Gauthier, Executive Director of the CGC, told the Winnipeg Free Press in March 2021 that one of the goals of the Year of the Garden is to create legacies for a sustainable future. He says that while governments around the globe debate the best course of action to address climate change, gardeners already are by interacting with nature, planting seeds and supporting biodiversity.

Seed Preservation Many of the heirloom seeds sold in Canada today are a result of Seeds of Diversity founders. Over thirty-five years ago, a group of gardeners and organic vegetable farmers noticed seed varieties discontinued, and companies bought out. To save their favourites, they organised seed exchanges and formed companies to re-commercialise the seeds. Today, Seeds of Diversity members continue to share seeds among themselves and spread the word about seed conservation and its role in maintaining a healthy biodiverse planet. The home gardener is, without a doubt, a hero when it comes to seed preservation. Often, documenting and propagating heirloom seed leaves little room for error and means working with tiny quantities. A home gardener is a skilled hobbyist with experience that Wildfong turns to when a seed variety needs extra attention to survive. Once the seeds are reproduced on a scale workable to home gardens, they are tested for farm use. Seeds of Diversity collaborates with organisations like the Bauta Family Initiative, a non-profit working in Canada to increase local, sustainable seed quality, quantity, and diversity. They believe the agricultural cycle begins and ends with seed. Other organisations such as SeedChange work with farmers worldwide to strengthen their ability to grow food, starting with local seeds.

BIO

A writer and garden enthusiast with a bachelor’s degree focused on history from Simon Fraser University, and a freelance writing career spanning two and half decades, Jennifer lives in Vancouver British Columbia. Her by-lines have regularly appeared in the opinion section of the Toronto Star and her portfolio includes articles in various newspapers, magazines, and websites across Canada. When not writing her own blog or visiting local garden centres, you can find her puttering, planting, and nourishing her own urban garden oasis.

Seed organisations around the world provide resources guiding gardeners to seed depositories, seed libraries, and heirloom seed sellers. Take the time to look them up and get your hands on some of these prized packets. Promote biodiversity and make a difference to world food sustainability by planting locally sourced open-pollinating heirloom vegetable seeds. Then, donate a portion of the harvested seeds to a depository or library for future generations at the end of the growing season. Good things really do come in small packages. 3

Sources • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Horticulture group marks Year of the Garden 2022 - Winnipeg Free Press A dedication to saving heirloom plants - Greenhouse Canada Canada’s very own Year of the Garden - Winnipeg Free Press Homes Canadian Seed Library – Seeds of Diversity Document Libraries (seeds-canada.ca) Why do we need Seed Sanctuaries? - Seed Sanctuary Heritage Harvest Seed Preserving diversity with heritage seeds – BC Local News Seeds of Diversity – People Protecting the People’s Seeds Why most of our world’s food crops are becoming extinct – The Plaid Zebra The return of heritage fruit and veg varieties - BBC News Preserving the Future of Heirloom Collards - Modern Farmer What Are Heirloom Vegetables? - The Plant Dad Difference Between Heirloom, Hybrid, and GMO Vegetables (thespruce.com) What Are Hybrid Seeds Exactly? | Hybrid Seed Definition – West Coast Seeds What Does Open Pollinated Mean And Is Open Pollination Better (gardeningknowhow.com) What are Heirloom Seeds? Best Heritage & Organic Garden Seeds (naturallivingfamily.com) What’s the Difference? Open-Pollinated, Heirloom & Hybrid Seeds — Seed Savers Exchange Blog Seed Libraries – New Society Publishers CA Home | SeedChange : SeedChange (weseedchange.org) Seed and Plant Sanctuary for Canada (Seed Bank, Gene Bank) (seedsanctuary.com) Open-Pollinated vs. Hybrid vs. Heirloom Seeds: What Do They Mean? - Gardening Channel What Does Open Pollinated Mean And Is Open Pollination Better (gardeningknowhow.com) How Vegetables Are Pollinated: Open Pollination and Hybrids - Harvest to Table (PDF) Hybrid Seed Production Its Methods & benefits (researchgate.net)

BY LUKE REGAN

AutoPot A Water-Savvy

Farming Solution In Kenya

ensely packed racks of ultra-verdant, highly developed plants in spotless climate-controlled facilities; in recent years, such imagery has become a shorthand for the future of crop cultivation. But if modern techniques are to produce food for a sizeable percentage of the world’s population, they also need to function in far less rarefied climes.

One Farmer’s Story AutoPot and Kenya-based farmer, Nam Oneko, have spent the past five years creating a blueprint for a self-sustainable growing programme in one of Kenya’s most important but challenging horticultural regions. Kunya Beach in Siaya County is an area relied upon for crop production. But the weight of that dependency coupled with limitations of natural resources makes it the definition of a ‘testing environment’. Growers in the area must meet stringent government criteria given the current demands on local water supplies, and any form of farming that relies on electricity is effectively untenable.

If modern are to produce food for a sizeable percentage of the world’s population, they also need to function in far less rarefied climes.

Take those pressures and pitch them into wildly fluctuating climatic conditions. From a cool 18°C (64°F) at night, temperatures can quickly rise to 38°C (100°F) in the midday sun. Mastering and maintaining relative humidity (RH) levels without electrically powered environmental controls is quite challenging when RH can be 99% at daybreak and drop to less than 50% by noon.

AutoPot Lends A Hand These are just a few of the obstacles faced by Kenyan commercial greenhouse growers like Nam who want to use watering systems. However, greenhouse-based farming offers tremen78

dous benefits compared to traditional in-earth cultivation. For example, Nam’s project has shown that when seeds are sown in his AutoPot modules by growers with minimal training, germination rates are somewhere between 90-95%. On the other hand, when inexperienced local farmers sow seeds in the ground, germination techniques rates are somewhere between 30-60%. Greenhouse growing allows farmers of all abilities to exert a measure of control, while in-earth cultivation requires skills and concessions to outside forces. When gardening outdoors in the soil, a propor-

WATER-SAVVY FARMING IN KENYA

tion of any water used is inevitably lost to the ground. In addition, outdoor growing necessitates far greater pest control, crop protection, and weed management - all of which are costly, time-consuming, and require a practised eye.

Water Control

The idea of using a passive watering system in these remote areas is proving to be the perfect energyefficient, sociallyengaged model for others to follow

Nam has found that the passive watering system AutoPot offers has allowed him to enjoy the advantages of farming indoors with minimal resources. No water is wasted, as the AQUAvalve in each module of Nam’s system only opens to admit more water and nutrient solution when the plant has taken up the previous supply. Individual plants draw what they need when they need it; this has been instrumental in helping Nam’s plants defy climatic fluctuations. There’s no need for him or his team to second-guess requirements, compensate for conditions, or recalibrate unnecessary pumps or computers. The 2,000 AutoPot modules are so responsive to the plants’ needs that climate controls have proven unnecessary. The systems are also gravity-fed, meaning the electricity demand is negated. External global pressures on Nam’s enterprise have also been alleviated by his use of a watering system. Many farmers in remote areas around the world have faced tough decisions in the face of COVID-19. Should they stick or twist with the next crop? Abandonment jeopardises the paydays by which they live. On the other hand, production means obtaining supplies, organising labour, and exposure to costs which they might struggle to recoup if an accessible market doesn’t eventually materialise. Nam is encouraged in no small part by the

low-maintenance, high-yields, and minimal overheads of running his AutoPots.

High Yields Along with his mainstays of tomatoes, peppers, cucumbers, and melons, Nam has begun cultivating spinach, kale, herbs, and onions. All of these are quick to harvest. Herbs and salads are ready in just a few weeks, cucumbers, melons, and tomatoes are ripe in around 60 days, and the onions are ready 20 days later.

To date, the AutoPot Kenya project has been incredibly successful, proving there are sustainable ways of using modern growing techniques to produce food locally, regardless of conditions. Demand for Nam’s crops is currently outstripping his capacity to supply; he has had to hire more staff and expand into an additional greenhouse.

A Practical Solution A practical solution for growing food, the AutoPot Kenya project also serves as an excellent tool for community development, training, and research. The nursery has attracted a great deal of government and commercial interest given that sustainable horticulture is seen as a great driver for local employment. The idea of using a passive watering system in these remote areas is proving to be the perfect energy-efficient, socially-engaged model for others to follow. The system could revolutionise access to crops and sustainable living in isolated communities, not only in Kenya but around the world, helping to address the pressing issue of global food security. 3

BY CATHERINE SHERRIFFS

WAYS

XERISCAPING

WORKS

We can all do a better job when it comes to conserving water, especially in the garden. It’s more important than ever to start making changes; this past summer, much of Europe and North America experienced record-breaking heat. Extreme temperatures and drought led to forest fires in many parts of the world, including Greece, California, and British Columbia. With many experts predicting summers will only be getting hotter and dryer, water-wise actions are necessary. Xeriscaping is an excellent way to conserve H20 out in the garden! Although more common in dry parts of the world where water use is regulated, this technique can be applied anywhere. Read these 5 Cool Ways Xeriscaping Works and see if you can incorporate one or two ideas into your growing ventures.

What does the term xeriscape mean? In Latin, xero means dry, and scape means landscape.

Horticultural Disobedience (AKA “Less Grass”)

Beautiful green lawns have traditionally surrounded our homes. While they look nice, they require a lot of water to keep their vibrant colour. Consider replacing turfgrass with an eco-lawn, native grasses, low-maintenance groundcovers, or seed mix that doesn’t need to be mowed as often. Plant a bee lawn made up of low-growing wildflowers and clovers, which is not only waterwise but a haven for endangered pollinators too! Live in an area where city bylaws demand manicured lawns? For more rebellious folks, a new movement called “horticultural disobedience” has some homeowners replacing turf with natural yards to boost biodiversity while decreasing their water dependency and the urban heat island effect.Talk about living on the wild side!

Choose the Right Plants

Grow plants native to your area because they’ve adapted to the local climate and require much less water and maintenance. Go the extra mile by selecting shrubs and flowers that do well in hot and dry conditions, such as desert, seashore, and Mediterranean plants. Carefully read the labels at your local nursery; is the object of your affection droughttolerant? If so, it’s a winner for the xeriscaped garden.

GREEN ADVICE

Soil Improvement

While plant selection certainly is vital to proper xeriscaping, perhaps you don’t want to limit yourself to a few drought-tolerant and native plants. If you’re looking to add unique varieties to the garden but don’t want to increase your water use, you must improve your soil by adding good quality compost and disturbing it as little as possible. The soil’s texture will determine drainage and retention capabilities, and in turn, how much H20 is available to plants. Add a 3” layer of compost in the spring before planting and again after the growing season is over. Mixing organic matter into the garden at the time of planting doesn’t hurt either. And of course, don’t forget to mulch! Adding layers of leaves, bark, or straw to your garden beds will prevent soil erosion and water evaporation.

Water Smart

Are your plants actually thirsty? Don’t just assume that they need water. Using a moisture meter will help gauge whether the garden needs a drink or not.This handy gadget can save you some work and help improve plant health, as too much moisture isn’t a good thing. When you grab the hose, make sure you’re using it early in the day or in the evening hours when the sun isn’t as hot, and evaporation levels are lower. Water deeply and efficiently utilising the puddling method. Drench the soil around the plant to create a puddle and count how long it takes to absorb. If the ground drinks up all of the water in less than three seconds, water again. Any longer, and you can move on to the next thirsty plant. Finally, a rain barrel is excellent for capturing rainwater for the gardens and saving your drinking water.

Maintain Your Gardens

It’s easy enough to let things go in the garden, but regular maintenance is a xeriscaper’s best friend. Healthy plants cope much better with less water than unhealthy plants.That means keeping up with your weeding, pruning, fertilising, mulching, and lawn care. Weeds rob nutrients and moisture from the plants you’re actually trying to grow, so regularly going through the garden and eliminating them is a must. Prevent them from popping up by following no-till or no-dig methods and covering your beds with mulch. Fertilise plants only when necessary, as nitrogen encourages new growth, increasing a plant’s need for water. Prune trees and shrubs in the spring; doing so in the summer encourages new foliage to grow, which is always thirstier than mature leaves. Follow a regular maintenance routine, and you’ll be the gardener with the nicest-looking and most water-wise garden on the block! 3

Sources: Gardening Complete: How To Best Grow Vegetables, Flowers, and Other Outdoor Plants, by the Authors of Cool Springs Press (Cool Springs Press, 2018).

Other xeriscaping techniques: • • •

Replace grass with hardscapes, such as decking, pathways, patios, and more. Install windbreaks to help keep plants from drying out too quickly. Design a garden with materials such as gravel or stone to help rainwater penetrate the ground and keep it from washing away.

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