Women and online learning in Zimbabwe by grace website

Title: Women and online learning in Zimbabwe: A study of the University of Zimbabwe

Authors:

Buhle Mbambo-Thata Elizabeth Mlambo Precious Mwatsiya

Address:

University of Zimbabwe Library PO Box MP45 Mount Pleasant Harare Zimbabwe

E-mail address: mbambtb@unisa.ac.za

Submitted to GRACE 12 October 2010

TABLE OF CONTENTS A

Introduction………………………………………………………………. 4 Background………………………………………………………………

Gender and ICTs at the University of Zimbabwe……………………….

Definition of terms………………………………………………………

Review of the literature………….……………………………………

Education………………………………………………………………

Barriers…………………………………………………………………

Gender at UZ……………………………………………………………

Research Methodology…………………………………………………

History of the study…………………………………………………….

Research instruments…………………………………………………..

Data analysis exercise………………………………………………….

Findings……………………………………………………………. ..

Observations……………………………………………………………

Focus group…………………………………………………………

Deviant cases……………………………………………………….

Analysis…………………………………………………………….

Observation…………………………………………………………

Interviews……………………………………………………………

Concluding statements………………………………………………

Recommendations………………………………………………………….. Conclusion………………………………………………………………….. References …………………………………………………………………

29 30 31

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1

Gender segregated PC bookings……………...........................................17

Table 2

Dreams and aspirations of respondents………………………………….18

Table 3

Interview responses……………………………………………………...19

Table 4

Responses of deviant cases………………………………………………21

WOMEN AND ONLINE LEARNING IN ZIMBABWE A

INTRODUCTION

This research seeks to build on the body of knowledge on women’s usage of ICT in higher education. It specifically focused on women’s usage and their experience of online learning tools. It further explores the extent to which this process is empowering to women learners, while investigating barriers to usage of the tools. Finally, recommends mechanisms for intervention where necessary. Research on women’s usage of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in higher education in Africa is minimal. Available research focused on schools and the work done by Worldlinks and Schoolnet (Gadoid 2000; Isaacs 2002). Hargittai (2002) states that while there is a digital divide in usage of computers in learning, no study has investigated the causes of this divide. Carston and Colman (1996) indicate that female students are inhibited in the acquisition of computer skills in the presence of male students. (This study was carried out with students from colleges and universities in North America.) Kirk (1992) states that socialisation of males and females may reflect on skills acquisition more significantly than biological differences. Rajagopal and Bojin (2005) indicate that female students in higher education emphasized access to education as the most significant value of computers in education. However, the same study found that both sexes agreed that ICT has made learning easier and improved their productivity as students. Isaacs (2002) asserts that introduction of and usage of ICTs in the education of women is the most strategic way of using ICTs to empower women. Education is perhaps the most strategic area of intervention for the empowerment of girls and women in any society. However, she further observes that any study of women’s empowerment through ICT has to deal with the following contextual issues: (a) (b) (c)

educational and development issues; ICT issues and gender issues; and the interaction of (a) and (b).

The study was conducted at the University of Zimbabwe (UZ) and focused on graduate students. While the target was engaging with 30 students, in the end 27 constituted the population. The study utilized qualitative research methods to gather data. In particular it used the free attitude interview technique. However, due to constraints of time the

study fieldwork was compressed into the months of January to March, since that was when the researchers were available. The observation made by the researchers was that the majority of the students at work at the PCs in the library and in computer laboratories were male. The questions raised were the following: Where are the female students?; Are they benefiting from the electronic resources?; and Where is their learning occurring? These form the basis of the research.

Background The background statements provide a context within which the research was undertaken. It is hoped that the statements will also enlighten the reader on the condition of higher education, ICT and women students in Zimbabwe. It further seeks to give a clearer picture of how Zimbabwe has embraced ICTs.

Map of Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country with a population of about 14 million. It has a literacy rate of 75%. http://www.cinsa.info/portal/pdf/countryprofilezimbabwe, accessed in March, 2005, indicates that Zimbabwe has following statistics:

Population GDP per capita Telephone subscribers Mobile subscribers Public phones Internet accounts Regulatory authority

12.1 million US 620 250 000 328 800 4766 20 000 Ministry of Information Posts and Telecommunications

Clearly the telephone density per 100 people is very low. That itself has implications for access to the Internet generally, and access to the Internet for learning, which is the focus of our study. A national ICT policy was approved by government in November 2005 and can be located at http://www.ict.org.zw/ICTPolicy_framework.pdf. The ICT policy addresses gender issues in the same breadth as other disadvantaged groups as youth, disabled and aged. However, in the implementation strategies it is silent on gender, but states that no group will be disadvantaged. The national ICT policy has been adopted by government. It does not identify gender as a separate agenda but adopts a mainstreaming approach that seeks inclusion. The fact that the policy is quiet on gender analysis is a cause for concern. One wonders if it is being assumed that all sectors will benefit, and input equally into the information sector. It is hoped that our findings will inform and influence the policy on gender issues in terms of access to and usage of ICT in higher education.

Gender and ICTs at UZ

UZ was the site for our study. The university is located in Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe. It is the oldest university in the country, with just over 50 years of existence. In its second strategic plan, 2004-2007, UZ states that its graduates will be information and communication literate. In order to achieve this goal UZ has invested in infrastructure by providing a campus-wide network and networked classrooms and laboratories. It has developed equipped and secure computer laboratories for teaching and learning. It has acquired state of the art library management software, INNOPAC, and acquired online database and related products. It has created several indigenous knowledge databases. In 2004-5 the University introduced e-learning programmes to facilitate continuous education beyond lecture hours. UZ has created this online-based learning environment to enhance learning at UZ as well as prepare students for employability after graduation. The question is, with a national ICT policy in place, and a strategic plan that seeks to graduate ICT-literate

graduates, to what extent are women learners benefiting from and utilising ICTs, and are they being empowered by ICT in their education? ICT provides various opportunities and challenges for improving and revamping the learning experiences of students and lecturers (Chikasha, Tugarira and Van Petengem (2006). A good education is one that produces individuals that are capable of viewing the world in a holistic manner and can appreciate the diversity of humankind while being able to develop their full potential. UZ has embarked on programmes which encompass, among other things, gender empowerment, and ICTs. For many higher education students, teaching and learning using ICT is completely novel and challenging. It also calls for new skills, which need to be developed in the students themselves. Currently UZ students have access to computers through a computer laboratory managed by the Computer Centre. The Computer Centre, which is open to all students from 08h00 to 20h00, has a number of computers. There is always a long queue of students waiting to use the computers. The process of gaining access into the Computer Centre involves a lot of hustling and bustling to get number tags, which they use to form the queue. The Computer Centre and the laboratory are located at the Faculty of Science, which is far away from other faculties and the halls of residence. It can be a bit unnerving to walk alone at night to visit the labs. The current UZ administration through its five-year strategic plan 2003-2007, is strongly committed to the implementation of information technology in all areas of academic activities. In addition, emphasis will also be given to ICT competence and ICT training will become compulsory for all students regardless of which discipline they are taking. It seeks to implement its five-year strategic plan through compulsory information literacy skills training courses for all students entering the university. This research sought to establish the extent to which women students benefitted from and were empowered by use of ICT in their learning process generally and by online learning in particular.

Definition of terms These definitions have been included to give an understanding of the terms used in this research. Empowerment is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as â&#x20AC;&#x153;giving power toâ&#x20AC;?. Gender is socially defined differences and roles of women and men. Sex roles are biologically defined and refer to those roles of women by virtue of being female â&#x20AC;&#x201C; like childbearing. Gender roles are the socially ascribed roles of men and women.

Gender empowerment has generally been understood to have two major aspects: a) a transformational aspect that seeks to change the patriarchal structure and attributes, and (b) a social welfare aspect that seeks to improve the life of women within their subservient patriarchally defined position. While this research notes these lived empowerment paradigms, it also left the definition of empowerment to the respondents. It was each individual’s responsibility to say for herself how the process empowered them or not. Below is the Longwe framework, which outlines five levels of gender empowerment. The framework helps the researchers and readers to contextualise the empowerment process at various stages at which people feel empowered. It also helps individuals locate their own empowerment in the process in the continuum. The ‘Empowerment framework’: Welfare, access, conscientization, mobilization, control. Welfare is defined here as the lowest level at which a development intervention may hope to close a gender gap. We are here talking about women being given these benefits, rather than producing or acquiring such benefits for themselves. Access - the first level of empowerment – is the opportunity to make use of ICTs – both in terms of technology and information and knowledge. Control refers to the power to decide how ICTs are used, and who has access to them. Women’s access to ICTs and control of them (or lack thereof) is dependent on many factors. Factors such as gender discrimination in jobs and educations, social class, illiteracy and geographic location (North or South, urban or rural), influence the fact that the great majority of the world’s women have no access to ICTs or to any other sort of modern communication system, and possibly will not in their lifetime. It is logical to deduce that as information dynamics accelerate their migration towards the Internet, people without access are bound to suffer greater exclusion. But there are also voices that insist that connectivity in itself is not enough, and that providing women with computers and modems is not sufficient for them to resolve their development problems. Conscientisation is defined as the process by which women realize that their lack of status and welfare relative to men is not due to their own lack of ability, organization or effort. Mobilization is the action level which complements conscientization. Firstly it involves women’s coming together for the recognition and analysis of problems, the identification of strategies to overcome discriminatory practices and collective action to remove these practices. Control is the level that is reached when women have taken action so that there is gender equality in decision making over access to resources, so that women achieve direct control over their access to resources. Therefore these five levels are not really a linear progression, as written above, but rather circular: the achievement of women’s increased control leads into better access to resources, and therefore improved socio-economic status. In evaluating a project we need to ask ourselves whether the project is intervening merely at the level of providing improved welfare and access to information, or is it enabling women’s participation in a process for increased conscientization and mobilization as a means for increased action and control.

Source: S. Longwe, The process of women’s empowerment http://www.sarpn.org.za/documents/d000055/page6.php

Women empowerment. The concept of ‘empowerment of women’ itself needs discussion. Huyer and Sikoska (2003.4) propound that the meaning should be ‘transformatory empowerment of women’. Traditionally the debate has been between empowerment meaning ‘capacity building to cope with the requirement of life’ versus ‘capacity building to transform the conditions of life’. The difference between the two statements lies in that, while one seeks to ‘transform condition of life’ thus challenging a system, the other calls for ‘coping’ with life, which is a micro level intervention. It can be at a personal level. ‘Capacity building to cope with the requirement of life’ maybe viewed as micro and smoothing circumstances for the benefit of individuals or groups of individuals, while ‘capacity building to transform the requirements of life’ denotes challenging the system of power relations between men and women or patriarchy. There is a sense in which women’s struggles are at both levels. Women’s empowerment aims at enabling women to transforming the system of power relations, as well as creating an ability to cope with micro level requirements in individual lives. In this work, empowerment is understood by the researchers as empowering at both the transformation of system level and in individual lives to make informed decisions. Online learning is defined in the Encarta as “learning directly connected to a computer”. In this research, while we accept the broad definition above, we also let the respondents define for themselves what online learning meant to them. Their experience with online learning was therefore limited to retrieving learning documents from the Internet. In a few cases it also included submitting scripts online.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This literature review examines the positioning of women in relation to ICTs in higher education. It will explore the socio-cultural position of women in relation to education, ICT, and how these impact on women generally and Africa in particular, to participate in and utilise ICT for learning. Women the world over are generally disadvantaged in terms of access to and opportunity in science and technology. African women have the world’s lowest participation rates in science and technology education at all levels, and this has implications for their participation in ICT (Zwizwai, 2006).

A study by Runhare (2003) revealed gender inequalities in access to and achievement in science and technical education, especially at secondary schools and tertiary levels. Zimbabwean girls were found to be under-represented and under-achieving in science and technology-related subjects (Runhare, 2003). This is a reflection on the cultural values that give preference to boys’ as opposed to girls’ education. The values are reinforced at home and at schools, creating a defeatist attitude (Mashingaidze, 2006)

Various authors suggest that women locate the Internet as a problematic site for themselves (Brayton, 1999). Several factors can contribute to this scenario. Runhare (2003) argues that women the world over are generally disadvantaged in terms of access to and opportunity in science and technology. This is caused by differentiation of female and male social roles. The social roles are constructed through socialization agents like the family and education (Runhare, 2003). Other factors that influence the differential access to the Internet by women and men include high illiteracy among women, low education for women and low incomes for women (Zwizwai, 2006). The teaching and learning at UZ is made hostile to women academics because the institution is largely a masculine one (Chagonda, 2001). UZ male students (University Bachelors Association) have tended to affirm their masculinity through activities such as heavy drinking sprees and sexual exploits. The ways in which the male students exhibit their masculinities have tended to impinge on and subvert the rights of female students (Chagonda, 2001). Ndlovu (2001) asserts that there is instability in institutions of higher education as males continue to safeguard their privileged position in the university community. Women, on the other hand, struggle sometimes unsuccessfully for equal opportunities such as at the cafeterias, the sports facilities, the library and other common services. Ndlovu (2001), Gaidzanwa (2001) and Combe (1991) highlight their concerns on issues of democracy in institutions – “women have generally been under represented in universities and society in general” (Gaidzanwa, 1985). At UZ until 1997 no female occupied any of the top three posts in the Student Representative Council; however, the first female Secretary General’s stint was shortlived as she resigned from the post in April 1998 due to harassment by male students and lack of support from female students (Mashingaidze, 2006). It is in this context that this study seeks to investigate women’s interaction with techno-pedagogy. Barriers Main barriers to ICT access in general in Africa relate to the small number of computers relative to the large number of teachers and students per school (Isaacs, 2002). Notably, girls are further limited from the school computers in some countries in the context of social and cultural barriers. A study commissioned by World Links for Development found that in reality it is harder for girls to access computer labs, particularly in Uganda and Ghana and especially after school hours (Isaacs, 2002). Ochieng (2002) claims that the majority of women who have access to ICTs in Africa are those in academia, ICT professionals and elite activists from non-governmental organizations. Ochieng further asserts that it is these individuals that have often tried to utilize available opportunities fairly aggressively to ensure that women are not excluded from the information revolution.

Gender analysis shows that women are marginal users of ICTs; 25% of the users are women on average (Toumbara-Diawara, 2002). The major setback is that women in the cultured construction of genderness are largely absent from the realm of what counts as technology. Observations made in Zimbabwe are that women are more concentrated in non-technical careers (Batezat and Mwalo, 1989). The reasons behind women’s unease and refusal to participate is complex and often interwoven with cultural barriers (Brayton, 1999). These theoretical arguments point to the existence of gender disparities in societies the world over. Zwizwai (2006) points out the constraints faced by women’s participation in ICT as lack of dependable infrastructure (in terms of reliable electricity and telephone lines, especially in rural areas), high cost of equipment, basic information technology such as personal computers, low purchasing power and lastly the high cost of access to telephone lines and Internet connectivity. Brayton (1999) further supports this argument when she asserts that at a basic level, women’s ability to be actively involved with the Internet is troubled by the financial costs connected to the Internet. Purchasing equipment and software, paying monthly Internet server costs and training costs for classes and upgrading all require an investment financially from the user. Cottes (2003) explains that much of persistent gender-structural inequalities constitute barriers to women’s access to and use of ICTs. E-Knowledge for Women in Southern Africa (EKOWISA) (2006) categorically spells out that currently ICTs do not carry the content that meets the information needs of women in a form they can use. If gendered issues are not articulated in ICT policy, it is unlikely the girls and women will reap the benefits of the information age (EKOWISA, 2006). Gender at UZ Issues of gender equity are increasingly being viewed as the major factor in ICT development in higher education by most universities in Africa, UZ included. Institutions of learning in Zimbabwe primarily seek to promote learning environments in which democracy and human rights are fostered (Kajawu, 2001). The Zimbabwean Government at independence formulated policies which sought to redress the social inequalities that existed during the colonial era. Although enrolment levels of black children rose from 800 000 to 2 million (Kajawu, 2001), the issue of gender stereotypes were not redressed and areas regarding gender equity are still a cause for concern. Students’ enrolment at UZ by gender was skewed in favour of males, who comprise 75% of the total university enrolment (Gaidzanwa, 1993). Theories on patriarchy (male power/domination control and female subordination) place the family at the centre of gender relations. Gender “scripting” is born within the family. Women are generally perceived as the custodians of “national” values and the national identity, as mothers and child carers and occupants of the domestic space (Jirira, 1993). The cultural constructions of manhood and womanhood translate into an educational advantage for boys over girls, which comes out as better educated, more skilled, more preferred men over less educated, less skilled and less preferred females (Maboreke,

1997). Maboreke’s assertion justifies the greater enrolment percentage of men compared to females. According to statistics given by the Students’ Records and Admissions as of May 2006, UZ had a total enrolment of 8472 male students against a total of 3877 female students. Gore (2001) claims that the university is run by men, largely for the benefit of men, and men outnumber female students and staff. Given the fact that UZ is male-dominated in its enrolment and staff, it is difficult for females to penetrate such a system, as men tend to support men and exclude women from the corridors of power by any means necessary. Men predominantly occupy most of the executive posts, such as those of deans, bursars, registrars, pro-vice chancellors - out of more than 12 universities in the country, only the Zimbabwe Open University and the Women’s University in Africa have female vice chancellors (Mashingaidze, 2006). Chagonda (2001) further claims that the masculinities of the male university students have a bearing on the use of university facilities such as the library. The library’s seating capacity is 1200 against a total student population of over 13 000 students. A lot of shoving and pushing takes place during examination time, as they are all scrambling for the limited space. By their very superior strength, male students force their way into the library before the female students to secure the most sought after textbooks and the secluded cubicles (Chagonda, 2001). As a result, the toughness or masculinity of the university male students works against female students in the learning environment. Females get scared when they are embroiled in physical contact with male students in any facilities provided at the university, for example at sports. Although in principle gender equity is viewed as a major factor, generally there is little regard for gender-equity, democracy and human rights at UZ in practice. Gender-biased activities are very prevalent at UZ and thus gender discrimination is made by many male students and staff to seem natural. Research by Ndlovu (2001) has proved that one’s sense of self at any given time is inevitably gendered. Men and women structure their masculinities and femininities according to their contexts, class, age, ethnic and religious backgrounds. It is these gender considerations that shape the teaching and learning experiences of these students. The institutions of higher learning are perceived as promoters of gender equity - but what female students experience in and outside the institutional environment throws into doubt the basis of such beliefs (Somerai, 2001). Somerai further claims that although doors were opened by the ‘education for all policy’, which was adopted by the government at independence, what was overlooked was the fact that the policy did not analyse some of the cultural hindrances faced by females in the process of acquiring education. The promotion of a girl education even at university level is problematic because of the conservatism of the socially constructed gender identities.

Because of the gross inequalities that exist between male and female students, UZ came up with the Affirmative Action Policy, which was implemented in 1995. There was a realization that female staff and students were generally under-represented across all faculties at UZ, comprising only 255 of the total enrolment (Chivaura, 2001). C

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A qualitative approach to gather data was used for this research, mostly taking a feminist stance which centres on women and is informed by women’s experiences of the world. Feminist research gives authority to the voices of women using the experiences of women as a valuable research resource. It begins with the standpoints and experiences of women, which is what GRACE Zimbabwe is looking at, the experiences of women learners with online learning. This was done to avoid misrepresenting women’s opinions and experiences. Bryaton (1997) notes that the concern of feminist research is to ensure the accuracy of the research in depicting women’s lives and experiences. She highlighted the importance for the researcher to take the finalized information back to the participants for verification, since they are the experts and owners of their own personal experiences. Strauss and Corbin (1998) note that one reason for choosing a qualitative approach is the nature of the problem or study. For him research that attempts to understand the meaning or nature of experience of persons lends itself to getting out into the field and finding out what people are doing and thinking. It is a research about people’s lives, lived experiences, behaviour, emotions and feelings. This makes qualitative research of specific relevance to the study of social relations, and this study in particular. One of its advantages is that it uses a variety of data sources such as interviews, observations, documents and recordings in one study. It also takes the researcher’s communication with the field and its members as an integral and explicit part of knowledge production (Flick, 2002). As Flick notes, “the researcher’s reflections on their actions and observations in the field, their impressions, irritations and feelings become data, forming part of the interpretation and are documented in research diaries.” Qualitative research among other things offers procedures that researchers can use “to interpret and organise data which consists of conceptualising and reducing data, elaborating categories in terms of their properties and dimensions, and relating through a series of prepositional statements”, which is often referred to as coding (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). The data would be coded for analysis in a manner that allows a nonmathematical process of interpretation carried out for the purpose of discovering concepts and relationships in the raw and then organising these into a theoretical explanatory scheme.

Selection of research participants Graduate female students were sampled spontaneously from the various departments on UZ campus. A total of 27 graduate female students were sampled and interviewed. The

process of selection was more of self-selection where the students were introduced to the research by the research team members as individuals or a group of postgraduate students coming to the library or gathered around campus, and would either accept or refuse to be part of the research. Those who were willing to participate offered their contact details so that they could be contacted for the interviews. Students who could not participate indicated that they had other commitments which were taking most of their time. The student population for the study was drawn from the graduate students. The choice for engaging this group was based on the time they would have spent at college, the assumption being that they would have been exposed to online learning more than the undergraduates. Graduate students would also be better placed in articulating issues, as they would have passed a number of stages at college. Some would have had a chance to write final-year dissertations where they have to defend their line of thinking; such people are more comfortable talking about their experiences. Research instruments Focus group discussions, interview techniques, the free attitude interview and nonparticipant observation were used to gather data. 1) Focus group Graduate students did not all arrive at college from vacation at the same time. As a result three focus group discussions were held to accommodate this. The focus group discussion was essential in order to: (a) (b) (c)

create a shared understanding of the objectives of the projects; create a transparent atmosphere that reduced suspicion; and begin to gather data on women’s experiences with ICT and their education.

The first meeting was held on 18 January 2006. Fifteen participants were present including the three researchers. The programme for the day was: (a) (b) (c) (d)

sharing the project objectives; African context of the research; individual exercise on women and ICT aspirations; and report back on individual exercise.

The second focus group meeting was held on 14 February. The group comprised Graduate Diploma in Education students. The programme for the day was similar to that held for the first group. The Grad. D.E. students comprised female students who are teachers both in the rural and urban areas of Zimbabwe. These different backgrounds would help the research to obtain data on diverse experiences. The third focus group was held with a group of master’s students from the Women’s Law Project on 7 March 2006. The focus group meeting was carried out at their places of

residence in a relaxed environment. The programme for the day was changed to suit their time as they were working on their theses and preparing to submit them within a short period of time. The discussion focused on: a) sharing project objectives; and b) sharing their experiences with online learning at UZ. 2) Free attitude interview In this study the free attitude interview technique was used to explore ways in which women use online learning at UZ. The free attitude interview is a verbal technique to obtain information concerning personal opinion (Busken, 2005) and a type of a nondirective controlled depth interview. It is non-directive in the sense that â&#x20AC;&#x153;participants and not the interviewer defining the direction of the exchange and they are controlled in the sense that the interviewer contains the process and keeps the process aligned to the purposeâ&#x20AC;? (Buskens, 2005). Being non-directive in nature, the free attitude interview opened the space for the researcher to intervene where the researcher had a chance to ask clarifying questions and reflect on what the participant would have said and for the participant to respond flexibly and sensitively. It gave an opportunity for the researcher and the participant to assess and negotiate issues of reliability and validity during the research process. The free attitude interview enabled the interviewee to talk all they likde in the framework of the exploratory (starting) question. It allowed the participants to freely express themselves, which was a plus in this kind of a study where the research is seeking personal opinion. The technique gave room for the participants to speak their mind without much restriction. The participants had a platform to explore their experiences with online learning without much interruption. The interviews: These were held with the sampled population of 27 female graduate students, conducted at a time and place convenient for the participants where possible. The interviews were tape recorded to allow the researcher to pay full attention to what the participant was saying and to maintain eye contact, a crucial aspect of non-verbal communication. Each interview started with an exploratory question that sought to establish the participantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s understanding and experience with online learning. The researcher would then draw further probing and clarifying questions from what the participant raised, keeping at the back of her mind the research questions that needed to be answered. The interviews were conducted at varied times by the research team and the members had to keep checking with each other on the scheduling to enable sharing of the tape recorder. The researchers held two feedback meetings with the respondents where issues that emerged from the interviews were discussed. More issues were raised and clarifications were made from the feedback discussions.

3) Non-participant observation Non-participant observation was another technique used to assess the usage of the computers by female students. Visits were made to the Faculty of Education postgraduate and Law Library labs, and the Computer Centre, which is the hub of all Internet activities, on an almost daily basis, observing students using computers in the library’s main hall. 4) Deviant cases The ‘deviant cases’ were identified from labs, where one or two female students were found using the labs in an environment which was dominated by male students. The interviews were carried out with female deviant cases that were using the labs despite their level of education. Efforts were made to identify, among other things: a) b) c) d)

why these females defied all odds to make use of the labs; Their general feelings towards the use of the labs where males are dominating; what benefits they accrued from the use of the e-learning; and the driving force behind their usage of these ICTs where the majority of female students are absent.

A total of seven deviant cases were interviewed from different labs on campus, and all were undergraduates. Data analysis exercises The researchers carried out various reflexivity exercises in the process of carrying out the research. Focus was mostly on conceptualising the self in relation to the research. It was important that we drew our experiences from the data that we collected of other women’s experiences, taking into account that in doing research with women, the researcher’s “social location plays a role in shaping the research process”(Fossey et al., 2002). The exercise was meant to aid data analysis and it was through this that the idea of deviant cases was mooted and agreed upon. The exercise offered an effective analytical approach to explore the data, comparing and contrasting different parts of the data as well as exploring the meanings, patterns and connections among data, at the same time involving the researcher’s own thoughts, reflections and intuition. D

FINDINGS

We had several sources of data, as indicated in the research methods section. These were: (1) (2) (3)

focus group; (a) observations (b) booking sheets analysis; free attitude interview with major informants; and

(4)

free attitude interview with “deviant” cases.

Observations As indicated in the literature review, UZ has several computer rooms, referred to as laboratories or labs, set aside for student usage. The library’s computers are in the lobby and therefore an ideal observation spot as one comes in or leaves the library. However, for the purposes of this study we also observed the behaviour patterns in the laboratories outside the library. a)

Queuing for booking The queues for booking computers contained male students in the majority. Very few female students were queuing to book PCs for use.

Usage of PCs When female students were working on the PCs, they would be working in groups. One informant indicated that “we would be helping each other”. The male students would be the ones in control of the mouse and the keyboard. All the students making these bookings were undergraduate students.

We had occasion to interview the few women students working at the computers, reported on later under “deviant cases”. They were undergraduates. They did not realise that they were in the minority; they wanted to find e-journals.

(d)

Computer bookings

The library has kept a gender-segregated computer booking sheet. The table below illustrates the patterns of booking of PCs for use by students. Table 1: Gender-segregated PC bookings Month October 2005 November 2005 December 2005 January 2006 February 2006 March 2006

Male Percentage Female Percentage Total 8293 93% 577 7% 8870 6772 92% 571 8% 7343 260 85% 45 15% 305 360 81% 86 19% 446 781 88% 108 12% 889 4721 84% 897 16% 5618

In all months males outnumbered female students. Female students amounted to 12% and male students 88% on the booking sheets on average. Focus group

The introductory meeting was aimed at allowing the informants to explore. They explored their own dreams in relation to ICT and communicated these dreams on paper. They had been given the broad context and objectives of the study, which was focusing on women and ICT in education in general, and women and online learning at UZ in particular. Their aspirations were all positive, focusing on the potential of ICT to positively impact women’s lives in education, wealth creation, farming, business and enhancing selfreliance. The table below summarises the aspirations of women graduate students in terms of what ICTs could do for them, excluding deviant cases. Table 2: Dreams and aspirations of respondents Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

12 13

14 15

16 17 18 19

Aspirations Wants to enter and conquer the patriarchally dominated technological world Aspires to own shops where computers are used for better management Aspires to be able to use ICTs and teach her children as well Dreams of teaching children on the importance of ICTs at a young age (catch them young) Aspires to be a confident woman who understands and knows how to use technology. Wants to catch them young as well Confidence in using ICTs in the workplace, home and at school To be successful in business through the use of ICTs Aspires to be a very prominent person in society To be liberated, self-empowered, enlightened and a successful woman Self-improvement and empowerment through use of ICTs Her aspirations include empowerment of women regardless of educational background, professional status, age; to catch them young (let’s catch the little girls too); to have unlimited access to computers, and believes ICTs is the future. Aspires to advance her education and career through ICTs and to help the underprivileged through information gained through ICTs. Aspires to be a confident person through education. Believe ICTs can open a world of endless opportunities and encouraged catching the children while they are still young Believes in the power of computer technology to change her world Aspires to reverse the societal beliefs in male power, making it a world where she will be taking the lead and by the click of a mouse would be able to diagnose her kids’ ailments Be able to use the Internet She aspires to hold one of the top posts either in business or in politics through ICTs and would like to own a computer Aspires to use ICTs for her designing and interior decor business Aspires to live a pretty life 18

20 21 22 23 24 23

Getting a good job over the Internet Wants to be a self-reliant, self-confident and self-sufficient woman who has benefited from use of ICTs Aspires to be a self-conscious woman who researches on nutritional values of different foods on the Internet and maintain a balanced diet for her family Wants to move from a traditional woman to a modern career woman through use of ICTs Aspires to use all sorts of ICTs in her business. She wants to discover the value of information technology

While their dreams remained positive, the realities of the online learning for graduate women students were revealed in the interviews. Interviews Interviews were our main source of opinion. As indicated in the research methods section, we utilized the free attitude interview. Table 3 below illustrates the findings Table 3: Interview responses

The names have been changed to protect respondents Name Emerging issues Betty Online learning improved her access to learning information. Saved her time in queues. UZ computers are few and therefore there is competition. Women are disadvantaged in access by societal values and also by lack of training. “Using this technology in teaching would give me access to a better type of life”; “When I accessed resources online I scored high marks” Babalwa Does not have time to learn to use computers. Not interested in learning to use computers. Needs motivation to learn Cecilia Blames self for not learning to use computers. Expensive to access PCs at Internet cafes. Has been empowered by e-mail and ability to search. Would advocate for introduction of computing in school Evelyn School head locks away computers. School head has no confidence in women teachers teaching computers. He is a male chauvinist. He believes women are not capable of learning to use computers. Does not know how to use computers effectively. Interruption of technical issues like power cuts and Internet down, interfere with

Theme While online learning improves access to current information, societal values and women’s limited knowledge make it difficult for women to access knowledge No interest in ICT

While Cecelia has been empowered by usage of email to communicate, she blames herself for limited knowledge of computers Constant referral to unfair access to computers in school, to persevere and prove that women are capable of using ICT as well as men can

Dorothy

Khaya

Kgomotso

Juliet

Tabetha

Mary-Jo

Fatima

Ntombi

scheduled training time Computer illiterate. Rural-urban gap in knowledge pronounced. Women working in rural areas more often computer illiterate than those in urban. Advocates for classes for women to reduce abdication to males, to teams and asking for items. Multi-tasks reduce time spent on learning computer. If taught as part of curriculum it would enhance their chances of learning Rural schools had no computer. Advocates for computer labs for women students because males look down on female students who do not know how to use ICT Limited knowledge of computers. Limited computers. Individualistic access to e-mail. Private and password protected. Encourage use of computers at home and in schools. Empowered by the possibility of accessing computers. Not comfortable with first-time usage. Limited computers Online retrieval of information providing access to current information. Women now having access to electronic gadgets that may have been the preserve of men. Not owning own computers. Role conflict, other duties at home are demanding of time. Cultural misrepresentation First-time users. Not adequate training time. Learning time-table tight. No time demands of other roles, so that there is no time for practice. “Maybe after 5 pm, a man can continue until after 8 pm, as a woman, I can’t do that. I have to rush home”. Not enough time. Searching for books and e-journals saves time. Limited access to computers. Needs more training time. Increase the ratio of computers to one per five students No knowledge of computer. Had no interest and knowledge. Had some training which she enjoyed. Able to access recent information. No discrimination in access. Wants to be able to access computers easily Has taught herself to surf the ’net. Finds current information in that process. Time saving. More computers required. When working with male colleagues “they make you feel like you do not know what you are doing”

Rural-urban divide in learning. Male-female divide in knowledge of computers. The digital divide in rural-rural urban and male-female is pronounced Male domination of computers Limited rural exposure to PCs in rural school Women in graduate school met computers for the first time

Cultural representatives of women’s role inhibit women’s experimentation

If there was sufficient time to do multiple roles, and still use computers

Computers are few in number and need to be increased Computers are limited. Training time is limited otherwise beneficial

Computers save time. Intuitive, you can teach yourself

Sihle

Taamsanqa

Hanna

Shirley

Only just learning to use computers. Has learnt that online retrieval is faster, and easier and “the boys do not check out the books before we do”. Online learning empowering in that “Women also are able to use the technology” Uses the Internet to access current information. Accesses computers at UZ. Congestion in the computer lab reduces explanation. Advocates for a woman’s laboratory where they can explore. Advocates for extended access over the week. “Internet search is like magic” One lab for students in Social Science departments. First come, first served basis, but women’s other responsibilities come first. No open discrimination. Computers save time. Open opportunity for women. Mastering machine has boosted their confidence, which comes with knowledge. Pages that are slow. Encouraging ownership of computers. When there is pressure there is pushing Learning online easy access to information. Easier on her eyes than print. Limited time to use computers. Has changed her life and her knowledge about issues

Computer labs at UZ are few and congested

Computers are insufficient for students

Online learning made her learning easy. Access to resources and ability to manipulate a computer

Deviant cases While we had not initially planned to interview those students that were actually working on PCs, the team agreed at analysis stage to include this group to find out their experience. The free attitude interview question and the process was utilised. Table 4 below summarises the findings. Table 4: Responses of deviant cases

Respondent 1

Respondent 2

Emerging issues  Appreciates the value of a computer  Has problems of access  Males dominate the labs  The guys dominate the labs  Will make use of the lab if she gets a chance  Can do her research work  Can communicate with family and friends  Can do Internet searches

Theme Male domination

Appreciates the value of the Internet and online access

 Respondent 3 

Respondent 4

  

Respondent 5

   

Respondent 6

   

Respondent 7

   

Perseveres and is prepared to go Has problems of access but is back to the lab prepared to do it all over Finds the Internet useful again until she gets what she wants Sees the value of the computer Sees the boys as taking the Is scared to book at night lead and will grab a chance to Will let the boys do it join them because of the value they see in computers Has interest and has had Rural-urban divide is a experience with computers from hindrance high school Females ignorant of the Claims other females do not use importance of the computer computers because of their rural Communication is made easy background Too shy to ask for help as most do not know Others do not bother themselves about the Internet Cheaper way of communicating Advocates for a lab for ladies Male domination but will not Claims its ‘unlady like’ to be push herself around pushing for computers with the guys Limited printed resources – opts for online resources Advocates for labs for undergraduates in the faculties and departments Has problems of access The computer centre is closed earlyc- they need more time Connectivity is a problem.

Problems of access and some technical problems of connectivity

ANALYSIS

Observation As indicated under findings, our observations noted that female students were outnumbered in computer laboratories. They were in the minority. The analysis of the booking sheets confirmed our observation. Booking sheets over a 4-month period indicated that female students were only 12% of those that reserved PCs for their use. Where then are the female students accessing online learning resources?

The analysis of computer booking statistics corroborated our observation that the PCs in the computer labs are largely used by male students. This had been a concern and indeed what drove us to engage in this research. For a university whose male : female ratio includes one- third females, this is problematic. Even though female students are fewer on campus, that same ratio would be expected to be represented in the booking statistics. Interviews The responses have been grouped into five sections by establishing emerging themes, which are economic issues, socio-cultural, technical, political and those not interested. The issue have emerged as causes of barriers to access to computer aided learning. The interview process yielded deeper insights, experiences and processes of PC access, usage and learning of female students. a)

Economic issues It was reported that while there is congestion at computer labs at UZ, it was expensive to purchase equipment and in the short-term accessing PCs in Internet cafes was equally expensive. This study was done during an economic meltdown in Zimbabwe. Inflation was at 800%. Considering that these were women students, most of them studying part-time, accessing learning materials was critical for them. However, the financial burden for accessing this learning material was notable. It brings into question whether online learning is an appropriate tool if students do not have mechanisms of meeting the financial requirements. However, one respondent indicated that the element of online learning encouraged her to purchase her own computer. The student had to prioritise purchase of a computer in order to facilitate learning. In a sense it becomes part of the investment in education. Another student saw beyond the current inconvenience and indicated that using online learning tools would enhance her marketability in the workplace. She would acquire all the skills she needed so that she could be more marketable on graduation. While one student found the Internet cafes expensive, another found them cheap, fast and convenient. She utilized them because she did not have access at home. Her only disadvantage was that because she was not on campus, she could not access e-journals. She was also concerned that she picked up viruses at Internet cafes. There is a sense in which students will prioritise the acquisition of knowledge over other needs. However, in the light of the assertion that women earn less,

perhaps a mechanism of ensuring access to learning tools ought to take into cognizance their economic disadvantage. b)

Socio-cultural issues A number of socio-cultural issues emerged. Usage of computers in learning is an emerging area. It has been an area dominated by males. Therefore the research met with such statements as: “school had no confidence in female teachers and would not let them teach computers” “maybe a man can continue working in the computer lab till 8 p.m. but as a woman I cannot. I have to rush home”

These statements typify learning and usage patterns in Zimbabwe society. Less women will learn because they do not get the opportunity - because they are not given a chance and because they do not have time to learn. Other socio-economic cultural barriers were identified. (i)

Multiple roles

Women’s multiple roles also emerged as an issue. While they would have liked to spend more time working on computers: “after 5 p.m. one has to rush home and look after husband and family” “if I stay on in the evening I will be accused of having affairs so I must get home and do other things” “we cannot come in early in the morning to book PCs because we have to ensure that the family is taken care of”

Women’s family commitments get in the way of their spending time on computers. In a sense ,women are not only learning but are learning to learn online, and that requires time. However, their other duties demanded that time as well. The majority of the students had constraints of time and division of that time between learning and family commitments. (ii)

Time

Time itself emerged as an issue. One respondent indicated that online learning saved her time. It was easier to locate learning materials and her supervisor did not need to be present in his office. They communicated via e-mail. Several other students also indicated that the availability of online journals reduced time spent hunting for books. E-journals were not borrowed, stolen nor mutilated. She is fortunate to have access to a computer in her departmental lab.

Some respondents, however, indicated that time was not sufficient. They had no time to learn online. They had no time to spend on campus beyond lectures because they were part-time students. For them there was no time for technopedagogy. A widowed student highlighted her plight in that while she needed to make time to learn, she did not have time to be on campus as well as parent her children. Issues of time management for students go beyond techno-pedagogy. It is an issue with learning time. It is for students to set priorities and their investment in time. Issues of time and gender are also critical issues. Women’s time is always taken. Literature has always emphasized that introduction of new phenomena into women’s lives ought to consider time issues and women’s multiple roles. (iii)

Access to computers

In all laboratories access to computers is on first come, first served basis. Some respondents felt that this was fair, in that whoever got there first got access. Other respondents, however, felt that a more systematic reservation scheme would ensure access for those students who had other roles outside UZ. (iv)

Male-female access

While the laboratories were largely occupied by male students, not a single student said they felt discriminated against on the basis of being women. However, some did indicate that: “I could only learn from the male students. I sacrificed my own dignity in order to learn to use computers.” (She had to constantly ask male colleagues to teach her.) “When the pressure is on male students push and shove to get to PCs” “When working with male students they make you feel like you do not know what you are doing” “First come, first served is fair but women’s other responsibilities prevent access in good time” “There is male domination at the computer labs … it is survival of the fittest”

There is an apparent disconnection here between perceived discrimination and male domination in access. As Buskens (2005) asserts: “It takes a long time for women to create a connection between discriminated practice and that discrimination as being unfair”. These students typified that. They saw no discrimination in access – first come, first served was fine, but they did notice that there were some disadvantages for women. However, they did not make the connection of the disadvantage being unfair. 25

(v)

Rural-urban divide

Participants from rural areas had more limited knowledge of computers. Rural schools largely have no electricity. However, in 2005 a number of them benefited from the State President’s donation of computers to schools. When the electricity is connected perhaps they will then realize the full benefit. (vi)

Online learning empowering

Students also indicated that online learning has empowered them to learn new skills. For most of them empowerment meant getting new skills and being able to use PCs, as illustrated by responses below: “Women now have access to these electronic gadgets that may have been for men” “Women are now able to use the technology”

Socio-cultural issues in online learning were both negative and positive. Multiple roles, time and gendered access emerged as major issues in socio-cultural issues. c)

Technical issues The respondents also raised several technical issues relating to online learning. (i) Limited computers Insufficiency of computers was often cited as an impediment to access online learning material. They cited that one computer laboratory with 25 PCs was inadequate for nearly 300 graduate students in Social Science. One of the results of the inadequacy was the pushing and scramble for computers in which the rule of the jungle of survival of the fittest applies. Physically stronger male students would then prevail over the physically weaker female students. Some female students also felt that it was “unlady-like to be seen pushing.” A related matter is the one discussed in the previous sections, in which multiple roles of women may affect their ability to engage in that struggle, which often occurs in the morning. By the time they arrive the scramble has ended and the space is occupied. Students had suggestions on how to spread access to the inadequate computers.

“Increase the ratio of computers to one per five students” “Open computer laboratories over weekends” “Introduce a booking system that accommodates those not able to arrive early” “Encourage individual ownership of PCs”

Adult learners learn by contributing. Perhaps a mechanism for harnessing ideas from these students needs to be developed so that some suggestions for solutions can be found. This is particularly important for female students whose learning is built around their other lives. Their inputs into how to improve access to PCs as a crucial entry point to learning online is critical. Without that initial access, learning will not occur. (ii)

Inadequate training

Respondents cited this as a major handicap in their interaction with PCs. They cited that no formal training was provided to graduate students. They were simply provided with a laboratory. Some respondents responded to this lack of training by enrolling for computer courses outside the university in which they would be trained in: -

basic computing Excel Windows MS word MS Access

On arrival on campus, those without training in usage of computers depended on other students to teach them how to use the learning tools, such as: -

the library Online Public Access Catalogue searching the web retrieving online journals searching various databases available on the library website.

One respondent stated: “I sacrificed my own dignity to ask a male colleague to teach me. He must have felt good each time I asked ‘Brian please help’”. The UZ system seemed to have failed the students by providing some instruments, but not the training. This group of female students articulated their predicament well. On the one hand resources are provided but on the other no formal training is provided - and yet students are expected to perform well. Some students provided solutions for themselves. “I enrolled in a course at African Virtual University”

“I enrolled for a course of Introduction to Computers in a college in town”

If indeed women have multiple roles, then their learning should be tailored to ensure that learning resources and the requisite skills should be accessible without further calling on them to make their own time to learn. While students made arrangements to learn by themselves, it is inadequate that they have not been provided with a formal training that facilitates techno-pedagogy. (d)

Technical interruption (i)

Power failures were cited as an interruption to the e-learning process. Some labs and branch libraries are not backed by generator power. Intermittent power cuts, which have been frequent in Harare, have interrupted use of computers.

(ii)

Internet down time - this issue is related to power cuts, but not necessarily all the time. This becomes an interruption to learning, particularly if the online resources being accessed are on the web and one has limited time too. Women students, whose time was already limited, felt particularly disadvantaged.

(iii)

Bandwidth. When the Internet is up, students are inhibited by the slow speed of it. The university has 2mps bandwidth to be shared among 10 000 students and almost 4000 staff. At certain times it is almost impossible to get the Internet. Such limited speed is a great hindrance for students already pressed for learning time.

(iv)

Positive aspects. Some students indicated that when the technical side is fixed, online learning saves time. E-journals are never checked out and are there all the time. One does not “miss” lectures because the materials are on the web. The lecturer does not need to be in their office because one can send them an e-mail and vice versa.

According to these informants, if the technical hindrances are managed, online learning offers flexible learning for women learners. It saves their time which is always demanded by other commitments. The Internet, when it is working, “works like magic … you just click and have information”. These positive comments need to be built on to give women learners the full benefit of online learning. Women learners would also like to see access to computers eased. This goes beyond the technical access but also includes appropriate training programmes and managing the technical aspects that make access possible.

(e)

No interest

There were informants who were not interested in computing and online learning, while some indicated they did not have enough information to develop an interest. Some blame themselves for not learning to use computers. However, these were isolated cases. “Deviant” cases A number of female students identified at work in the computer laboratories were interviewed. We called these “deviant” cases because they were behaving differently from the majority of women, who stayed away from computer laboratories. While these students were aware of fact that they were in the minority, they focused on facilitating their own learning. They were not deterred by being in the minority. The value of reaching their learning goal inspired them. They were aware that other female students were staying away. They were not crusading for the access of others. In a sense, they were pioneering for the good of their education. This group of undergraduate students is one that we would like to go back to, and study their experience a year later. It may shed more light on female online learning prospects in higher education. As a group, they had nothing in common. They were not frightened. They happened to be isolated cases of female students who persevered to use PCs for their learning.

CONCLUDING STATEMENTS

The definition of empowerment as used in this report has been discussed earlier. The respondents in this essay also perceived empowerment in their own terms. Empowerment was said to have been experienced when: “I can now use the computer as well as a man can” “I feel empowered because I can now save time” “I am empowered by ICTs because I have now learnt new skills”

It is my view that utilization of a single framework for empowerment may miss out on individual perception of empowerment. It is critical to recognize what individuals communicate as being empowered, and build on that awareness that may be necessary to achieve higher levels of empowerment like transformation. It begins with individual recognition of being empowered. Any interventions should therefore build on that. Does online learning at UZ empower female graduate students? In the majority of cases interviewed, most were empowered by the online learning. There were exceptional cases

that were not interested in online learning. The students indicated that it saved their time. It offered them control over the learning interface. It accommodated the multiple roles. It was evident form the research that there are technical and socio-cultural barriers against access to learning online. Once those hurdles were/are removed, women learners found online learning empowering them with new skills, new ways of learning and saving their time.

RECOMMENDATIONS These recommendations are drawn from the findings of the study. They have been included here to provide an intervention mechanism that will enhance womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning online in higher education.

1. We recommend that the university should put in place mechanisms that enable female students to have access to computers, i.e. a female postgraduate computer laboratory. 2. We recommend establishment of a framework to collect inputs form graduate female students on how they can be better served by computer laboratories. 3. Computers should be made accessible in halls of residence so that they are easily accessible to female students, who may other wise not feel safe to walk to computer laboratories.

4. Issues of slow connectivity should be addressed more seriously (VSAT should be considered as an option for increasing the bandwidth). 5. We recommend that the university purchase more computers, at least having a computer lab in every department. 6. Training in using PCs to learn online should be compulsory for all graduate students in order to give them online learning skills. 7. There is a need for staff development programmes for the lecturers to be computer literate, so that they can encourage all students generally, and more women students in particular to use online learning resources. 8. The university should come up with policies and practices that encourage the use of ICTs by students in the learning process 9. Lecturers need to cultivate the culture of ICT usage by students.

10. Customized training packages should be designed and ICT planners should keep abreast of technological trends and design curricula that equip all members joining the UZ and all students with ICT skills. 11. There should be capacity building of female students and efforts should be made to introduce ICTs at primary level - ‘catch them young’ - in order to prepare the students for a future that is ICT-based.

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