The Representation of Race and Ethnicity within Contemporary European Cinema

CANDIDATE NO: 0015075 COURSE - MA3061 – DISSERTATION

THE REPRESENTATION OF RACE AND ETHNICITY WITHIN CONTEMPORARY EUROPEAN CINEMA.

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CONTENTS Part I INTRODUCTION

1.‘THE CINEMA OF THE AFFECTED’. THE INCEPTION OF THE VICTIMISATION NARRITIVE.

Part 2 2. HEAD ON 3. LA HAINE 4. BEND IT LIKE BECKHAM

Part 3 CONCLUSION

Bibliography Filmography Websites

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This dissertation is concerned with the representations of race and ethnicity within contemporary European cinema. I will look at three contemporary examples of ethnic European cinema to aid my discussion. I will consider the inception of the victimisation narrative, and the racial stereotype, during the ‘cinema of the affected’ (Burns, 2006: p.128) and discuss their positioning within some of those contemporary films. By evaluating the chosen films I intend to argue that social problem and ethnic films have generally moved away from this period and are beginning to crossover into the mainstream due to a number of factors like film aesthetics, use of music, and contemporary themes, and film marketing, and that this in turn aids the promotion of a more culturally aware viewer. I will consider the representations of the societies in which the protagonists live, and consider how those ethnic minorities are positioned within them or if indeed, they reside on the margins. To further this particular discussion I will give consideration as to how ethnic minorities are depicted towards homogenous identities and how they themselves go about forming their own identities in their host societies. Through this discussion I will consider if it is possible to draw positive representations of race and ethnicity from those examples of contemporary European cinema and move toward what Sarita Malik would call ‘the pleasures of hybridity’ (Malik, 1996). I have chosen to consider Fathi Akin’s Head On (2004) for a number of reasons; it is widely regarded as a successful multicultural film wining the Golden Bear in 2004 at the film’s premiere in Berlin. The film is also considered to be a mainstream success, which allows for consideration about the progression of ethnic film from the margins to mainstream centre. Furthermore the film employs various themes, which are arguably both traditional, and contemporary, to ethnic cinema and the sound track to the film provides an interesting platform, which could promote an engagement with the film’s issues. Similarly I have chosen to evaluate Matthieu Kassovitzs’ La Haine (1995) for a number of reasons. Again the film is a contemporary example of a successful multicultural film, which manages to crossover boundaries into the mainstream. It provides interesting aesthetic examples like its use of music, and black and white, which I will argue aid its crossover appeal.

Furthermore the multicultural protagonists negotiate their own identities against the racism inflicted on them by the homogeneous identities of the French police allowing for a discussion around ethnic positioning and victimisation. I have also chosen to evaluate the representations of race and ethnicity within Gurinder Chadhas’ Bend It Like Beckham (2002). The film was successfully marketed as a ‘feel good’ movie and 3

achieved massive box office success moving into the mainstream with ease. The film appears to negotiate racial and ethnic representations very differently to that of the other two films. Identity formation and social positioning appear to be more easily achieved with a more positive out come. Racial marginalisation does not seem to be overplayed in the film, and the film employs many comic moments, which is not a typical tradition of ethnic film either. I have chosen a German – Turkish film, a multicultural French film, and a Black – British film, all of which negotiate the representations of race and ethnicity contemporarily, and much differently to each other. This in turn, will give the dissertation balance and allow me to address the issues of ethnic and racial representation more widely. Throughout the dissertation I will refer to many key texts, in the discussion around the ‘cinema of the affected’ I will refer in particular, to Rob Burns’ ‘Turkish - German Cinema…’ for his discussion around themes traditional to Turkish - German cinema and Sarita Malik’s ‘Beyond the cinema of duty’, for her views on the similarities it shares with Black British cinema. In the evaluation of Head On I will refer to Deniz Gokturk’s ‘Turkish Women on German Streets…’ for her discussion around victimization and the racial stereotype. And Polona Petek’s ‘Enabling collisions…’where she argues about the significance of Head On’s soundtrack in furthering the spectators understanding of the subject matter that the film depicts. I will draw from this particular discussion in order to argue that Head On’s sound track aids the films crossover appeal and in turn helps to promote a more culturally aware viewer. For La Haine I will generally draw most heavily from arguments and information put forth from Ginette Vincendeau in her book La Haine where she discusses the stylistics of the film amongst other significant factors. And Doughty and Griffiths article ‘Racial reflection…’ where they discuss identity formation and La Haine’s symmetrical structure as key components of the film. In the evaluation of Bend it Like Beckham I will generally refer mostly to Barbara Kortes’ ‘Bidding for the mainstream’, for her discussion on the film’s mainstream success. And Sarita Malik’s ‘Beyond the cinema of duty’ for her discussion about the history of Black British cinema, and its more recent progression into the mainstream.

The term ‘cinema of the affected’ (Burns, 2006: p.128) refers to a particular type of Turkish-German film associated with victimisation and was described as a ‘cinema of duty’ by Cameron Bailey (Bailey, 1992: p.38). And later by Sarita Malik (Malik, 1996) when she considered the equivalent in Black British film. The ‘cinema 4

of the affected’ is generally thought to be the first phase of migrant cinema and can be seen to be represented by filmmakers like Tevfik Baser. Often films would fall under the category of ethnic or social problem films, and would thus be relegated to the margins like the ethnic minorities they featured. Arguably audiences were put off these films because of their heavy subject matter and niche market, and films rarely reached a mainstream audience. Rob Burns discusses: The ‘cinema of the affected’ as represented by Baser’s work can thus be seen as continuing the tradition of the ‘guest-worker cinema’ (Gastarbeiterkino) of the New German Cinema, the perspective it brought to bear on the alien culture was one in which the focus was unremittingly on alterity as a seemingly insoluble problem, on conflict of either an intracultural or intercultural variety (Burns, 2006: p.133).

‘The dominant image of the Turk as victim’ (Burns, 2006: p.133) is a figure, which can be seen throughout various examples of the ‘cinema of the affected’ however the authenticity, which these racial stereotypes portray is often called into question. Sarita Malik talks about the equivalent in Black British film as adopting a ‘social worker’s perspective’ she goes on to say that the films are ‘haunted by residual notions of cultural purity, community and authenticity’ (Malik, 1996: p.66). Arguably both Black British film, and Turkish German film share a history of portraying the victimization of its ethnic minorities. Burns appears to share Maliks’ perspective when considering Turkish-German films as he uses her term to describe Baser’s film Abscheied vom falschen Paradies / Farewell to a False Paradise (1998) he states that: Accordingly, Farewell to a False Paradise is informed by a ‘social-worker approach’ to ethnic relations in so far as it illustrates the cinematic imprisonment of immigrants within the parameters of well-meaning multiculturalism feeding on binary oppositions and integrationist desires (Burns, 2006: p.132).

It could be argued that these films typify ‘the cinema of duty’. These kind of ethnic and social problem films are characterised by Cameron Bailey in the following fashion: Social issue in content, documentary – realist in style, firmly responsible in intention – positions its subjects in relation to social crisis, and attempts to articulate ‘problems’ and ‘solutions to problems’ within a framework of centre and margin, white and non-white communities. The goal is often to tell buried or forgotten stories, to write unwritten histories, to ‘correct’ the misrepresentations of the mainstream (Bailey, 1992: p.38).

These early films therefore often ended up focusing intently on the problems of cultural tensions and the more negative aspects surrounding ethnicity and racial difference, quite often highlighting the victimisation of its subjects. Perceived authenticity becomes problematic because of the intermixing of cultures and the preconceived representations of the ‘Other’ culture. Often ideas of cultural purity are 5

bound up in stereotypical perceptions, nostalgia and the creation of Otherness.

Furthermore through this representation of perceived cultural purity it is possible to fall into a pattern of reproducing and reinforcing racial stereotypes. However the 1990s saw the emergence of a new kind of cinema brought forward by a new generation of young directors who would negotiate the representations of race and ethnicity differently. These contemporary films show modern examples of ethnic issues and in their contemporary negotiation of these issues the films are achieving a crossover appeal. I will go on to argue that these contemporary ethnic films have moved away from ‘the cinema of the affected’ with varying amounts of success.

Akin addresses various themes directly through Head On and as with, La Haine, and Bend It Like Beckham, both of which I will discuss later, the film achieves a crossover appeal. This is due in part to the aesthetics of the film; it does not look like a typically ethnic or social problem film. There are plenty of scenes in clubs and bars; likewise there are various violent and sexual scenes, the film dramatises amongst other things the forming and negotiation of ethnic identities and the process of assimilation, which the protagonists go through. However the theme is very much sex, drugs and rock and roll. And I would argue that by utilizing these themes and aesthetics the film reaches a larger more mainstream audience. Through the existing understanding of those well-established themes a new understanding of the ethnic film can be negotiated in turn positively promoting a more culturally aware viewer.

However arguably the film also contains some themes traditional to the ethnic or social problem genre, perhaps most notable in the role of the racial stereotype. I will consider the extent to which this figure is notable in Head On and test if it really draws the film back to the times of ‘the cinema of the affected’. In the later part of Head On Sibel moves away from Hamburg, where both protagonists call home, however her move is motivated by forces beyond her control. Her move is instigated by fear of retribution from her family for betraying their honour when Cahit is convicted of murder. This part of the film allows for a consideration about the role of the racial stereotype within the film. When considering the role of Sibel’s family Petek argues that their representation draws back to the times of ‘the cinema of the affected’. She states that: In its construction of Sibel and her family, Gegen die wand obviously refers to these ‘Orientalist’ texts. Yet, it does alter their premise, most obviously by granting Sibel a degree of agency in the choice of her ‘rescuer’ (Petek, 2007: p181).

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However I would argue that there is more to Sibel’s character than a simple variation on the racial stereotype, when trying to convince Cahit to go ahead with the marriage she tells him she will pay for it with money she had saved up as a contingency plan knowing that if marriage provided her with no way out, then running away would.

She shows herself to be forward thinking and independent which are not strictly typical traits of victimised women furthermore she was not pinning all of her hopes on being ‘rescued’ by a man. Petek argues that: ‘…Sibel’s family, the film’s primary locus of Turkish tradition, is represented in exclusively negative terms, as irredeemably oppressive, inexorably patriarchal, and nothing short of fanatical at that’ (Petek, 2007: p.181). In this respect it could be argued that by depicting these characters in this way Akin is conforming to negative expectations of cultural stereotypes, going against his …‘credo that the representations of intergenerational tensions should not merely reproduce or reinforce cultural stereotypes’ (Burns, 2006: p.145: notes). There are certainly many examples of the family’s oppressive puritanical behaviour towards Sibel however I would argue that it does not appear quite so straight forward as ‘archaic’ Turkish values versus ‘enlightened’ German values (Gokturk, 2000: p.69). It would perhaps be easy to identify Sibel’s family as conforming to the traditional racial stereotype and therefore in the repressiveness of their tradition, be the source of all problems. However Underneath the perhaps initial idea of a stereotypical representation of the traditional family, an ambiguity which is traditionally held back in order to present these figures as bad oppressive forces which young women need to be saved from, is present. As Deniz Gokturk argues, ‘the common phantasy of victimised Turkish women who, especially when young and beautiful, need to be rescued from their patriarchal community’ (Gokturk, 2000: p.69). This ambiguity can be witnessed through the figure of Sibel’s brother who Cahit disrespects, along with all of the other Turkish men at Sibel’s family party, when they invite him along with them to the brothel. Sibel’s brother confronts Cahit after the party, and also confesses that he visited the club that Cahit works at and has discovered that the managerial role he proclaimed to have was in fact untrue, and that he actually ‘collects empties for a living’. Cahit admits to trying to impress the family and confesses that he lied because he didn’t think they would approve of the marriage otherwise. Sibel’s brother then forgives the disrespectful out burst and the lies based on Cahit’s admission of his true love for Sibel, causing him to affectionately pull Cahit into himself in an apparent gesture of unity. Instant true love for ones partner is 7

not a quality often regarded as necessary amongst traditional Muslim cultures whereby arranged marriages are generally approved of over love marriages, the fact that Sibel’s brother is charmed in someway by Cahit’s confession shows a softer less puritanical side to him. It is through this ambiguity that perhaps another dimension can be seen to this, at first, apparently strict stereotypical figure. I would argue that although a variation on the racial stereotype can be drawn from the film, the ambiguity, which, these characters are presented with, allows for a lesser-confirmed status. I would therefore argue that Head On has still come a long way from ‘the cinema of the affected’ even if the representation of race and ethnicity is not overtly positive in this instance.

I would argue that the film’s soundtrack contributes significantly to the film’s crossover appeal aiding the positive negotiation of a mainstream audience and directly affecting the spectator’s engagement with the film. The sound track contains an amalgamation of British pop rock, American pop songs, traditional Turkish folk music as well as music from European experimental musicians. Petek asserts the significance of Head On’s soundtrack: Multiculturalism can be recuperated, and does so by drawing on examples from, and in particular the music of, Fatih Akin’s film Head On… film sound tracks have the capacity to activate musical taste as the axis along which new forms of multicultural bonding – complicit in, yet also critical of the processes of commodification – can emerge (Petek, 2007: p.179).

I would argue that this bonding also contributes to the progression of the film’s move out of the ethnic margins towards the mainstream centre. Multicultural bonding over music could aid the development of a more culturally aware viewer who would, it could be argued, understand and get more enjoyment from the film. Through an appreciation of the film’s soundtrack an engagement can be made with the subject matter that the film depicts. I would also argue that engagement with the film’s soundtrack has a cross-cultural appeal, which encourages the contemporary viewer to challenge pre-conceived ideas of ethnic films. This is made possible by the bonding over mixtures of American, British, German, and Turkish music. Furthermore by sharing this appreciation with others a common bond can be formed having ‘…the capacity to activate musical taste as the axis along which new forms of multicultural bonding can emerge’ (Petek, 2007: p.177). The film opens with the scene of a wind orchestra and a female Turkish singer performing on the shore of Istanbul. The image is strikingly reminiscent of a traditional Turkish postcard image, invoking an element

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of nostalgia. When considering this nostalgic image of the wind orchestra Petek argues that: …The decision to extricate ‘Turkishness’ and offer it to the viewer for consumption in it’s ‘purified’ form in the interludes shot on the Turkish shores of Halic may well be a poignant reminder that previously marginalised cultures all too often gain tolkenistic recognition and visibility at the cost of very real commodification and co-optation (Petek, 2007: p.184).

The image features frequently throughout the film in an apparent reminder of ‘authentic’ Turkishness, however as Petek argues, this is a very ‘tolkenistic’ image which I would suggest is significant because it instantly causes the spectator to question its meaning. I would argue that the spectator could assume a perceived idea of Turkish authenticity from the image. As the film then progresses, the sound track appears to thrive on binary oppositions, as the music changes dramatically. After being introduced to Cahit in a drunken bar brawl set against the music of a Turkish punk band we then see him embark upon the suicide attempt that results in him driving head on, into a wall. During this scene the instantly recognisable popular track ‘I feel you’ by eighties British pop rock band Depeche Mode, is playing loudly. The juxtaposition between this track and the wind orchestra is impossible to miss. The repeated scene of the wind orchestra performing on the shore of Istanbul is then intercut in-between various scenes throughout the film, juxtaposing contemporary Germany with traditional Turkey. Significantly there is a cut to the wind orchestra after Sibel and Cahit meet for the first time, in the hospital after their mutually failed suicide attempts, perhaps suggesting shared ethnicity. The scene is then followed by a variety of European music, as noted by Petek: ‘…The digetic sounds of post-punk band popular in Germany in the eighties: Nick Cave’s band the Birthday Party; there are songs performed by Alexander Hacke, Mona Mur and other artists associated with the west Berlin experimental group Einsturrzende Neubauten’ (Petek, 2007: p.182).

It could be argued that by bringing together the sounds and images easily distinguishable to each culture, cultural difference is reinforced to the spectator, Petek discusses further: In short, the film’s soundtrack is initially two-tiered, reinforcing the divide between the sound of Turkey and that of Germany. Or so it seems, for, upon closer inspection, it becomes obvious that the later is overwhelmingly ‘cosmopolitan’, and very Western at that, while the former, embodied in an ‘authentic’ Turkish orchestra, is in fact staged by a band of Romany musicians headed by the famous Gypsy artist Selim Sesler. (Petek, 2007: p.182).

Alternatively hybridity is distinguishable through the second third of the film noted through the soundtrack and preparation of traditional Turkish food. And it is this part of the film where we can see the protagonists negotiate their positions within 9

Hamburg society and develop their hybrid identities. The scene in which Sibel prepares a traditional Turkish meal for Cahit signifies an appreciation both protagonists have come to share of their homogenic culture. Significantly this comes at a time where both protagonists are in a position to fully assimilate into their host cultures, Sibel having broken free of her apparently oppressive family and settled into her new life, and Cahit who starts to take better care of himself and enjoy home life.

However it appears in the remaining part of the film that the protagonists are unable to do this successfully as a couple. Their love for each other is arguably just too destructive therefore the further hybridisation, which, the protagonists attain, is depicted to be particularly negative. The sound track in this part of the film is significant because rather than tracks featuring on their own, asserting the difference between cultures, they are fused together making a direct point about the protagonist’s multicultural identities. This fusing together of ‘Oriental’ music with European dance music can be noted in various scenes in which Sibel and Cahit go to clubs, and is most notable in the scene in which, as Petek asserts, their ‘emotional bond is cemented’. She states that: …The song ‘Temple of Love’, which seems to continue the earlier ‘western tier’ of the soundtrack and which appears in the moment when the emotional bond between Cahit and Sibel is cemented, is a Trojan horse; it is the 1992 re-recording of the hit by the Leeds Gothic band The Sisters of Mercy, this time infused with additional ‘Oriental’ vocals provided b Israel pop singer Ofra Haza (Petek, 2007:p.183).

The film goes on to depict the protagonist’s process of cultural integration, Sibel’s migrant and Cahit’s diasporic experience. Both protagonists are already seen to have accomplished a certain amount of assimilation at the beginning of the film and both are German citizens. However, unusually both migrate to Turkey as Petek discusses…

Quite uncharacteristically for naturalized Turkish subjects in Germany who have had to give up their Turkish citizenship, Cahit and Sibel both end up migrating to Turkey, the country of their ethnic origin, the country that their families, but not Cahit and Sibel themselves, call home (Petek, 2007: p.180).

However, significantly the way that the protagonists manage to assert their identities and assimilate into their host society appears particularly negative. Cahit is a naturalized Turkish immigrant who comes across, as more at home with his German identity than with his Turkish identity, which could be an attempt at adopting a more hyphenated identity for himself. However it could be argued that Cahit’s acceptance into Hamburg society has been attained by his adoption of Western vices. This can be seen in his casual sexual relationship with his hairdresser friend and in his frequent

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indulgence in alcohol and drugs. Similarly Sibel’s assimilation appears particularly negative too, as her ambitions apparently only aim so far as to allow her the freedom to frequently indulge in casual sex. One of the most significant quotes on the British released DVD describes the film as ‘Romeo and Juliet on speed’, which is arguably a very appropriate description. When the couple do finally partake in their marriage of convenience instead of enjoying the traditional Turkish food presented to them in their wedding parlour they indulge in lines of cocaine. Therefore the representation of the protagonist’s assimilation is not depicted as positively achieved. Furthermore the depictions, of these ethnic minorities towards the homogeneous German identities are rather limited, the only significant German identity in the film is that of the hairdresser who is arguably presented in pretty one-dimensional terms. She is not presented to the viewer as particularly likeable or interesting, her character appears more to serve the purpose of aiding Cahit’s more dysfunctional mood swings. It appears as if it is a firm intention of Akin’s to address the representation of Turkish ethnicity only. I would argue that the impression that the film instils; is that Germans don’t understand the intricacies of the Turkish protagonist’s relationship. This is made explicit in the scene where Sibel washes the hairdresser hair in the salon where they both work. They begin by talking about Cahit’s former wife and soon the conversation moves on to Sibel and Cahit’s relationship. After the hairdresser enquires about what is going on between them both, Sibel replies that they are man and wife, when the hairdresser then asks if they love each other, Sibel rather patronizingly tells her that she wouldn’t understand.

The last third of the film is quite different after Cahit kills one of Sibel’s lovers and is sent to prison. After Cahit is imprisoned Sibel embarks on a journey to her cultural homeland having left behind the diasporic space that is Hamburg. Once there Sibel has a difficult time settling in to Turkish society. She soon moves out of her cousin’s apartment, finding the normality of working a cleaning job at the hotel too oppressive. It is during this part of the film we really see Sibel going off the rails, determined to find drugs with little regard for her safety, and a ill thought out plan to move in with a stranger, culminates in a scene where she stagers around a bar out of her face, gets raped, then beaten and stabbed. It is this scene that we really learn that Sibel is on a mission to self destruct, significantly the Depech Mode track ‘I feel you’ initially played during Cahit’s suicide attempt is playing whilst she staggers around the bar, before things take a turn for the worse. Arguably the replay of this track in 11

this particular scene highlights a similarity of situation between the protagonists Petek argues that; [Sibel]…moves from a diasporic space to what is supposed to be her homeland; yet once there, she too is clearly an unwelcome and ill-adjusted outsider. Even more so than Cahit, she too is now an exile – banished from her diasporic home as well as from her ethnic homeland. The film underscores their likeness by replaying the Depech Mode song…(Petek, 2007: p.183).

It is through the shared appreciation of Head On’s soundtrack that cross-cultural bonding is positively encouraged. It could be argued that through the appreciation of this particular mix of music a more fruitful engagement with the film and the issues raised by it is made possible. However I would argue that the representations of race and ethnicity within Head On are particularly problematic and predominantly negative in their depiction.

As I have argued with Head On, La Haine also achieves a crossover appeal. I will argue that this is due in part to the film’s aesthetics and will suggest that those aesthetics have contributed directly to the film’s move away from the ethnic margins and towards the mainstream centre. I will argue through La Haine, that a positive mainstreaming of ethnic film is occurring by considering the significance of American filmic and cultural references and the films stylistic use of black and white.

Furthermore I will also consider how ethnic minorities are depicted, and their position within their representative host societies, and to what extent racism is prevalent within La Haine’s world. Even though the film deals with victimisation through racism I would still argue that La Haine would not be the type of film, which would fit neatly within a ‘cinema of the affected’ type category. This is because the film still depicts cohesion, and equal aggression on both sides, which are not typical traits of the victimisation genre therefore the film allows for a more ambiguous reading. As with Head On, La Haine also employs a particular theme, which in its case, is recognised instantly as being influenced by the gangster genre. Vincendeau states: Kassovitz’s first love was the American cinema of Spielberg, Scorsese, Lee, Tarantino and De Palma, and La Haine makes references to a number of their films. The introduction of the three main characters alludes to that of the heroes of Mean Streets, whose names are superimposed over their images at the beginning of the film – not surprising for a director who quotes Mean Streets as his “favourite film” (Vincendeau 2005: p.73).

However La Haine has also gone on to influence other films too, most notably Short Sharp Shock (1998) by Fatih Akin. The films share many similarities, both of which depict the lives of three ethnically diverse young men living on the margins of legality in a society which is not hegemonically their own, I will later compare how both films

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negotiate this differently. Both directors share an apparent appreciation of Scorsese and Mean Streets (1973) an alliance that can be noted through the start sequence of both films. As Vincendeau notes above La Haine’s protagonists names are all superimposed over their image at the start of the film and Burns also points out that the protagonists of Short Sharp Shock have a similar persona establishing sequence: ‘Akin’s aesthetic allegiance, however, is wholly to popular narrative cinema. While the mixing of ethnicities was clearly inspired by La Haine, the angry young men of short sharp shock are introduced…with each character given a sequence establishing their persona and culminating in a fusion of freeze-frame and subtitle’ (Burns, 2006: p.145).

One of the most famous scenes of La Haine shows Vinz imitating Travis Bickle from Scorsese’s Taxi Driver (1976), where he stands in the bathroom mirror aggressively repeating the phrase ‘you talkin’ to me’ whilst gesturing a loaded gun with his hand.

Vinz performs the intimidating identity he would like to assert for himself in one of the film’s many scenes, which include the reflective surface of mirrors. I will discuss Vinz’s performance further when considering the identity formation of ethnic minorities in the film. Furthermore amongst these American filmic references, there are also many references to commodified Black American culture throughout La Haine, from language to the protagonist’s haircut’s, clothes and perhaps the most obvious, rap music and break dancing. I would suggest that it is through these American references that the films alliance with the gangster genre is cemented, allowing for a grater understanding and engagement with the films subject matter.

The film’s crossover appeal allows La Haine to reach a wider audience and through the existing understanding of the well-established gangster film, a new understanding of the ethnic film can be negotiated.

As stated there are many American filmic references within La Haine, perhaps the more obvious ones include both Vinz’s scene as stated, and also Hubert’s boxing scene at the beginning of the film. The slow motion scene of Hubert boxing in his burned down gym is reminiscent of another of Scorsese’s films, Raging Bull (1980), which not only features many slow motion shots of a boxer but it is also a black and white film. Therefore both of these films are also connected through their stylistic use of black and white, which as Vincendeau notes, is particularly unusual for films made after the 1970’s. ‘Making a black and white film in 1995 is a statement.

Since colour became ubiquitous in the 1970’s, few filmmakers have continued to make black and white films’ (Vincendeau 2005: p.48). Therefore by making their

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films black and white both of these directors have chosen to go against what is commonly expected stylistically of a film, in their era. Stylistic use of black and white serves many purposes within the film, also contributing to a crossover appeal, contradictorily both adding to its realism and its fiction at the same time. The combination of rap music and a young cast with a black and white aesthetic does, as Vincendeau notes ‘ …give the film a superficial resemblance to ‘cool’ music videos’ (Vincendeau 2005: p.48). This is particularly evident in two scenes. The first of which, real life French - Moroccan DJ Cut Killer mixes the French hip hop track ‘assassin de la police’ with Edith Piaf’s classic ballad ‘Jen e regretted rien’ which he performs from his bedroom window spilling the music out onto the banlieue bellow.

And then also, in the scene in which the break-dancers dance to the American funk band popular in the 1980’s The Gap Band’s ‘Outstanding’. Arguably both of these scenes would be at home appearing on MTV’s music channel and I would suggest that they add to the films mainstream appeal, making a move out of the ethnic margins possible, especially for viewers who may identify with the rap style music and gangster genre. However the black and white aesthetic also adds to the films realism, this is recognisable through mediums we already consider realistic as Vincendeau argues: …Black and white in La Haine also retains the value of realism because of its link with genres connoted as realistic (newsreels, archival footage, cinema verite, neo-realism, the new wave), especially so as the film has a clear social angle. Ultimately, the brilliance of La Haine is that it draws equally on the realist and anti-naturalist connotations of black and white, making the film appear both ‘gritty’ and ‘cool’ drawing us into the topic and at the same time giving us an aesthetic distance from it (Vincendeaue, 2005: p.50).

La Haine depicts hybridized culture and racial integration between the protagonists and their banlieue society but it also deals directly with racism and marginalisation. The protagonists of La Haine are depicted as living on the margins of the dominant society. Their unsuccessful assimilation is depicted through their loose grasp on the space they inhabit. They are moved on from the rooftop by the police, when they are told that ‘This isn’t Eurodisney’ ‘ you know you can’t be on the roof’.

Similarly in the break dancing scene they are chased off again, by the police. They are shown walking empty streets aimlessly only stopping to hang out, before being moved on, or to engage in criminal endeavours. Even when they hang out in the children’s play area they are forced to move on when the media reporters start to question them. Unlike Short Sharp Shock where various clubs and other hangouts are shown as places where the protagonists can visit at will, the protagonists of La Haine 14

are spatially restricted. The protagonists of La Haine appear bored they are neither at school, at work, or appear to be working towards anything. Furthermore their homes are shown to be underprivileged, restricted, claustrophobic spaces, which they avoid by walking the streets or hanging out in empty run down spaces. Even when they do manage to get to Paris their trip turns out to be a disaster. After being arrested and getting into a fight they then miss the train back to the estate, becoming stranded, and are shown again, to be hanging around aimlessly trying to kill time. Furthermore the criminality that the protagonists become involved in is depicted as a result of social alienation where honest decent opportunities are out of reach and family offers no support either. We see Hubert’s future in boxing go to waste when upon finally realizing his dream of building a gym; it is then burned down in the riots. It is during this scene that we learn that Hubert has subsequently relapsed back into smoking and selling dope. The scene conveys the hopelessness that the protagonists go on to endure throughout the film, even with good intentions one could not succeed in a society quite like this. Therefore criminality is shown in La Haine as the only way out for the protagonists, whether they want to be involved with it or not. In La Haine the criminal underworld is not shown as a glamorous place where gang bosses drive around in flash cars and sharp suits like that of the Albanian mafia boss in Short Sharp Shock. And the criminal underworld is not shown as a venture, which is sought out by the protagonists of La Haine either. On of the more obvious similarities between the films can be seen in the protagonists of Short Sharp Shock and La Haine.

Bobby and Vinz, each share an enthusiasm for their criminal endeavours wishing to ‘progress’ to a higher status through the most dangerous ways available to them as each become fatally involved with guns. Likewise the characters of Gabriel and Costa could be similarly linked to Hubert and Said. Hubert and Gabriel share similar qualities of strength and control and their overall ambitions to leave their life of crime for a more legitimate existence, however it is through both of these characters that the ultimate acts of revenge through violence are shown, leading to the apparent conclusion of both films; that of violence as inevitable and justified.

The protagonists of La Haine all appear in some way as victims of society, a situation made easy to sympathise with through the police brutality they all face on various levels. Furthermore the ethnic minorities of La Haine are shown to be in constant conflict with the homogenous identities of the French police. The film features Vinz from Jewish descent Hubert from African descent and Said from 15

Arabian descent, whose friendship is repeatedly affirmed positively. The three friends are shown as constantly together, even when they are separated by the arrest they manage to run into each other again completing the ever-present trio. Racism is shown to be, inflicted upon the protagonists through the role of the French police and not between the multicultural friendship-group other than to playfully mock as Ginette Vincendeau notes: More strikingly apart from a few affectionate jokes (‘you bogus Beur’ ‘you poor Jew’), race plays no part in the heroes’ relationship to each other and, instead, their friendship is repeatedly affirmed. The point of the racial diversity of the central trio is thus not racial conflict but racial cohesion, a key element in Kassovitz’s depiction of urban warfare (Vincendeau, 2005: p.63).

Kassovits’s depiction of race and ethnicity is very much ‘us against them’ the ethnic minorities form a collective however they do not assimilate well into dominant society therefore La Haine depicts racial violence and its opposite. The representation of these ethnic minorities is shown to be positive in their relationship with each other and cohesion is depicted between them however they are not shown to be innocent.

Even though the film deals with the brutality of racism it does not centre on the victimisation of the protagonists, they are all portrayed as independent anti heroes.

They do not take the racism and violence laying down; they are active in the riots and retaliate with equal aggression. Therefore La Haine would not fit neatly into the victimisation genre. Racism within the film is very much seen as negatively directed towards the young underclass youth of the banlieue by the French police. La Haine opens with documentary style depicting the riots between the French police and the younger generation, many of which appear to be from the banlieue. It becomes apparent that the riots are provoked by police brutality against a young Beur, who later dies of his injuries. The film focuses heavily on the role of the French police, and in one of the most uncomfortable scenes of the film, depicts the almost torturous extent of their violence towards Hubert and Said. During the scene both protagonists are taken in for ‘questioning’ due to being found in possession of a small amount of dope, whilst Vinz escapes capture. In the police station Hubert and Said are then subjected to a humiliating torturous and racist interrogation. The police brutalize and racially insult the protagonists whilst undermining their masculinity by feminine insinuations and sexual innuendoes. The misogynistic and racist behaviour of the police is shown to be something that is ‘hard to control’ as they perform their attack in front of what appears to be a trainee police man who appears sickened,

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embarrassed and intrigued at their violent display. The policemen continue to go through their demonstration only stopping to give the trainee verbal information on their various ‘techniques’ disturbingly admitting that; ‘ the hardest part is not going to far however much you want to’. The trainee’s response to which is an objecting but ultimately ineffective shake of the head. The disturbing message behind the scene is arguably that the racial violence, which the police brutalize the ethnic underclass with, is something, which is passed down to other members of the police force.

Something so common that it is integrated into basic training and will continue to sustain long after the current police officers leave the force. Even if new recruits appear to disapprove initially the racial violence is so deep rooted that resistance to its practice, is ultimately improbable. Ultimately La Haine depicts a world where racial integration and acceptance between cultures plays off against racial violence and poverty, the film deals with these racial themes head on although the underlying message of the film is depressingly negative. For these underclass ethnic minorities resistance to crime is futile resistance to violence is futile, police racial brutality is inevitable and family offers little solidarity. Crime and violence are depicted as inevitable and justified and the only certainty projected by the film is that the cycle will continue. A point exemplified by one of the films many stories. A voice over from Hubert narrates the story which opens and closes the film ‘it’s the story of a society in free fall. To reassure itself, it repeats endlessly’.

Understandably identity formation in La Haine is problematic for the protagonists and it is through Vinz’s character that perhaps the largest struggle can be seen. As I have discussed so far, La Haine employs a certain amount of borrowing, most notably from black American culture and I would argue that this is further noticeable in the protagonists attempt at identity formation. Disconnected and marginalized from their host society the protagonists attempt to assert identities for themselves by adopting traits typical of other cultures. As previously mentioned Vinz tries to assert a more imposing identity for himself in the mirror when imitating a character from Scorsese’s Taxi Driver, the significant factor here is that this is not a true identity but a performance of an identity adopted from American culture.

Doughty and Griffiths argue that Vinz’s identity: … is, in many ways the most dislocated of the film. His ancestry is underlined by the accumulation of Jewish symbols in the space of his home. Against a background of a menorah and blinis, Vinz’s mother exclaims ‘Mazeltov’. This is not a world which Vinz fully belongs as Kassovitz makes clear aurally both by the dialogue relating to his non-attendance of synagogue

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and by the disappearing traces of an earlier accent, an accent stronger in his grandmother, remembered in the vocabulary of his mother, absent in Vinz (Doughty, R., &Griffiths.K, 2006: p.120).

Vinz repeatedly tries to assert a more threatening identity for himself by impersonating the gangster persona but it never really pays off for him as neither Hubert, Said or the French police take him seriously. When Vinz acquires the gun he treats it as if it were a kind of trophy, an object that demands respect, a respect that he in turn can demand for himself whilst the gun is in his possession. When Hubert storms off upset that Vinz has found the policeman’s gun, Said tells Vinz ‘whatever, with that thing you’re the big boss on the estate’. Furthermore the protagonists adopt an Americanized sense of style too, noticeable in their American branded clothing and in the scene in which Said becomes upset at Vinz for messing up his hair cut, Vinz tries to console him by telling him ‘they all have their hair like that in New York’. I would argue that it is Vinz who takes this attempt at identity formation most seriously, to the point where he feels it necessary to wear his name on his fingers. We are first introduced to Vinz as he lays asleep on his bed but his arm is sprayed out, and the camera moves in for a close up of his ‘Vinz’ knuckle-duster. Ultimately the formation of a natural identity is proved impossible for Vinz and the other protagonist, and I would argue that this is due in part because they are unable to assimilate into their host society successfully. The representations of race and ethnicity within the film are continually problematic and arguably the only positive representation comes from the cohesion shared between the friendship group.

As I have argued with both Head On and La Haine, Bend It Like Beckham also achieves a crossover appeal. I will argue that this is due in part to the way the film was marketed, but also because the film negotiates issues of race and ethnicity much differently to traditional ethnic films. Furthermore I would also argue that Bend It Like Beckham achieves this crossover with considerably more ease than the other two films. The film employs elements of pop culture, notable in the mixed genre soundtrack and in the popular sport, football. This allows for a cross-cultural appreciation amongst the youth culture, all of whom, can arguably bond over, and understand the pop-culture of the time. Sarita Malik discusses contemporary Black British film: Productions such as these shift the focus from the political arena to the cultural arena, where the ‘politics of race’ are interwoven with the ‘politics of the dance-floor’, the former inextricably linked to the later. Such films use popular culture and music to bridge the gap between academic critiques of essentialism and the lived reality of displacement. In dealing

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with and reaching the popular, they encourage a more applicable and accessible reading of ‘otherness’ (Malik, 1996: p.211).

I would argue that Bend It Like Beckham has perhaps come the furthest, in moving away from the times of ‘the cinema of the affected’ or rather a ‘cinema of duty’. The depictions of the ethnic minorities within the film are shown to be much less problematic to those within Head On and La Haine. They are shown to be much more integrated into their host societies and toward the homogeneous identities around them, than either of the other two films. Furthermore the film focuses intently on the positive aspects of multicultural identity, a point exemplified by the films marketing as a ‘feel good’ movie. When discussing Gurinder Chadha’s previous film Bahji on the Beach (1993) Malik states that: [The]…’pull’ between British and Asian identities and between British and Indian cinema aesthetics generates the pleasures of hybridization in the cinematic form. This form of duality is different to the ‘in-betweenness’ of ‘the cinema of duty’ films in that it does not locate its protagonists solely within a problem-orientated discourse and diasporic experiences are not limited to victimhood and struggle (Malik, 1996: p. 212).

I would argue that the same could be said for Bend It Like Beckham, by the film’s positive representation of race and ethnicity. Perhaps the most significant factor in Bend It Like Beckham’s attainment of mainstream success was the marketing campaign that supported the film. The film was not marketed as an ethnic or social problem film rather the campaign focussed on the Britishness of the film and its ‘feel good’ qualities. It was marketed as a coming of age movie centred around the theme of ‘girl power’, a term first created in the 1990’s by the massively successful, all girl pop band; The Spice Girls. Significantly the sound track features two members of The Spice Girls solo material, that of Melanie C and Victoria Beckham. Furthermore Victoria and David Beckham both actually make an appearance in one of the final scenes of the film where the protagonists leave for America. This would have undoubtedly contributed to the films mainstream appeal as both stars were at their peak of their popularity at the time. The main marketing poster for the film shows the two protagonists Asian Jess and white Jules play-fighting in casual sports wear while women from Jess’ Asian family are seen dressed in exquisite saris and appear to be protesting in the background. The scene portrays an obvious conflict between the young girls and the Asian women; clearly they disapprove of what they appear to see in front of them. Furthermore the poser’s slogan asks: ‘Who wants to cook Aloo Gobi when you can bend a ball like Beckham?’ The cooking of this Asian meal signifies the traditional Asian notion of femininity, and the poster deliberately establishes the 19

sharp contrast between playing football and this conventional feminine notion in order to play them against each other. However the protagonists are shown sharing a common interest and engage in the sport happily together, their posture is natural and relaxed. As stated the film was marketed as a girl power feel good movie and this is indicated by the apparent solidarity between the two female protagonists. The poster indicates that the film is traditionally British or perhaps English, by its employment of the football theme and in particular the star, David Beckham who at the time was captain of Manchester United Football Club. Football is an archetypal English sport and is so engrained in the construction of English identity it would be hard to miss the connection. The film reached mainstream success easily and I would argue that this is due in part to its contemporary negotiation of ethnic issues. The film promotes a more culturally aware viewer by bringing issues of race and ethnicity to the fore in an interesting but also entertaining manner allowing the spectator to engage with the issues raised.

The film does not overplay issues of social marginalisation or focus intently on racism; rather it is a film about overcoming adversity through negotiation and solidarity. However marginalisation does feature within the film and interestingly, it is shown to affect the white characters as well as the Asian characters albeit in a lesser form. The film deals with ‘… Asianess in terms immediately accessible to a wider audience (often alluding to but also deconstructing stereotypes)…(Korte, 2004: p.176). However the film does not play on the racial stereotype, as Korte discusses it is alluded to in some instance but only in order to negotiate understanding for the spectator. The film also challenges preconceived ideas of what is thought to be traditionally ‘Asian’. The film is a feel good movie through and through, and I would argue that this has moved the film out of the niche market into the mainstream and brought traditional ethnic issues to the fore without presenting them to the spectator as a heavy subject matter in the way that films of the ‘cinema of duty’ presented them.

Furthermore the issues raised by the film can be understood as a shared cross-cultural experience, which can affect Asian, White British and Irish people alike, albeit in varying forms. The film is obvious in showing that in British society today, Asian life is integrated in all aspects and levels. Importantly the football team Jess and Jules play for is multi-racial and is coached by an Irishman, and significantly there is no racism between the team members. There is only minor racism within the film and it is never shown as being problematic, the only racist insult in the film occurs when a 20

girl from the opposing team insults Jess by calling her a ‘paki’. However this only serves to cement the emotional bond between Jess and the coach Joe, as he confesses that as an Irishman he too has experienced racial discrimination. Throughout the film, they bond over the tense relationships with their families, and their scars, and through their shared experiences of racial discrimination, the suggestion, that racism is not only confined to the Asian experience, is made. This suggests that marginalisation affects both whites and Asians and makes a direct point about the common ground that can be negotiated between these shared experiences. Jess’ struggle is shown to be the most difficult to overcome within the film but it is not shown as impossible or singular which adds to the film’s ‘feel good’ quality. The problems Jess encounters as a woman of Asian decent are shown as problems, which can be overcome.

Importantly the problems Jess faces are also shown as problems her white friend Jules faces, albeit in a lesser form, as I will go on to discuss. The sport of football itself is used to show the theme of gender discrimination, it has been so far unheard of that any woman has played in a major league. However issues of ethnicity and cultural belonging also aggravate this gender discrimination.

Gender and ethnicity are problematic from the outset; the film opens with the unexpected scene of a young Asian girl scoring the winning goal for England’s national team, Manchester United. When after the game, the match is analysed in a traditional manner by a group of commentators it is neither Jess’ ethnicity or gender which is seen as important, it is only her talent. However this does not last long and when Jess’ mother is interviewed it becomes apparent that Mrs Bhamra disapproves of Jess because she rejects the traditional Asian idea of femininity, represented by the ability to cook traditional Asian cuisine. To Mrs Bhamra Jess brings ‘shame on the family’ through her rejection of traditional Asian values and customs and it is she who is the figure of cultural tradition who is set up for Jess to rebel against. However it is not just Jess who comes up against the problems of traditional views, her white friend Jules experiences similar issues with her mother. Much in the same way that Jess and the coach Joe form a bond over their mutually strained relationships with their families, Jess and Jules also form a bond over their strained relationships with their mothers. Both Asian and white girl’s are under pressure from the mother figures to become more, traditionally feminine. This can be seen in the scene in which Jules’ mother takes her to buy a push up bra, concerned at her daughter’s apparent lack of femininity she attempts to make Jules adopt a more traditional feminine role, and look 21

more ‘sexy’. Importantly both protagonists are shown to experience similar problems as nether family fully supports their daughter’s love of football. For Jess a compromise between traditional views of femininity, and modern views of femininity, is reached when Jess’ father sends her to the second half of the football finals. Her sister Pinky’s wedding goes on at the same time as the finals and through this compromise to let Jess attend half of the match the positive suggestion that there is potential for compromise between cultural tradition and modernity is made. Due to their performance in the match both Jess and Jules are offered a place in the United States women’s university team to which their parents agree. Barbra Korte says of the moment: Like in East Is East and Bhaji on the Beach, it is, again, the members of the older generation who have to go through a learning process and make adjustments. Jess’s father realizes that for his British-born daughter things might indeed be different than for her migrant father (Korte, 2004: p.174).

Compromise between traditional, and modern, views is also reached on Jules’ side too. Jules’ mother, who becomes convinced that Jess and Jules are involved in a lesbian relationship, provides one of the films many comic moments. Jules’s mother bases her assumptions on parts of an overheard conversation where Jess and Jules discuss their coach Joe, and her own perception as football as a ‘boys’ sport.

Throughout the film Jules’ mother becomes increasingly distressed at her daughters lack of femininity. Her unfounded idea about the girl’s homosexuality culminates in a scene where she confronts Jess at her sister Pinky’s wedding and demands for her to give back the borrowed shoes. However a compromise is made by Jules’s mother when she attempts to learn the off side rule, asserting that she wants to take an interest so that they can enjoy football as a family. This shows Jules’ mother to be moving forward and accepting the fact that for her daughter, different rules of femininity may apply. For both Jess and Jules identity formation has been a process measured against the traditional ideals of their mothers. Both protagonists have had to assert their own ideal femininity against the preconceived notions of their mother’s idealised femininity paving the way for a new positive future where negotiation is possible. As discussed this is shown through Jules’ image and Jess’s lack of interest in traditional Asian cooking. Barbra Korte says: Despite the girls’ successful attempt to play against outdated gender expectations, the film does not alienate a general audience by a complete subversion of gender roles.

While Bhaji On The Beach subordinates male characters within its narrative and presents women as the strong sex deciding for themselves, Bend It Like Beckham

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works with a more conventional gender mix and refrains from reversing gendered power relations. It is the two fathers’ support which helps the girls to fulfil their dreams and make the most of their obvious talent – not their mothers who seem to be forever caught in unshakable ideas of gender and cultural norms. It is a young man who trains the girls so that they can one day enter or create a professional league; and it is the male American talent scout who opens up the way to California (Korte, 2004: p.174).

However although one could say that the conventional gender mix allows the film to achieve a more mainstream audience it does raise the question as to what extent the film is a ‘girl power’ movie. Apart form the lead protagonists Jess and Jules there is no overt solidarity amongst the female characters, furthermore as Korte argues, it is the male characters that provide the assurance, which helps the girls overcome their issues. Both protagonists rely on the male approval to some degree, to follow their dreams. This is played out in the romantic involvement with the coach. In Jess’ case it is the male coach who helps her overcome the shame she feels towards her body due to a scar from a past accident. And both girls appear to need fatherly acceptance in their desire to play football. The end scene in which the girls bid farewell to their families is a classic happy ending, the image it presents is that of the happy stable family unit on both Asian and white sides. Both the female protagonists have been able to achieve their dream with the eventual love and support of their families. Korte states that: Family has been shown as a problem but also a support for both Asian and white girls, and in both instances the problems are overcome primarily because parents give up restrictive notions inherited from the past and accept that, for their daughters, different standards might apply than for themselves. (Korte, 2004: p.175)

Throughout the film the representations of race and ethnicity are shown to be in negotiation and through solidarity, adversity is shown to be overcome leading to an eventual positive portrayal. The film’s underlying message, that a new future where negotiation and hybridisation are positively engrained is suggested by the film’s final scene where we see Joe playing cricket with Jess’ father.

This dissertation has discussed the various factors associated with the representations of race and ethnicity within contemporary European cinema. Through the discussion on Head On I would argue that Sibel does not fit in easily to the role of ‘Turk as victim’ she is forward thinking and independent and goes as far to have a well thought out contingency plan if marriage provides no way out for her. And underneath the perhaps initial idea of a stereotypical representation of the traditional family, an ambiguity is present, noticeable through the role of Sibel’s brother. I would

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therefore assert that the film has moved a long way from the ‘cinema of the affected’ even if the representations of race and ethnicity are not overtly positive. The films sound track significantly affects the spectator’s engagement with the film and aids a positive crossover appeal. Signalling to the viewer when meaning should be questioned like the instances of the inter-cut images of the wind orchestra performing on the shores of Istanbul signalling the juxtaposition between Traditional Turkey and Contemporary Germany. Furthermore the hybridity of the protagonist’s identities is suggested by the fusion of ‘Oriental’ and European music. Significantly the film uses music to bridge the gap between the film’s issues and the ‘cultural arena’ and aids cross-cultural bonding over an appreciation of the film’s soundtrack. However in its depiction of the issues that the ethnic minorities face in Head On, a positive representation becomes problematic. The protagonists manage to assert hybridised identities for themselves but just when they appear set up to assimilate fully things take a turn for the worse. Furthermore their process of assimilation is particularly negative as it appears to be achieved through the adoption of western vices and promiscuity. Equally the relationship towards the homogeneous German identities is limited in its depiction, and the underlying idea that they just don’t understand the Turkish protagonists relationship is again particularly negative. I would therefore assert that although Head On has come away from the times of ‘the cinema of the affected’ and successfully moved into the mainstream, its depiction of race and ethnicity is not particularly positive. Similarly La haine successfully crosses over into the mainstream by its employment of many aesthetic, stylistic, and cultural references. Through its use of American filmic and comodified cultural references and the films association with rap music and break-dancing the film aligns itself with the gangster genre. The existing understanding of the well established gangster genre allows for a new negotiation and grater engagement and understanding of the issues raised by the film, in turn promoting a more culturally aware viewer. Furthermore this has given La Haine a contemporary edge moving the film into the mainstream with ease. The film depicts hybridised culture and racial integration between the protagonists and their Banlieue society. The three friends are depicted, as constantly together and apart from joking affectionately there is no racial conflict between them.

However they reside firmly on the margins of the dominant society and they are depicted as unable to fully assimilate which is shown through their loose grasp on the space around them. Furthermore they are depicted as extremely underprivileged with 24

no apparent way out of their situation and crime and violence is depicted in the film as inevitable and justified. The protagonists all appear as victims of society who in turn retaliate against the police and dominant society by their criminal endeavours and active roles in the riots. The protagonist’s unsuccessful assimilation is matched by their unsuccessful relationship with the homogenous identities of the French police who are depicted throughout the film as brutally racist. Furthermore identity formation is depicted as problematic as the protagonists un-naturally borrow from American comodified culture in their attempt to create identities for themselves. I would therefore assert that although La Haine has moved into the mainstream and through the friendship group, cross-cultural cohesion can be seen, the film still represents race and ethnicity in particularly negative terms. Similarly Bend It like Beckham successfully crossed over into the mainstream, in part because it was marketed as a ‘feel good’ movie and its employment of the universally recognisable ‘feel good movie’ theme. However the film negotiated issues of race and ethnicity much more positively than the other ethnic films. The film employed elements of pop culture allowing for a cross-cultural appreciation amongst the youth culture. The combination of all of these factors aid a more culturally aware viewer who engages with the issues raised by the film and is positively encouraged to challenge preconceived ideas of ethnic tradition. The film has come the furthest in moving away from a ‘cinema of duty’ towards ‘the pleasures of hybridity’ depicted through the role of Jess who at the end of the film manages to negotiate positively between Asian cultural tradition and modernity. The film depicts the overcoming of adversity through negotiation and solidarity, and compromise is successfully achieved. Even though the protagonists appear to need male approval to some degree they are still depicted as strong independent young women who instigate progression. Furthermore the problems Jess faces as a woman of Asian decent are positively overcome.

Significantly the film does not focus solely on Jess’ struggle it also shows that the white characters Jules and the coach Joe have experienced similar problems suggesting a common ground, which can be shared cross-culturally. The protagonists are both shown to successfully assert their identities according to new rules of femininity paving the way for a positive new future where negotiation on both sides is possible. The final scene where Joe and Jess’s father happily play cricket together suggests that, a new future where hybridisation and negotiation between cultural tradition and modernity is in progress. Ultimately all three films have provided 25

interesting examples of race and ethnicity within contemporary European cinema and each has moved into the mainstream successfully. By doing so they have all managed to bring issues of race and ethnicity into the mainstream aiding a more culturally aware viewer. However I would assert that Bend it like Beckham manages to do this whilst still portraying ‘the pleasures of hybridity’ opening the way for more successful films whereby the representations of race and ethnicity within European cinema are depicted positively.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY !

Bailey, C. (1992) ‘What The Story Is: An Interview with Srinivas Krishna; Cineaction, 28 pp.38 – 47.

Bergfelder, Tim (2005), ‘National, Transnational or Supranational Cinema: Rethinking European film studies’, Media, Culture and Society, UK: Routledge, 27:3 pp. 315- 331.

Berghahn, D. (2006), ‘No place like home? Or, impossible homecomings in the films of Fatih Akin’, New Cinemas, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 141-157. 141 - 157, doi: 10. 1386/ ncin.4.3.141/1

Crofts, S. (1998), “Concepts of National Cinema’, in: John Hill and Pamela ChurchGibson (eds), The Oxford Guide to Film Studies, Oxford: OUP, pp. 385-395.

Doughty, R., & Griffiths. K. (2006), ‘Racial reflection: La Haine and the art of borrowing’, Studies in European Cinema 3:2, pp. 177 – 127, doi: 10.1386/seci.3.2 117/1.

Burns, R. (2006)‘Turkish-German Cinema: from cultural resistance to trans-national cinema? In Clarke, D. (ed.), German Cinema since Unification London: Continuum, pp.127-149.

Bruzzi, S. (2001), ‘Where Are Those Buggers? Aspects of Homosexuality in Mainstream British Cinema’, in Robert Murphy (ed) The British Cinema Book, London: BFI, pp. 133 – 141.

Elsaesser, T. (2005), ‘Double occupancy and small adjustments: Space, place and policy in the New European Cinema since the 1990s’ in European Cinema: Face to Face with Hollywood, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2005 pp.108-130.

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Göktürk D. (2000) ‘Turkish Women on German Streets: Closure and Exposure in Transnational Cinema’, in Myrtos Konstantarakos, (ed.) Spaces in European Cinema, Intellect, Exeter: pp.64-76.

Gokturk, D. (2002) ‘Beyond Paternalism’, in Bergfelder et.al (ed.) The German cinema book, Macmillan: Exeter, pp. 248-56

Hall, S. (1991) ‘The Local and the Global: Globalization and Ethnicity’, in: Anthoney D.King (ed.), Culture, Globalization and the World-System: Contemporary Conditions for the Representation of Identity, Houndsmills: MacMillan, pp.19-40.

Hooks, Bell. (1990) Yearning: Race Gender, and Cultural Politics: Boston: South End press.

Korte, B, & Sternberg. R. (2004), Bidding for the Mainstream: Black and Asian British Film since the 1990’s, Amsterdam and New York: Editions Rodopi B.V, pp.

135-169.

Malik, S. (1996) ‘Beyond the cinema of duty’ in Higson, Andrew and Malik, Sarita, (ed.) Dissolving views: key writings on British cinema. London: Cassell, pp. 202- 231.

Mercer, K. (1994), ‘Diaspora culture and the Diasporic Imagination: The Aesthetics of Black Independent Film In Britain’, Welcome to the jungle: New Positions in Black Cultural Studies, London and New York, Routledge, pp. 53-66.

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Naficy, H. (2003) ‘Phobic spaces and liminal panics: Independent Transnational film genre’, in Shohat, E. and Stam, R. (eds.), Multiculturalism, Postcoloniality, and Transnational Media, New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, pp. 203-226.

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Petek, P. (2007), ‘Enabling collisions: Re-thinking multiculturalisim through Fatih Akin’s ‘Gegen die Wand/ Head On’, studied in European Cinema 4:3, pp. 177-186, doi: 10.1386/seci.4.3.177/1.

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Wiegman, R. (1998) ‘Race, ethnicity, and film’, in Pamela Church Gibson (ed), The Oxford Guide to film studies, New York: Oxford University `press, pp.158- 167.

Vincendeau, G. (2005) La Haine, London and New York, Tauris & Co. Ltd.

FILMOGRAPHY

Abscheied vom falschen Paradies / Farewell to a False Paradise, Tevik Baser: Germany (1998)

Bend It Like Beckham, Gurinder Chadha: UK, (2002)

Bhaji on the Beach, Gurinder Chadha: UK (1993)

East Is East, Damian O’Donnell: UK (1999)

Gegen die wand /Head-On, Fatih Akin: Germany, (2004)

La Haine, Matthieu Kassovitz: France (1995)

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Mean Streets, Martin Scorsese: America (1973)

My Beautiful Launderette, Stephen Frears: UK (1985)

Raging Bull, Martin Scorsese: America (1976)

Short Sharp Shock, Fatih Akin: Germany (1998)

WEBSITES

Berghahn, Daniela (2009), ‘Citizens of Two Worlds: Hybrid Identity Formation in Diasporic Coming-of-Age Films’, http://backdoorbroadcasting.net/2009/03/drdaniela-berghahn-citizens-of-two-worlds-hybrid-identity-formation-in-diasporiccoming-of-age-films/. Accessed 24 September 2009.

Gokturk, Deniz (2002), ‘Turkish Delight – German Fright: Migrant Identities in Transnational Cinema’, http://homepages.gold.ac.uk/turkishmigrantcinema/.

Accessed 17 September 2009.

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