GLOBEFISH Insight - Issue 1 - Market Opportunities for Maldives Tuna by GLOBEFISH

Market Opportunities for Maldives Tuna Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, 2021

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The report “Market Opportunities for Maldives Tuna” is the outcome of a collaborative effort between the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations – FAO, Fisheries Division and the Investment Centre, and The World Bank. The report was prepared under the overall guidance of Mr. Mohamed Manssouri, Director of FAO Investment Centre; Mr. Takayuki Hagiwara, Service Chief for the Asia and the Pacific Service, FAO Investment Centre; Mr. John Ryder, Branch Head, FAO Fisheries Division; and Mr. Tapas Paul, Lead Environment Specialist, The World Bank. Technical guidance was conducted by Mr. Marcio Castro de Souza, Senior Fishery Officer, FAO Fisheries Division, with continuously technical support by Mr. Weiwei Wang, Fishery Officer, FAO Fisheries Division, and Mr. William Griffin, Consultant, FAO Fisheries Division. The team also benefited from guidance and contributions from Mr. Randall Brummett, Senior Fisheries Specialist, The World Bank, and Mr. Christophe Crepin, Practice Manager, The World Bank.

The report was financed through the Cooperative Programme maintained between FAO and The World Bank. GLOBEFISH is a foremost source of information and analysis on international fish trade. Established in 1984, GLOBEFISH is a multi-donor funded project in the Fisheries Division of FAO (UN), responsible for providing up-to-date market and trade information on fish and fishery products. For more information: http://www.globefish.org. The information presented in this report was compiled by FAO staff ‘as is’ and ‘as available’ at the time of its production (September 2020). Every effort has been made to ensure, but not guarantee, the timeliness, accuracy, and completeness of the information provided. FAO assumes no responsibility for errors and omissions. Readers are, however, encouraged to convey any queries to GLOBEFISH (globefish@fao.org)

MARKET ANALYSIS OF TUNA AND TUNA-LIKE SPECIES IN THE MALDIVES Production and Trade

ABSTRACT

This report provides an analysis of the tuna production and trade of the Maldives. The main fisheries of the Maldives are examined, with specific consideration for their defining characteristics and changes over time. The analysis is then extended to trade, more precisely trends in price, volume and processing across main commodities exported by the Maldives. Further characterization of the import profiles of established markets and identification of areas with export potential for tuna are also provided. Commentary on production and trade is enhanced by a detailed account of the trade policies and regulations of major tuna importers focusing on preferential access and tariffs and their relevance to Maldivian exports. Given the sudden impact of COVID-19 on commerce, special consideration was given to how the tuna industry may be affected by the pandemic.

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III

Table of Contents LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES .......................................................................................................................................................... V LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................................................................ VII INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................................................ 1 OVERVIEW OF WORLD TUNA PRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 2 MALDIVES FISHERIES PRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................. 6 MALDIVIAN TUNA PRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................... 7 HISTORICAL PRODUCTION TRENDS ................................................................................................................................................................... 7 TUNA CATCHES BY GEAR ............................................................................................................................................................................... 8 MAIN TUNA SPECIES .................................................................................................................................................................................... 9 MALDIVIAN TUNA TRADE .............................................................................................................................................................. 10 WORLD TUNA MARKET ............................................................................................................................................................................... 10 TUNA EXPORT OF THE MALDIVES .................................................................................................................................................................. 12 EXPORT ANALYSIS BY PRODUCTS ................................................................................................................................................................... 16 Unprocessed skipjack ...................................................................................................................................................................... 16 Processed skipjack........................................................................................................................................................................... 19 Unprocessed yellowfin tuna ............................................................................................................................................................ 21 Processed yellowfin tuna ................................................................................................................................................................ 22 EXPORT POTENTIAL BY DESTINATION MARKET ................................................................................................................................................. 25 The European Union (28 countries) ................................................................................................................................................. 26 The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland ........................................................................................................... 27 Germany ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 29 Spain ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 31 Italy ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 33 France ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 35 Switzerland ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 37 The United States of America.......................................................................................................................................................... 39 Thailand .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 41 Japan ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 43 Sri Lanka.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 45 ALTERNATIVE PRODUCTS ............................................................................................................................................................................. 46 TRADE POLICY OF THE MALDIVES FOCUSING ON TUNA AND TUNA PRODUCTS .............................................................................. 47 TARIFF PREFERENCE FOR MALDIVIAN TUNA ..................................................................................................................................................... 47 LDC Category................................................................................................................................................................................... 47 Unilateral Preferences..................................................................................................................................................................... 48 Agreed Preferences under Preferential Agreements (Bilateral or Plurilateral) ............................................................................... 56 OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES INVOLVING PREFERENTIAL TARIFFS .................................................................................................................... 57 BORDER REJECTIONS OF TUNA AND TUNA-LIKE SPECIES AND PRODUCTS BY MAJOR IMPORTING COUNTRIES ...................................................................... 58 COMPETITIVENESS HOLDBACKS .................................................................................................................................................................... 59 State-Owned Processing Company ................................................................................................................................................. 59 IMPACTS OF COVID-19 ................................................................................................................................................................... 60 THE OVERALL IMPACT ON FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE ..................................................................................................................................... 60 IMPACT ON GLOBAL TUNA FISHERIES .............................................................................................................................................................. 60 IMPACT ON MALDIVIAN TUNA FISHERIES ......................................................................................................................................................... 61 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 62 APPENDIX 1. UNIT VALUES OF MALDIVIAN EXPORTS BY DESTINATION .......................................................................................... 63 APPENDIX 2. UNIT VALUES AND IMPORT VOLUME BY DESTINATION ............................................................................................. 67 ANNEXES ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 70

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List of Figures and Tables Figures Figure 1

Fisheries as a percentage of GDP in the Maldives...................................................................................................... 1

Figure 2

The historical production trends of tuna in the Maldives (thousand tonnes)............................................................ 7

Figure 3

Map of distribution of fishing effort for pole-and-line gear and handline gear for 2018........................................... 8

Figure 4

World tuna exports and the Maldives share ............................................................................................................ 10

Figure 5

Global tuna imports in 2019..................................................................................................................................... 11

Figure 6

Value of world tuna trade ........................................................................................................................................ 12

Figure 7

Maldivian tuna exports in recent years .................................................................................................................... 13

Figure 8

Contribution of fisheries to GDP .............................................................................................................................. 13

Figure 9

Total skipjack and yellowfin exports from the Maldives .......................................................................................... 14

Figure 10

Use and supply of fish and fish products in the Maldives, 2003 (million USD) ........................................................ 14

Figure 11

Exports of skipjack and yellowfin, 2017 ................................................................................................................... 15

Figure 12

Exports of unprocessed skipjack (Average unit value of processed skipjack for reference) ................................... 16

Figure 13

Exports of skipjack from the Maldives ..................................................................................................................... 17

Figure 14

Major importers of frozen skipjack, excluding Thailand from total volume ............................................................ 18

Figure 15

Exports of processed skipjack. Average unit value of frozen skipjack for reference ................................................ 19

Figure 16

Exports of processed skipjack from the Maldives .................................................................................................... 20

Figure 17

Exports of unprocessed yellowfin tuna from the Maldives ...................................................................................... 21

Figure 18

Exports of unprocessed yellowfin from the Maldives .............................................................................................. 22

Figure 19

Exports of processed yellowfin tuna ........................................................................................................................ 23

Figure 20

Exports of fresh, processed yellowfin tuna .............................................................................................................. 24

Figure 21

Exports of Canned and other processed yellowfin tuna .......................................................................................... 24

Figure 22

Destination of tuna exports from the Maldives, by value and product form........................................................... 25

Figure 23

World tuna exports to the United Kingdom ............................................................................................................. 27

Figure 24

Maldivian tuna exports to the United Kingdom ....................................................................................................... 28

Figure 25

World tuna exports to Germany .............................................................................................................................. 29

Figure 26

Maldivian tuna exports to Germany ........................................................................................................................ 30

Figure 27

World tuna exports to Spain .................................................................................................................................... 31

Figure 28

Maldivian tuna exports to Spain .............................................................................................................................. 32

Figure 29

World tuna exports to Italy ...................................................................................................................................... 33

Figure 30

Maldivian tuna exports to Italy ................................................................................................................................ 34

Figure 31

World tuna exports to the France ............................................................................................................................ 35

Figure 32

Maldivian tuna exports to France ............................................................................................................................ 36

Figure 33

World tuna exports to Switzerland .......................................................................................................................... 37

Figure 34

Maldivian tuna exports to Switzerland .................................................................................................................... 38

Figure 35

World tuna exports to the United States of America ............................................................................................... 39

Figure 36

Maldivian tuna exports to the United States of America ......................................................................................... 40

Figure 37

World tuna exports to Thailand ............................................................................................................................... 41

Figure 38

Maldivian tuna exports to Thailand ......................................................................................................................... 42

Figure 39

World tuna exports to Japan .................................................................................................................................... 43

Figure 40

Maldivian tuna export to Japan ............................................................................................................................... 44

Figure 41

World tuna exports to Sri Lanka ............................................................................................................................... 45

Figure 42

Maldivian tuna export to Sri Lanka .......................................................................................................................... 45

Figure 43

Unprocessed skipjack ............................................................................................................................................... 63

Figure 44

Processed skipjack, canned ...................................................................................................................................... 63

Figure 45

Processed skipjack, dried or dried and salted ......................................................................................................... 64

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Figure 46

Unprocessed yellowfin, fresh or chilled ................................................................................................................. 64

Figure 47

Unprocessed yellowfin, frozen ................................................................................................................................. 65

Figure 48

Processed yellowfin, fresh chunk ............................................................................................................................. 65

Figure 49

Processed yellowfin, fresh loins ............................................................................................................................... 66

Figure 50

Processed yellowfin, nei ........................................................................................................................................... 66

Tables Table 1

Global main producers of tuna .................................................................................................................................. 3

Table 2

Global production by continents (tonnes) ................................................................................................................. 4

Table 3

Global production by fishing areas (tonnes) .............................................................................................................. 4

Table 4

Global production of tuna and tuna-like species (tonnes) ......................................................................................... 5

Table 5

Main species produced from The Maldives (tonnes) ................................................................................................. 6

Table 6

Tuna catches of main species by gear type in 2018 (tonnes) ..................................................................................... 8

Table 7

Maldivian tuna production broken down by main species (tonnes) .......................................................................... 9

Table 8

Maldivian fish production by type and utilization .................................................................................................... 46

Table 9

World tuna production by country .......................................................................................................................... 70

Table 10

World tuna production by species ........................................................................................................................... 75

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List of Abbreviations CDP ............................... United Nations Committee for Development Policy CHF................................ Swiss Franc COVID-19 ...................... Coronavirus Disease 19 CROSS ........................... Customs Rulings Online Search System (US) DESA ............................. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs ECOSOC......................... United Nations Economic and Social Council EEZ ................................ Exclusive Economic Zone EU ................................. The European Union and its Member States EVI ................................. Economic Vulnerability Index FAD ............................... Fish Aggregation Devices FAO ............................... Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GDP ............................... Gross Domestic Product GNI ................................ Gross National Income GSP................................ Generalized System of Preferences HACCP ........................... Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points HAI ................................ Human Assets Index HS .................................. The Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (WCO) IMF ................................ International Monetary Fund LDC ................................ Least Developed Countries MFN .............................. Most-Favoured Nation MIFCO ........................... Maldives Industrial Fisheries Company MSC............................... Marine Stewardship Council REX ................................ Registered Export System (EU) RFMO ............................ Regional Fisheries Management Organizations SAARC ........................... South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation SAFTA ............................ South Asian Free Trade Area SAPTA ........................... SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangement UNCTAD ........................ United Nations Conference on Trade and Development US.................................. The United States of America WCO.............................. The World Customs Organization WTO .............................. The World Trade Organization

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VII

MARKET ANALYSIS OF TUNA AND TUNA-LIKE SPECIES IN THE MALDIVES Production and Trade

Introduction The Republic of the Maldives1 has traditionally been a tuna fishing nation. Tuna fishing in the Maldives probably started more than 1000 years ago. Until the 1970s, the tuna fishery was the mainstay of the Maldivian economy2, providing the major source of employment, food and export earnings. Since then, the relative importance of the fisheries sector has declined largely due to the spectacular growth of the tourism industry. According to Figure 1, the fisheries sector’s contribution to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) declined from about 40 percent in the 1970s to less than 10 percent in 1997-20003, and further to just 4.5 percent in 20124. The contribution proportion of GDP from fisheries has stabilized at around 5 percent in recent years. As per the latest figure, in 2019 fisheries accounted for 4.8 percent of GDP, of which 4.2 percent was from fishing and 0.6 percent was from fish processing5. Figure 1

Fisheries as a percentage of GDP in the Maldives

Data source: UN national accounts

It should also be noted that the indirect contribution of fisheries to GDP is significant by a spillover effect into related industries, such as various manufacturing sectors, boatbuilding, trading enterprises, transport, and service industries6. A local case study for Hawaii estimated that an increase in demand for longline tuna products of $ 1 would result in a total economic impact of $ 2.597.

Hereinafter referred as the Maldives Adam, M. S. and Anderson, R. C. (1994) ‘Skipjack Tuna (Katsuwonus Pelamis) in the Maldives’, (2). 3 Adam, M. S. et al. (2009) ‘Indian Ocean Tuna Commission 10th Session of the Working Party on Tropical Tunas Mombasa, Kenya 15-23 October 2009 Handline Large Yellowfin Tuna Fishery of the Maldives Handline Large Yellowfin Tuna Fishery of the Maldives’, Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, (October). 4 Adam, M. S. et al. (2013) ‘Maldives National Report Submitted to the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission Scientific Committee - 2013’, Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, (November), pp. 1–15. 5 Dept, I. M. F. A. and P. (2020) ‘Maldives : Request for Disbursement Under the Rapid Credit Facility-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Maldives’, International Monetary Fund, (No. 20/133), p. 50. 6 Horne-Sparboth, T., Adam, M. S., Ziyad, A. (2015) ‘A socio-economic assessment of the tuna fisheries in the Maldives’, IPNLF Technical Report 5. International Pole & Line Foundation, (5). 7 Arita S. Contribution, Linkages and Impacts of the Fisheries Sector to Hawaii's Economy: A Social Accounting Matrix Analysis[M]. Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, 2011. 2

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Overview of world tuna production The high economic value and exposure to international trade confirm the significance of the industry of tuna and tuna-like species. The characteristics of high migration and often straddling distribution has raised many challenges for the sustainable management of tunas all over the world, and many Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs)8 were established in response to the goal of managing tuna resources in an efficient and sustainable manner. The most important species of tuna from a commercial point of view are skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), albacore or longfin tuna (Thunnus alalunga), yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), Southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii), bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus), Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis), and Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus)9. According to the latest figures by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), in 2018, the world production quantity of tuna and tuna-like species10 totalled 7.96 million tonnes, of which the seven main commercial species aforementioned made up the majority, reaching 5.36 million tonnes. Since 1950, tuna production has demonstrated a continuously increasing trend due to expanded fishing efforts coupled with improved science and technology, allowing the identification of fish schools more precisely. It is estimated that among the main commercial tuna species, 43 percent of the stocks11 were estimated to be fished at biologically unsustainable levels12, and 57 percent were fished within biologically sustainable levels (maximally sustainably fished or underfished)1314.

There are many RFMOs directly or indirectly engaged in tuna fisheries management: (1) the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT), established in 1993; (2) the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM), established in 1952; (3) the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC), established in 1996; (4) the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), established in 1949 (for the eastern Pacific east of 150o west longitude); (5) the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), established in 1969; (6) the International Scientific Committee for Tuna and Tuna-Like Species in the North Pacific Ocean (ISC), established in 1995; (7) the Secretariat of the South Pacific Community (SPC), established in 1947 (tuna-related activities since the mid-1970s); and (8) the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), established in 2004. 9 Catarci C. World tuna markets[J]. 2004. 10 The terminology “tuna and tuna-like species” is used herein to represent tunas, bonitos and billfishes. For a comprehensive overview of tuna and tuna-like species, please refer to http://www.fao.org/3/ac478e/ac478e00.pdf 11 Fish stock is a subset of a species (fish, crustacean, mollusc, etc.) or population inhabiting a particular geographical area and participating in the same reproductive process. A fish stock can be seen as a discrete group of animals of the same species having similar biological characteristics (growth, mortality) and little or no mixing with adjacent groups of the same species. 12 Stocks that are estimated to be below the abundance that can produce maximum sustainable yields in the long term. 13 Stocks at or close to their maximum sustainable production and considered fully fished, and stocks underfished, with potential for expansion in total production. 14 FAO ‘The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2018 - Meeting the sustainable development goals’. Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/ca9229en/ca9229en.pdf

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Asia has played a significant role in global tuna and tuna-like species production, with Indonesia being the number one producer since 200415. In addition, the leading role of Asia has been consolidated by the high yield from the Philippines, China, the Republic of Korea, and Viet Nam, among others (Table 1). Table 1

Global main producers of tuna16

Countries

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Indonesia

1 084 716

1 135 284

1 205 790

1 351 108

1 380 167

1 266 304

1 298 592

1 252 419

1 257 261

Philippines

496 435

385 097

423 395

423 337

478 106

439 528

405 310

378 298

553 937

China

618 454

632 347

616 688

663 882

598 124

588 984

495 691

519 597

505 495

Ecuador

212 655

294 483

332 015

309 176

326 970

396 590

359 010

373 400

385 416

Republic of Korea

359 578

277 166

341 436

309 059

361 270

372 003

397 316

336 970

378 777

42 890

297 528

322 027

368 980

391 928

406 776

460 378

457 196

357 240

Spain

290 423

324 905

312 926

340 261

316 917

299 702

309 832

313 575

350 755

Taiwan, Province of China

371 949

360 134

412 271

398 464

402 690

365 736

365 429

337 369

345 543

Japan

570 231

499 000

500 084

488 012

463 361

449 826

413 970

406 661

322 261

Iran (Islamic Republic of)

163 670

181 861

206 642

208 654

246 915

230 214

231 453

273 028

273 750

United States of America

141 497

135 202

164 400

160 372

327 619

282 678

224 490

225 896

233 374

Papua New Guinea

208 633

165 028

240 634

194 703

237 224

215 923

289 182

304 681

230 916

India

Viet Nam

140 083

156 384

181 261

185 560

187 353

154 085

190 638

143 517

194 019

Kiribati

38 957

59 624

74 201

77 863

114 238

143 136

169 742

158 089

193 841

Mexico

153 961

148 912

149 102

167 378

178 614

178 678

160 516

195 336

179 323

France

92 489

91 583

82 057

90 200

114 134

108 400

140 567

129 820

157 102

Maldives

102 553

98 193

100 906

125 122

123 068

125 272

126 753

140 431

148 829

Seychelles

82 266

70 382

64 384

67 124

68 810

99 941

120 782

134 010

136 619

Peru

29 291

28 184

32 563

52 906

68 774

119 751

106 506

133 578

120 362

Micronesia (Federated States of)

24 022

29 025

39 139

27 236

43 087

61 563

77 726

87 969

119 157

Others

1 484 184

1 600 946

1 623 673

1 590 594

1 494 924

1 504 128

1 562 364

1 589 003

1 635 036

World

6 684 915

6 942 243

7 386 455

7 572 755

7 881 206

7 747 655

7 828 521

7 802 874

7 959 856

Sunoko R, Huang H W. Indonesia tuna fisheries development and future strategy[J]. Marine Policy, 2014, 43: 174-183. production data is extracted from FishStatJ, Fisheries and aquaculture software. FishStatJ - Software for Fishery and Aquaculture Statistical Time Series. In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department [online]. Rome. Updated May 2020. [Cited 22 June 2020] 16The

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In 2018, among the top ten producers, nine of them are from Asia (Table 2). Their combined production contributes to approximately 61 percent of the world's tuna landings, followed by the Americas, where Ecuador, the United States of America17 and Mexico are the main players. Table 2 Continent Asia

2010

2011

4 447 711

Global production by continents (tonnes) 2012

4 495 697

2013

4 851 777

2014

5 033 199

5 142 248

2015 4 887 312

2016 4 933 200

2017

2018

4 782 095

4 849 817

Europe

433 328

469 531

432 696

467 877

472 593

446 878

492 232

487 358

565 582

Americas

981 700

1 154 703

1 170 081

1 195 545

1 302 958

1 343 491

1 243 301

1 314 489

1 308 923

Others

15 990

15 408

15 429

12 452

11 058

22 586

20 229

13 323

14 263

Oceania

500 921

505 632

598 301

535 853

656 083

682 386

747 422

749 977

765 725

Africa Total

305 265

301 272

318 171

327 829

296 266

365 002

392 137

455 633

455 546

6 684 915

6 942 243

7 386 455

7 572 755

7 881 206

7 747 655

7 828 520

7 802 875

7 959 856

Pacific and Indian oceans are the main fishing grounds for tuna and tuna-like species, in particular the Central Pacific Ocean (Table 3). In 2018, over half of the world's production of tuna and tuna-like species came from the Central Pacific Ocean. Table 3

Global production by fishing areas (tonnes)

Ocean area

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Atlantic, Northern

43 747

41 782

47 022

41 620

38 789

35 937

39 994

39 839

53 829

Atlantic, Central

472 226

505 295

529 317

511 615

506 501

550 197

624 332

611 059

643 010

Atlantic, Southern

105 407

109 544

113 318

113 364

107 387

103 077

125 650

131 370

127 278

1 532 950

1 558 122

1 655 559

1 740 678

1 723 021

1 689 902

1 790 675

1 823 684

1 926 267

886 818

851 077

844 446

846 363

779 820

787 438

710 270

690 243

601 847

3 316 537

3 355 228

3 732 572

3 839 787

4 207 777

3 984 113

4 026 739

3 949 065

4 062 089

327 230

521 195

464 221

479 328

517 911

596 991

510 861

557 616

545 535

6 684 915

6 942 243

7 386 455

7 572 755

7 881 206

7 747 655

7 828 520

7 802 875

7 959 856

Indian Ocean Pacific, Northern Pacific, Central Pacific, Southern Total

Global tuna production is almost exclusively from wild capture from the oceans (99 percent), with some ongoing projects of tuna farming, especially in Japan, when they started the culture of Pacific Bluefin tuna by using juvenile individuals less than 1-year old18, and further spread to other countries like Mexico and Australia. Overall, aquaculture tuna production is marginal if compared to total production, and the main share within aquaculture production is the bluefin tuna capture-based aquaculture (18 percent)19.

Hereinafter referred as the United States Ellis, D. and Kiessling, I. (2016) ‘Ranching of Southern Bluefin Tuna in Australia’, in Advances in Tuna Aquaculture: From Hatchery to Market, pp. 217–232. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-411459-3.00010-2 19 Fernandez-Polanco J, Lorente I. Tuna economics and markets[M]//Advances in Tuna Aquaculture. Academic Press, 2016: 333-350. 18

GLOBEFISH Insight

Although the global catch of tuna and tuna-like species has a great diversification of species, it is quite concentrated in volume terms on skipjack and yellowfin tuna (Table 4). In reality, skipjack and yellowfin tuna have seen a steady growth in production associated with an increasing advancement in technology and improved fishing vessel equipment to facilitate the attraction and location of fish schools. Table 4 Species

Global production of tuna and tuna-like species (tonnes)

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Skipjack tuna

2 433 437

2 420 805

2 574 727

2 781 506

2 984 204

2 814 385

2 854 132

2 777 598

3 161 303

Yellowfin tuna

1 193 472

1 157 672

1 293 516

1 253 606

1 359 796

1 375 312

1 478 158

1 511 909

1 458 050

Seerfishes nei

531 702

519 338

510 870

520 071

479 685

478 399

411 362

407 483

415 478

Bigeye tuna

357 513

376 243

424 106

392 949

401 669

420 509

395 707

379 290

414 861

60 754

307 627

314 515

362 550

373 740

387 676

425 837

427 491

333 689

Others

2 108 037

2 160 558

2 268 721

2 262 073

2 282 112

2 271 374

2 263 324

2 299 104

2 176 475

Total

6 684 915

6 942 243

7 386 455

7 572 755

7 881 206

7 747 655

7 828 520

7 802 875

7 959 856

Tuna-like fishes nei

GLOBEFISH Insight

Maldives fisheries production Owing to its unique geographic location, the Maldives has engaged in fishing activities for a long period and heavily relied on this traditional hunting sector as a source of major economic income. The economic position of fisheries was not overtaken until the development of tourism and associated tertiary industries that boomed in recent decades. The value-added of fisheries has grown consistently, in line with greater catches and generally higher commodity prices. While the significance of the fishery industry to the Maldivian GDP has declined, fisheries still represent approximately 4.8% of GDP. The total production of fish reached 151 013 tonnes in 2018, which entirely comes from capture fisheries (Table 5). Tuna fisheries have played a dominant role, accounting for over 98 percent of fish production. In recent years, the increasing quantity of skipjack tuna and yellowfin tuna have been the main driving force of the overall production growth. Table 5

Main species produced from The Maldives (tonnes)

Species

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Skipjack tuna

73 721

57 672

53 392

74 422

68 498

70 275

69 589

88 825

100 099

Yellowfin tuna

21 068

34 941

44 261

45 859

49 212

52 439

53 705

49 360

47 217

Marine fishes nei

19 466

22 626

19 047

4 989

5 538

2 051

2 519

1 826

2 161

768

634

716

2 280

3 207

1 851

2 480

1 074

433

3 126

1 696

820

566

651

117

143

344

339

204

354

223

310

Kawakawa

3 208

2 421

1 485

1 005

888

222

160

Blue marlin

115

101

Indo-Pacific sailfish

207

136

Black marlin

203

169

Marlins, sailfishes, etc. nei

393

237

Wahoo

Common dolphinfish

Albacore

Dogtooth tuna

662

829

232

Striped marlin

Hammerhead sharks, etc. nei

Freshwater fishes nei

Tropical spiny lobsters nei

Oceanic whitetip shark

Thresher

Oilfish

Barracudas nei

Tuna-like fishes nei

Sea cucumbers nei

627

Sharks, rays, skates, etc. nei

158

122 804

120 835

120 000

130 217

128 695

127 381

129 331

142 378

151 013

Bigeye tuna Frigate and bullet tunas Swordfish

Marine molluscs nei Total

GLOBEFISH Insight

Maldivian tuna production Historical production trends The historical evidence demonstrated that tuna fisheries could even date back to pre-Islamic times20 in the region. Tuna production entered a rapid development phase starting in 1982, mainly as a result of infrastructure investment from the Maldivian government by purchasing Japanese collector vessels using funds from loans at favourable rates granted by other countries. Subsequently, increased fishing efforts, demonstrated by the increased size of vessels and engines, improved bait fishing and the use of Fish Aggregation Devices (FADs), have altogether contributed to the tuna fishing sector and led production to a new high in 2006, reaching 167 059 tonnes (Figure 2). Figure 2

The historical production trends of tuna in the Maldives (thousand tonnes)

180 160

Thousand tonnes

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 -

The decline in production from 2006 to 2009 can be associated with the sharp and continuing decrease of skipjack catch, although there is no clear consensus. Skipjack catches dropped from a record high of 138 458 in 2006 to 66 189 in 2009, possibly due to the change of oceanic conditions21, improved data collection system, and a shift of targeted species to yellowfin tuna22. In the last decade, the tuna fisheries in the Maldives started to recover, and the total production increased by 45 percent, from 102 553 tonnes in 2010 to 148 832 tonnes in 2018, ranking the country as the 17th largest producer in the world, representing 2 percent of global production. If taking into account only the principal commercial tuna species, the Maldives contributes to 3 percent to total world production.

Hohne Sparborth, T., Ada, M. S. and Ziyad, A. (2015) A socio-economic assessment of the tuna fishery in the Maldives., IPNLF. Technical Report. Available at: http://ipnlf.org/perch/resources/socio-economic-assessment-of-the-tuna-fisheries-in-the-maldives.pdf (Accessed: 19 May 2020). 21 Mohamed Ahusan, M. Shiham Adam, A. Z. and M. S. (2019) ‘Maldives National Report to the Scientific Committee of the Indian Ocean Commission’, Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, (March), pp. 1–12. doi: 10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141251. 22 Staff, I. (2017) ‘Supporting Information: Skipjack tuna in the Indian Ocean’, Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, (December), pp. 1–15.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Tuna catches by gear The Maldives tuna fishery comprises four different gear types – pole-and-line, handline, longline and troll line. Live bait pole-and-line is dominant in skipjack tuna landings, with handline almost exclusively landing yellowfin tuna (Table 6). Table 6

Tuna catches of main species by gear type in 2018 (tonnes) Skipjack

Yellowfin

Bigeye tuna

99 886

17 619

221

Handline

209

28 960

Longline

633

163

Trolling line

Pole-and-line

Data source: adapted from the “The Maldives National Report to the Scientific Committee of the Indian Ocean Commission.”

Tuna landings in the Maldives are predominantly through pole-and-line and handline fishing, although their fishing regions are different. Both operate close to the atolls, but pole-and-line is more predominant in the south part of the country while handline performs in the north and central atolls (Figure 3). Figure 3

Map of distribution of fishing effort for pole-and-line gear and handline gear for 2018 Pole-and-line

Handline gear

Source: The Maldives National Report to the Scientific Committee of the Indian Ocean Commission (2019)

GLOBEFISH Insight

Main tuna species In line with the trend of world production, more than 98 percent of Maldivian tuna catch is concentrated on skipjack and yellowfin tuna, which contributes to 67 percent and 32 percent of total production, respectively (Table 7). Skipjack tuna has always been caught in large quantities and constituted the primary food fish and the bulk of export products. Table 7

Maldivian tuna production broken down by main species (tonnes)

Species

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

Skipjack tuna

73 721

57 672

53 392

74 422

68 498

70 275

69 589

88 825

100 099

Yellowfin tuna

21 068

34 941

44 261

45 859

49 212

52 439

53 705

49 360

47 217

768

634

716

2 280

3 207

1 851

2 480

1 074

433

3 126

1 696

820

566

651

117

143

344

339

204

354

223

310

Bigeye tuna Frigate and bullet tunas Swordfish

2018

GLOBEFISH Insight

Maldivian tuna trade World tuna market Tuna is a valuable and highly traded commodity23, with a high proportion of production making its way into international trade. While catches are concentrated in Asia, consumption is spread across Asia, Europe, and North America, with South America and North Africa as emerging markets (Error! Reference source not found.). The value of these flows of tuna from exporters to destination markets has expanded greatly, rising from USD 4.5 billion in 2000 to USD 13.8 billion in 201724. While the volume of production rose during this period, most of the increase in the total value of trade is attributed to rapidly rising tuna prices caused by demand outstripping supply. Another trend has been an increasing proportion of catches going on to further processing, with the majority of value traded now being concentrated in processed product forms such as loins, steaks or cans25. While the Maldives has expanded both production and exports since 2000, the boom in global exports has led to a reduced share of global trade since its peak in 2006. This figure has been increasing since 2010, as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4

World tuna exports and the Maldives share

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

The HS codes related to tuna products are: 030194, 030195, 030231, 030232, 030234, 030235, 030236, 030239, 030341, 030342, 030344, 030345, 030346, 030349, 030487, 160414. 24 Due to limitations of the international trade classification of merchandises, there are no global figures for dried, salted, smoked tuna or fresh tuna fillets. For this reason, trade in these product forms could not be included in this figure. 25 Processed is composed of both final processed goods and semi processed goods which are intended for further processing. These may include fresh or frozen fillets and loins, pre-cooked fillets and loins, and canned tuna. The term ‘prepared or preserved’ is commonly used to classify fish and, in the case of tuna, this usually refers to (1) canned tuna, or (2) pre-cooked loins for further processing.

GLOBEFISH Insight

ational Trade Center

Figure 5 Global tuna imports in 2019

GLOBEFISH Insight

Trade in tuna is highly concentrated around the main commercial species, with skipjack and yellowfin tuna making up the majority of unprocessed exports (Figure 6). By value, skipjack represented the largest share and accounted for 32 percent of unprocessed exports in 2018. Similarly, yellowfin tuna accounted for 31 percent, while bigeye, bluefin and albacore made up 12 percent, 11 percent, and 10 percent respectively. Skipjack is generally traded in its unprocessed form26as an input for later processing within the destination country. Figure 6

Value of world tuna trade

10 000 9 000

Total value, million USD

8 000 7 000 6 000 5 000 4 000 3 000 2 000 1 000 0 2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Other tuna, unprocessed

Southern bluefin, unprocessed

Atlantic and Pacific bluefin, unprocessed

Albacore, unprocessed

Bigeye, unprocessed

Yellowfin, unprocessed

Skipjack, unprocessed

All tuna, processed

2019

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

In 2018, exports of processed tuna were worth almost twice as much as unprocessed exports. Although there are no international records for the form of processing, an estimated 80 percent of tuna landed is processed by the canning industry27 (Pew, 2016). Skipjack is thought to make up the majority of canned tuna, although yellowfin is also often canned. Other species of tuna are more commonly traded in their unprocessed forms, and while they may be canned, trade of unprocessed tuna for use as sashimi (consumption as raw fish) or as fillets is more important. The Japanese market is generally the main market for these species, although North America and European Union have also seen increased consumption.

Tuna export of the Maldives Exports of fish from the Maldives were worth an estimated USD 175 million in 2018, equivalent to 96 percent of all exports. Almost all the value of these exports is made up of skipjack and yellowfin tuna, which were worth USD 166 million accounts for 94 percent of all fish exports. There are also some exports of bigeye tuna, sea cucumbers and groupers28.

Unprocessed refers to fish which has undergone no post-harvest treatment or minimal alteration, such as gutting. Pew Galland, G., Rogers, A. & Nickson, A. Netting Billions: A Global Valuation of Tuna. The PEW Charitable Trusts, Philadelphia (2016). 28 Data reported by the Maldives for exports differs significantly from mirror data reported by partner countries. There was a large decrease in 20082011, which may be due to a real drop in exports but does coincide with several changes to the national tariff lines for classifying goods. This modification in the national nomenclature changed the aggregations of data and may have impacted the reporting of figures in these years. 27

GLOBEFISH Insight

Overall, the exports of tuna and tuna products have seen a steadily increasing trend over the past years, as shown in Figure 7, with Thailand absorbing half of the exports. Figure 7

Maldivian tuna exports in recent years

200

Total value, million USD

180 160 140 120

Thailand

100

Others

France

United States of America

United Kingdom

Germany

0 2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

While the proportion of GDP and employment attributable to fisheries has fallen, largely as a result of a growing tourism sector, fisheries remain centrally important to the Maldivian economy. Indeed, the total value added of fisheries has grown consistently year on year (Figure 8). This is largely as a result of expansion in the primary fishing sector, as the secondary processing sector has remained largely static. Revenue from fisheries is largely dependent on exports, and the industry has become increasingly export-oriented over the years, with the volume of exports as a proportion of total catch climbing from 48 percent in 2011 to close to 70 percent in 2018.29 Exports are centrally important to both the fisheries industry of the Maldives and the economy as a whole. However, the prevalence of exports and their limited diversification in terms of both markets and products does make the industry, and subsequently, the economy as a whole, vulnerable to international market trends. Figure 8

Contribution of fisheries to GDP

Value added, in million MRV

4 000 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500 0

Fish preparation

Fishing

Skipjack accounts for the majority of exports by volume, but due to low rates of processing and low unit value for unprocessed, the total value of skipjack exports is roughly equivalent to that of yellowfin tuna. Figure 9 presents the unit value and total value for the two species. Figure 11 provides a visual representation of the relationship between value and volume for skipjack and yellowfin

Statistical Yearbook of Maldives 2019, Table 9.1: Fish Production by Type and Utilization, 2011 – 2018

GLOBEFISH Insight

Figure 9

Total skipjack and yellowfin exports from the Maldives

200 000 000 150 000 000

4 000

3 000

100 000 000

2 000

50 000 000

1 000

Unit value, USD/tonne

Export Value, USD

5 000

Skipjack, total value

Yellowfin, total value

Skipjack, unit value

Yellowfin, unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

By weight, 30 percent of catch goes to local consumption. A significant part of exported canned fish comes from government-run companies, equivalent to 40 percent of total value (2018). No reference was found as to what proportion of this figure is skipjack and yellowfin. Processing is generally for export; a representation of the utilization of fish in the Maldives may be found in Figure 10. Maldivian skipjack may be considered to have three main premium characteristics, all of which stem from pole and line being the main gear type. The first is the higher quality of meat; pole and line put less stress on fish flesh than purse seining, thus preventing damage. This is of greatest interest to processors, as waste may be reduced, and the quality of the final product will be higher. The second factor is the low-effort pattern of the Maldivian fisheries. Having lower by-catch rates and fishing intensity when compared to other utilized gear types, combined with the natural fecundity of skipjack, Maldivian stocks are more resilient. This is of great importance, especially in the context of increasing consumer awareness regarding the sustainability of their fish. Finally, the socially sustainable model of fisheries in the Maldives has been explored in literature but is rarely emphasized in market terms, especially to consumers. It forms a vital and intrinsic part of the Maldivian fisheries and could bring considerable and differentiated benefits. Figure 10

Use and supply of fish and fish products in the Maldives, 2003 (million USD)

Source: Hohne Sparborth, T., Ada, M. S. and Ziyad, A. (2015) A socio-economic assessment of the tuna fishery in the Maldives., IPNLF. Technical Report30.

Available at: http://ipnlf.org/perch/resources/socio-economic-assessment-of-the-tuna-fisheries-in-the-maldives.pdf (Accessed: 19 May 2020). The figure is based on data obtained by the author from the Maldives’ Ministry of Economic Development and Trade

GLOBEFISH Insight

Figure 11

Exports of skipjack and yellowfin, 2017

PROPORTION OF VOLUME

SKIPJACK, UNPROCESSED

PROPORTION OF VALUE

59%

SKIPJACK, PROCESSED

YELLOWFIN, UNPROCESSED

24%

YELLOWFIN, PROCESSED

18%

Note: The sum of the shares may not add up to 100 percent due to rounding.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Export analysis by products Unprocessed skipjack Unprocessed frozen skipjack is the most valuable export for the Maldives, accounting for over a third of exported fish by value(Figure 11). This trade was worth USD 59 million to the Maldives in 2018, down from USD 76 million in 2017 (Figure 12). The value of the Maldivian frozen skipjack exports has grown at a 5-year average of 24 percent, compared to 19 percent over ten years.31 The value of world exports of unprocessed frozen skipjack grew by 3 percent between 2013-2018, compared to 11 percent in 2009-2018. The Maldives accounts for approximately 4 percent of world exports of unprocessed frozen skipjack by value, making them the 11th largest global supplier.

100 000 000

7 000

90 000 000

6 300

80 000 000

5 600

70 000 000

4 900

60 000 000

4 200

50 000 000

3 500

40 000 000

2 800

30 000 000

2 100

20 000 000

1 400

10 000 000

700

Unit value, USD/tonne

Exports of unprocessed skipjack (Average unit value of processed skipjack for reference)32 33

Total value, USD

Figure 12

Frozen skipjack. Total value

Fresh skipjack. Total value

Frozen skipjack. Unit value

Average unit value processed skipjack

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices.

The volume of skipjack exported rose significantly from 2016 to 2017, was likely due to larger harvests (Figure 13). More than 90 percent by volume was exported unprocessed and frozen in (2017). The global market for this commodity is concentrated on the main importing market of Thailand, which absorbs 49 percent of global imports by value. The top 5 importers account for 74 percent of global trade; China 8 percent, the Philippines 6 percent, Mauritius 6 percent and Spain 5 percent.

5-year average taken between 2014-2018. 10-year average taken between 2009-2018 The information on fresh skipjack might not be visible in the graph to its low magnitude. 33 Unit value for fresh skipjack not shown due to low exports. 32

GLOBEFISH Insight

Figure 13

Exports of skipjack from the Maldives

100 000

Export volume, tonnes

90 000 80 000 70 000 60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

20 000 10 000 0

Skipjack, unprocessed

Skipjack, processed

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

It is relevant to note that 47 percent of global skipjack landing is from the Pacific Ocean, compared to 19 percent from the Indian Ocean (2018). Because of the higher quality of fish offered by pole and line caught fishing, prices for Maldivian skipjack is higher than the standard commodity price. The main markets for frozen unprocessed skipjack are generally set up for further processing in those countries, and so at a global level, there are few differences in price between markets. Figure 14 shows the differences in global unit values for frozen unprocessed skipjack. Thailand plays a key role in setting prices for this commodity. The only two major destinations for global exports with higher unit values than the world average in 2018 were Mauritius and Spain. The potential of both of these markets for Maldivian exports should be further examined. The structure of ownership of fisheries in the Maldives means that there are some privately owned and other state-owned ventures, each specializing in certain geographic areas of production or processing. Public companies are significant exporters of frozen fish; in 2018, 73 percent of frozen fish exported from the Maldives was from government-run companies.34 Fresh or chilled skipjack is a commodity with limited market share and marginal unit value. In addition, markets that may be open for this trade are generally far away and would likely not offer a realistic alternative to frozen skipjack.

Statistical yearbook of the Maldives 2019

GLOBEFISH Insight

Figure 14

Major importers of frozen skipjack, excluding Thailand from total volume

240 000 230 000

Unit value, USD/tonne

220 000 2 000

210 000 200 000 190 000 180 000

1 600

170 000 160 000 150 000

1 200

140 000 130 000

Total volume, tonnes

120 000

110 000

800

100 000 90 000 80 000 400

70 000 60 000 50 000 40 000

30 000 20 000 10 000 0

-400 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Ecuador . Volume

Philippines. Volume

China. Volume

Mauritius. Volume

Spain. Volume

Japan. Volume

Thailand. Unit value

Ecuador . Unit value

Philippines. Unit value

China. Unit value

Mauritius. Unit value

Spain. Unit value

Japan. Unit value

World average unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

Processed skipjack The main processing and preserving methods for export are canning and drying. Processing skipjack offers a significantly higher unit price than unprocessed exports, about 50 percent higher for drying and 250 percent higher for canning (Figure 15). It should, however, be noted that for many reasons, unit prices for goods preserved in these ways do not necessarily reflect the true value-added.35 Prices for processed skipjack have fluctuated greatly in the past, although when taken as a proportion of their unit value, this is less than unprocessed skipjack. Exports of processed skipjack. Average unit value of frozen skipjack for reference 7000

45 000 000

6300

40 000 000

5600

35 000 000

4900

Total value, USD

50 000 000

30 000 000

4200

25 000 000

3500

20 000 000

2800

15 000 000

2100

10 000 000

1400

5 000 000

700

Unit value, USD/tonne

Figure 15

Dried. Dried and salted. Total value

Canned. Total value

Smoked. Steamed loins. Total Value

Dried, Dried and salted. Unit value

Canned. Unit value

Average unit value frozen skipjack

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

While catches of skipjack have increased consistently over time, the proportion of skipjack processed in the Maldives has fallen from 30 percent in 2010 to just 13 percent in 2017 of the total volume of skipjack exports. This fall in processing was offset by rising unit values for exports, which somewhat stabilized the overall value of the sector. In general, the value of processed exports of skipjack has dropped significantly from their peak in 2004 before bottoming out between 2010-2012. Since 2012, the value of skipjack processed for export has greatly increased. Almost all of this growth was in canned skipjack, which grew at an average rate of around 20 percent year-on-year before increasing by close to 50 percent between 2017-2018. This was likely due to high catches and favourable markets in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland36 and Germany, which jointly accounted for 75 percent of processed exports of skipjack in 2018. By contrast, the volume of skipjack preserved using more traditional methods, namely drying, salting, or smoking, continues to decline Figure 16.

35 36

For example, dried fish will lose water weight and canning will add packaging weight. Hereinafter referred as the United Kingdom

GLOBEFISH Insight

Figure 16

Exports of processed skipjack from the Maldives

18 000

Export volume, tonnes

16 000 14 000 12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000

Skipjack, dried, salted, in brine, smoked

Skipjack, canned

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

Historically, the sector may have been disadvantaged by an undervaluation of foreign currency of the official exchange rate of the Maldives, creating artificial price advantages for unprocessed goods. In this case, unprocessed exports sold internationally would be able to be more competitive and generate additional income, reducing incentives to sell to local processors and thus further pushing up the price of raw materials. Skipjack drying is a cottage industry in the Maldives, with a long history of regional trade, especially with Sri Lanka. Fish are most commonly air or sun-dried, although they may be smoked, salted, or some combination of the three. Exports of dried skipjack have declined along with the demand from their main market. In 2010, 90 percent of exported dried skipjack went to Sri Lanka, but the value of this trade in 2018 was only a fifth of what it was in 2010. This fall in export value to Sri Lanka has been somewhat offset by increasing demand from Japan, although overall, the value of dried skipjack exports has more than halved. In 2018, the Maldives exported USD 2.5 million of dried skipjack to Japan, while USD 1.9 million was exported to Sri Lanka. In addition to market difficulties, the skipjack drying industry faces domestic competition for inputs. Large processors can offer fishers additional incentives, such as free fuel and ice, pushing up prices for the raw product. The skipjack canning industry has seen significant growth in recent years and has come to represent an evergrowing proportion of the value of exports. This increase is despite a fall in unit value, which dropped from USD 7 000/tonne in 2013 to under USD 5 000/tonne in 2017. While in the past, the sector had suffered from overcapacity, as high fish prices have pushed up the costs of inputs, it appears that, with rising catches, canneries have been able to continue to increase the volume of their output.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Unprocessed yellowfin tuna Exports of unprocessed yellowfin tuna (Figure 17) have risen considerably over the last 20 years. The first seeing growth was between 2002 and 2006 and subsequently between 2010 and 2012. The overall value of unprocessed yellowfin tuna exports fluctuated after 2012 before dropping considerably, from USD 48 million in 2017 to USD 30 million in 2018. Exports of frozen yellowfin tuna vary much more than the fresh product, likely due to more unstable demand and a higher unit price for fresh, meaning that supply is funnelled through fresh out of preference. Exports of unprocessed yellowfin tuna from the Maldives

50 000 000

9000

45 000 000

8000

40 000 000

7000

Total value, USD

35 000 000

6000

30 000 000 5000 25 000 000 4000 20 000 000 3000

15 000 000

Unit value, USD/tonne

Figure 17

2000

10 000 000

1000

5 000 000 0

Fresh yellowfin. Total Value

Frozen yellowfin. Total value

Frozen yellowfin. Unit value

Fresh yellowfin. Unit value

Average unit value processed yellowfin Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

The fresh form made up less than 40 percent of the volume of unprocessed yellowfin tuna exported in 2018 but was worth almost double in terms of the total value. The volume of fresh yellowfin tuna exported is much more stable than frozen (Figure 18Figure 17), with major markets such as the United States of America and the European Union, mainly France, providing consistent demand. Prices in both markets have declined somewhat; in 2018, unit values for yellowfin were 11 percent lower than they were in 2013. Almost all unprocessed frozen yellowfin tuna is exported to Thailand. Given the high degree of fluctuation in volume, frozen yellowfin tuna may act as a tool to fill eventual gaps between production and existing market demand for fresh or capacity for further processing.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Figure 18

Exports of unprocessed yellowfin from the Maldives

18 000 16 000

Export volume, tonnes

14 000 12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 0

Frozen yellowfin

Fresh yellowfin

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

Processed yellowfin tuna Exports of processed yellowfin tuna (Figure 19) have grown from close to zero at the start of the millennium to over USD 35 million in 2018. Processed yellowfin is exported almost exclusively to the European Union and the United States. The overall volume of processing is consistent, with the balance of catches being exported unprocessed and frozen. Most processed yellowfin tuna is exported fresh, with fresh loins and fresh chunk, making up 76 percent of the total value. Fresh loins and fresh chunk have the highest unit values (Figure 20). Exports of both products to main markets are quite consistent, although they have declined somewhat in value since their peak in 2012.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Figure 19

Exports of processed yellowfin tuna

45 000 000 40 000 000

Export Value, USD

35 000 000 30 000 000

25 000 000 20 000 000 15 000 000 10 000 000 5 000 000 0

Fresh loins Fillets, steak, steamed loins Canned

Fresh chunk Frozen loins, chunk

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

Other forms of processing are starting to represent an increasing proportion of exports. Canned yellowfin is becoming a significant commodity and accounted for 12 percent of the value of processed yellowfin tuna exports in 2018 (Figure 19). This share appears to have increased significantly in the last two years for which data is available, more than doubling between 2017 and 2018. Almost all of this is associated with increased exports to Europe. Unit prices have declined somewhat, although data is only available for three recent years, namely 2014, 2015 and 2016. Around 14 percent of processed yellowfin is traded in frozen loins, frozen chunk, fillets, steak and steamed loins. These forms all have roughly similar unit values (Figure 21) and have changed little over time in terms of destination markets and total value.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Figure 20

Exports of fresh, processed yellowfin tuna

12 000

Unit Price, USD/tonne

10 000

8 000

6 000

4 000

2 000

Fresh loins

Fresh chunk

Average unit value unprocessed yellowfin

Average unit value processed yellowfin

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

Figure 21

Exports of Canned and other processed yellowfin tuna

9 000 8 000

Total value, USD

7 000

6 000 5 000 4 000 3 000 2 000 1 000 0

Fillets, steak, steamed loins. Unit value

Frozen loins, chunk. Unit value

Average unit value unprocessed yellowfin

Average unit value processed yellowfin

Canned. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

Export potential by Destination Market37 Exports from the Maldives are currently highly concentrated, with Thailand being the main destination for the majority of unprocessed tuna (Figure 22), accounting for 48 percent of the value of exports (2018). Almost all processed exports go to the European Union, which collectively makes up a third of the value of exports. Other markets such as the United States (10 percent of value), Sri Lanka (5 percent of value) and Switzerland (2 percent of value) also represent important trade partners for the Maldives, especially for certain products. The export potential analysis will examine markets for the Maldives tuna, looking into both the current and potential value of trade by product. Opportunities for diversification of markets and products will also be addressed. Destination of tuna exports from the Maldives, by value and product form

220 000 000

200 000 000

180 000 000

160 000 000

140 000 000

120 000 000

100 000 000

80 000 000

60 000 000

40 000 000

20 000 000

Total exports, USD

Figure 22

The analysis involving the use of statistics based on the Harmonized System might present time-series variation due to periodical changes of the nomenclature and the time lapse of implementing such changes by countries.

GLOBEFISH Insight

The European Union (28 countries)38 The European Union is a major market for tuna, both for direct consumption and for imports for further processing. The European Union accounts for a third of global tuna imports, with 5 of the ten largest importers of tuna being European Union member states. Tuna consumption in the European Union is on the rise. There is also a significant processing sector, particularly in Spain, Italy, France and Portugal. The processing industry plays a large part in the European Union’s dual role as a major exporter and importer of tuna. Exports of tuna from the European Union account for a fifth of global tuna trade. In 2018, tuna catches of the European Union’s fleets jumped to 514 000 tonnes and had been stable at around 400 000 tonnes since 2008. This was largely due to a massive increase in skipjack landings, which rose from 218 000 tonnes in 2017 to 288 000 tonnes in 2018. Yellowfin tuna landings dropped by 9 percent, from 130 000 tonnes to 119 000 tonnes. Despite the overall increase in tuna catches, the European Union is still dependent on imports in order to supply the majority of domestic consumption and processing. The majority of imports into the European Union are processed or semi-processed, amounting to USD 4.2 billion in 2018. This mostly consists of canned tuna and pre-cooked frozen loins, the latter of which is imported for further processing. Although the European Union has considerable imports of pre-cooked loins for further processing, the exports from the Maldives are thought to be non-existent. Given the high unit price of these semi-processed forms, this market opportunity should be further explored. Tuna consumption in the European Union is largely centered around canned, with canned skipjack being the most common species. Several markets have good prospects for exports of canned tuna from the Maldives, with the United Kingdom and Germany seeing steady growth. Skipjack remains the most imported tuna by volume, while yellowfin is the most valuable. As the sustainability of yellowfin catches in certain regions has been called into question in recent years, demand for the latter has fallen somewhat. Exports from the Maldives to the European Union have grown considerably over the last five years, and the European Union is now the main destination for both their processed skipjack and processed yellowfin. It also imports a quarter of the value of unprocessed yellowfin. In terms of export potential for the Maldives, the European Union market is likely to offer the best possibilities for both loins and canned tuna. However, there are currently few exports of semi-processed tuna, such as pre-cooked loins for canning. Most unprocessed tuna is subject to a 22 percent import tariff. However, the European Union does offer a duty-free quota for tuna that will be used for further processing in Europe. This quota is annual and tends to be filled already by the end of January. In addition, the majority of these duty-free quota imports are in the form of pre-cooked loins, which the Maldives does not currently supply. European processors rush to fill their stores and take advantage of lower prices. Demand does not typically start to return until the middle of the year when stores begin to dwindle. As such, it is hard to guarantee benefits due to the first-come, firstserved nature of this tariff quota. Given that catches peak in November and December, it seems possible that the Maldives could take advantage of this. However, it would require building up processing capacity, combined with operational and coordination with local operators in the European Union.

For the purposes of this analysis the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is included within the section of the European Union.

GLOBEFISH Insight

The United Kingdom The United Kingdom is a large market for processed tuna. Already significant for the Maldives exports, the value of canned skipjack from the Maldives grew significantly in 2018. The importance of traceability in this market is likely to favour future exports from the Maldives (Figure 24). World tuna exports to the United Kingdom

800 000 000

9 000

700 000 000

8 000 7 000

Total value, USD

600 000 000

6 000

500 000 000

5 000 400 000 000 4 000 300 000 000

3 000

200 000 000

2 000

100 000 000

1 000

Prepared or preserved. Total value

Unit value, USD/tonne

Figure 23

Other. Total value

Prepared or preserved. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

The United Kingdom market is dominated by imports of canned skipjack, which were worth USD 533 million in 2018, out of total tuna imports of USD 578 million39. Canned yellowfin was the second most valuable import, at USD 35 million. The main suppliers of prepared or preserved tuna are Seychelles, Ecuador, the Philippines, Ghana and Spain. Imports from the Maldives accounted for 2.5 percent of prepared or preserved products in 2018.

Equivalent to 92 percent

GLOBEFISH Insight

The value of the Maldives exports to the United Kingdom almost tripled between 2017 and 2018, growing from USD 5.5 million in 2017 to USD 14.3 million in 2018 (Figure 24). By value, 38 percent of exports of canned skipjack from the Maldives go to the United Kingdom market, equivalent to USD 13.8 million in 2018. The fishing methods employed by the Maldives fisheries are well aligned with the United Kingdom's sustainability requirements, which are coming to play an ever-increasing role in demand both due to consumer preferences and public procurement requirements. The MSC Fisheries Standard certification40 that the Maldives skipjack enjoys is thought to be particularly valuable in the United Kingdom market due to domestic consumer awareness, and so is likely to be a stable source of value-added for the Maldivian exports. Figure 24

Maldivian tuna exports to the United Kingdom

20 000 000

8 600

18 000 000 6 450

Total value, USD

14 000 000

12 000 000 10 000 000

4 300

8 000 000 6 000 000

Unit value, USD/tonne

16 000 000

2 150

4 000 000 2 000 000 0

Processed skipjack. Total value

Unprocessed yellowfin. Total Value

Processed yellowfin. Total value

Processed skipjack. Unit value

Processed yellowfin. Unit value

Average processed skipjack

Average processed yellowfin

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

The MSC Fisheries Standard is used to assess if a fishery is well-managed and sustainable. It is a voluntary certification and open to all wild marine or freshwater fisheries, which are assessed by accredited independent certifiers (called Conformity Assessment Bodies (CABs) or certification bodies).

GLOBEFISH Insight

Germany Germany (Figure 25) imported over USD 489 million of tuna in 2018, making it the 8th largest market for tuna and the 6th largest in European Union. Almost all German imports of tuna are processed. Imports from Maldives accounted for 2.6 percent of the total value in 2018. World tuna exports to Germany

600 000 000

11 400

500 000 000

9 500

400 000 000

7 600

300 000 000

5 700

200 000 000

3 800

100 000 000

1 900

Unit value, USD/tonne

Total value, USD

Figure 25

Prepared or preserved. Total value

Frozen fillets. Total value

Other. Total Value

Prepared or preserved. Unit value

Frozen fillets. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

Exports of tuna to Germany from the Maldives have increased rapidly, now accounting for 14 percent of the value of all tuna exports and making it the second most valuable export market for the country. The value of processed skipjack grew by 220 percent between 2014 and 2018, while processed yellowfin increased by 51 percent over the same period (Figure 26). Canned skipjack is the most important export item to the German market, and its market share has grown rapidly. Maldivian tuna exports to Germany

25 000 000

11 000

20 000 000

8 800

15 000 000

6 600

10 000 000

4 400

5 000 000

2 200

Unit value, USD/tonne

Total value, USD

Figure 26

Processed skipjack. Total value

Unprocessed yellowfin. Total Value

Processed yellowfin. Total value

Processed skipjack. Unit value

Processed yellowfin. Unit value

Average processed skipjack

Average processed yellowfin

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

Spain Spain is the second-largest global exporter of tuna, with trade worth USD 1.3 billion in 2018. These exports are largely fuelled by imports of unprocessed or semi-processed tuna, with Ecuador being the main supplier at 55 000 tonnes, followed by Seychelles at 25 703 tonnes. In 2018, Spain imported USD 98 million of unprocessed and USD 280 million of semi-processed skipjack. There were also USD 263 million of imports of unprocessed yellowfin and USD 178 million of semi-processed (Figure 27). World tuna exports to Spain 7 700

1 200 000 000

6 600

1 000 000 000

5 500

Total value, USD

1 400 000 000

800 000 000

4 400

600 000 000

3 300

400 000 000

2 200

200 000 000

1 100

Unit value, USD/tonne

Figure 27

Fresh. Total value

Frozen. Total value

Prepared or preserved. Total value

Frozen fillets. Total value

Fresh. Unit value

Frozen. Unit value

Prepared or preserved. Unit value

Frozen fillets. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

Exports from the Maldives to Spain have fluctuated somewhat in recent years. Having peaked in value in 2017, they declined in 2018 due to falling exports of yellowfin (Figure 28). This was propped up by exports of frozen unprocessed skipjack, which have increased greatly since 2016. Spain is the 5th largest importer of frozen skipjack, representing 5 percent of the value of global trade. The unit value in Spain averaged USD 1 632/tonne in 2018, considerably lower than the unit value of skipjack from the Maldives, which stood at USD 1 852/tonne. For comparison, unit values of semi-processed skipjack loins were USD 5 410/tonne. Similarly, while unit values of unprocessed yellowfin from the Maldives were USD 3 462/tonne in 2018, the unit value for Spanish imports of semi-processed yellowfin tuna loins was USD 6 110/tonne. Figure 28

Maldivian tuna exports to Spain

4 500 000

12 000

4 000 000 10 000

Total value, USD

3 000 000

8 000

2 500 000 6 000 2 000 000 1 500 000

4 000

Unit value, USD/tonne

3 500 000

1 000 000 2 000 500 000 0

Unprocessed skipjack. Total value

Processed skipjack. Total value

Unprocessed yellowfin. Total Value

Processed yellowfin. Total value

Unprocessed skipjack. Unit value

Processed skipjack. Unit value

Unprocessed yellowfin. Unit value

Processed yellowfin. Unit value

Average unprocessed yellowfin

Average processed yellowfin

Unprocessed skipjack Italy

Unprocessed yellowfin Italy

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

Italy Italian tuna imports totalled USD 1 billion in 2018, a 14 percent increase since 2014 (Figure 27). The trade consists largely of prepared or preserved tuna, with about a third of imports by value being for further processing, and two thirds ready for consumption. Figure 29

World tuna exports to Italy

1 000 000 000

10 000

800 000 000

8 000

600 000 000

6 000

400 000 000

4 000

200 000 000

2 000

Unit value, USD/tonne

12 000

Total value, USD

1 200 000 000

Fresh. Total value

Frozen. Total value

Prepared or preserved. Total value

Frozen fillets. Total value

Fresh. Unit value

Frozen. Unit value

Prepared or preserved. Unit value

Frozen fillets. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

Italy was the third-largest importer of processed yellowfin from the Maldives in 2018, with trade totalling USD 5 7 million (Figure 30). Almost all of this value was in the format of fresh chunk and fresh loins. Unit values in Italy are high, particularly for unprocessed yellowfin; unprocessed yellowfin stood at USD 5 993/tonne in 2018, while processed yellowfin was USD 5 437/tonne. Unit values for semi-processed yellowfin tuna loins imported into Italy from countries other than the Maldives had a unit value of USD 7 430/tonne in 2018. Limited exports of canned skipjack from the Maldives were seen in 2018, totalling USD 1.5 million. Maldivian tuna exports to Italy

14 000 000

14 000

12 000 000

12 000

10 000 000

10 000

8 000 000

8 000

6 000 000

6 000

4 000 000

4 000

2 000 000

2 000

Unit value, USD/tonne

Total value, USD

Figure 30

Unprocessed skipjack. Total value

Processed skipjack. Total value

Unprocessed yellowfin. Total Value

Processed yellowfin. Total value

Processed skipjack. Unit value

Unprocessed yellowfin. Unit value

Processed yellowfin. Unit value

Average processed skipjack

Average unprocessed yellowfin

Average processed yellowfin

Unprocessed yellowfin Sri Lanka

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

France France (Figure 31) is a major market for tuna, the sixth largest by value, accounting for 7 percent of imports. Processed tuna accounts for the vast majority of French imports. Prepared and preserved tuna is the most common product, accounting for 80 of all tuna imports by volume. Fillets make up an additional 12 percent of value. Prepared or preserved skipjack have increased their market share in France significantly in recent years. Figure 31

World tuna exports to the France

800 000 000

10 800

700 000 000

9 450

600 000 000

8 100

500 000 000

6 750

400 000 000

5 400

300 000 000

4 050

200 000 000

2 700

100 000 000

1 350

Unit value, USD/tonne

Total value, USD

900 000 000

Fresh. Total value

Frozen. Total value

Prepared or preserved. Total value

Frozen fillets. Total value

Fresh. Unit value

Frozen. Unit value

Prepared or preserved. Unit value

Frozen fillets. Unit value

France has high imports of yellowfin tuna, especially processed yellowfin, with processed skipjack being the second most valuable commodity. In 2018, France imported USD 225 million worth of prepared or preserved yellowfin, while imports of prepared or preserved skipjack were USD 149 million.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Exports from the Maldives account for roughly 2 percent of French tuna imports. They currently account for more than 20 percent of the value of yellowfin exports. Exports of yellowfin from the Maldives to France have been declining since 2012, along with unit values (Figure 32). Processed yellowfin forms the majority of the value of trade, and the proportion of processed exports continues to increase. Fresh chunk and fresh loin are the main processed exports from the Maldives, representing 90 percent of the value of processed yellowfin exported to France. Most unprocessed exports are fresh rather than frozen. The Maldives is, in fact, the main source of fresh, unprocessed yellowfin for France, accounting for 20 percent of the value of imports in 2018. Maldivian tuna exports to France

30 000 000

14 100

25 000 000

11 750

20 000 000

9 400

15 000 000

7 050

10 000 000

4 700

5 000 000

2 350

Unit value, USD/tonne

Total value, USD

Figure 32

Processed yellowfin. Total value

Unprocessed yellowfin. Total Value

Unprocessed skipjack. Total value

Unprocessed skipjack. Unit value

Unprocessed yellowfin. Unit value

Processed yellowfin. Unit value

Average unprocessed yellowfin

Average processed yellowfin

Unprocessed yellowfin Sri Lanka. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

Switzerland Switzerland (Figure 33) is a small but high-value market for processed tuna. Exports of processed skipjack and processed yellowfin from the Maldives have increased rapidly. Processed yellowfin attracted particularly high unit values. There are no import tariffs in Switzerland for imports from the Maldives. World tuna exports to Switzerland

80 000 000

21 600

70 000 000

18 900

60 000 000

16 200

50 000 000

13 500

40 000 000

10 800

30 000 000

8 100

20 000 000

5 400

10 000 000

2 700

Unit value, USD/tonne

Total value, USD

Figure 33

Prepared or preserved. Total value

Frozen fillets. Total value

Other. Total Value

Prepared or preserved. Unit value

Frozen fillets. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

Overall, Swiss imports of tuna are on the rise, having doubled in value since 2005. Almost all of the value of imports is processed tuna, with prepared or preserved tuna making up 86 percent of the value of imports. Frozen fillets account for the majority of the remainder41.

Swiss trade statistics do not provide breakdown by species or type of processing, precluding additional analysis of total tuna imports.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Exports from the Maldives to Switzerland have grown considerably in value, accounting for 3 percent of the value of tuna exports. Between 2014 and 2018, exports of canned skipjack increased by 77 percent, while processed yellowfin grew by 40 percent (Figure 34). Unit values for canned skipjack are slightly above average for Maldivian exports. Fresh chunk and fresh loins make up almost all of the value of processed yellowfin exports to Switzerland, worth USD 1.8 million and USD 1 million, respectively (2018). Both products attract a considerably higher unit value in the Swiss market than exports to other countries Maldivian tuna exports to Switzerland

6 000 000

21 000

5 000 000

17 500

4 000 000

14 000

3 000 000

10 500

2 000 000

7 000

1 000 000

3 500

Unit value, USD/tonne

Total value, USD

Figure 34

0 2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Canned skipjack. Total value

Fresh yellowfin loins. Total value

Fresh yellowfin chunk. Total value

Fresh unprocessed yellowfin. Total value

Canned skipjack. Unit value

Fresh yellowfin loins. Unit value

Fresh yellowfin chunk. Unit value

Average canned skipjack

Average fresh yellowfin loins

Average fresh yellowfin chunk

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

The United States of America The United States is a large and growing market for tuna and tuna-like species and products (Figure 35). The United States imports chiefly processed tuna, with a third of that thought to be intended for further processing. Exports to the United States from the Maldives are significant and growing in total value despite a declining unit value for most products. World tuna exports to the United States of America 16 000

1 800 000 000

14 400

1 600 000 000

12 800

1 400 000 000

11 200

Total value, USD

2 000 000 000

1 200 000 000

9 600

1 000 000 000

8 000

800 000 000

6 400

600 000 000

4 800

400 000 000

3 200

200 000 000

1 600

Unit value, USD/tonne

Figure 35

Fresh. Total value

Frozen. Total value

Prepared or preserved. Total value

Frozen fillets. Total value

Fresh. Unit value

Frozen. Unit value

Prepared or preserved. Unit value

Frozen fillets. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

The United States is the second-largest importer of tuna, with trade worth USD 1.9 billion in 2018. This represents consistent growth, which averaged 7 percent per year between 2014 and 2018. Imports of prepared and preserved were worth USD 1.1 billion. While the United States statistics are not specific as to the format, it is likely that USD 334 million of these imports were canned, while USD 301 million was for further processing and USD 231 million was tuna in pouches42.

No breakdown could be found for processed tuna that specified products as skipjack or yellowfin.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Exports from the Maldives to the United States are on the rise and were worth USD 14.4 million in 2018, equivalent to 9 percent of total Maldivian tuna exports. The United States is a key market for unprocessed yellowfin, with exports worth USD 8.1 million, the majority of which was fresh. Unit values are high, with unprocessed yellowfin from the Maldives standing at 17 471 USD/tonne in 2018, the highest of any significant exporter.43 The total value of unprocessed yellowfin tuna has declined and was 34 percent lower in 2018 than in 2014 (Figure 36). This was largely due to falling unit values. Exports of processed yellowfin are growing. Canned yellowfin was the most valuable processed format, worth USD 3 million in 2018, a fivefold increase compared to 2017.44 Canned skipjack has only been sent to the United States relatively recently, but having first appeared in 2016, exports stood at USD 2.2 million in 2018. Maldivian tuna exports to the United States of America

16 000 000

9 600

14 000 000

8 400

12 000 000

7 200

10 000 000

6 000

8 000 000

4 800

6 000 000

3 600

4 000 000

2 400

2 000 000

1 200

Unit value, USD/tonne

Total value, USD

Figure 36

Processed skipjack. Total value

Unprocessed yellowfin. Total Value

Processed yellowfin. Total value

Processed skipjack. Unit value

Unprocessed yellowfin. Unit value

Processed yellowfin. Unit value

Average unprocessed yellowfin

Average processed yellowfin

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

43 44

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines was slightly higher, but volume of export was low at 18 tonnes Much of the remaining value was fresh yellowfin chunk, USD 612 000.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Thailand Thailand is the largest exporter of tuna by value and the largest importer by volume, USD 2.3 billion, and 816 490 tonnes respectively in 2018. Thai imports go on to further processing; 97 percent of tuna exports were processed in 2018 (Figure 37). Frozen unprocessed skipjack was the most valuable import, and Thailand absorbed more than 48 percent of world imports by value in 2018. While skipjack from the Maldives receives a higher unit price, as there are few exports elsewhere, price comparison gets compromised. Figure 37 2 000 000 000

World tuna exports to Thailand 9 450

1 800 000 000

8 400

1 600 000 000

Total value, USD

6 300 1 200 000 000 5 250 1 000 000 000 4 200

800 000 000

3 150

600 000 000 400 000 000

2 100

200 000 000

1 050

Unit value, USD/tonne

7 350

1 400 000 000

Frozen. Total value

Prepared or preserved. Total value

Frozen. Unit value

Prepared or preserved. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

Ninety-four percent of frozen skipjack from the Maldives is exported to Thailand (2018), a figure which has stood above 90 percent since 2014. The remainder is sent to Spain (3 percent), the Republic of Korea (2 percent), and Viet Nam (1 percent). In general, Thai unit values are competitive, standing at USD 1 518/tonne in 2018 compared to an average of USD 1 570/tonne across the next 20 largest markets. These unit values are also high when compared to other processing centres, such as Ecuador, where unit values were USD 1 377/tonne. The unit value of skipjack sent to Thailand from the Maldives was USD 1 551/tonne in 2018, down from USD 1 859/tonne in 2017 (Figure 38). Skipjack from the Maldives receive a significant premium and often have the highest unit values in a given year. The unit value of skipjack sent to Thailand from the Maldives is in line with other current markets for the Maldives – for instance, Spain, the second-largest destination market for Maldivian skipjack, stood at USD 1 850/tonne in 2018. While it is true that unprocessed tuna from the Maldives tends to receive a premium price when sold on international markets, it is likely that this only accounts for part of its intrinsic value. While processors are willing to pay more for the higher quality of flesh that pole and line fishing is able to provide, consumers may wish to pay more for the environmental and social sustainability of the fishery. This implies that unprocessed tuna sold by the Maldives is only able to realize part of its true value to consumers. Maldivian processing of yellowfin has increased as a proportion of exports, resulting in fewer unprocessed exports to Thailand. Figure 38

Maldivian tuna exports to Thailand45

120 000 000

6 000

Total value, USD

80 000 000

4 000

60 000 000

40 000 000

2 000

Unit value, USD/tonne

100 000 000

20 000 000

Frozen unprocessed yellowfin. Total value

Unprocessed skipjack. Total value

Unprocessed skipjack. Unit value

Frozen unprocessed yellowfin. Unit value

Frozen unprocessed yellowfin Malaysia. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

The average unit value of Maldivian exports of both unprocessed skipjack and unprocessed yellowfin are almost identical to unit values for these products when send to Thailand, and so have not been included.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Japan Japan is the largest market for tuna, accounting for 14 percent of the total value imports. Historic trade between the Maldives and Japan was likely facilitated by the presence of Japanese collection vessels in Maldivian waters. Japanese vessels fished in Maldivian waters until 2010 under a joint-access agreement, with implications for trade between them. Unit values are generally high (Figure 39), largely due to the high demand for premium species such as bluefin and bigeye. Japan is the 7th largest market for frozen skipjack by value. It is also one of the only main markets where skipjack is more likely to be consumed unprocessed than undergoing further processing, such as canning. Despite this, unit prices are low and falling, currently standing at USD 1 352/tonne. Currently, trade is largely limited, although there are exports of unprocessed yellowfin (Figure 40). World tuna exports to Japan 24 000

2 500 000 000

20 000

2 000 000 000

16 000

Total value, USD

3 000 000 000

1 500 000 000

12 000

1 000 000 000

8 000

500 000 000

4 000

Unit value, USD/tonne

Figure 39

Fresh. Total value

Frozen. Total value

Prepared or preserved. Total value

Frozen fillets. Total value

Fresh. Unit value

Frozen. Unit value

Prepared or preserved. Unit value

Frozen fillets. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

In recent years, exports of dried skipjack to Japan have developed, with very high and consistent unit values, standing at USD 10 036/tonne in 2017. Annual exports are usually stable at a little over 200 tonnes, although they did dip to just 111 tonnes in 2016. Figure 40

Maldivian tuna export to Japan

20 000 000

14 400

18 000 000

13 200 12 000

16 000 000

Total value, USD

9 600

12 000 000

8 400

10 000 000

7 200

8 000 000

6 000 4 800

6 000 000

Unit value, USD/tonne

10 800 14 000 000

3 600 4 000 000

2 400

2 000 000

1 200

Unprocessed yellowfin. Total Value

Processed skipjack. Total value

Unprocessed skipjack. Total value

Unprocessed skipjack. Unit value

Processed skipjack. Unit value

Unprocessed yellowfin. Unit value

Average unprocessed skipjack

Average processed skipjack

Average unprocessed yellowfin

Unprocessed skipjack Rep. Korea. Unit value

Unprocessed yellowfin Australia. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

Sri Lanka Largely due to its proximity to the Maldives and compatible consumption patterns, Sri Lanka has historically been an important trade partner for the Maldives tuna sector (Figure 42). Trade between the two countries has generally slowed in recent years, although Sri Lanka is still a significant destination for dried skipjack. In 2017 the Maldives had the highest unit value for unprocessed yellowfin of any country that exports to Sri Lanka. World tuna exports to Sri Lanka

40 000 000

11 600

35 000 000

10 150

30 000 000

8 700

25 000 000

7 250

20 000 000

5 800

15 000 000

4 350

10 000 000

2 900

5 000 000

1 450

Unit value, USD/tonne

Total value, USD

Figure 41

Fresh. Total value

Frozen. Total value

Prepared or preserved. Total value

Fresh. Unit value

Frozen. Unit value

Prepared or preserved. Unit value

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

Figure 42

Maldivian tuna export to Sri Lanka

16 000 000

Total value, USD

12 000 000

5 400

10 000 000

4 500

8 000 000

3 600

6 000 000

2 700

4 000 000

1 800

2 000 000

900

Unit value, USD/tonne

6 300

14 000 000

Unprocessed skipjack. Total value

Processed skipjack. Total value

Processed skipjack. Unit value

Unprocessed yellowfin. Unit value

Average processed skipjack

Average unprocessed yellowfin

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight

Alternative products Given the dominance of skipjack and yellowfin exports, current exports of other aquatic products are quite limited and represent a declining share of trade. Bigeye tuna production is dwindling, having fallen from 2 300 tonnes in 2014, equivalent to 1.8 percent of total landings, to 400 tonnes in 2018, equivalent to 0.3 percent of landings. With reduced catches exports have fallen at a similar rate, from 1 481 tonnes in 2014 to 169 tonnes in 2018. Exports were worth USD 653 000 in 2018, with the United States being the main export destination, with imports of USD 441 000 of fresh bigeye. In summary, the overall picture of the fish sector in the Maldives: •

Skipjack tuna and yellowfin tuna are contributing around 98 percent of overall fisheries landings;

•

Bigeye tuna fishery has been dwindling; and

•

Other marine fishes have been declining dramatically.

In general, two-thirds of fish landings are destined for export, while the rest is for domestic consumption (Table 8). From literature coupled with the consideration of the reality, the expanded market demand on sea cucumber and reef species like grouper in neighbouring Asian areas, in particular Hong Kong, China, has brought some opportunities for the Maldives. However, concerns remain regarding the sustainability of stocks. Dwindling stocks of sea cucumbers46 have led to an innovative mariculture initiative.47 Table 8

Maldivian fish production by type and utilization 2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Exports (Excluding previous years stock)

57.5

56.3

65.6

64.9

65.0

68.3

98.3

105.3

Local consumption

63.4

63.7

64.3

63.8

62.3

60.9

44.9

45.7

120.8

120.0

129.8

128.7

127.4

129.2

143.2

151.0

Skipjack Tuna

57.7

53.4

74.4

68.5

69.2

69.6

89.7

100.1

Yellowfin Tuna

35.6

45.0

47.1

49.1

51.5

53.7

49.4

47.2

Bigeye tuna

0.0

2.3

1.8

2.5

1.1

0.4

Other Tuna Related Species

4.9

2.5

1.7

1.6

0.4

0.2

0.5

22.6

19.1

6.6

7.1

4.4

3.2

2.5

2.8

Total Catch

Other Marine Fishes

Data source: Island Councils, The Maldives Customs Services and Ministry of Fisheries, Marine Resources and Agriculture

46 47

At least those which are commercially desirable. Annual progress report, mariculture enterprises development project https://www.gov.mv/en/files/annal-progress-report-2018-medep--1.pdf

GLOBEFISH Insight

Trade policy of the Maldives focusing on Tuna and Tuna Products The last two Strategic Development Plans of the Maldives (2019-2023) and (2015-18) set trade as an important tool to promote investment and development48. Within these plans, some specific measures have a direct impact on the tuna industry, and more particularly, on the export profile of the sector, such as: -

By 2022 -

a 25 percent reduction in time in processing exports, if compared to 2018 levels; and

the Gulhifalhu Port49 will be completed and becomes operational.

By 2023 -

Establishment of two fully functioning light industrial zones in two different locations of the country;

Continuously monitoring of occupational health and safety standards on fisheries; and

Fuel duty exemptions for fishing vessels (“Fahl Hakatha”), benefiting at least 75 percent of fishery business.

According to the Strategic Development Plan, the fisheries sector faces several constraints to develop throughout the value chain. Those fish constraints, from a tuna industry perspective, range from governance (enforceability of fishing regulations, stock assessment, collection of catch and processing data) and difficulties in creating value-addition to accessing premium markets. To address these challenges, the government is planning to enhance fisheries management capacity and to increase the use of technology. These measures will be coupled with international partnerships and fostering the role of applied education, research, and technology for the fishery sector. From the strategic plans, it is clear the role of trade as an important component of the development of the tuna industry in the Maldives. More specifically, it is expressly highlighted the importance of engagement with bilateral partners and to improve market access for fish products, including tuna.

Tariff preference for Maldivian tuna Tariff preferences granted to tuna originated from the Maldives can be historically classified into three major groups. LDC Category The first group of tariff preferences encompasses the preferences granted to the Maldives based on the past country classification as a Least Developing Country (LDC). LDCs are low-income countries facing severe structural impediments to sustainable development, being highly vulnerable to economic and environmental shocks, and having low levels of human assets50. Every three years, the UN Committee for Development Policy (CDP) reviews the list of LDCs and makes recommendations for inclusion in and graduation of countries from the category of LDCs. The CDP reviews are based on quantitative benchmarks covering Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, Human Assets Index (HAI) and Economic Vulnerability Index (EVI). Also, additional qualitative and quantitative information is taken into consideration, such as impact assessment 48

For a full version of the last Strategic Development Plan, access https://storage.googleapis.com/presidency.gov.mv/Documents/SAP2019-2023.pdf The crescent-moon shaped atoll of Gulhifalhu is located 6 kilometers from Malé. 50 For more information on LDCs, check the publication “Handbook on the Least Developed Country Category” available at https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/2018CDPhandbook.pdf 49

GLOBEFISH Insight

provided by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA), the vulnerability profile from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and information from the national government51. In the 1997 and 2000 CDP reviews of the LDC list, the Maldives met two graduation criteria – income per capita and Human Assets Index were both well above the graduation thresholds. In 2003, considering that the Maldives met two graduation criteria for a third consecutive time, CDP recommended that the country qualified for graduation. The preliminary comments provided by the Maldivian government at that time did not contain any material evidence that could reverse the recommendation by CDP52, and the graduation was accepted in 200453. However, due to the impacts of the 2004 tsunami, the graduation only became effective on 1 January 201154. Therefore, taking into consideration the overall improvement of the economic and social situation, assessed in the CDP periodical reviews of the effects of graduation, any tariff preference automatically granted to LDC countries is not any longer a reality to the Maldives.

Unilateral Preferences The Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) sets tariff preferences granted unilaterally by a developed country on specific products to specific developing countries. It was established within UNCTAD in 197155, and currently, 13 countries56 grant unilateral tariff preferences under the GSP schemes. Therefore, GSP Schemes are applied on a non-reciprocal basis, and there is no need for any underlying agreement between the involved countries or recommendations governing any condition of entitlement. In practical terms, under the GSP schemes of preference, selected products originating in developing countries are granted reduced or zero tariff rates over the Most-Favoured Nation (MFN) rates57 when being exported to a specific developed country. To have the benefit of this tariff reduction, the product exported from the developing country must comply with specific requirements of rules of origin and have a document or statement certifying its origin. This is a summary of import tariffs applicable to tuna and tuna-like species and products, based on countries with the most significant fish importing profile or the most potential for the Maldives to access their markets. -

Australia58 -

The Maldives is a beneficiary of the GSP, and it is still listed as an LDC country

More details on the comprehensive review of the LDC criteria can be found at https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wpcontent/uploads/sites/45/CDP-2020-Criteria-review-outcome.pdf 52 CDP Document E/2003/33, available at https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wpcontent/uploads/sites/45/PDFs/CDP_Reports_to_the_Economic_and_Social_Council/e_2003_33_en.pdf#page=28 53 UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) Resolution 2004/67, available at https://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/docs/2004/resolution%202004-67.pdf 54 UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/60/33, available at https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/60/33 55 The objectives of the generalized, non-reciprocal, non-discriminatory system of preferences in favour of the developing countries, including special measures in favour of the least advanced among the developing countries, should be (a) to increase their export earnings; (b) to promote their industrialization; and (c) to accelerate their rates of economic growth. (Resolution 21 (ii), UNCTAD II Conference, New Delhi 1968, available at https://unctad.org/en/Docs/td97vol1_en.pdf) 56 Australia, Belarus, Canada, the European Union, Iceland, Japan, Kazakhstan, New Zealand, Norway, the Russian Federation, Switzerland, Turkey and the United States of America 57 MFN tariffs are the tariffs countries impose on imports originating from other members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) when entering their territory when there is no lower preferential rate. The existence of preferential rates are usually associated with the category of the country (LDC or a developing country benefiting from the GSP scheme) or the exporting country being part of a preferential trade agreement with the importing country or a group of countries which includes the importing country. 58 An overview of the tariff preferences granted by Australia is presented at https://www.abf.gov.au/importing-exporting-and-manufacturing/tariffclassification/current-tariff/schedule-1.

GLOBEFISH Insight

MFN tariffs - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen and in fillets)59..............0% - Prepared or preserved tunas, skipjack and bonito60 .........................................5%

GSP tariffs - Prepared or preserved tunas, skipjack and bonito ............................................0%

Tariffs for preferential agreements (for illustrative purposes only) - Prepared or preserved tunas, skipjack and bonito ............................................0%

Rules of Origin61 - In order to benefit from the GSP scheme, the export product must - be live animals born and raised in the Maldives; - be obtained in the Maldives from live animals; - be obtained by hunting or fishing conducted in the Maldives; - be of sea fishing and other products taken from the sea by vessels of the Maldives; - be made onboard of factory ships of the Maldives exclusively from products of sea fishing taken from the sea by vessels of the Maldives; - There is no restriction on direct shipment to Australia. - Documentation - Stating a declaration of origin on the face of the normal commercial invoice; or - Using an additional completed Form A (Combined Declaration and Certificate of Origin).

Canada62 -

The Maldives is no longer a GSP beneficiary since the country was excluded as of 1 January 2015

MFN tariffs - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen and in fillets) ................0% - Prepared or preserved Atlantic bonito63 ...........................................................4.5% - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species, except Atlantic bonito64 .....................................................................................7%

GSP tariffs (for illustrative purposes only) - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species, except Atlantic bonito ........................................................................................3.5%

Tariffs for preferential agreements (for illustrative purposes only) - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen and in fillets) ................0% - Prepared or preserved Atlantic bonito ..............................................................0% - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species, except Atlantic bonito ........................................................................................0%

All tuna and tuna-like species in Chapter 03 of the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System, also known as the Harmonized System (HS) of the World Customs Organization (WCO) available at http://www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/nomenclature/instrument-andtools/hs_nomenclature_older_edition/~/media/55DBB4A7C18F471E9F7D3E5DCC2629DC.ashx 60 Australia Reference Number 1604.14.00 61 For a full set of the Australian Rules of Origin check https://www.abf.gov.au/free-trade-agreements/files/instructions-guidelines-preferential-rulesorigin.pdf 62 An overview of the GSP of Canada is presented at https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2013-165/page-3.html#h-794012. 63 Canada tariff item 1604.14.1000 64 Canada tariff item 1604.14.9000

GLOBEFISH Insight

Rules of Origin (for illustrative purposes only)65 - In order to benefit from the preferential rate, the export product must - be live animals born and raised in the exporting country; - be obtained from live animals in the exporting country; - be obtained by fishing or aquaculture in the exporting country; - be taken (fish, shellfish and other marine life) from the sea, seabed or subsoil outside the territory of the exporting country, by a vessel registered, recorded or listed with the exporting country or Canada, or leased by or chartered to an enterprise established in the exporting country or Canada, and entitled to fly its flag; - be made onboard of factory ships of the exporting country or Canada exclusively from products of sea fishing taken from the sea by vessels of the exporting country or Canada; - be taken or extracted (fish, shellfish and other marine life) from the seabed, ocean floor or subsoil outside the territory of the exporting country, by the exporting country or Canada, or a person of the exporting country or Canada, provided that they have rights to exploit such seabed, ocean floor or subsoil; - Transportation - The products cannot undergo any transformation or operation outside the exporting country or Canada. - When necessary, products passing by transit countries can continue to have preferential treatment if there is only unloading, reloading or any other operation necessary to preserve it in good condition or to transport the good to Canada. - Documentation - A specific form as the certificate of origin is necessary

European Union -

The Maldives is no longer a GSP beneficiary since the country was excluded as of 1 January 2015

MFN tariffs - Live tunas and tuna-like species66 ......................................................................16% - Tuna and tuna-like species (fresh, chilled or frozen) .........................................22% - Zero-tariff quota with quantitative limits for tuna and tuna-like species (fresh, chilled or frozen) exclusively for the industrial manufacture of prepared or preserved products67 .................................................................0%68 - Fillets of tuna and tuna-like species...................................................................18% - Prepared or preserved bonito69 .........................................................................25% - Prepared or preserved tunas and skipjack, except bonito ................................24%

GSP tariffs (for illustrative purposes only) - Live tunas and tuna-like species ........................................................................12.5% - Tuna and tuna-like species (fresh, chilled or frozen) .........................................18.5% - Fillets of tuna and tuna-like species...................................................................14.5%

The standard rules of origin applicable to free-trade agreements between Canada and a similar income developing country is herein presented, with an illustrative purpose, since the Maldives is not any longer a country beneficiary of preferential rates under the Canadian GSP scheme. 66 CN Codes 0301 94 and 0301 95 67 CN Codes for fresh or chilled: 0302 31 10, 0302 32 10, 0302 33 10, 0302 34 10, 0302 35 11, 0302 35 11, 0302 35 91, 0302 36 10, 0302 39 20; CN Codes for frozen: 0303 41 10, 0303 42 20, 0303 43 10, 0303 44 10, 0303 45 12, 0303 45 91, 0303 46 10, 0303 49 20; 68 The rate of 0% is only applicable to an annual quota of 17 221 tonnes, from 1 January to 31 December, together with other tuna and tuna-like species with different treatments, operating on a first-come-first-served basis. The exit of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland of Great Britain and Northern Ireland will affect this total available quota to the European Union. 69 CN Code 1604.14.90 - Prepared or preserved bonito, whole or in pieces, but not minced

GLOBEFISH Insight

Prepared or preserved bonito ...........................................................................21.5% Prepared or preserved tunas and skipjack, except bonito ................................20.5%

Tariffs for preferential agreements (for illustrative purposes only) - Taking into consideration the large number of preferential agreements engaged by the European Union, detailed preferential tariffs by products are not presented. For most tuna and tuna-like species and products, the preferential tariff goes to 0 percent for both non-processed and processed products.

Rules of Origin (for illustrative purposes only)70 - In order to benefit from the preferential rate, the export product must - be live animals born and raised in the exporting country; - be obtained from live animals in the exporting country; - be obtained by fishing (inland waters and 12-mile territorial zone) in the exporting country; - be taken from the sea outside the territorial waters of the exporting country by vessels of the exporting country or the European Union. Vessels shall be (1) be registered or recorded in the exporting country or the European Union; (2) be sailing its flag; (3) be owned at least 50 percent by its nationals; (4) be owned by a company with headquarters in the exporting country or the European Union. The company shall have (1) the manager(s), Chairman of the Board of Directors or the Supervisory Board and the majority of the board members as nationals of the exporting country or the European Union; (2) half of the capital belonging to nationals of those countries and (3) at least ¾ of the crew of nationals of those countries. - Transportation - The products cannot undergo any transformation or operation outside the exporting country or the European Union. - When necessary, products passing by transit countries can continue to have preferential treatment if there is only unloading, reloading, or any other operation necessary to preserve it in good condition or to transport the good to the European Union. - Documentation - A certificate of origin Form A must accompany each export consignment. - The exporter can use the Registered Exporter system (the REX system)71 to simplify export formalities by certifying the preferential origin himself on the invoice. When using the REX system, the exporter does not need to apply upon each export for the issue of a certificate of origin.

Japan72 -

The Maldives is a GSP beneficiary

MFN tariffs - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fry for fish culture)73 ......................................0% - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, except fry for fish culture)74 ..........................3.5% - Tuna and tuna-like species (fresh, chilled, frozen, fillets) .................................3.5%

The standard rules of origin applicable to free-trade agreements between the European Union and a similar income developing country is herein presented, with an illustrative purpose, since the Maldives is not any longer a country beneficiary of preferential rates under the European GSP scheme. 71 The REX system is a system of certification of origin of goods based on a principle of self-certification. The origin of goods is declared by economic operators themselves. For more information, access https://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/business/calculation-customs-duties/rulesorigin/general-aspects-preferential-origin/arrangements-list/generalised-system-preferences/the_register_exporter_system_en. 72 An overview of the GSP of Japan is presented at https://www.customs.go.jp/english/c-answer_e/imtsUnited Kingdoman/1501_e.htm#:~:text=Japan's%20GSP%20scheme%2C%20which%20started,the%20Temporary%20Tariff%20Measures%20Law. 73 Japanese Customs Tariff lines 0301.93.100, 0301.94.110, 0301.94.120, 0301.95.100 74 Japanese Customs Tariff lines 0301.93.200, 0301.94.210, 03.01.94.220, 0301.95.900

GLOBEFISH Insight

Prepared or preserved tuna, skipjack and bonito .............................................9.6%

GSP tariffs - Skipjack and other bonito, in airtight containers ..............................................6.4% - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species, except skipjack and other bonito in airtight containers ....................................7.2%

Tariffs for preferential agreements75 (for illustrative purposes only) - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen, fillets) ..........................0% - Prepared or preserved tuna, skipjack and bonito .............................................0%

Rules of Origin - In order to benefit from the GSP scheme, the export product must - be wholly obtained in the Maldives. - Transportation - The products must be preferably transported directly to Japan from the Maldives. - When necessary, products passing by transit countries can continue to have preferential treatment if there is only transshipment or temporary storage in the third country in a bonded area, under the supervision of the customs authority. - Documentation - A Combined Declaration and Certificate of Origin Form has to be issued at the time of exportation by customs authorities of the Maldives or any other officially-authorized entity or body.

New Zealand76 -

The Maldives is still listed as an LDC country

MFN tariffs - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen, fillets) ..........................0% - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species ............................................0%

LDC tariffs - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen, fillets) ..........................0% - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species ............................................0%

Tariffs for preferential agreements (for illustrative purposes only) - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen, fillets) ..........................0% - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species ............................................0%

In the case of more than one preferential agreement with different preferential tariffs, the modal tariff is presented. In the case of uniform tariffs or a single preferential agreement, the tariff itself is presented. 76 An overview of the GSP of New Zealand, including rules of origin, is presented at https://www.customs.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/factsheets/fact-sheet-08-preferential-tariff-duty-rates-and-an-explanation-about-the-rules-of-origin.pdf

GLOBEFISH Insight

Transportation - The products must be preferably transported directly to New Zealand from the Maldives. - When necessary, products passing by transit countries can continue to have preferential treatment if there is only transshipment or temporary storage in the third country in a bonded area. Documentation - a certificate of origin, a declaration of origin, or other evidence sufficient to prove that the goods satisfy the relevant rules of origin provisions. - If requested by New Zealand Customs, an importer claiming preference must be able to provide sufficient evidence to substantiate the claim.

Norway77 -

The Maldives is a GSP beneficiary

MFN tariffs - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen) .....................................0% - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species ............................................0%

GSP tariffs - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen) .....................................0% - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species ............................................0%

Tariffs for preferential agreements (for illustrative purposes only) - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen) .....................................0% - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species ............................................0%

Rules of Origin - In order to benefit from the GSP scheme, the export product must - be live animals born and raised in the Maldives; - be obtained in the Maldives from live animals; - be obtained by hunting or fishing conducted in the Maldives; - be of sea fishing and other products taken from the sea by vessels of the Maldives; - be made onboard of factory ships of the Maldives exclusively from products of sea fishing taken from the sea by vessels of the Maldives; - captured of transformed in vessels registered in the Maldives or Norway, flying its flag, owned at least 50 percent by nationals of the Maldives or Norway, with head office and the main place of business in the Maldives or Norway; - be manufactured in the Maldives with inputs from third-countries, provided sufficient work or processing have been undergone in the Maldives; - be originated in Norway, the European Union or Switzerland and priory exported to the Maldives shall be considered as originating in the Maldives, provided that the products are worked or processed there. - Transportation - The products must be preferably transported directly to Norway from the Maldives. - When necessary, products passing by transit countries can continue to have preferential treatment if there is only transshipment or temporary storage in the third country in a bonded area.

An overview of the GSP of Norway is presented at https://www.toll.no/en/corporate/import/free-trade/gsp---generalized-system-of-preference/

GLOBEFISH Insight

Documentation - Each export consignment must be accompanied by a certificate of origin Form A issued by the exporter and endorsed by a competent authority in the Maldives. - For goods of the value of less than USD 6 000, a statement of origin can be used, provided that the exporter is registered on REX – Registered Exporter System of the European Union.

Switzerland78 -

The Maldives is a GSP beneficiary

MFN tariffs79 - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen, fillets) ........................................................................................0.00 CHF/100 kg - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species ...............................0.00 CHF/100 kg

GSP tariffs - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen, fillets) ........................................................................................0.00 CHF/100 kg - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species ...............................0.00 CHF/100 kg

Tariffs for preferential agreements (for illustrative purposes only) - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen, fillets) ........................................................................................0.00 CHF/100 kg - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species ...............................0.00 CHF/100 kg

Rules of Origin - In order to benefit from the GSP scheme, the export product must - be live animals born and raised in the Maldives; - be obtained in the Maldives from live animals born and raised there or from animals raised there; - be obtained by hunting or fishing conducted in the Maldives; - be from aquaculture, including fish, crustaceans and molluscs, born and raised in the Maldives; - be of sea fishing and other products taken from the sea by vessels flying the flag of the Maldives or Switzerland; - be made onboard of factory ships flying the flag of the Maldives or Switzerland, exclusively from products of sea fishing taken from the sea by vessels of the Maldives or Switzerland; - be manufactured in the Maldives with inputs from third-countries, provided sufficient work or processing have been undergone in the Maldives; - Transportation - The products must be preferably transported directly to Switzerland from the Maldives. - When necessary, products passing by transit countries can continue to have preferential treatment if there is only transshipment or temporary storage in the third country in a bonded area. - Documentation - The exporter has to specify the registration number (REX number) in the statement on origin

An overview of the GSP of Switzerland is presented at https://www.ezv.admin.ch/ezv/en/home/information-companies/exemptions--reliefs-preferential-tariffs-and-export-contributio/importation-into-switzerland/developing-countries-gsp--generalized-system-of-preferences-.html 79 There is a Border veterinary control (inspection)/border veterinary inspection fee (tax) of CHF 1.47/100 kg, with a minimum charge of CHF 88.00 and a maximum of CHF 676.00 applicable to many fish products, including all tuna and tuna-like, including in processed or preserved formats.

GLOBEFISH Insight

For shipments of less than CHF 10 300, a declaration of origin on the invoice is sufficient as a proof of origin.

The United States of America80 -

The Maldives is a GSP beneficiary81.

MFN tariffs - Tuna and tuna-like species (live, fresh, chilled, frozen, fillets) .............0% - Tuna and skipjack, in airtight containers, in oil ....................................35% - Prepared or preserved tunas and skipjack in airtight containers, not in oil, with specific quantitative limits82 .........................................6% - Prepared or preserved tunas and skipjack in airtight containers, not in oil .............................................................................12.5% - Prepared or preserved tunas and skipjacks, whole or in pieces, not in airtight containers, not minced, not in oil, in bulk or in containers over 6.8 kg...........................................................................USD 0.011/kg - Prepared or preserved tunas and skipjacks, whole or in pieces, not in airtight containers, not minced; except in bulk or in containers over 6.8 kg, not in oil ..................................................6% - Prepared or preserved bonitos, whole or in pieces, not minced, in oil ..................................................................................4.9% - Prepared or preserved bonitos, whole or in pieces, not minced, not in oil ............................................................................6%

GSP tariffs - Prepared or preserved tuna and skipjacks, whole or in pieces, not in airtight containers, not minced; except in bulk or in containers over 6.8 kg, not in oil83................................................0%

Tariffs for preferential agreements (for illustrative purposes only)84 - Prepared or preserved tunas and skipjack, in airtight containers, in oil....................................................................................0% - Prepared or preserved tunas and skipjack in airtight containers, not in oil .............................................................................0% - Prepared or preserved tunas and skipjacks, whole or in pieces, not in airtight containers, not minced ..................................................0% - Prepared or preserved bonitos, whole or in pieces, not minced ............................................................................................0%

Rules of origin - Considering the narrow scope of products with GSP preferences, no analysis of the rules of origin is herein provided.

An overview of the GSP of the United States is presented at https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/The%20GSP%20Guidebook.pdf The current United States GSP scheme is authorized through December 2020.The GSP is an unilateral and discretionary measure, and the United States of America use some of the following criteria for country eligibility: (1) income under USD 12 055 per capita; (2) international position and willingness to protect internationally recognized working rights, including stopping child labor; (3) allow market access for United States exports; (4) protection of intellectual property. For a full list, check https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/The%20GSP%20Guidebook.pdf 82 Those quantitative limits are set by the National Marine Fisheries Service of the United States. 83 United States Tariff Code 1604.14.50 84 In the case of more than one preferential agreement with different preferential tariffs, the modal tariff is presented. In the case of uniform tariffs or a single preferential agreement, the tariff itself is presented. 81

GLOBEFISH Insight

However, the analysis of rules of origin in the United States GSP can be also made on a case-bycase basis – previous decisions are available at the Customs Rulings Online Search System (CROSS)85

Thailand86 -

MFN tariffs - Tuna and tuna-like species (live).................................................... 30% - Tuna and tuna-like species (fresh, chilled, frozen, fillets), ............ 5% - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species ........................ 40% or USD 4.30/kg87

Preferential tariffs88 - Tuna and tuna-like species (live).................................................... 0% - Tuna and tuna-like species (fresh, chilled, frozen, fillets), ............ 0% - Prepared or preserved tuna and tuna-like species ........................ 0%

Agreed Preferences under Preferential Agreements89 (Bilateral or Plurilateral) In the past, the Maldives had bilateral trade agreements with China, Qatar and Thailand. The implementation of the new preferential agreement with China has seen a revolving pattern – being stopped and resuming quite frequently. It is estimated that exports of tuna and tuna-like species and products from the Maldives to China continue to be charged on average with a 10.2 percent import duty90. In the last decade, the Maldives had initial conversations of bilateral trade agreements with Turkey, Kuwait and Mauritius. In the area of plurilateral agreements (in this case, a regional trade agreement), the Maldives is part of the South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC), a regional association created in 1985 to promote economic and social progress, cultural development, and cooperation. Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka are member countries of SAARC. In 1993, SAARC members set a preferential trade agreement (called “SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangement – SAPTA”), which entered into force at the end of 1995. In 2004, ministers of the region agreed on further integration and established the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA), which entered into force in 200691. SAFTA had a phase-in period when participating countries were able to set sensitive lists. The lists of sensitive products by countries are indeed a negative list for exempting products from the Trade Liberalization Program of the free trade area, with LDCs members having long lists of exceptions than nonLDC members. The trade of tuna and tuna-like species and products between the participants of SAFTA has limited expansion opportunities92. In addition, there are conflicting lists of sensitive products and preferential tariffs 85

Available at https://rulings.cbp.gov/ As the major destination of tuna exports, Thailand is also analyzed here. More information on the Thai tariff schedule is accessible at http://itd.customs.go.th/igtf/th/main_frame.jsp?lang=th&top_menu=menu_homepage 87 Whichever is higher 88 The preferential tariffs presented herein are linked to a preferential agreement with a developing country with a similar level of development as of the Maldives. 89 Preferential trade agreements create incentives to trade between two or more countries, with the majority of tariffs being reduced to zero. 90 In December 2017, Maldives signed a bilateral free trade agreement with China, but the agreement does not appear to be operational, and there is no available information on the schedule of tariff reductions and product coverage. From 2014 through 2017, Maldives had a zero-tariff agreement with China covering 4 762 tariff lines, including tuna and tuna-like products. 91 In a free trade area, the trade within the group of countries is duty free and each member country sets its own import tariff schedule applicable on imports from non-members. 92 Sri Lanka is the only country where market access potential clearly exists for more exports of tuna and tuna-like products. 86

GLOBEFISH Insight

of SAFTA93. It is estimated that taking into consideration all existing exceptions for a free trade area, more than 50 percent of intra-SAARC trade is still subject to the imposition of tariffs and non-tariff measures.

Opportunities and Challenges involving preferential tariffs In terms of tariff preferences, the Maldives faces two exogenous variables, which they have no control over – the graduation of being an LDC country and the unilateral preferences granted by developed countries under GSP schemes. The Maldives is no longer an LDC country; therefore, those associated tariff preferences cannot benefit any longer exports of tuna and tuna-like species and products94. In the case of GSP schemes, the general situation can be unpredictable since it is a unilateral concession, and it is up to the granting developed country to keep the preferences active and to set autonomous parameters to exclude beneficiary countries of the tariff benefit, including the Maldives. In principle, with the growing economic development of many developing countries, it is foreseen that many of them will be gradually excluded from GSP tariff benefits. In this regard, taking advantage only of the benefit of GSP schemes to ensure market access at competitive prices can have the corollary of the tariff preference being summarily cancelled. Although for some developed countries, the overall import tariff for tuna and tuna-like species and products is low (Australia, Norway, Canada and Switzerland, for example), the Maldives could consistently enhance its export potential if engaging in bilateral trade agreements95. Bilateral trade agreements have some clear advantages in terms of stability, transparency, and predictability and a relatively large timeframe for export performance, including the advantage of the tariff preference itself. In addition, bilateral trade agreements can tackle and minimize one of the most perverse problems associated with the competitive advantage of developing countries, which are big producers of raw products, including tuna – tariff escalation. By setting higher import duties on products with some degree of processing if compared to raw products, many countries protect the domestic processing industries. This tariff policy is called tariff escalation, and it discourages the development of the processing activity in the countries where the raw products originate from. The benefit of bilateral agreements for tuna producing countries in trying to minimize or even completely offset the problems of tariff escalation for their exports is observed in the tariff profile for tuna and tuna-like species and products of Australia, Canada, the European Union, Japan and the United States. The Maldives would create enormous social and economic benefits by implementing an overall policy of engaging in bilateral trade agreements96, such as increasing the competitiveness of the exports of Maldivian tuna and tuna-like species and products and creating additional incentives for value addition inside the country. However, since most tuna and tuna-like species and products are currently exported with little or no processing due to the lack of local resources and infrastructure for large production value addition, concomitant measures need to be implemented by the government to foster value creation for fish products.

For a detailed coverage, check http://www.doc.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=56&Itemid=183&lang=en Except for some developed countries keeping the Maldives at their LDC lists. 95 Bilateral trade agreements are going to be mentioned here because they are easier and faster to negotiate. However, the exact same arguments are applicable to regional or plurilateral trade agreements, which are usually more complex and time consuming to reach a final consensus. 96 Specific countries shall be targeted, including the ones with tariff escalation for tuna and tuna-like products or countries with overall high applicable import tariffs. 94

GLOBEFISH Insight

Thailand, as the major destination of Maldivian tuna and tuna-like species and products, together with Canada, Japan, the European Union, and the United States, can be considered target countries for bilateral agreements. In the area of the regulatory requirements of bilateral agreements, particularly involving rules of origin, the Maldives already have some clear compliance advantages. In the case of the nationality of fishing vessels97, Masdhoani98 owners are already required to be Maldivian citizens, which is a critical element in many trade agreements. In addition, the fishing vessels targeting yellowfin tuna99 also have to be fully locally owned, registered in the Maldives, and with a minimum participation of national crew, performing fishing operations between 100 nautical miles and the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)100 and the adjacent high seas. This approach is completely aligned with many of the standard clauses of trade agreements. The Maldives has some other features involving the production of tuna and tuna-like species and products that can have automatically intrinsic compliance criteria in getting preferences in trade agreements. For example, there are 13 tuna-processing facilities which are approved for export to the European Union101, an existing vessel monitoring program for all commercial fishing vessels; and the Maldives pole and line and handline tuna fishery was certified as sustainable to the MSC Fisheries Standard. The Maldives is also a member of the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC)102 – an intergovernmental organization to manage tuna and tuna-like species in the Indian Ocean and adjacent seas by promoting cooperation among its members to ensure the conservation and the optimization of the utilization of stocks in the area and encourage sustainable development of fisheries.

Border rejections of tuna and tuna-like species and products by major importing countries In order to have a constant, timely and smoothly export process, conquering stability and predictability in importing markets, the Maldives should constantly be monitoring the reasons for global rejections of imports of tuna and tuna-like species and products of major import markets103. In 2018, in the European Union, the major global causes of rejections of tuna and tuna-like species and products at the border were associated with poor temperature control (63 percent), histamine levels (16 percent), packing (9 percent), presence of mercury (6 percent) and improper health certificates (6 percent). Rejections by packing reasons and the presence of mercury were registered for similar developing countries located in the same region as the Maldives. In Canada, for the same period, tuna was rejected for labelling issues (79 percent). Additional rejection causes include packing (14 percent), the presence of histamine (3 percent), the use of non-permitted additives (3 percent), and the presence of Staphylococcus aureus (1 percent).

Fisheries Law 5/87 and the Regulation for Issuing the Licence to Fish in the Exclusive Zone of the Republic of Maldives (http://www.mvlaw.gov.mv/pdf/gavaid/minEconDev/12.pdf) 98 Masdhoani are traditional wooden hulled and fiber re-enforced vessels operating basically near coast fishing (between 0 and 150 nautical miles), using primarily pole and line and handline techniques. 99 Regulation of Long Line Fishery for Yellow-fin Tuna in Maldives – Regulation No: 2014 /R-388 – available at https://www.gov.mv/en/files/2014r388-1.pdf 100 An Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a concept adopted at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (1982), whereby a country assumes jurisdiction over the exploration and exploitation of marine resources extending 200 miles from the sea shore of its coast. 101 In the European Union, imports are only authorized from approved vessels, processing plants, freezer or factory vessels, cold stores, which have been inspected by the competent authority of the exporting country and found to meet European Union requirements. A list of approved vessels and establishments is maintained by the European Commission and is published on its website 102 The members of IOTC are Australia, Maldives, Mauritius, China, Mozambique, Comoros, Oman, Eritrea, Pakistan, the European Union, Philippines, France, the Seychelles, Guinea, Sierra Leone, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Sudan, Iran, Tanzania, Japan, Thailand, Kenya, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Republic of Korea, Madagascar, Yemen and Malaysia. 103 The information of border rejection by major importers of fish and fish products is periodically released by FAO GLOBEFISH (www.globefish.org).

GLOBEFISH Insight

In Japan, all border rejections of tuna and tuna-like species and products were associated with microbiological issues, including the presence of coliform, Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and live bacteria. In 2018, the rejections of tuna and tuna-like species and products at the United States border were more diverse – 45 percent associated with filthy fish, 23 percent due to microbiological issues (Hepatitis A, Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes), 17 percent were due to adulteration, 7 percent due to HACCP104 issues and 5 percent to the presence of histamine. In addition, there were also rejections due to no processing of products (2 percent) and misbranding (1 percent). Countries in the same region of the Maldives and with the same developing pattern were the origin of exports rejected due to filthy and adulteration.

Competitiveness Holdbacks State-Owned Processing Company The Maldives Industrial Fisheries Company (MIFCO) is a public company engaged in the production, processing, and marketing of fish and fish products, incorporated in 1993. MIFCO holds exclusive rights to buy and process tuna in two of the four existing assigned zones and it can procure fish in the other two.

104

HACCP is a management system in which food safety is addressed through the analysis and control of biological, chemical, and physical hazards from raw material production, procurement and handling, to manufacturing, distribution and consumption of the finished product.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Impacts of COVID-19 The overall impact on fisheries and aquaculture The COVID-19 pandemic, unprecedented in modern times, continues to cause major disruption in societies around the world and inflict severe damage on the global economy. Governments have introduced various measures intended to slow the spread of the virus, including social isolation directives, limitations on business opening hours and travel restrictions. The seafood sector, along with the majority of industries, is having to deal with a bleak demand outlook and an array of supply challenges. With the effective shutdown of the restaurant industry, foodservice demand has evaporated. In contrast, retail sales have been marked by extreme volatility as periods of panic buying are followed by sustained lulls. Demand for packaged and frozen products has spiked as households look to stock up on non-perishable food at the expense of fresh seafood options. At the same time, online distributors are reporting increased interest as home-bound consumers explore retail alternatives. However, demand has been sharply reduced, and prices have fallen for many species, particularly those that are important for the restaurant industry. Meanwhile, suppliers and processors are struggling with business closures all along the supply chain and several other logistical difficulties. Haulers must contend with closed or restricted road borders and health inspection delays, while the large-scale cancellation of flights has directly affected trade in some high-end fresh products transported by air. Other consequences of the virus outbreak include the cancellation of key seafood trade events across the world and a delay in aquaculture harvests due to labour shortages. Seafood representatives in many countries are calling for financial aid from the government, but such measures may only provide limited relief in the face of widespread upheaval. Industry stakeholders are also calling for regulator flexibility in terms of extending catch limits and raising biomass limits and emphasizing the need to rapidly understand and plan for long-term changes in the market landscape. Uncertainty still dominates the outlook, particularly concerning the duration and severity of the pandemic, but a prolonged market downturn can be expected even after current restrictions are lifted or relaxed.

Impact on global tuna fisheries The exports of canned products during this abnormal period have stabilized without much repercussion from the market. Global demand for canned, pouched, and processed tuna remained strong worldwide during the first quarter of 2020 as consumers, particularly in the western and Middle Eastern markets, continued to buy and stock shelf-stable products given the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdowns. During the first quarter of 2020, household demand for canned tuna increased throughout the European Union, particularly in Italy, Spain, France, Germany. In Italy, canned tuna sales increased by 35-45 percent from February to March 2020. Production plants owned by the Italian tuna giant Bolton group remain fully operational in procurement and shipment of goods. Considering the gloomy economic outlook worldwide, limited employment opportunities, and falling disposable income, demand for more affordable conventional canned tuna is likely to be good in the traditional western markets and the emerging markets of the Middle East and North Africa. This did not result in immediate stronger imports, as the main consuming markets were holding sufficient stocks to cater to the demand. In terms of raw material supplies, tuna packers in Southeast Asia have reportedly been less affected by lower catches, as many have been holding sufficient raw material bought in 2019. However, supplies in the coming months may slowdown if catch activities reduce due to the measures implemented to combat COVID-19. In

GLOBEFISH Insight

the Western and Central Pacific Ocean, the 3-month FAD fishing closure will take place from July to September 2020. With this closure and likely COVID-19 impacts, frozen tuna prices are forecasted to firm up in the coming months. Travel restrictions worldwide are causing disruptions in fresh tuna exports, with major airlines cancelling most international ﬂights to the major tuna markets (namely Japan, the United States and the European Union). In this market, demand will certainly be affected by the global financial slowdown and a looming recession. In Japan, the world’s largest sashimi market, demand has weakened considerably. It is expected to stay bleak following the cancellation of Spring Festival celebrations and the rescheduling of the Tokyo Olympics from 2020 to 2021105.

Impact on Maldivian tuna fisheries Through mid-June 2020, a total of approximately 1 500 cases have tested positive in the Maldives and the COVID-19 has been disrupting the Maldivian economy substantially, which, to a large extent, is based on tourism and associated tertiary industry. The suspension of international travel undoubtfully led to a bleak economic performance. According to the latest forecast from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), GDP growth in the Maldives is projected to drop by 8.1 percent in 2020106. Not surprisingly, raw fish exports from the Maldives have encountered many difficulties resulting from the COVID-19. Ensis Fisheries, a major fish exporter in the Maldives, mentioned that approximately 99 percent of Maldivian raw fish exports to the European Union have ceased, and to the largest market – Thailand was also hugely reduced107. However, canned products seem to be affected very limitedly, as the demand for preserved and prepared products from consumers remains high. In order to allow for a more effective response to the COVID-19, representatives of export companies in the Maldives have already started a discussion with the Minister of Economy to seek measures to alleviate the difficulty of exporting fish. The normalization of international travel is not foreseeable, at least for the near months, albeit the local fish market has been reopened recently, which probably would help to stimulate the local production, but still far behind previous levels. International demand for tuna products is gaining momentum to bounce back, given that many countries, in particular Europe, started to ease out the restrictions by resuming flights, with possible positive effects on the Maldives. In a nutshell, there is no such positive sign globally, indicating a conclusion of the pandemic. However, traditional Maldivian tuna importers, namely the European Union, Thailand, and the United States, and resumed business activities at various scales. Within this scenario, the government should stay close with the industry offering relevant support to alleviate any challenges, issues, and difficulties for the fisheries sector and consider the country’s high dependency on tourism.

105

FAO. 2020. GLOBEFISH Highlights, January 2020 ISSUE, with Jan. – Dec. 2019 Statistics – A quarterly update on world seafood markets. Globefish Highlights no. 2–2020. Rome. Available at https://issuu.com/globefish/docs/globefish_highlights_issue_1_2020 106 IMF country information of the Maldives available at https://www.imf.org/en/Countries/MDV 107 The Edition (2020) COVID-19: Maldives halts fish exports to Europe. Available at: https://edition.mv/business/15530 (Accessed: 3 June 2020).

GLOBEFISH Insight

Conclusions and Recommendations108 The Maldives has a unique environmental combination, creating a considerable advantage for tuna and tuna-like species production. Those products originated from the Maldives are, to a great extent, famous for its high quality and compliance with sustainability and environmental friendliness. In addition, the way tuna is captured in the Maldives, using the pole and line fishing gear, enables maximum protection of resources in the sea and generally has a relatively low by-catch. This fishing technique also creates a unique product in terms of price-premium – the Maldivian tuna is especially desirable in many countries for further processing and for concerned consumers about the sustainability of the tuna they purchase. Furthermore, there is an already built-in concept implemented in the Maldivian society of the importance, respect, and enforceability of the environmental and social sustainability of fishing, which is most strongly valued in many developed countries. Therefore, the Maldives shall explore its environmental and socially sustainable model of fisheries in market terms to create considerable and differentiated benefits in major importing markets, particularly markets willing to pay more for such products. The creation of a ‘Maldives brand’ could indeed offer many opportunities for market expansion. In terms of products, there are limited opportunities for diversification of species, although sea cucumber could be a good candidate. Expansion possibilities are uncertain for diversification of product forms, but clear opportunities may exist for dried skipjack. The exploration of engaging in bilateral trade agreements with target countries to increase the competitiveness of tuna and tuna-like species and products originating from the Maldives should be sought compulsorily. Any preferential benefit within trade agreements will also reduce the burden of tariff escalation. In the particular case of the Maldives, national legislation involving the nationality of vessels and crew and the adherence to certification schemes can facilitate compliance with preferential benefits and access to markets. In this regard, whenever possible, the Maldives can engage itself in preferential trade agreements (bilateral or plurilateral) in order to increase the competitiveness of its products by the reduction of import tariffs and better market access to major markets. In the Maldives, the economic value created by the tuna fishing activity has a strong spillover effect throughout society – the fishing industry is an effective and pragmatic way for economic dividend sharing. Additional actions to market the differentiation of the Maldivian product and enhance its competitive advantage by using trade preferences can maximize this spillover effect.

108

The conclusions and recommendations presented herein are a simple summary of the main findings already mentioned throughout previous sections.

GLOBEFISH Insight

Appendix 1. Unit values of Maldivian exports by destination

Figure 43 Unprocessed skipjack 2 500

Unit Value, USD/tonne

2 000

1 500

1 000

500

Mauritius

Thailand

Viet Nam

Sri Lanka

Figure 44 Processed skipjack, canned 8 000

Unit Value, USD/tonne

7 000 6 000 5 000 4 000 3 000 2 000 1 000 0

France

Switzerland

Finland

United States of America

Germany

Ireland

United Kingdom

Netherlands

Sri Lanka

GLOBEFISH Insight

Figure 45 Processed skipjack, dried or dried and salted 12 000

Unit Value, USD/tonne

10 000

8 000

6 000

4 000

2 000

Japan

Sri Lanka

Figure 46 Unprocessed yellowfin, fresh or chilled 14 000

Unit Value, USD/tonne

12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 0

Switzerland

Australia

Belgium

Germany

Italy

United Kingdom

United States of America

France

Ireland

GLOBEFISH Insight

Figure 47 Unprocessed yellowfin, frozen 9 000 8 000

Unit Value, USD/tonne

7 000 6 000 5 000

4 000 3 000 2 000 1 000 0

Korea Republic of

Costa Rica

Japan

Viet Nam

Thailand

United States of America

France

Sri Lanka

Spain

Figure 48 Processed yellowfin, fresh chunk 16 000

Unit Value, USD/tonne

14 000 12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 0

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Switzerland

Belgium

United Arab Emirates

Poland

Germany

France

United Kingdom

Italy

United States of America

GLOBEFISH Insight

Figure 49 Processed yellowfin, fresh loins 20 000 18 000

Unit Value, USD/tonne

16 000 14 000 12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 0

Singapore

Switzerland

China

United Arab Emirates

Belgium

Poland

United Kingdom

Czech Republic

France

Figure 50 Processed yellowfin, nei109 16 000

Unit Value, USD/tonne

14 000 12 000 10 000 8 000 6 000 4 000 2 000 0

Germany

France

Italy

China

United States of America

United Kingdom

Philippines

Czech Republic

Thailand

109

As the value traded of processed yellowfin in forms other than fresh chunk and fresh loins is relatively low and varies greatly from year to year, trend analysis for individual forms is unreliable. For this reason, several categories of goods have been grouped, including canned, fresh fillets, frozen fillets, fresh steak, frozen steak, fresh belly flap, frozen bellyflap, frozen loins, frozen chunk and steamed loins

GLOBEFISH Insight

Appendix 2. Unit values and import volume by destination

Table 9 Unprocessed skipjack, fresh or chilled Value (USD) Country

2016

2017

Volume (tonnes) 2018

2016

2017

2018

Austria

14 000

33 000

Macao, China

11 000

26 000

China

14 000

17 000

18 250

Hong Kong, China

35 000

13 857

18 000

Canada

5 222

7 000

17 333

Taiwan, Province of China

11 000

8 000

14 000

Malaysia

17 667

16 333

12 000

United Arab Emirates

2 240

3 545

12 000

Switzerland

7 750

10 500

United States of America

9 000

Table 10 Unprocessed skipjack, fresh or chilled Value (USD) Country 1

Hong Kong, China

Sweden

2016

2017

Volume (tonnes) 2018

2016

2017

2018

12 000

8 833

23 333

9 000

9 333

15 600

Egypt

2 200

13 357

Slovenia

7 000

9 000

Bahamas

8 000

Romania

5 964

6 284

7 077

Germany

7 222

7 000

Italy

2 125

7 000

6 765

Finland

4 000

6 000

Iceland

10667

5 667

GLOBEFISH Insight

Table 11 Unprocessed yellowfin, fresh or chilled

Value (USD)

Country

2016

2017

Volume (tonnes) 2018

2016

2017

2018

Hong Kong, China

35 750

40 167

54 375

Iceland

23 286

23 000

27 000

Bahrain

27 000

25 000

27 000

Norway

45 000

27 000

Lithuania

25 000

23 500

23 000

Luxembourg

21 031

21 061

21 878

Austria

19 973

21 631

21 476

Czech Republic

18 500

14 278

21 000

Malaysia

9 769

2 072

20 857

Brunei Darussalam

18 000

12 000

20 500

Table 12 Unprocessed yellowfin, frozen Value (USD) Country

2016

2017

Volume (tonnes) 2018

2016

2017

2018

Kuwait

29 750

27 250

28 500

Finland

22 000

Austria

17 250

19 625

17 667

Brunei Darussalam

United Kingdom

Qatar

971

17 500

15 177

16 428

16 000

565

215

237

15 563

15 059

Switzerland

13 800

14 750

14 167

Luxembourg

8 778

7 600

14 000

Czech Republic

10 625

14 444

13 348

Slovakia

21 667

12 857

GLOBEFISH Insight

Table 13 Processed tuna, frozen fillets

Value (USD)

Country

2016

2017

Volume (tonnes) 2018

2016

2017

2018

Hong Kong, China

16 889

25 619

26 209

190

181

158

Armenia

13 000

17 000

25 000

Republic of Korea

22 337

22 452

23 700

3 799

4 885

5 585

Finland

13 300

15 115

20 737

Macao, China

18 000

20 597

Norway

23 859

26 913

20 523

132

India

8 500

20 500

Jordan

4 408

4 500

20 400

174

Saudi Arabia

2 660

4 429

19 333

329

Switzerland

18 987

20 840

18 600

239

338

417

Table 14 Processed tuna, prepared or preserved

Value (USD)

Country 1

Sint Maarten (Dutch)

2016

2017

Volume (tonnes) 2018

2016

2017

2018

13 000

10 000

13 000

Kiribati

3 313

3 800

10 400

Luxembourg

8 057

7 957

8 971

599

720

724

Wallis and Futuna Islands

9 000

7 000

8 667

Greenland

6 786

6 278

8 333

Albania

5 762

6 586

8 314

453

370

277

Korea, DPR

15 000

8 000

Slovenia

6 232

6 804

7 183

2 746

2 920

2 792

Andorra

7 492

7 694

6 885

179

242

313

Switzerland

5 786

6 436

6 800

8 860

9 180

9 111

GLOBEFISH Insight

Annexes Table 11 COUNTRIES

World tuna production by country

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

1 084 716

1 135 284

1 205 790

1 351 108

1 380 167

1 266 304

1 298 592

1 252 419

1 257 261

PHILIPPINES

496 435

385 097

423 395

423 337

478 106

439 528

405 310

378 298

553 937

CHINA

618 454

632 347

616 688

663 882

598 124

588 984

495 691

519 597

505 495

ECUADOR

212 655

294 483

332 015

309 176

326 970

396 590

359 010

373 400

385 416

REPUBLIC OF KOREA

359 578

277 166

341 436

309 059

361 270

372 003

397 316

336 970

378 777

42 890

297 528

322 027

368 980

391 928

406 776

460 378

457 196

357 240

SPAIN

290 423

324 905

312 926

340 261

316 917

299 702

309 832

313 575

350 755

TAIWAN, PROVINCE OF CHINA

371 949

360 134

412 271

398 464

402 690

365 736

365 429

337 369

345 543

JAPAN

570 231

499 000

500 084

488 012

463 361

449 826

413 970

406 661

322 261

IRAN (ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF)

163 670

181 861

206 642

208 654

246 915

230 214

231 453

273 028

273 750

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

141 497

135 202

164 400

160 372

327 619

282 678

224 490

225 896

233 374

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

208 633

165 028

240 634

194 703

237 224

215 923

289 182

304 681

230 916

INDIA

INDONESIA

VIET NAM

140 083

156 384

181 261

185 560

187 353

154 085

190 638

143 517

194 019

KIRIBATI

38 957

59 624

74 201

77 863

114 238

143 136

169 742

158 089

193 841

MEXICO

153 961

148 912

149 102

167 378

178 614

178 678

160 516

195 336

179 323

FRANCE

92 489

91 583

82 057

90 200

114 134

108 400

140 567

129 820

157 102

MALDIVES

102 553

98 193

100 906

125 122

123 068

125 272

126 753

140 431

148 829

SEYCHELLES

82 266

70 382

64 384

67 124

68 810

99 941

120 782

134 010

136 619

PERU

29 291

28 184

32 563

52 906

68 774

119 751

106 506

133 578

120 362

MICRONESIA (FEDERATED STATES OF)

24 022

29 025

39 139

27 236

43 087

61 563

77 726

87 969

119 157

SRI LANKA

149 690

139 788

137 914

136 666

135 701

116 596

111 695

109 510

111 621

GHANA

77 728

70 198

79 434

68 955

77 629

93 232

83 010

87 608

95 903

MALAYSIA

81 152

77 240

82 590

87 157

86 180

80 082

93 108

97 104

90 831

PANAMA

86 968

84 344

70 509

83 505

74 321

84 075

88 299

88 015

89 341

MARSHALL ISLANDS

57 324

90 635

72 539

77 802

75 914

86 905

61 945

67 452

74 741

PAKISTAN

55 771

54 476

57 936

60 773

64 334

71 260

91 300

93 049

67 049

OMAN

21 422

23 467

35 034

33 687

30 071

45 299

55 598

56 027

63 767

GLOBEFISH Insight 70

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

SOLOMON ISLANDS

COUNTRIES

27 302

28 296

28 640

26 459

63 430

62 606

56 509

46 770

61 101

THAILAND

48 143

47 126

47 786

46 658

50 808

50 744

47 253

59 888

60 788

BRAZIL

40 178

52 438

55 453

58 536

58 022

53 076

57 135

59 147

55 070

SENEGAL

13 882

15 466

12 262

14 426

11 159

17 986

34 829

40 636

43 832

EL SALVADOR

21 163

36 851

33 451

36 555

48 703

36 566

44 059

41 270

43 686

COLOMBIA

39 151

46 884

39 144

40 656

41 835

38 156

45 777

41 263

39 723

20 747

23 656

24 753

27 704

29 653

35 028

32 068

37 402

TURKEY

13 253

16 221

39 389

16 596

21 192

6 894

42 247

11 309

34 368

VENEZUELA ( BOLIVARIAN REPUBLIC OF)

48 732

60 547

58 364

54 338

45 629

43 761

42 802

35 497

34 321

BELIZE

7 054

14 016

24 520

14 694

20 882

21 993

16 867

19 534

33 021

YEMEN

44 043

43 013

57 947

52 470

46 777

39 255

34 377

31 193

31 211

CURAÇAO

MAURITIUS

1 478

1 029

922

1 801

9 481

10 786

13 087

19 450

23 891

AUSTRALIA

17 943

16 346

17 773

17 926

17 911

21 230

22 159

22 042

23 202

CABO VERDE

14 630

17 278

13 980

29 150

30 187

32 365

22 617

13 902

20 340

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

10 653

10 056

10 080

14 875

19 753

19 700

PORTUGAL

21 673

16 987

15 697

14 484

17 885

11 471

9 865

13 622

17 997

ITALY

10 263

12 238

9 266

8 151

8 696

14 338

14 108

15 632

17 676

NICARAGUA

16 743

14 487

13 513

15 313

17 226

9 753

14 319

18 073

17 083

3 325

4 304

2 581

1 974

2 165

2 817

4 756

18 858

14 856

FIJI

13 636

17 293

15 964

13 768

14 897

14 038

15 368

18 131

14 762

OTHER NEI

11 177

10 007

10 927

9 313

7 467

19 518

18 032

13 323

14 263

MOROCCO

11 024

11 964

9 743

8 859

9 306

9 608

8 133

17 159

13 980

GUATEMALA

ANGOLA

16 844

15 194

16 035

17 964

18 845

16 736

15 266

16 959

13 084

CÔTE D'IVOIRE

6 530

6 887

15 470

15 914

4 021

776

2 113

9 746

12 645

UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

5 576

5 714

10 254

8 831

8 703

10 658

10 611

10 565

12 276

TUVALU

10 585

10 846

16 574

11 914

6 373

5 148

6 691

6 456

11 716

MYANMAR

14 126

11 916

11 448

10 936

11 311

11 200

11 995

12 830

11 574

NEW ZEALAND

28 057

26 799

23 226

29 527

25 012

11 334

9 600

9 395

9 474

TUNISIA

4 992

5 139

5 427

5 879

5 316

9 435

10 181

17 280

9 257

COMOROS

5 310

5 188

4 565

5 167

6 290

8 948

14 659

12 793

9 131

MALTA

1 569

1 638

1 483

3 050

2 378

3 893

4 399

5 115

8 800

SAUDI ARABIA

7 186

6 891

6 861

8 876

8 293

8 465

8 501

8 574

MADAGASCAR

8 737

8 684

8 658

8 654

8 676

8 678

8 657

8 539

8 490

GLOBEFISH Insight 71

COUNTRIES FRENCH POLYNESIA BENIN ZANZIBAR MOZAMBIQUE

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

6 973

6 700

8 030

7 455

7 945

8 073

7 623

6 982

7 873

614

591

1 806

4 055

3 904

4 836

5 427

5 724

7 492

4 089

4 573

4 601

4 843

4 759

5 342

5 393

5 509

5 594

2 774

4 782

5 648

880

4 448

4 428

3 512

5 049

5 413

49 245

38 691

42 089

37 746

37 728

38 630

17 072

5 389

5 163

SOUTH AFRICA

5 554

5 239

5 709

6 463

6 858

6 676

3 836

3 591

4 989

CHILE

4 422

4 965

6 463

4 886

5 895

6 170

7 246

5 704

4 887

CANADA

7 144

13 293

4 755

7 407

7 172

6 759

5 070

3 914

4 287

COOK ISLANDS

3 453

3 756

5 680

2 063

2 203

1 958

1 921

3 849

4 162

BANGLADESH

2 350

2 539

3 038

3 578

3 903

4 093

4 436

3 974

4 075

ALGERIA

2 588

1 827

2 116

1 995

2 545

3 842

3 512

2 975

4 023

COSTA RICA

2 524

1 092

1 702

4 175

2 801

3 864

3 153

3 012

4 269

4 239

3 434

3 435

VANUATU

SURINAME MAURITANIA

116

1 702

1 445

1 580

264

629

3 229

3 266

3 501

2 297

1 759

1 785

1 893

2 844

2 615

3 225

3 257

791

3 603

3 590

2 246

2 507

2 419

2 384

2 518

3 132

543

1 086

1 024

3 063

AMERICAN SAMOA

5 263

4 767

5 988

3 200

2 496

3 040

3 074

3 947

2 976

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

EGYPT IRELAND BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

3 305

2 772

2 263

2 846

2 890

1 781

2 807

2 613

2 901

GUINEA

358

260

666

2 683

202

190

3 728

2 668

GREECE

2 798

2 927

2 336

3 607

2 942

2 770

3 719

2 114

2 563

QATAR

2 107

1 978

1 808

1 734

1 703

1 634

1 777

2 493

2 550

CROATIA

2 150

2 073

1 568

1 424

2 113

1 860

2 080

1 802

2 493

NAMIBIA

1 950

4 594

2 905

1 126

1 743

1 802

1 904

1 063

2 386

SIERRA LEONE

2 704

2 602

2 520

2 438

2 367

2 313

SAMOA

3 118

1 949

2 379

2 037

1 122

1 179

1 280

3 335

2 263

910

519

399

504

739

503

1 774

2 225

RÉUNION

2 329

2 516

2 213

2 353

2 223

2 526

2 799

1 969

2 220

NEW CALEDONIA

2 633

2 552

2 481

2 436

2 569

2 629

2 429

2 468

2 175

LIBYA

1 445

880

1 313

1 533

1 353

3 510

4 018

1 791

2 047

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

1 647

3 387

1 567

1 471

1 164

1 039

2 395

1 659

2 004

GRENADA

1 219

1 406

1 362

1 815

1 980

1 877

1 746

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

2 286

1 289

1 248

1 263

1 215

812

1 110

1 183

1 582

KENYA

GLOBEFISH Insight 72

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

LITHUANIA

COUNTRIES

4 068

1 571

112

185

426

821

357

1 527

TOGO

2 319

2 574

1 463

891

545

1 287

1 023

1 488

1 457

738

757

777

799

819

1 634

1 339

1 250

1 407

1 615

1 537

1 023

837

1 149

1 248

1 607

2 433

1 368

972

1 247

1 232

846

1 114

1 127

1 023

1 171

1 222

SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE SAINT VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES CUBA HONG KONG, CHINA

1 610

1 645

1 500

1 635

1 550

1 400

1 380

1 250

1 220

NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS

162

120

163

785

1 117

1 042

980

1 024

1 129

UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND

657

753

765

617

619

452

247

308

940

CYPRUS

251

292

378

428

470

582

661

731

815

CAMEROON

180

240

300

360

420

480

590

596

633

GUYANA

151

191

214

250

305

762

948

544

620

SAINT LUCIA

836

747

669

731

631

511

748

779

612

LIBERIA

220

250

256

265

219

258

516

570

NIGERIA

569

798

1 056

1 004

1 013

497

892

540

554

DJIBOUTI

266

345

408

364

427

378

548

487

454

BARBADOS

223

246

328

314

356

446

495

431

380

SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC

479

282

411

333

300

317

367

356

365

TONGA

166

277

247

223

322

465

511

521

339

GUAM

199

222

191

283

245

355

291

293

312

MAYOTTE

19 164

27 127

29 562

26 675

918

313

434

226

303

NAURU

310

290

270

274

275

NETHERLANDS

642

2 211

109

1 160

214

124

272

283

393

322

204

242

SAINT HELENA

345

755

241

211

238

400

280

240

ERITREA

837

781

217

DOMINICA

227

243

225

190

425

298

292

349

203

PALESTINE

136

146

347

215

424

201

CONGO

223

136

283

167

179

174

198

OTHERS

212 940

233 409

208 889

197 990

67 117

52 779

45 786

50 335

192

209

175

140

206

169

171

177

179

171

100

111

130

145

161

LEBANON

MARTINIQUE SUDAN JORDAN

GLOBEFISH Insight 73

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

KUWAIT

COUNTRIES

273

125

105

142

141

212

255

160

149

GEORGIA

195

134

MONTENEGRO

130

BERMUDA

127

208

166

122

103

116

122

134

117

ALBANIA

107

GABON

125

136

147

158

163

125

113

101

ISRAEL

191

ARGENTINA

264

244

171

BAHRAIN

167

112

TOKELAU

231

181

183

SINGAPORE

PUERTO RICO

ARUBA

SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS

892

257

GERMANY

755

210

BULGARIA

ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA

UNITED STATES VIRGIN ISLANDS

WALLIS AND FUTUNA ISLANDS

NORWAY

6 684 915

6 942 243

7 386 455

7 572 755

7 881 206

7 747 655

7 828 521

7 802 874

7 959 856

EQUATORIAL GUINEA NIUE GUINEA-BISSAU

FRENCH GUIANA GAMBIA BRITISH INDIAN OCEAN TERRITORY FALKLAND ISLANDS (MALVINAS) TOTAL

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight 74

Table 12 SPECIES

World tuna production by species

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

SKIPJACK TUNA

2 433 437

2 420 805

2 574 727

2 781 506

2 984 204

2 814 385

2 854 132

2 777 598

3 161 303

YELLOWFIN TUNA

1 193 472

1 157 672

1 293 516

1 253 606

1 359 796

1 375 312

1 478 158

1 511 909

1 458 050

SEERFISHES NEI

531 702

519 338

510 870

520 071

479 685

478 399

411 362

407 483

415 478

BIGEYE TUNA

357 513

376 243

424 106

392 949

401 669

420 509

395 707

379 290

414 861

60 754

307 627

314 515

362 550

373 740

387 676

425 837

427 491

333 689

FRIGATE AND BULLET TUNAS

333 632

321 323

334 680

307 062

327 206

341 051

326 357

324 557

327 944

KAWAKAWA

263 462

296 046

334 270

337 703

384 491

369 689

368 211

340 490

312 026

NARROW-BARRED SPANISH MACKEREL

266 875

263 211

280 380

292 974

320 005

281 854

287 834

311 543

280 318

ALBACORE

239 085

219 622

256 451

241 292

232 715

231 668

213 074

230 917

226 071

LONGTAIL TUNA

255 226

267 654

258 309

234 781

211 623

227 437

236 390

253 234

215 699

FRIGATE TUNA

81 924

80 862

88 469

124 304

161 209

136 631

111 859

114 917

121 953

SWORDFISH

96 323

108 181

111 658

113 110

115 582

117 465

117 292

110 294

111 154

EASTERN PACIFIC BONITO

15 861

22 827

28 214

39 870

41 954

93 838

79 359

102 304

83 055

INDO-PACIFIC KING MACKEREL

46 649

47 613

45 043

50 919

70 979

50 839

51 205

53 875

50 822

ATLANTIC BONITO

29 112

32 578

47 890

25 801

32 160

19 740

54 890

32 712

50 506

JAPANESE SPANISH MACKEREL

53 595

44 312

50 727

49 229

52 026

58 425

56 462

53 707

48 310

INDO-PACIFIC SAILFISH

28 788

27 542

28 725

32 246

32 493

35 413

32 869

37 172

43 537

ATLANTIC BLUEFIN TUNA

17 013

15 708

15 391

19 123

18 762

23 904

27 622

32 709

41 410

PACIFIC BLUEFIN TUNA

23 644

24 922

24 643

27 164

38 617

32 824

34 140

34 966

37 324

LITTLE TUNNY(=ATL.BLACK SKIPJ)

22 192

18 655

17 187

23 110

15 933

23 184

27 270

41 088

36 742

BLUE MARLIN

30 130

38 402

37 937

37 781

35 425

35 842

39 289

33 692

32 168

TUNA-LIKE FISHES NEI

GLOBEFISH Insight 75

SPECIES

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

191

1 231

2 591

9 105

17 071

22 814

26 901

21 011

29 387

SOUTHERN BLUEFIN TUNA

16 972

15 199

17 278

18 660

18 890

22 308

23 092

20 896

23 026

BLACK MARLIN

11 728

14 219

13 971

15 174

18 838

19 555

21 641

16 659

18 713

PACIFIC SIERRA

11 498

9 889

8 876

11 247

13 649

14 099

13 882

15 998

16 064

8 629

8 216

5 692

8 078

10 219

9 342

10 465

10 487

11 652

KING MACKEREL

10 746

11 386

10 037

8 798

8 187

10 030

9 654

11 217

10 312

STRIPED MARLIN

8 795

11 443

10 544

9 909

8 481

9 044

9 301

9 510

9 971

BLACK SKIPJACK

3 253

2 681

4 556

3 191

3 717

3 729

6 657

5 427

6 724

WAHOO

2 771

3 809

4 367

4 101

3 941

3 675

3 561

4 554

6 247

MARLINS SAILFISHES ETC. NEI

4 172

3 783

4 830

4 936

5 047

5 080

5 232

5 656

6 076

WEST AFRICAN SPANISH MACKEREL

1 166

2 263

1 468

2 962

2 266

2 936

3 784

5 702

5 101

STRIPED BONITO

1 315

2 308

5 785

2 152

4 384

6 531

9 057

3 743

4 084

ATLANTIC SAILFISH

3 037

2 693

2 715

2 185

1 817

2 118

3 386

2 884

3 064

SERRA SPANISH MACKEREL

2 792

3 877

2 686

1 846

1 641

1 134

1 975

1 912

1 918

BLACKFIN TUNA

1 261

1 118

1 173

1 081

1 480

1 418

1 355

1 430

1 654

DOGTOOTH TUNA

2 030

2 248

1 630

1 694

1 502

1 475

1 378

1 386

1 133

165

272

673

236

178

234

622

SHORTBILL SPEARFISH

369

265

451

916

561

569

489

466

477

ATLANTIC WHITE MARLIN

305

398

363

569

332

369

385

370

373

PLAIN BONITO

266

360

673

657

949

2 237

803

488

228

CERO

178

182

186

LONGBILL SPEARFISH

339

184

BULLET TUNA

ATLANTIC SPANISH MACKEREL

SLENDER TUNA

GLOBEFISH Insight 76

SPECIES MEDITERRANEAN SPEARFISH MARLINS NEI BUTTERFLY KINGFISH

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

148

115

Source: International Trade Centre’s Trade Map (data based on UN COMTRADE) and statistics from national statistics offices

GLOBEFISH Insight 77

GLOBEFISH Insight 78