Atlas of deserted islands by Anne Kathrin Müller

ATLAS OF DESERTED ISLANDS

...in the Mediterranean Sea

Institute for Art and Architecture

Deserted Islands

Anne Kathrin Müller

Masterthesis Academic Degree Master of Architecture MArch

Advisors: Aristide Antonas Luciano Parodi

Vienna 2021

- Statistics -

SIZE OF ISLANDS

MOPION ISLAND Smallest deserted island in the world Size: 0,08 km2 Inhabitants: HUB ISLAND Smallest inhabited island in the world Size: 0,3 km2 Inhabitants: one family

DEVON ISLAND Largest deserted island in the world Size: 55.247 km² Inhabitants: -

GREENLAND Biggest inhabited island in the world Size: 2.166.086 km² Inhabitants: 56.081

“Comparison of the size of deserted and inhabited islands worldwide.”

- Statistics -

SIZE OF ISLANDS

POLYEGOS Largest deserted Island in the Mediterranean Sea Size: 18,146 km² Inhabitants: TABACERA Smallest inhabited Island in the Mediterranean Sea Size: 0,3 km² Inhabitants: 55 A N A N E S (Archipelago) Smallest deserted Island in the Mediterranean Sea Size: 0,05 km² Inhabitants: -

SICILY Largest inhabited Island in the Mediterranean Sea Size: 25.711 km² Inhabitants: 4.969,147

“Size of islands in Comparison between deserted and inhabited in the Mediterranea Sea” 9

WINDFORCE

Windforce (knots) 17-23

12-17

23-25

Windforce in Athens

- Statistics -

8-12

% January

percentage of windforce

February

March

April

May

June

“On an island, we can always experience a very strong wind. The statistic underneath shows a comparison between the wind force on the Cycladic Islands and the city of Athens.”

July

August

September

October

November

December

windforce per month

- Statistics -

ISLANDS’ NARRATIVES

Islands often inherit the most divergent narratives over time and play an important role in the most manifold fields, ranging from being a setting for mythological fables up to triggering geopolitical conflicts. Many islands which are nowadays deserted have been inhabited in the past and contained important functions. The statistic on the right side shows the different functions humans applied on 100 deserted islands in the Mediterranean Sea. Many islands had over the period of time several functions. The statistics on the following pages examine 36 islands in more detail and categorize them into six categories. Keywords and specific characteristics are added accordingly to the individual categories. As we can conclude from both statistics, the most common uses of deserted islands are as natural reserves and for tourism. Yet, their geopolitical position and the specific topographic condition are suitable for military purposes as well, either for weapon testing sites or for prisons. These statistics are not all-embracing and can just be valid for the examined deserted islands. Nevertheless, this study can give us a good hint about the most common uses of deserted islands in the past and the present. The selected islands have been analyzed in the project “Desertmed”, an interdisciplinary research project which wants to raise awareness about deserted islands in the Mediterranean Sea by providing a digital archive of these.

on s ale

myth

odo

Alboran ES, Islas Chafarinas ES, Habibas DZ, Ilhes Medes ES, Ile d’If FR, Saint Honorat FR, Isola di Mal di Ventre IT, Asinara IT, Galiton T Camere IT, Mortorio IT, Tavolara IT, Molara IT, Grogona IT, Pianosa IT, Montechristo IT, Ile Plane TN, Zembra TN, Zembretta TN, Gremd Veli Dolfin HR, Sveti Grgur HR, Goli Otok HR, Sazan AL, Vardiani GR, Arkoudi GR, Madouri GR, Skorpios GR, Atokos GR, Marathonisi G GR, Velopoula GR, Lagousaki GR, Falkonera GR, Agios Georgios GR, Peristera GR, Kira Panagia GR, Skantzoura GR, Makronisos GR, Giour GR, Chrisi GR, Tavsan GR, Gianisada GR, Kara Ada TK, Levitha GR, Buyuk Ilyosta TK, Pergoussa GR, Orak Adasi TK, Ile du Palmier LB, S

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TN, Spargiotto IT, Razzioli IT, Budelli IT, Iles Cerbicale IT, Corcelli IT, Giraglia FR, Isola delle Bisce IT, Isole dei Cavioli IT, Soffi IT, Isole le di Kerkennah TN, Lampione IT, Plamarola IT, Zannone IT, Santo Stefano IT, Vele Skrakane HR, Male Skrakane HR, Trstenik HR, Oruda HR, GR, Pelouzo GR, Sofia Echinadi GR, Strofades GR, Makri Echinadi GR, Oxia GR, Spaientza GR, Schiza GR, Prasonisi GR, Dokos GR, Ypsili ra GR, Psathoura GR, Antimilos GR, Skyropoula GR, Gyaros GR, Dia GR, Rinia GR, Delos GR, Kato Koufonisi GR, Keros GR, Kato Antikeri Sanani Island LB, Isola di Poveglia IT, Irma Kadak GR, Gyali GR, Psytallia GR, Spinalonga GR

rves

own eco system

ISOLATED REMOTE

Archiving Blank

esacape

Imag

Disengaging from humanity

DESIRE Lost far

Paradise

STRAT

untouched

NATURAL RESERVE

TOURISM

ON SALE

GEOPOLITICAL HIDING

gination CONTROL

Oblivion

BOUDARIES sea radical

TEGIC birth

HOLY and MYSTICAL IMPORTANCE

blurred experimentation

MILITARY USE

Limited ISLANDS OF EXIL

Deserted Mani Islands...

Deserted Islands... places of greatest hope and biggest disappointment, paradise and hell at the same time. The greatest contradictions coalescence in one idea, in one utopia, on one small piece of land which emerged from the ocean. Imagery and reality fall together and form a kind of microcosmos, separated from the world by its remoteness but still connected. The island seems to be a place that is in the same time reality and its own metaphor.1 Therefore, islands once inhibited are used in the most divergent and opposed senses. Either they transform into the most desired, the most beloved, in form of remote, flourish paradises with fancy resorts and white sand beaches, untouched by human pollution or they become its opposite, collectors for the most unwanted, the garbage of our world, and serve for atomic tests leaving solely barren land contaminated for the next decades behind. The coalescence of utopia and dystopia into one land, one island. The liaison between those incompatibles is possible because of their remoteness, their separateness from the common world, which let them transform into little microcosms characterized by a strictly limited area, where the absurdities do not lose themselves in the vast dimensions of the landmasses.2 Yet its desertedness is not caused by the island itself but rather by its surroundings, its circumstances. The island itself is far more often the contrary to a desert with its flourishing green landscape and its splendid flora and fauna, providing more than necessary for a living environment. But in its character, “the island is what the sea surrounds. It is as though the island has pushed its desert 19

outside. What is deserted is the ocean around it.”3 The feeling of separateness and disconnection from the world itself is strengthened by the imagery which is woven into the idea and existence of an island. As soon as it is inhabited in a common and mundane way it loses its inherent character with all its imagery and mythology and transforms into a profane place. The only inhabitants, which can inhabit a deserted island maintaining its character of abandonment, have to be pure creators.4 Everything has to be formed, thought, and born anew, respecting what the island represents. Simultaneously, the deserted islands themselves serve in preserving relicts of former times. Not inhabited and disconnected from the world, they give us a feeling as if time had stood still and they do not belong in the present age. Because of their remoteness and desertedness, the islands transform into repositories of the ancient, into natural archives preserving an environmental or historical state. The islands, collected in this Atlas, are all characterized by a particular geological or historical condition. Either they are marked by traces of ancient historical constructions of humankind, as it is the case for the island of Delos and the island of Poveglia, or by particular environmental circumstance as the Isla del Aire illustrates, on which rare species were able to survive. With this atlas, I want to reveal the importance of deserted islands for humankind and as places of imagination. In addition, I want to disclose how they influenced the development of the Mediterranean Sea in history and the present by telling their story. Though one could think that a deserted island is just a floating rock in the ocean, on the contrary, they often inherit a great relevance for the 20

most diverse fields. As example the islands Imia/Kardak which are just two small rocky islands in the sea triggered a great geopolitical conflict of sovereignty between Turkey and Greece in the 90s. Other deserted islands served as places of imprisonment and exile because of their strategic position and specific topographic condition, as it has been the case for many Greek islands during the period of the Greek junta Regime*. Accordingly, to their different histories and characters, I defined five categories to which I assigned the selected deserted islands ranging from environmental particular circumstances up to the mythological importance of real and sometimes even fictional islands. Because of their inherent nature as places upon which one can project any narrative, they reflect the most conflictual and contemporary dynamics of ongoing changes and have become hotspots of territorial mutation, able to anticipate what will happen on the mainland.5 Their significance and importance for our human civilization in all kinds of fields – from the construction of myth to the testing of military weapons is evident throughout history. The island has become a heavily combated geopolitical tool and has been a site of war as well as a stage of the most romanticized fictions and novels. We always have to remember their potential as spaces of imagination and at the same time realization.

1 Judith Schalansky, Atlas der abgelegenen Inseln, Mare Verlag, 2009, S.29 2 Ebd., p.25 3 Gilles Deleuze, Desert Islands in: Desert Islands and other texts 1953 – 1974, Semiotext(e) foreign agents series, 2002, USA, p.11 4 Ebd. 10 5 Stefania Staniscia, The Island Paradigm and the Mediterranean, in: New Geographies: 05 The Mediterranean, Havard University press, 2013, p.257 *The Greek junta or Regime of the Colonels was a far-right military junta that ruled Greece from 1967 to 1974.

Isola di C Garbag Isola d

Isla del Aire

Isla de Alborán Habibas Islands Isla del Perejil Islas Chafarinas

Iso Sa

Isola de Poveglia Goli Otok

Capraia ge island di Monte Christo

ola di anto Stefano

Isola di La Gaiola

Sazan Gioura Psyttalia

Ferdinandea

Makronisos Delos

Gyaros Keros

Spinalonga

Gyali

Imia /Kardak

ISOLATED ONES... Spinalonga, Greece Isola de Poveglia, Italy Goli Otok, Croatia Makronisos, Greece Gyaros, Greece Isola di Santo Stefano, Italy Isola di Monte Christo, Italy

30 32 34 36 38 40 42

POLITICAL MANIFESTATIONS... Sazan, Croatia Imia/Kardak, Greece/Turkey Ferdinandea Islas Charfinas, Spain Isla del Perejil, Spain

48 50 52 54 56

NATURAL P

Isla del Aire, Spa Habibas Islands, Isola di Capraia, Isla del Alborán, S

HOMER AND OTHER STORIES... Delos, Greece Keros, Greece Ogyia Die Toteninsel (Painting) Isola de Gaiola, Italy Gioura, Greece

ABUSED ONES...

PARADISES...

ain Algeria Italy Spain

72 74 76 78 80 82

88 90 92 94

Gyali, Greece Garbage Island Psytallia, Greece

62 64 66

Isolated Ones...

Islands, naturally separated from the mainland by the ocean, have been since always places of isolation, of separation, of disconnection. Being on an island, there is no escape. What better program fits this typology then prison structures; places of exile and quarantine stations? All the humans one do not want to live with where send to these islands. On many of today’s deserted islands, we can still find remains of prison structures. Though today the majority of island prisons are shut down, in many cases the terrible things which happened there remain in silence and oblivion.

100m 200 m Kalydon (Peninsula of Crete)

312 km Mainland of Greece 30

Σπιναλό

35° 17′ 51″ N 25° 44′ 17″ O

SPINALONGA (Greece)

GREEK Σπιναλόγκα (long spike)

γκα

OTHER NAMES

Kalydon (Καλυδών)

LOCATION

Archipel Creta, Mediterranean Sea

SIZE

0,08 km2

POPULATION

Uninhabited

Spinalonga has been a place of isolation for long, having served in ancient times as a hiding spot for pirates, afterward as a military base for the Venetian regime and after the conquest by the Osmanians in the late 17th as a home for Arab soldiers and families. From 1903 until 1969 the island’s fate changed entirely being used as a Lepra colony. Its last inhabitant left the island in 1969.1 Particular at the beginning the conditions under which the lepers had to live were intolerable. “Even as a pitiful condemnation, even as a grave it is still insufficient” notes the Governor of Lasithi in his letter to E. Venizelos in 1927, at a point where lepers from all over Greece were being shipped to Spinalonga.2 The island served as a place where you can forget about the sick and ill ones and leave them isolated in the vastness of the sea. A place of exile and oblivion. Though after the condition improved in 1930 some Spinalongian inhabitants have admitted that they quite like their life in isolation and calmness and enjoy the community within the other inhabitants on the island.3 Today Spinalonga remains uninhabited and its relicts can be visited by tourists on a daily trip.

100m 700m Lido de Venezia

6km Mainland of Italy

POVEG

45° 22′ 56″ N 12° 19′ 50″ O

POVEGLIA (Italy)

ITALIAN

Isola de Poveglia

LOCATION Venice Lagoon, Adriatic Sea SIZE 7,25 ha POPULATION

LIA

Uninhabited

The island, situated in the lagoon of Venice, have been populated already in the early times of 421 but in 1379 the Genoian fleet overtook Venice and its inhabitants had to flew to Giudecca. It remained uninhabited since the 18th century when it was used as a checking point for immigrants and traders who came from all over the world to Venice. Afterwards it was converted into a quarantine station for those suffering plagues and diseases. It is said that more than 160,000 people have died there in agony during the bubonic plague.4 Until the mid-19th century it was used in this way and remained uninhabited after the closure of the quarantine station. In the 20th century, Poveglia was rediscovered and used as a hospital for the mentally ill. The living conditions have been very rough and once transferred to the island, there was no return. The hospital operated until its closure in 1968. Since then, Poveglia remains abandoned and many legends and stories entwine around the island, intrigued by its history and desolated condition.5 In 2014 the Italian state auctioned a 99-year lease of Poveglia, but it has been recalled because there was no sufficient bit. At the moment projects are ongoing to reestablish the island and convert it into a leisure center. However, nothing has been realized yet. Nowadays, it is forbidden to enter the island.6 On Poveglia we find the most divergent and opposing narratives and uses for which only its special island character allowed for.

500m 3 km Island of Rab, Croatia

3,5 km Mainland of Croatia 34

GOLI O

44° 50’ 18’’ N 14° 49’ 7’’ O

OTOK

GOLI OTOK (Croatia)

CROATIAN LOCATION

Goli Otok (Naked Island)

Bay of Kvarner, Adriatic Sea

SIZE

4,7 km²

POPULATION

Uninhabited

The barren island has never been permanently settled other than by the prisoners during the 20th century. Throughout World War I, Austria-Hungary sent Russian prisoners of war from the eastern front to Goli Otok. In 1949, the entire island was converted into a high-security prison and labor camp run by the authorities of the People’s Federal Republic of Yugoslavia for political prisoners. There approximately 16,000 political prisoners served.7 One contemporary witness, Alfred Pal, who has been detained on Goli Otok referred to the island as “Private Concentration Camp of the communist party - or more precisely of Marshall Tito (former president of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia)”8 In the early days of the penal camp, the inmates were forced into heavy physical labor. That comprises constructing buildings on the island but later, when there was no more useful work to do, they were forced into senseless, heavy work as well as forms of torture. Until the collapse of the communist regime in 1989 Goli Otok was an absolute taboo in the history of former Yugoslavia. Even today, Croatia is reluctant to talk about this dark chapter of the past, and there has never been a real reappraisal.9 35

1 km 4 km Mainland of Greece

14 km Island of Kea 36

Μακρόνη

37° 42′ 04″ N 24° 07′ 29″ O

ησος

MAKRONISOS (Greece)

GREEK Μακρόνησος (Long Island) LOCATION

Cyclades, Aegean Sea

SIZE 19 km² POPULATION

Uninhabited

Makronisos was uninhabited in the past, as it is today. During the time of the Greek Civil war (1947-1949) the island was transformed into a military prison and concentration camp. Afterwards it continued to be used a as penal camp during the Greek Junta dictatorship until 1957 the last inhabitant left the island. Since 1947 Makronisos became a place of exile for communist sympathizers. The historian Polymeris Voglis describes life on the island as a “secular inquisition”; as brainwashing that should turn the inmates into loyal soldiers if they survived. About 27,000 soldiers, 1,100 officers, and 30,000 civilians were interned on the island, including women. Grigoris Rizopoulos, one of the former inmates, arrived there in 1948: “They brought us here with only one goal - to break us. We should sign a ‘repentance’: that the prisoner rejects Communism and the Communist Party and is committed to fighting for the home country, even if it means fighting against one’s own brother or father.”10 To this day, Greek textbooks remain silent about these events and the civil war, leaving around 50,000 dead and 700,000 displaced.11 Throughout the 20th century Makronisos has been a place of exile, banishment, and imprisonment. 37

1 km 21,5 km Island of Kea, Greece

50 km Mainland of Greece

Γυάρος

37° 37′ 0″ N 24° 43′ 0″ O

GYAROS (Greece)

GREEK Γυάρος Cyclades, Aegean Sea

LOCATION

SIZE 23 km² POPULATION

Uninhabited

Since the time of the Roman Empire, Gyaros has been an island of Exile, since it was “harsh and devoid of human culture” (Annales 3.68-69)12 and became a symbol of claustrophobic imprisonment. Later, from 1948 until 1974 leftist political dissidents have been exiled to the island. At least 22,000 people were exiled or imprisoned on the island during that time.13 During the Greek Civil war and the Junta Dictatorship many deserted islands were converted into prisons because there was just not enough space on the mainland in Greece. Today a vast majority of those islands remain again uninhabited.14 Apart from its tragic history, Gyaros has an ecological value as it is the island that hosts the largest population of monk seals in the Mediterranean Sea. As well, Gyaros is mentioned in Greek Mythology as an island which was touched by Apollon and is tied to the holy island of Delos.15

100m 3 km Island Ventotene, Italy

110 km Mainland of Italy

SANTO S T E F

40° 47′ 22″ N 13° 27′ 15″ O

FANO

SANTO STEFANO (Italy)

ITALIAN Isola di Santo Stefano LOCATION Archipel Pontine Island Tyrrhenian Sea SIZE 0,27 km² POPULATION

Uninhabited

Santo Stefano is an island in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the west coast of Italy, and part of the Pontine Islands. It was formed by volcanic activity. The island is dominated by an old prison built by the Bourbons (the royal House of France) in 1797 which was in use until 1965 and could host round about 600 prisoners. Most of them have been political dissidents. The prison is based on the late-18th-century model of the ideal penitentiary, the panopticon.16 During a revolt in 1860, Camorra prisoners gained control over the prison and proclaimed the Republic of Santo Stefano. The prisoners legislated a statute and remained autonomous until January 1861, when a Navy contingent recovered the island. In the 20th century, the prison was used as a destination for banished political opponents during the fascist rule in Italy, one of whom was the future Italian president Santro Pertini. In 1965 the prison was officially closed and since then the island remains uninhabited.17 In 2012 Santo Stefano was put up for sale for the price of €20,000,000.18

1 km 26 km Island of Pianosa, Italy

64 km Mainland of Italy

MONTE C H R I

42° 59’ 14’’ N 10° 18’ 28 O

ISTO

MONTE CHRISTO (Italy)

ITALIEN

Isola Monte Christo

LOCATION

Tuscan Archipel, Tyrrhenian sea

SIZE

10,39 km²

POPULATION

Uninhabited

The island located near Elba, the island of Napoleon’s exile, is indulged in lasting fame by Alexandre Dumas’s novel “The Count of Monte Cristo.” The writer visited the island in 1842 and was so stunned by its beauty that he decided to make it the setting of his novel. The story is centered around the idea that in the depth of the mountain a treasure is hidden. But already before the publication of the novel, the island held the reputation as a treasure island. In the fifth century the bishop of Palermo, St. Mamiliano, took refuge on the island when the Vandals sacked Sicily. “According to legend, Mamiliano fought and killed the dragon who guarded the island, then renamed it Montecristo and founded a monastery.”19 Despite the prominence that the Monastery of San Mamiliano attained in the Middle Ages, in the sixteenth century, Montecristo was seized by a notorious Turkish pirate, igniting rumors that the wealth amassed by him and his successor, was stashed away in a hidden grotto on the island. Other legends speak of a treasure hidden by the monks of San Mamiliano when the pirate pillaged the monastery in 1553”. 20 In this way Monte Christo became famous as the treasure island.

Political Manifestations...

The isolated location of islands in the middle of the sea makes them attractive objects for military purposes. Many deserted islands serve as experimentation fields for military weapon testing, as the testing of bombing, which often has devastating consequences for the island’s fragile ecosystem. Apart from being converted into military laboratories, often military stations are installed on deserted islands because of their strategic geopolitical position. Often the ownership of an island is not clear. This triggers national conflicts; in ancient as in present times as well.

500m 4 km Mainland of Croatia

150 km Mainland of Italy

SAZAN

40° 29′ 37″ N 19° 16′ 50″ O

SAZAN (Albania)

Sazani

CROATIAN

LOCATION Between Adritic Sea and Ionian Sea SIZE 5.7 km² POPULATION

Uninhabited

The island’s strategic position between the Adriatic and the Ionian Sea has made it since ancient times subject of territorial claims and military concern.21 In 1796 the Island belonged to the Republic of Venice until it was assigned in 1864 to the Ionian Island Archipelago which belonged to Greece. During World War I Italy occupied the Island and populated it with a few families of fisherman relocated from Apulia. Only at the end of the Second World War communist Albania regained the sovereignty of the island under the postwar peace treaty with Italy. During the cold war between the Soviet Union and the United States, the Soviets, with whom Albania was aligned, constructed on the island a whiskey-class submarine base and a chemical weapons plant. Nowadays the island is uninhabited, though still used by Albania as military strategic unit and naval base. It aims to prevent contraband between southern Italy and Albania and as well gives a training field for the Royal Navy. In 2010, the island’s surrounding sea waters, and those of adjacent Karaburun Peninsula were proclaimed a National Marine Park by the Albanian government. Today, there are attempts by the Albanian Government to open the island for tourism.22 49

100m 3,5 km Island Kalolimnos, Greece

7,4 km Mainland of Turkey

Ίμια/ K A R D

37° 03′ 03″ N 27° 09′ 04″ O

DAK

IMIA/KARDAK (Greece/Turkey)

GREEK/TURKISH

Ίμια / Kardak

LOCATION Dodecanese Islands, Adriatic Sea SIZE 4.0 ha POPULATION

Uninhabited

Imia/Kardak is a pair of small uninhabited islets in the Aegean Sea which were objects of a military crisis and subsequent dispute over the sovereignty between Greece and Turkey in 1996. The Imia/Kardak dispute is part of the larger Aegean dispute which is centered around further territorial claims by Turkey in the Aegean region, like the continental shelf, the territorial waters, the air space, the Flight Information Regions (FIR), and the demilitarization of the Aegean islands. In the aftermath of the Imia/Kardak crisis, the dispute was also widened, as Turkey began to lay parallel claims to a larger number of other islets in the Aegean. These islands, some of them inhabited, are regarded as indisputably Greek by Greece but as grey zones of undetermined sovereignty by Turkey. Hence, Turkey argues that no legislation allows Greece to claim these islands.23 In the end, the European Union backed the Greek side on the Imia dispute and warned Turkey to refrain from any kind of threat or action directed against the sovereignty of Greece.24 Turkey was called upon to solve any border disputes with its neighbors through peaceful ways, in accordance with the United Nations Charter, and or by raising the matter at the International Court of Justice instead Nevertheless, the fundamental territorial issue has remained unresolved since that time.25 51

100m 45 km Sicily, Italy

70 km

FERDINAN Isola de Pantelleria, Italy

37° 10′ N 12° 43′ O

NDEA

FERDINANDEA (Italy)

ITALIAN

Isola de Ferdinandea

OTHER NAMES Sciacca, Nertita, Cor rao, Hotham, Giulia and Graham LOCATION Betweeen Sicily and Tunesia SIZE POPULATION

Uninhabited

Ferdinandea belongs to the group of islands that are emerging and disappearing consistently. When it re-emerged in 1831 due to a volcanic eruption, a dispute of its sovereignty by the adjacent states (Italy, France, United Kingdom, and Spain) started resulting in the many names of the island. Each nation wanted the island for its useful position in the Mediterranean trade route (to England and France) and its close position to Spain and Italy. But before the dispute could even be resolved the island disappeared again beneath the waves, where it remains today.26 To forestall a renewal of the sovereignty disputes, Italian divers already planted a flag and a marble plate with the inscription “it will always be Sicilian” on top of the volcano in advance of its expected resurfacing.27 The dispute over the islands’ sovereignty illustrates the fragile geopolitical balance in the Mediterranean Sea and the nationalistic behavior of its adjacent states.

200m 2 km Mainland of Marocco

160 km

CHAFARI

Mainland of Spain

‫لا رزج‬

35° 11’ N 2° 26′ O

CHAFARINAS ISLANDS (Spain/Morocco)

SPANISH/ Islas de Chafarinas MOROCCAN ‫نيرافشلا رزج‬ LOCATION

Alboran Sea,

SIZE 0,52 km² POPULATION

NAS/

‫نيرافشل‬

30 spanish soldiers

The archipelago of the Chafarinas Islands located 4 km off the coast of Morocco belongs to Spain since 1848. The biggest of the three islets, Isla de Isabell II, is used by Spain as a military base. Their sovereignty is claimed by Morocco and forms part of a larger dispute about further territorial claims by Morocco. Therefore, despite its cost and inconvenience Spain holds on to its enclaves and the conflict remains unsolved until today.28 Recent reports by Moroccan newspapers even report the reinforcement of the Spanish military on the island.29 Both countries argue on historical grounds; in the case of Spain in the right of conquest and the terra nullius principles whereas Morocco demands that the UN principles of decolonization must be applied. Fundamentally, territorial disputes in the region are the legacy if the historical geopolitical organization of the area. Apart from this territorial dispute it also plays an important role for illegal immigrants, arriving on the island in order to try to claim asylum. A similar situation can be observed on other Mediterranean islands like Isla de Alboran situated off the coast of Spain. According to indications, drug smugglers use the island as well.30

100m 200 m Mainland of Marocco

16 km Mainland of Spain

PEREJI

35° 54′ 49″ N 5° 25′ 9″ O

PEREJIL ISLAND (Spain/Marocco)

SPANISH/ Isla de Perejil MAROCCON ‫ةروت‬‎ LOCATION

Strait of Gibraltar

SIZE 0,15 km² POPULATION

‫ةروت‬

Uninhabited

Situated 250 meters off the Moroccan coast and 13.5km from the mainland of Spain, the uninhabited island became the center of an “unprecedented crisis” between the two nations who both claim their sovereignty. The crisis was triggered in July 2002 by Moroccan soldiers who hissed the Moroccan flag on the island. Soon afterwards, Spain sends its soldiers to the islands to restore their governance, but soon they were sent back because the Moroccan soldiers refused to cooperate. As a result of the escalating tensions, Spain dropped its special forces with helicopters on the islands and send two battleships. In addition, the European union stationed five warships and two submarines nearby for surveillance and support of Spain. Finally, the stationed Moroccan soldiers have been sent back but the territorial dispute is still ongoing. Morocco’s then-Foreign Minister Mohamed Benaissa accused Spain’s actions of being “equivalent to a declaration of war,” and that the islet was “an integral part” of Moroccan territory.31 The conflict about the small island gained such importance because there have been already before many tensions between the two states of Spain and Morocco like the questioning by Morocco of Spain’s sovereignty over the island of Melilla and Ceuta.32 Other points of conflict are fishing rights, illegal immigration, and drug trafficking regulations. 57

Abused Ones...

As many islands are formed by volcanic eruptions, they often inherit valuable and rare rocks, like marble or pumice. If humans begin to extract them without limitation, it often leads to devastating consequences for the island’s fragile ecosystem. A very recent development concerning our environmental behavior is the formation of “islands” which are formed out of our waste. The biggest of these garbage islands lies in the Pacific and contains 1.8 billion pieces of floating plastic which kills thousands of marine animals each year.1 Other islands become an externalization of the mainland and are converted into a technical landscape.

500m 3 km Island Nisiros, Greece

20 km Mainland of Turkey

Γυαλί

36° 40′ 0″ N 27° 7′ 0″ O

GYALI (Greece)

GREEK

Γυαλί

LOCATION Docandenese Islands, Aegan Sea SIZE 2,714 km2 POPULATION 10-20 permanent Mine Workers Gyali is a volcanic island in the Dodecanese, which gained importance due to its high consistency of rhyolitic obsidian lava domes and pumice deposits which are mined in huge quantities. The island has two distinct segments, with the northeastern part almost entirely made of obsidian and the southwestern part of pumice. For decades, extensive deposits of pumice are extracted from Gyali island. Its reservoirs exceed 120 million tons forming the largest Greek pumice reservoir and being one of the biggest pumice mines in the world. The annual production rate currently amounts to approximately one million tons, about 75% of this is exported to Europe, the USA, the Middle East and Asia. By continued extraction, the reservoirs will not expend until 2100.33 The mining is ongoing even though the island is included in Greece’s list of protected landscapes and the European Union’s network of protected areas, the Natura 2000. According to scientists and environmental organizations, the excavations, which started in the 1950s, have irreparably altered the island’s natural environment. And although the mining company argues that it has planted more than 30,000 trees to help restore the island, Gyali is in danger of eroding.34

GARBAGE I S L A

E ND

GARBAGE ISLAND (No Nationality)

LOCATION Between Corsica and Elba SIZE Several miles POPULATION

An island of plastic waste drifts between Corsica and the island of Elba. It consists of thousands of tons of waste polluting the Mediterranean Sea. Local media reports that tons of plastic were carried there by currents that bore the rubbish north and then deposit between the two islands. Thus, a temporary island of rubbish forms, extending up to several kilometers. These litter-islands have a temporary accumulation of a few days up to two or three months and can vary their position due to the currents. In contrast to the garbage islands in the Pacific Ocean, the ones in the Mediterranean are not yet permanent. Specifically, on Elba and its neighboring islands, litter has become a huge economical problem threatening the fragile ecosystem of the islands. “The risk is that if there are poor meteorological conditions, for example, a northeasterly wind in the summer, we will see a massive arrival (of the plastic) on the Corsican coast,” said François Galgani of the Corsican branch of the French maritime research institute.35 The currents in the north-western Mediterranean Sea push the water up along the Italian coast. Arriving at the base of the island of Elba, the Tuscan archipelago, it cannot pass and flows into the Corsica Canal. Therefore a higher density of floating litter evolves. It is assumed that 570,000 tons of plastic enter the Mediterranean Sea each year - the equivalent of 33,800 plastic bottles every minute.36 At the end, the plastic will accumulate in the tissues of fish, spreading its toxic products.37 65

200m 1 km Mainland of Greece

1,5 km Island Salamina, Greece

Ψυττάλε

37° 56′ 24″ N 23° 35′ 16″ O

PSYTALLIA (Greece)

GREEK Ψυττάλεια LOCATION Saronic Islands, Aegan Sea SIZE 0.375 km2 POPULATION

ια

Uninhabited

Psytallia is situated right in front of the harbor of Piraeus by Athens. The island is remarkable because it houses Athens’s largest sewage treatment plant, which is also the largest in Europe, with a projected daily maximum drying capacity of 750 tons of sewage.38 Before functioning as a treatment plant, the island hosted a garrison for Persian intruders because of its strategic location. In the 20th century, it transformed into a naval prison and functioned as an exile for political dissidents.39 Because of rising seawater pollution, the government decided in 1994 to install a sewage treatment plant onto the island. But its cleaning power was still insufficient. A sludge treatment plant was added in 2007, which raises the total capacity of waste drying to more than 750 tons per day.40 As a result, the entire island has become an enormous sewage treatment plant and converted into a hybridization of technique and landscape. Psytallia became an externalization of the mainland.

Homer and Other Stories...

Odysseus travels on his long way back home and to his beloved one from island to island, whereupon he encounters cyclops, nymphs, and other fantastic creatures, meeting challenges and adventures. Islands have always been places of imagination, of fiction - where the impossible becomes possible.

1 km 900 m Island of Rinia, Greece

100 km

Mainland of Greece

Δήλος

37° 23′ 57″ N 25° 15′ 59″ O

DELOS (Greece)

GREEK Δήλος LOCATION

Cyclades, Aegan Sea

SIZE 3,536 km2 POPULATION

Museum Gards

Delos is one of the most famous deserted islands in the Mediterranean Sea as it is said to be the birthplace of Apollon, one of the most important gods in Greek mythology. In his hymn, Theognis von Megara describes Delos as a lush, flourishing island where Leto could give birth to her son. “Lord Phoebus Apollo! When the goddess, Lady Leto, gave birth to you at the wheel-shaped lake, you O most beautiful of the immortal gods, as she held on to the Palm Tree with her supple hands, then it was that all Delos, indescribably and eternally, was filled with an aroma of immortality; and the Earth smiled in all her enormity, while the deep pontos of the gray Sea rejoiced.”41 -Theognis von Megara: Die Geburt des Apollon.

According to the myth, Delos was once upon a time a floating island. As Leto, Apollon’s mother, was forbidden to give birth on any firm ground, she gave birth on this floating land to her godson. After her childbirth, Poseidon fixed the island to the soil with four diamantine columns.42 The island was converted into a holy place by the Greeks, with many temples worshipping Apollon and other Greek gods and goddesses. Today it is possible to visit the island and there is even a museum on it.43 73

1 km 4 km Island of Ano Koufonisi, Greece

180 km Mainland of Greece

Κέρος

36° 53′ 24″ N 25° 39′ 0″ O

KEROS (Greece)

GREEK Κέρος LOCATION

Cyclades, Aegan Sea

SIZE 15,042 km² POPULATION

Uninhabited

Keros is one of the biggest deserted islands in the Mediterranean Sea, though it has not always been deserted but rather the opposite. On Keros and its neighboring islands, the local civilization has formed the Keros-Syros culture, which flourished on the island in the mid bronze time.44 Approximately ten years ago, the island was still inhabited, but due to harsh living conditions, the remaining inhabitants left Keros. Nowadays, its only inhabitants are goats, as one fisherman from a nearby island explained to me. The Keros-Syros-culture has formed on the islands of the Cyclades, particularly Keros, Ios, Kea, and Syros, between 2700 and 2300 B.C. Many archaeological artifacts bear witness to the culture and its apparently high living standards. Still today, there is ongoing archaeological research on Keros and Dhaskalio. Many of the found objects are ceramic models of humans characterized by stylized but still expressive faces. It is uncertain why the island civilization disappeared.45

Ὠγυγίη

OGYGIA (Greece)

Ὠγυγίη

GREEK LOCATION SIZE POPULATION

Fictive

Unknown

Calypso

Ogygia is a fictive island mentioned in the epos “The Odyssey” by Homer. According to the myth, it was the home of the nymph Calypso. She kept Odysseus in prison on the island to make him marry her, but he refused. After seven years as a captive, she released him on his journey to find his home. 46 The island Ogygia is described in the epos as follows: ...A great fire was burning in the hearth, and from afar over the isle there was a fragrance of cleft cedar and juniper as they burned. (...) Round about the cave grew a luxuriant wood, alder and poplar and sweet-smelling cypress, wherein birds long of wing were wont to nest, owls and falcons and sea-crows with chattering tongues, who ply their business on the sea. And right there about the hollow cave ran trailing a garden vine, in pride of its prime, richly laden with clusters. And fountains four in a row were flowing with bright water hard by one another, turned one this way, one that. And round about soft meadows of violets and parsley were blooming...47 There have been many attempts to locate the fictive island. Some historians speculate that Atlantis could have been Ogygia others assume Gozo, a small island next to Malta.48 But most likely, the location of Ogygia can only be found in our imagination.

TOTENIN 78

NSEL

ISLE OF THE DEAD (Painting)

GERMAN Die Toteninsel LOCATION Old National Galery, Berlin SIZE

Third Version, 80 x 150cm

POPULATION

Decedents

“Die Toteninsel” is the most famous painting by swiss symbolist artist Arnold Böcklund (1827-1902). The painter produced five versions of the same motive with only minimal variation between 1880 and 1886. On the left, we see the third version of this motive.49 Although it remains obscure, if Bölcklund used an existing island as reference for his painting, there is the assumption that the rocky islet “Pontikonisi, a small, lush island near Corfu, which is adorned with a small chapel amid a cypress grove, perhaps in combination with the mysterious rocky island of Strombolicchio near the famous volcano Stromboli,”50 could have served as inspiration for Böcklund. He depicts the island as a place of death and grief. Excluded from the many, only able to be reached by boat guided from the figure veiled in a white coat. It becomes a holy place. The island is the ultimate symbol of exclusion from the common world. What better place could fit for a transgression from the living world to the realm of death than an island?

20 m 50 m Mainland of Italy

20 km Isola di Ischia, Italy

LA GAI

36.662°N 27.115°E

GAIOLA ISLAND (Italy)

ITALIEN Isola la Gaiola LOCATION Gulf of Naples, Tyrrhenian Sea SIZE 0,006 km2 POPULATION

OLA

Uninhabited

Isola la Gaiola is one of the minor islands around Naples, just 50 meters off the coast. Although it seems like any usual island, many myths and superstitions entwined around this small islet exist. The story of the cursed island started in the 19th century: a hermit lived solitary on the island until he vanished without a trace and any explanation. Its next resident suffered financial ruin shortly after having moved to the island. The streak of bad luck continued. A Captain piloting his ship around the island crashed into the rocks of the island and drowned. More misfortunes suffered by more recent residents of the island, like suicide and drowning, are documented. Fiat head Gianni Agnelli was the next unfortunate owner of the island. He lost his son to suicide and, briefly after, his nephew Umberto to rare cancer. After oil magnate Paul Getty bought the island, his grandson got kidnapped. Gianpasquale Grappone, Isola La Gaiola Island’s last private owner, saw his insurance company fail and got jailed for his debt.51 Today the island has been converted into a protected marine reserve and, we hope that its story of cursed misfortunes finally ended. Islands have always been places of mystery, tales, and superstition. 81

1 km 5 km Island Kira Panagia, Greece

77 km Mainland of Greece

Γιούρα

39° 23′ 24″ N, 24° 10′ 12″ O

GIOURA (Greece)

GREEK Γιούρα LOCATION Nothern Sporades, Aegan Sea SIZE 11,052 km² POPULATION

Uninhabited

Gioura is an uninhabited island in the northern Sporades characterized by its very rocky coastline. Its biggest cave on the south of the island is said to be the cave, in which the cyclopes of the epos “The Odyssey” live. On his travel, Odysseus encounters the cyclops Polyphemus which he managed to trick.52 The tale of the cyclops Polyphemus From there to the Cyclops Polyphemus, son of Poseidon. He was predicted by the seer Telemus, the son of Eurymus, that he must be aware of not being blinded by Odysseus. He had one eye in the middle of his forehead and ate human flesh. After he got his cattle in his cave, he placed a boulder in front of its entrance. He locked Odysseus with his companions inside and began to consume his companion. When Odysseus realized that he was powerless against this inhuman savagery, he made the cyclops drunk with the wine given by Maron to him and claimed that he was called ‘nobody’. When he burned Polyphemus eye out with a glowing stake, the latter called the remaining cyclops screaming out of the closed cave: ‘Nobody blinds me.’ Those thought he was making fun of them, and they did not react. But Odysseus tied his companions on the cattle and himself on a ram; so 83 that they could escape.53

Natural Paradises...

Thinking of islands, we imagine an abundance of lush green palms scattered on a white sand beach; a jungle that leads us in the depth of the islands’ heart. But even islands that seem bare of any living organism at first sight, often become the last refuge for animals and plants near to extinction. Even if it’s just a limpet...

200m 1,2 km Menorca, Spain

260 km Mainland of Spain

ISLA DE L

36.662°N 27.115°E

ILHA DE L’AIRE (Spain)

SPAIN

Isla del Aire

LOCATION Baleric Islands, Spain SIZE POPULATION

0.34 km2

Uninhabited

The islet situated just off the coast of Menorca is commonly known as “lizard island” as its predominant inhabitants are lizards. The island has become the habitat for an endemic lizard subspecies, Sargantana Negra (black lizard). These lizards can change their skin color according to their surroundings. To protect these endemic species and not disturb the fragile environment of the island, there are only very few visitors allowed. Apart from the lizard, there is a population of 300 rabbits which keep company with the black lizards. Today the islet is a natural reserve.54

E L’A I R E

200m 12 km Mainland of Algeria

145 km Mainland of Spain

‫بح رزج‬

35° 43′ 14″ N 1° 8′ 0″ O

HABIBAS ISLANDS (Algeria)

ARABIC LOCATION

‫ةبيبح رزج‬

SIZE

0,6 km2

POPULATION

Uninhabited

Mediterranean Sea

The North African landscape characterizes itself by a dry climate and harsh living environment. In contrast to this rough landscape, lush and green foothills and vegetation cover the coast and its islands. As the Habibas Islands developed a large and diverse flora and fauna, they became the first protected marine area in Algeria in 2003. The islands are home to endemic and rare marine and terrestrial species like the audouins gull, which use the island as breeding spots. The large gulls build their nests right in the ground and use the falcons as delightful prey. On the way to the island, one may as well encounter bottlenose dolphins. They use the maritime protected area as a living habitat.55

‫ةبي‬ 91

200m 1,5 km Island of San Domino, Italy

30 km Mainland of Italy

ISOLA D C A P R

36.662°N 27.115°E

DI RAIA

CAPRAIA ISLAND (Italy)

ITALIEN Isola di Capraia LOCATION

Tremiti islands, Adriatic Sea

SIZE 0.5 km2 POPULATION

Uninhabtied

Nowadays, Capraia island is just a small, deserted island off the coast of Italy nearby Gargano. But in ancient times, the small islet in the Tremitti archipelago had quite a significance. Some five to eight million years ago, Capraia was still attached to the Late Miocene Palaeo-Island (now attached to southern Italy). Various strange animals lived there, such as an “enigmatic ruminant with dagger-like canines and five horns, one of which was on its nose or the largest insectivore ever, the fox-sized terror shrew. These creatures shared the Late Miocene palaeo-island known as Gargano with giant mice, giant hamsters, giant dormice, and flightless giant geese; they were preyed on by giant owls, giant eagles, and crocodiles.”56 This particular development, called “island gigantism” occurred as well on other Mediterranean islands like Crete and Sicily as archeological foundings show evidence. Most of these insular wonders of the Mediterranean date back to the Pleistocene Ice Age. Once isolated on an island, large mammal species evolve dwarf sizes and, conversely, small mammal species evolve giant sizes. The pattern is so consistent that ecologists call it the “island rule”. Most likely due to climate change, disease, natural disasters, and the arrival of humans, many of the animals affected by the island rule have been extincted.57

200m 12 km Mainland of Algeria

145 km Mainland of Spain

ISLA DE A L B O

35° 43′ 14″ N 1° 8′ 0″ O

EL ORAN

ALBORAN ISLAND (Spain)

SPAIN

Isla del Alborán

LOCATION

Mediterranean Sea

SIZE

7,12 ha

POPULATION

21 Military Servants

Taking a look at the satellite photograph of the island, it appears very unexciting and with its grey and brownish soil like the opposite of the stereotypical paradise island with coconut trees and sand soft sand beaches. But our impression is mistaken. The Alboran island is home to one of the most threatened marine species in the Mediterranean Sea. The limpet species patella ferrunginea. In former times this limpet was very common in the Mediterranean. However, nowadays, only a few exemplars are left, and the species is on the verge of extinction. 58 But not only has the island importance for the limpet. As well, it became a habitat for the bottlenose dolphins and several rare species of coral. Furthermore, it has significance as a breeding spot for migrating birds on their journey between Europe and Africa.59 This island illustrates the importance of islands as the last refuge for animals, which are near to being extinct entirely. The protection of these islands is of considerable significance.

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https://www.br.de/radio/bayern2/sendungen/kalenderblatt/1307-ferdinandea-insel-100. html, retrieved 2020 Islas Chafarinas, URL: https:// www.marokkoinformationen.eu/ geographie/islas-chafarinas/ islas-chafarinas.html, retrieved 2020 Tarik El Barakah, Spain reinforces military presence in islands claimed by Morocco, 2013, URL: https://www.moroccoworldnews. com/2013/11/111957/spain-reinforces-military-presence-in-islands-claimed-by-morocco/, retrieved 2020 Dennis Byrant, Three islets off the Moroccan coast, administered by Spain, 2015, URL: https:// www.maritimeprofessional. com/blogs/post/chafarinas-islands-14982, retrieved 2020 Chloe Koura, Inside Story of Morocco and Spain’s Battle For Uninhabited Island, 15 Years Later, 2017, URL: https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2017/07/222830/ inside-story-morocco-spains-battle-uninhabited-island-15-years-later/, retrieved 2020 Deal close as US mediates in Perejil island dispute 2002, URL: https://www.irishtimes. com/news/deal-close-as-usmediates-in-perejil-island-dispute-1.430537, retrieved 2020 Other Islands of the Dodecanese, Yali, URL: https://www.nostalgia.gr/otherisland-yali.html,

retrieved 2020 34 Beautiful Greek island, Gyali is being eroded away due to mining activities, URL: https://steemit. com/science/@munawar1235/ beautiful-greek-island-gyali-isbeing-eroded-away-due-to-mining-activities, retrieved 2020 35 Aristos Georgiou, Mediterranean Garbage Patch: Huge New ‘Island’ of Plastic Waste Discovered Floating in Sea, 2019, URL: https://www.newsweek.com/ mediterranean-garbage-patch-island-plastic-waste-sea-1431722, retrieved 2020 36 Mediterranean plastic pollution hotspots highlighted in report, 2019, URL: https://www.bbc. com/news/world-48554480, retrieved 2020 37 Giant ‘island’ of plastic rubbish forms in sea off Corsica, 2019, URL: https://www.thelocal. fr/20190521/giant-island-ofplastic-rubbish-forms-in-sea-offcorsica, retrieved 2020 38 URL: https://www.eydap.gr/en/ TheCompany/DrainageAndSewerage/Sewerage/, retrieved 2020 39 Paul W. Wallace, Psyttaleia and the Trophies of the Battle of Salamis, 1969, URL: https:// www.jstor.org/stable/503511?origin=crossref&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents, retrieved 2020 40 Psyttaleia, URL: http://www. hellenicaworld.com/Greece/ Geo/en/Psyttaleia.html, retrieved 2020 41 Theognis of Megara, Translated

45 46

47 48 49

50 51

by Gregory Nagy, URL: https:// chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/ display/, retrieved 2020 Prof. Dr. Holger, Sonnabend Die Insel des Apoll, 2007, URL: https://www.wissenschaft.de/ magazin/weitere-themen/die-insel-des-apoll/, retrieved 2020 Thomas Dowson, Everything you need to visit Delos in 2021, 2021, URL: https://archaeology-travel.com/greece/visiting-delos-island/, retrieved 2020 Keros-Syros culture, URL: https://amp.blog.shops-net. com/43572487/1/keros-syros-culture.html, retrieved 2020 ebd. Ogygia: An Island in The Odyssey, URL: https://study. com/academy/lesson/ogygiaan-island-in-the-odyssey.html, retrieved 2020 Homer, Odysee, 8-7 jhd. v. chr. Ogygia, 2010, URL: https:// atlantipedia.ie/samples/ogygia/, retrieved 2020 Koller, Corina Maria The Isle of the Dead from Arnold Böcklin and Sergei Rachmaninoff, 2017, URL: a musical painting https:// unipub.uni-graz.at/obvugrhs/ content/titleinfo/1769828, retrieved 2020 Harrison, Max (2005), Rachmaninoff, Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 159. Woe Media, The Beautiful but Creepy Isola La Gaiola Island, URL: https://whenonearth.net/ beautiful-creepy-isola-la-gaiola-island/, retrieved 2020

52 Gioura – die Insel des Zyklopen, 2021, URL: https://www.griechenland.net/nachrichten/chronik/28625-gioura-%E2%80%93die-insel-des-zyklopen, retrieved 2020 53 The Odyssey by Homer, book 1, translated by A. T. Murray, URL: https://www.theoi.com/ Text/HomerOdyssey1.html, retrieved 2020 Valentín Pérez-Mellado, and further autors, a complex case of interaction between lizard and plants. The dead horse arum (Dracunculus muscivorus) and the Balearic lizard (Podarcis lilfordi), 2006 54 URL: https://www.descobreixmenorca.com/en/lighthouses-of-menorca/illa-de-laire-lighthouse/, retrieved 2020 55 SPA/RAC, Towards better protection of Habibas Islands and Paloma Island in Algeria, URL: https://www.rac-spa.org/ node/1782, retrieved 2020 56 Alexandra van Geer, The Lost World of Island Dwarfs and Giants, 2017, URL: https:// beta.capeia.com/paleobiology/2017/09/21/the-lost-worldof-island-dwarfs-and-giants, retrieved 2020 57 ebd. 58 Oceania, Island of Alboran, URL: https://europe.oceana.org/ en/island-alboran, retrieved 2020 59 Alboran Natural Area, URL: https://www.andalucia.com/environment/protect/alboran.html, retrieved 2020

introductionary pages “abused ones” 1 unknown author, The plastic continent floating in the Pacific, https://www.iberdrola. com/environment/plastic-island-in-pacific-eighth-continent#:~:text=Lying%20 between%20California%20 and%20Hawaii,of%20marine%20animals%20each%20 year.

Images... Page 16 The Island of Gioura, unknown photographer, URL: https://www.greece. com/photos/destinations/ Sporades/Alonissos/Island/ Gioura/The_Island_of_Gioura/100910, retrieved 2020 26 Roberta F., Goli Otok, 2006, URL: https://www.abandonedspaces.com/uncategorized/the-deserted-prisonisland-of-the-communist-era. html, retrieved 2020 44 Chafarinas Islands, unknown photographer, URL: https://www.larazon.es/ viajes/20200130/uadvcssdorb2dgkmz5i4mbvxri.html, retrieved 2020 58 Gyali, unknown photographer, URL: https://www.discoveringkos.com/destination-item/ gyali/, retrieved 2020 68 Delos, URL: https://www. greece-is.com/rise-fall-delos-visible-island/ , retrieved 2020 84 Es Vedra, unknown photographer, URL: https://www. pikist.com/free-photo-ifdbi, retrieved 2020

Declaration I hereby declare, that all content which is not marked differently is produced by Anne Kathrin Müller