Cegis by Grey Shack

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH July 2016

Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services House 6, Road 23/C, Gulshan-1, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh. Tel: 8817648-52, Fax: 880-2-8823128

Acknow l e dg e m en t The Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services (CEGIS), a Public Trust under the Ministry of Water Resources has been awarded to conduct the study on “Impact of ICT in Groundwater Management in Bangladesh” by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). CEGIS expresses its gratitude to Mr. Md. Shamsul Huda, Superintending Engineer, BMDA, Rajshahi and Mr. Reza Md. Nure Alam, Executive Engineer, BMDA, Dinajpur for providing technical supports, and continuous suggestions in course of the study. CEGIS gratefully acknowledges the support received from Mr. Shamsher Ali, Executive Engineer, BMDA, Rajshahi, Mr. Md. Kajimuddin, Assistant Engineer, BMDA, Dinajpur and the officials of BMDA offices in Rajshahi and Dinajpur for providing necessary information and cooperation to CEGIS study team during the study. CEGIS also gratefully acknowledges the support received from the local stakeholders during reconnaissance field visit and conducting FGDs and KIIs.

Co n t ent Acknowledgement

Executive Summary

Abbreviation and Acronyms

xiii

Unit Conversion

Glossary

xvii

1 INTRODUCTIO N

1.1 Study Background

1.2 Understanding of the assignment

1.3 Objective of the study

1.4 Scope of works

1.5 Outputs and Deliverables

1.6 Study Area

1.7 Study Limitations

1.8 Structure of the Report

2 CON CEPT AND CO NTEXT OF ICT A PPLICA TION IN GROUNDWATER MANAGE ME N T ( GW M)

2.1 Concept and context of ICT application in GW management

2.2 Intuitional Initiatives and Eï¬&#x20AC;orts for GW through ICT in Bangladesh

2.2.1 Intuitional initiatives of ICT application on WRM in Bangladesh

2.2.2 Public Private Partnership (PPP) approach for ICT in GW Management

2.3 Policy, Rules and Context of ICT Application on GW Management

2.3.1 Bangladesh ICT Policy

2.3.2 Bangladesh Agriculture Policy

2.3.3 Bangladesh Water Policy

2.4 Potential opportunities and risks of ICT application in GW Management

3 AP P RO ACH AND METH ODOLOGY

3.1 Development of Methodological Framework

3.2 Methodology

3.2.1 Requirement Analysis

3.2.2 Review of literature and information

3.2.3 Reconnaissance ﬁeld visit and case study site selection

3.2.4 Response Matrix

3.2.5 Selection of Deep Tube Wells (DTW) in case study sites

3.2.6 Development of Questionnaires and Checklist

3.2.7 Conduct initial stakeholders consultation workshop

3.2.8 Field Data Collection through FGD and KII

3.2.9 Data entry, processing and analysis

3.2.10 Preparation of Comprehensive case study report/draft ﬁnal report

3.2.11 Organization of dissemination workshop

4 AS S ESSMENT O F CO MPA TIBILITY OF TE CH N OLOGIE S AN D SOCIAL ACCEPTANC E

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Types of irrigation equipment

4.3 Status of ICT user in groundwater in the study area

4.3.1 Percentage (%) of ICT user for groundwater monitoring

4.3.2 Types of hardware and software used in ICT based GW management & monitoring

4.3.3 Prepaid meter charging arrangement for smart Card

4.3.4 Volumetric and unit water distribution through buried pipe using smart card

4.4 User friendliness of ICT (smart card based prepaid meter)

4.5 Diﬃculties/Problem of according to the user

4.6 Acceptance of technology for sustainable use (present and future perception)

5 WATER DELIVERY SERV ICE A N D ITS IMPA CT ON W RM

5.1 Water delivery system before using ICT

5.2 Water delivery system after using ICT

5.3 Mechanism between delivery and Payment System

5.4 Observed changes on delivery system by using ICT

5.5 Impact of ICT on Delivery System and WRM

5.5.1 Positive impacts of ICT on water withdrawal

5.5.2 Increase in irrigated area and number of tubewells

5.5.3 Mechanism of early warning system for ICT use in GWM

6 S YNERGY ACRO SS WAT E R-E N E RGY A N D F OOD

6.1 Water dependency on crop production

6.2 Linkage between water-energy and food

6.3 ICT beneďŹ ts in water-energy and food nexus

7 COS T AND BENEF IT ANA LYSIS

7.1 Water use cost before and after ICT use

7.2 Crop Production cost before and after ICT use

7.3 Change in crop area before and after ICT use

8 P OT ENTIALS F OR ADO PT ION AN D EXPANSIO N IN TH E RE GION

8.1 Constraints for adoption of ICT

8.1.1 Physical and Policy Context

8.1.2 Institutional Arrangement

8.2 Opportunities and Scope of Expansion

8.2.1 Opportunities

8.2.2 Scope of Expansion

9 CON CLUSIO NS AND SUGG E STION S

9.1 Conclusion

9.2 Suggestions

RE FERENCES

AP P ENDIX ES

APPENDIX A: Reconnaissance Field Visit

APPENDIX B: Questionnaire and Checklist

APPENDIX C: Field Visit

APPENDIX D: Participant list of Local Stakeholders

105

Ta bles TABLE 2.1. Potential opportunities and risks of ICT application in groundwater management

TABLE 3.1. Locations of the case study sites at Godagari in Rajshahi

TABLE 3.2. Locations of the case study sites at Birganj and KaharolUpazila in Dinajpur

TABLE 3.3. Response Matrix

TABLE 3.4. Aquifer properties of the study area

TABLE 4.1. Upazila wise irrigation equipment (DTW) operated by electricity in the study area

TABLE 4.2. Upazila wise irrigation equipment (STW) operated by electricity in the study area

TABLE 4.3. Upazila wise irrigation equipment (STW) operated by diesel engine in the study area

TABLE 4.4. Upazila wise irrigation equipment (LLp) operated by electricity in the study area

TABLE 4.5. Upazila wise irrigation equipment (LLP) operated by diesel in the study area

TABLE 4.6. Summary of smart card based prepaid meter used DTWs in the study area

TABLE 5.1. Observed changes in cropping pattern

TABLE 5.2. Transformation after installation of prepaid meter in crop ﬁeld

TABLE 7.1. Financial proﬁtability among diﬀerent crops (with and without smart card based prepaid meter)

TABLE 7.2. Change in beneﬁt cost ratio with and without smart card based prepaid meter

TABLE 7.3. Changes in cropped area (ha) before and after ICT

F i g ure Figure 1.1: Map showing the location of the case study sites

Figure 2.1: BMDA Irrigation Coupon

Figure 3.1: Flow diagram of the methodology

Figure 4.1: Upazila wise DTWs in the study area

Figure 4.2: Upazila wise STWs operated by electricity in the study area

Figure 4.3: Upazila wise STWs operated by diesel in the study area

Figure 4.4: Upazila wise LLps operated by electricity in the study area

Figure 4.5: Upazila wise LLps operated by diesel in the study area

Figure 4.6: Percentage (%) of DTW under diﬀerent organization at Godagari Upazila in Rajshahi district

Figure 4.7: Percentage (%) of DTW under diﬀerent organization at Pirganj Upazila in Rangpur district

Figure 4.8: Percentage (%) of DTW under diﬀerent organization at Birganj and Khaharole Upazila in Dinajpur district

Figure 4.9: Equipments for prepaid meter System

Figure 4.10: Flow diagram of prepaid pump usages and energy measuring system

Figure 4.11: Change in cost of irrigation under diﬀerent mode of irrigation

Figure 4.12: Problems related to smart card use in ﬁeld level survey

Figure 4.13: Social acceptance of ICT based prepaid meter

Figure 5.1: Earthen canal irrigation system in Bangladesh

Figure 5.2: Buried pipe irrigation system in Bangladesh

Figure 5.3: Irrigation coverage before and after introduction of ICT

Figure 5.4: Crop diversiﬁcation in Barind region of Bangladesh

Figure 5.5: Average pumping hour per acre (Boro season)

Figure 5.6: Average water demand in Boro season (m3/acre)

Figure 5.7: Year-wise deep tubewells in operation

Figure 5.8: Year-wise irrigated area in operation

Figure 6.1: Linkage between water-energy and food

Figure 7.1: Cost and return of diﬀerent crops by using smart card based prepaid meter

Figure 7.2: Cost and return of diﬀerent crops without smart card based prepaid meter

Figure 7.3: Beneﬁt Cost ration of diﬀerent crops by using with and without smart card based prepaid meter Figure 7.4: Change in Cropped area (ha) using with and without smart card based prepaid meter

57 58

Exec ut iv e Sum m ary The major aim of this study is to assess the impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) application on groundwater resources management in Bangladesh. It is a research based study based on pilot areas through selecting a small number of deep tubewells. The study covers different areas of interest, which are the following: (i) Physical and policy context of ICT application in GW management, (ii) Compatibility of technology, (iii) Cost and benefit, (iv) Water delivery services, (v) Impact on water resources management (WRM), (vi) Synergy across water energy and food, and (vii) Scope for adoption and expansion in the region.The study has been conducted through (i) Requirement analysis (ii) Review of literature and information (iii) Reconnaissance field visit and case study sites selection (iv) Development of questionnaires and checklists (v) Initial stakeholders consultation workshop (vi) Field data collection through FGD and KII (vii) Data entry, processing and analysis, and, (viii) Preparation of comprehensive case study report/draft final report. Eight DTWs and one LLP (those running with ICT based prepaid meter system) have been selected in the case study sites on the basis of practicing the Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Two private DTWs, which are operated by electricity but without prepaid meter, have also been selected to make a comparison. These DTWs have been selected in three districts (Rajshahi, Rangpur and Dinajpur) according to the soil texture and AEZ (Level Barind tract and High Barind Tract). Field surveys were carried out in the selected upazilas to assess the impact of ICT on groundwater management. Key Informant Interviewers (KII) and Focus group discussions (FGD) were made for collecting necessary data and information. There were 9 to 11 participants in each FGD. Average age of the farmers who participated was 34 years and there were a mixture of male and female participants. Total twenty KIIs were conducted in the study areas, among which twelve KIIs were with farmers and eight KIIs were with the pump managers. Eight FGDs were conducted with the irrigation farmers and beneficiaries for collection of socio-economic information. Besides, a group discussion (GD) was held with the concern personnel’s of BMDA and BADC for better understanding of the overall scenario. It was observed from the field visit that before introducing the smart card based prepaid meter, the cropping pattern of the study area was mainly Kharif-2, and Rabi. After implementation of ICT based prepaid meter, cropping pattern turned to Kharif-1, Kharif-2 and Rabi. Command area and irrigated area before introducing ICT based prepaid meter was about 50 acres and 42 acres respectively. But after the introduction of ICT based prepaid meter, the command area and irrigated area increased to about 75 acres and 71 acres respectively. When water was normally distributed through the earthen canal system the irrigation efficiency was 84%. After introducing buried system irrigation efficiency increased to about 95%. This indicates that irrigation efficiency has increased due to change in water delivery pattern. Also, the irrigation cost has decreased because of the installation of ICT based prepaid meter.

In ICT based prepaid metering system irrigation cost per acre of agriculture land is about 2100 taka where as it was 3000 taka per acre when there was no metering system. Water demand by farmers has decreased for the installation of ICT based prepaid meter. Before installation of ICT based prepaid meter the average pumping hour was 30 /acre during the Boro season. But after installation of ICT based prepaid meter the average pumping hour has reduced to around 21hr/acre for the same Boro season. After introduction of ICT, the pumping hour has been reduced up to 30% and the electric bill up to 12%. At present farmers are very cautious about the optimum use of water in their ďŹ eld. As a result, minimum energy is used and maximum purpose is being achieved which is ultimately providing the sustainable use of energy. There is a wide scope of expansion of Barind model in other regions of the country. BADC has already been used smart card based prepaid meter for the irrigation purposes.. Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) is going to introduce ICT on surface water management like Muhuri Irrigation Project (MIP). BWDB has a scope to apply the same on Ganges Kobadak Irrigation Project (GKIP), Teesta Barrage Project (TBP) and so on. Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA) can apply the smart card based prepaid meter in drinking water purposes in near

future.

Local

Government

Engineering

Department (LGED) is also carrying out studies for the expansion of smart card based prepaid meter in their projects.

AB B REVIATIO N A ND A CRONY M S ARIS

Agricultural Resources Information System

BADC

Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation

BMDA

Barind Multipurpose Development Authority

BWDB

Bangladesh Water Development Board

CARB

Center For Action Research-Barind

CEGIS

Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services

CUSEC Cubic Feet Per Second DFR

Draft Final Report

DTW

Deep Tube Well

FAM

Force Mode Pump

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FGD

Focus Group Discussion

Final Report

Groundwater

GWM

Groundwater Management

HYV

High Yield Varieties

ICT

Information and Communication Technology

KII

Key Informant Interview

LLP

Low Lift Pump

Mha

Million Hector

MoA

Ministry of Agriculture

NWRD

National Water Resources Database

PPP

Public Private Partnership

REB

Rural ElectriďŹ cation Board

SOLRIS Soil Resource Information System STW

Shallow Tube Well

ToR

Terms of Reference

WASA

Water Supply and Sewerage Authority

WRM

Water Resource Management

U N IT CON VERSI ON 1 liter = 0.001 cubic meter 1 kiloliter= 1000 liter 1 cubic meter = 1000 liter 1 bigha= 33 decimal 1 Acre= 100 decimal

GL OSSARY Aman: Group of rice varieties grown in the monsoon season and harvested in the post-monsoon season. This is generally transplanted at the beginning of monsoon from July-August and harvested in November-Dec. Mostly rain-fed, supplemental irrigation needed in places during dry spells.

Aus: Group of rice varieties sown in the pre-monsoon season and harvested in the monsoon season. These are broadcasted/transplanted during March-April and harvested during June-July. Generally rain-fed, irrigation needed for HYV T. Aus.

Boro: A group of rice varieties sown and transplanted in winter and harvested at the end of the pre-monsoon season. These are mostly HYV and fully irrigated, planted in December-January and harvested before the onset of monsoon in April- May.

Rabi: Dry agricultural crop growing season; mainly used for the cool winter season between November and February.

T. Aman: When preceding a crop means transplanted (T. Aman).

Int roduction

1 .1 STU DY BA CKG R O U ND Bangladesh is an agro-based country and dependent on

other organizations are the major stakeholders of

water for a wide variety of reasons: human consumption,

groundwater irrigation system. Recently, BADC has also

irrigation, ďŹ sheries, transportation and conservation of

been initiated Low Lift Pump (LLP) for enhancing surface

biodiversity. It is a known assumption that water resource

water irrigation to reduce pressure on groundwater

is going to be scarce worldwide in future and Bangladesh is

resources. In the dry season of 2013-14 (i.e., Boro/winter

of course of no exception. During the winter season, the

crop season) 5,402,332 hectare of land has been irrigated

surface water ďŹ&#x201A;ow of major rivers in Bangladesh drastically

using 1,770,866 numbers of irrigation wells and pumps. In

reduces due to the upstream withdrawal of water by the

total 171041 nos. of LLPs, 1,563,791 nos. of STWs and

neighbouring country. Further, due to sedimentation and

36,034 nos. of DTWs had been operated by BADC in the

morphological changes of rivers, the availability of surface

dry season of 2013-14 (BADC, 2014). According to BADC

water reduces substantially. As a result, farmers fully

2014 report, it is observed that about 78% of the irrigated

depend on groundwater for irrigation for crops during the

area was covered by the groundwater irrigation system

dry winter season. But the groundwater source is not

while 22% of the area was covered by the surface water

unlimited, and for this reason as well as due to intensive

irrigation system. Furthermore, a total of 16694 nos. of

use of groundwater through tubewells, the water level

BADC DTWs have been operated in the Northwest Region

goes down during the dry season. Together with this, in the

of Bangladesh (e.g. Rajshahi Division) during 2013-14

recent years, arsenic contamination has been posing a

covering 404,671 ha of land irrigated. Moreover, BMDA

threat to the health of people in certain parts of

operated 14,415 nos. of DTW through 322,903 ha of land,

Bangladesh because of arsenic contamination being

had been irrigated in the same season.

aggravated in groundwater as well as in the food chain. So, judicial use of water resources is a crucial need for us for

The groundwater level has decreased substantially due to

maintaining sustainable crop production (Sattar M A,

over extraction of water in recent years, which cannot fully

2011).

be replenished through recharge. The groundwater level in Godagari Upazilla, has increased maximum 17m in last 13

Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) is the main

years (2000-2013). The GW-based irrigation system in the

stakeholder to expedite the surface water irrigation for

Barind area has reached at a critical phase as the phreatic

water-based agricultural development of the country.

water level has dropped below the depth of the shallow

Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation (BADC),

wells in many places. The recently published GW zoning

Barind Multipurpose Development Authority (BMDA) and

map shows that highest percentage of irrigated croplands

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

i.e., 60% in Naogaon district, and 10% in Rajshahi and

system which has given a revolutionary development of

Chapainawabganj districts have become critical for shallow

BMDA in optimum use of irrigation water during water

tube-well

the

scarce situations. It is to be mentioned here that this

groundwater management has become a critical issue for

operation

(BADC,

2005).

Therefore,

smart-card/prepared water system has been implemented

the country, especially for the north-west region of the

in Rajshahi, Chapai-Nawabganj, and Naogaon, Panchagar

country. As a result, increasing irrigation water use

and Thakurgaon District (Gonzales et al., 2009). BADC has

eﬃciency and economic use of groundwater for crop

also introduced the prepaid meter system in a few places

production have been taken up as important issues by

of their jurisdiction. These ICT applications need to be

diﬀerent organizations like BADC and BMDA.

promoted throughout the country for optimal use of groundwater during the dry season. An assessment is

BMDA started the prepaid meter system (i.e., ICT

essential to ﬁnd out the impact of ICT system and its

application) on irrigation charges since a couple of years

further opportunities for expansion opportunities in

for ICT based groundwater management and monitoring.

groundwater management and monitoring in Bangladesh.

It is a computerized automatic irrigation charge collection

1.2 U N DER STA ND ING O F T H E A S S IGN M EN T Under the above mentioned context, the Food and

level through investigating perceptions of users, beneﬁts,

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has

limitations (if any), area of improvement and expansion

initiated this study to assess the impact of introducing the

opportunity. The study will however cover the area such as:

application of Information and Communication Technology

(i) Physical and Policy Context of ICT Application in GW

(ICT)

Management, (ii) Compatibility of technology, (iii) Cost and

Bangladesh through a research based study in pilot areas

beneﬁt, (iv) Water delivery services, (v) Impact on water

on selected small number of tube wells in selected sites.

resources management (WRM), (vi) Synergy across water

The study also aimed to increase the water use eﬃciency

energy and food, and lastly (vii) Scope for adoption and

and decrease the consumption i.e. economic use of

expansion in the region.

groundwater

resources

management

groundwater through applying ICT technology at farmers

1.3 O BJECTIV E O F THE S TU DY The main objective of this study is to understand the impact of the introduction of ICT technologies in groundwater resource management in Bangladesh.

1.4 SCO P E O F WO R KS The Terms of Reference (ToR) of the contract document provided by the FAO points out that the consultants (CEGIS) has to conduct the “Study on Impact of ICT in Groundwater management in Bangladesh” covering the following major activities:

Review the available literature on ICT application in GW management 02

INTRODUCTION

Develop questionnaires for ﬁeld data collection

Field investigation and collection of relevant data

Analysis of data and evaluation of ICT application status through:

a. c. e.

Identiﬁcation of physical and policy context of ICT application in GW management Analyze the cost and beneﬁt of ICT based technology application

Assess the ICT Impact on WRM i.e., the net eﬀect in water withdrawal and application

Conduct a consultation workshop

b. d. f.

Assessment of compatibility of ICT technology in GW management Assess the expected change in water delivery service for using ICT Identiﬁcation of further scope for adaptation and expansion of ICT application in GW management in the region

Preparation of a well-structured case study report

1.5 O U TP U TS A ND D ELI V ERA BL ES As per the ToR of the contract document the main output and deliverable of this study is the preparation and submission of the following reports during the diﬀerent stages of the study:

Reports: Following reports will be delivered to FAO:

Inception Report

Draft Final Report

Final Report

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

1.6 STU DY A R EA The study areas shown in Figure 1.1 have been selected

On the basis of lithological characteristics the selected

condition,

study sites of Godagari Upazila in Rajshahi and Pirganj

groundwater irrigation system, Agro-Ecological Zone

Upazila in Rangpur fall in the High Barind Tract and the

(AEZ) as well as expert judgment. The High Barind Tract

sites of Birganj and Kaharol Upazila in Dinajpur district

and Level Barind Tract areas have been selected as

fall in the Level Barind Tract.

the

basis

the

hydrogeological

study areas on the basis of Agro-Ecological Zone (AEZ).

INTRODUCTION

1.7 STU DY LI M I TATIO NS The study was very impressive in-terms of its objectives and scope of works but had some limitations which are stated below:

The study had to be carried out only in the Barind area of the country

The study covered only one

and only on a limited number of

crop season. For better

selected tube-wells which did not

representation at least two more

represent the real scenario of ICT

crop seasons were required to be

application of groundwater

addressed.

management of the country.

The duration of this project was also too short in comparison to the scope of the works provided for the study.

1.8 STRUCTU R E O F THE REP ORT The ﬁnal report consists of nine (9) chapters. Chapter 1

and its impacts on WRM have been summarized in

discusses the project background, study objectives,

Chapter 5. Chapter 6 describes water dependency on

scope of work, major deliverables and limitations of the

crop production and ICT beneﬁts in water energy food

project. Chapter 2 describes diﬀerent literature associated

nexus. Change in cropped area, and crop production after

with ICT application and it impacts on groundwater

introducing ICT have been described in Chapter 7.

management in Bangladesh has been summarized in this

Chapter 8 describes constrains for adoption of ICT, its

chapter. Detail approach and methodology of the study

opportunities & scope for further expansion in other

have been described in Chapter 3. Compatibility of ICT

regions have been summarized in this chapter. Finally,

and its social acceptance have been given in Chapter 4.

Chapter 9 describes the conclusion and suggestions of

Water delivery service before and after introducing ICT

this study.

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Concept and Context of ICT Application in Groundwater Management (GWM)

2.1 Co n c e p t an d c on tex t o f I C T a p p l i c at i o n in GW m an ag e m e n t The main concept of ICT application is to improve

to introduce it. Farmers had to pay 13,500 taka for the

groundwater resources for sustainable use. BMDA is the

installation of pump and electric line for once. After that

pioneer organization in Bangladesh to introduce the

they had to only pay the electric bill which was around 56

prepaid meter system (i.e. ICT) based groundwater use for

USD (BDT 2200/-)/acre for winter crop (Boro crop) season.

eﬃcient irrigation during the dry season. The context of

The main obstacle of this system was that the operators

ICT application in Bangladesh especially by the BMDA has

did not pay their monthly and annual electric bills. As a

been described in this section.

result, REB often had to cut the electric lines of the pumps. BMDA then introduced a new system in 1993-94, where

At the very beginning (in 1992) of BMDA, it introduced

farmers had to pay only 600 taka/ bigha (33 decimal). The

diesel operated DTW and each farmer had to pay 277.27

farmers used wild ﬂooding system to irrigate their

USD (1USD = 38.950758 BDT in 1992) per year for crop

croplands and the buried pipe system was not introduced

production. It was not fully guaranteed because BMDA had

at that time. BMDA had to handle all maintenance cost and

no standby pump or facility for any emergency. But it had

problems. But in this system there was a huge loss of

some limitations such as diesel was expensive and the

water due to its uncontrolled use. For which evaporation

engine did not last long. BMDA then introduced electricity

loss, sub-surface ﬂow/losses and earthen canal etc.

driven DTW cum power pump. REB was their main partner

inﬂuenced to decline the groundwater table.

Co u p on sys te m G W M an a g e me n t Afterwards, BMDA introduced the coupon system (Figure 2.1). The coupons were printed in the government security printing press. Farmers could buy these coupons either directly from the zonal oﬃces or from the appointed coupon dealers residing near to their residences.

Figure 2.1: BMDA Irrigation Coupon

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

The DTW operators supplied irrigation water to the

operators were used selected by the farmer’s community.

farmers as per monetary value of the coupon purchased

Sometimes the operators operated the DTWs without any

by the farmers. Consumption of every DTWs was recorded

coupon, (ii) coupon collection from one TW to another was

prior to their operation and at a prescribed interval during

time consuming, (iii) once used coupons could be reused,

the irrigation seasons. The coupon system had some

(iv) many land owners who operated the Deep Tube Wells

disadvantages which are the following: (i) there was no

collected extra charges from the poor farmers.

direct control on operator/s to operate DTWs as the

Prepaid M e te r / S m ar t C a rd (I C T ba se d ) GW Resou rc e s M an ag e me n t It has already been mentioned that the coupon system

of their DTWs and SANAKOSH have supplied about 13,000

had some drawbacks. For eleminating the drawbacks and

pre-paid

problems of the coupon system, BMDA introduced a

ELECTONICES CO. LTD. of China. Now all the BMDA DTWs

pre-paid meter and smart card system for collecting

are running with the ICT based per-paid meters system.

meters

BMDA

made

WEISHING

irrigation charges directly from the farmers and to increase the revenue of earnings during 2005. The goal of

However, the major objectives of prepaid meter system

introduction of this smart card system is to reduce

are;

irrigation cost and provide optimum irrigation water to the farmers at a low cost to increasing the ﬁeld eﬃciency.

(i) optimum or safe use of irrigation water to produce food

Another goal of prepaid meter is to collect 100% irrigation

grain,

cost from the farmers. (ii) supply irrigation water to farmers at actual demand, Under the above circumstances, BMDA explored pre-paid meter and smart card system at international arena

(iii) increase additional employment facilities to the

through inviting international tenders. Manufacturer from

laborers and marginal farmers,

China, India, and Malaysia participated in those tenders. After testing samples of WEISHING ELECTRONICES CO.

(iv) to prevent meter tempering and pilferage of electricity,

LTD. whose local agent is SANAKOSH ASSOCIATES LTD. was

matched

with

requirements

BMDA.

Representatives of SANAKOSH ASSOCIATES visited various

(v)

collect

consumption

data

from

pump

station

automatically and

irrigation equipment in the ﬁeld before submission of tender and informing about the requirements of the

(vi) monitor every pump station from System Master

authority submit the tender. After evaluation, the authority

Station (SMS).

decided to collect substantial numbers of pre-paid meter/smart card from the SANAKOSH ASSOCIATES. Initially 500 pre-paid meter/smart cardswere issuedin a pilot project of BMDA. It was observed that farmers were getting irrigation water properly and at a comparatively less cost using this technology. Command area was also found to increase and 100% irrigation charge could be realized. BMDA then decided to collect more meters for all

INTRODUCTION

Again, the prepaid card are supplied to every farmer with

the recharged card in the slot of Prepaid meter. In this

his photograph and a user number. Required number of

system there is no chance of misappropriation of money.

dealers are appointed from every BMDA oﬃce for

Irrigation charge and wastage of water have been reduced

respective upazila. There is a vending machine to every

and ﬁnally the ﬁnancial cheating to the farmers has been

dealer. So, dealers use to recharge money from upazila

stopped. The prepaid meter system has become popular

oﬃce of BMDA as required, Similarly, farmers can recharge

among the farmers because it has some advantages and

their cards from dealers and can draw water by inserting

these are:

Prepaid Meter system is error free, accurate and acceptable.

As the pumps do not run without user card/Prepaid card, the farmers can receive water as per their need.

The system can be monitored from the Head Quarter using network and the reporting system is easier.

Contract basis of irrigation system being discouraged

It is a transparent system both for farmers and owners of the pumps.

Irrigation charge payment by farmers and services providing by BMDA are being ensured on mutual interactive basis.

The need based irrigation ensures optimum water use resulting minimum irrigation cost.

Excess ground water lifting is being controlled automatically which ultimately save energy consumption etc.

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

2 .2

In tuitional I n itiativ e s a n d Eff o rt s f o r GW thro u g h I CT in B an gl a d e sh

2.2.1 Intu ition al in itiat i ve s o f I C T a p p l i c at i o n o n W R M in B an g la d e sh BMDA is the pioneer organization who introduced ICT on

going to introduce ICT system in Muhuri river irrigation

ground water management in Bangladesh since 2005. At

project. Moreover, Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage

present, around 15000 of DTWs of BMDA are running with

Authority (DWASA) has some pilot project where they are

ICT based prepaid meter systems. Later BADC has also

going to introduce smart card for drinking water supply.

introduced the similar system in 2010. It is to be mentioned here that out of 36,566 of DTWs of BADC, only

However, BMDA has successfully managed groundwater

1500 DTWs are under ICT technology and is expected to

irrigation using the ICT based prepaid meter system

be increased the numbers of ICT based tubewells within

through the active participation of farmerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s community

next few couple of years. BADC will setup those planned

which is remarkable in Bangladesh. BMDA is implementing

prepaid meter system at Jamalpur, Mymensingh, and

this ICT based system through community based

Kishorgonj districts of Bangladesh. Further, BWDB is also

institutional approach with a strong monitoring portfolio.

INTRODUCTION

2.2.2 Pub lic Pr iv ate Pa rt n e rshi p (P P P ) a p p ro a c h fo r ICT in G W M ana g e me n t BMDA, BADC and BWDB (in very few places) widely oﬀer

study. Besides, many private initiatives are introduced

ICT application on ground water management in

individually and institutionally In Bangladesh which are

Bangladesh. They introduced this service through strong

also being explored. During reconnaissance ﬁeld visit it has

public participation. Normally a farmer’s community is

been observed that few organizations are also oﬀering

formed before the installation of ICT based pump. This

credits for initial investments to install the ICT based

community is responsible for all activities related to water

groundwater management system at Rajshahi region. This

delivery services. But this community system needed some

type of organizations have been explored in detail and

improvement, which are being made in this study. The role

recommended for Public Private Partnership (PPP) based

of the community in ICT based DTW operation and further

institutional approaches for the ICT application in

improvements have been identiﬁed through community

groundwater management.

discussions during the ﬁeld data collection under this

2.3 Po licy, R u le s an d C o n t ex t o f I C T A p p l i c at i o n o n GW M an ag e m e n t In view of the various adverse impacts on environment, the

This section reviewed the existing policies, plans and

Government of Bangladesh has given especial importance

program and determined the synergies and reduced the

to its protection and improvement. On the other hand, the

conﬂicts between the existing policies, plans and

current government is very keen to improve ICT

programmes. For improving ICT application for sustainable

application in various sectors. Thus the policy-makers are

groundwater use, the required changes in the policies and

concerned about environmental issues and ICT application

plans have been addressed. National policies, plans and

in a combined and sustainable manner. These concerns

programmes which have direct excess to ICT, agriculture,

are reﬂected in diﬀerent policy initiatives of the

water management and environment sector have been

government. The Government of Bangladesh (GoB) has

reviewed, and brieﬂy described below:

adopted some policy regarding ICT application and groundwater management because this ﬁnite resource is becoming scarce day by day due to unplanned use.

2 .3 .1 Ban g lad e s h ICT Po l i c y Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is

The most important point of this research is to improve ICT

considered as the most eﬀective constituent for the

application for the sustainable management of ground

development of a nation. To deliver the beneﬁts of ICT to a

water. This section also includes the use of electricity

greater mass of the country, the previous Government

supply all over the country according to current demand

(2009-’14), in its previous tenure, felt the necessity of an

and ensure fulﬁlling future demand (Activity 265) reduce

Information and Communication Technology policy.

system loss (Activity 272), cost eﬀective use of power

National ICT policy was thus adopted in 2009.

(strategic Theme 10.1) and introduction of prepaid meter (Activity 273).

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

2.3 .2 Ban g lad e s h A g r ic ul t ure Po l i c y The National Agriculture Policy, 2013 approved by the

Bangladesh is around 185 percent, where only 4.14

Government focuses on agriculture production, alleviating

percent net cultivable land remained fallow. As such

poverty through generating jobs and ensuring food

maximum emphasis should be given on the productivity of

security. The Policy outlined nine speciﬁc objectives. None

crops where irrigation is a major component/input. Smart

of them speciﬁcally addresses the issues of ground water

card can be an important tool for eﬃcient and cost

management. This should be a major concern because

eﬀective irrigation. But there is no such rules regarding its

irrigation facility of our country largely depends on ground

use, distribution and other facilities

water. According to this policy, cropping intensity of

2.3 .3 B an g lad e s h Wate r Po l i c y The adaptation of National Water Policy in 1999 was a

Management Action Plan (NEMAP).This policy mainly

response to the long felt need for government directives

emphasizes the need for the protection of surface water

and guidelines for the management, regulation and

bodies and safe supply of water. As a result, ground water

utilization of the water resources of the country. The key

management related issues are not highlighted. There are

objectives of the policy are to ensure the availability of

no important topics or subjects related to monitor the

water to all elements of the society and to accelerate the

groundwater recharge and abstraction of this ﬁnite

development of sustainable public and private water

resource in any speciﬁc interval. Any policy regarding the

systems. The policy states that activities should be initiated

establishment of DTWs, STWs is also not cleared.

to improve the eﬃciency of resource utilization through conjunctive use of all forms of surface water and

Using these gaps of law, the number of private DTWs is

groundwater for irrigation and urban water supply. The

growing very quickly in the northern region of Bangladesh.

policy also put emphasis on full consideration to

Moreover, there is no clear rule on private-public

environmental protection, restoration and enhancement

investment on groundwater management.

measures consistent with the National Environment

INTRODUCTION

2.4 Pote n tial op p or tu n i t i e s a n d ri sk s o f ICT ap p lic ation i n GW Ma n a ge me n ICT use in groundwater management has wide

ICT based will aﬀect the achievement of the prepaid

application and a clear set of beneﬁts, which, in general,

meter system of DTWs. Therefore, the application of ICT

increases water use eﬃciency and thus decreases

on groundwater management needs to be introduced in

consumption. But a wide range of pros and cons has

ICT Policy as well as Water Policy of Bangladesh.

been found out from this study. The ensuring of the

However, several potential opportunities and risks of ICT

availability of electricity in future due to over population

application in groundwater management are shown in

and rapid urbanization of the country is one of the

Table-2.1.

potential risks. Again, the private DTWs which are not

Table 2.1. Potential opportunities and risks of ICT application in groundwater management Potential opportunities and risks of ICT application in GW Management

Opportunities

Risks

Improvement of water supply system

Lack of policy

Reduce Irrigation and production Cost

Lack of ICT Governance

Increasing Commanding Area

Lack of Funding

No scope of pending irrigation charge

Lack of awareness

Lack of Mismanagement

Pressure on electricity by over population and rapid urbanization

Meter Tempering

Inﬂuence of private DTW those have not ICT based management system

Real Judgement Easy to use Reduce electricity cost Increase revenue

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Approach and Methodology

3 .1 Develop m e n t of M et ho d o l o gi c a l Fra me w o rk A transparent approach and methodology is required for

comprehensive approach and methodology has been

determination

groundwater

developed which is presented in Figure 3.1. A brief

management in Bangladesh. Understanding objectives

ICT

impacts

description of diďŹ&#x20AC;erent steps of the methodology is given

and activities of the project, a well thought out and

in section 3.2.

1. Requirement of Analysis

2. Review of Literature

3. Reconnaissance field visit and for case study

6. Inception Report Preparation

D 4. Selection of Deep Tube Wells (DTW) at case study area

E 7. Conduct initial Consultation Workshop

5. Develop Questionnaire and Checklist

I V E

R A

8. Field Data Collection through FGD and KI

- Compatibility of technology - Compatibility of technology - Water Delivery Service - Impact on Water Management - Synergy across water-energy and food - Perception of water user farmers - Scope of adoption and expansion - Potential risks on ICT application - Hard data like pumping hours, total water use by a farmer,total cost collected, total operation and maintenance cost

10. Preparation of comprehensive case study report

B L E S

11. Conduct dissemination workshop

9. Data entry, processing and analysis

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

3.2 Meth od olog y The approach and methodology are described below:

3.2.1 Re q u ire m e n t A n al y si s At the initial stage of the study, consultation meetings were

several sub-tasks which are (i) assessment of information

organized with relevant oﬃcials of the FAO to understand

and documentation to be needed, (ii) identiﬁcation of

the details of the client’s expectations from this project.

relevant data and data sources organizations and (iii)

The required analysis has been accomplished through

ﬁnalization of the study methodology

3.2.2 Re v ie w of lite rature a n d i n f o rmat i o n At the initial stage of the study, consultation meetings were

several sub-tasks which are (i) assessment of information

organized with relevant oﬃcials of the FAO to understand

and documentation to be needed, (ii) identiﬁcation of

the details of the client’s expectations from this project.

relevant data and data sources organizations and (iii)

The required analysis has been accomplished through

ﬁnalization of the study methodology

3.2.3 Rec on n ais s an c e f i e l d vi si t a n d cas e s tu d y s ite s e l e c t i o n Two reconnaissance ﬁeld visits were conducted in the

areas by relevant experts. This is important for

study areas (Rajshahi, Rangpur and Dinajpur) from 30th

identiﬁcation of stakeholders and tube wells selection at

December, 2015 to 01st January, 2016 and 13th to 15th

the case study sites and testing the draft questionnaire,

January, 2016 for the selection of DTWs and stakeholders

which is reﬂected in this report. The main objective of the

in the case study sites. The case study sites have been

reconnaissance ﬁeld visit was to observe the existing

selected on the basis of groundwater irrigation system,

situation of groundwater condition and ICT technology

hydrogeological

used for groundwater management by BMDA. The speciﬁc

condition

and

expert

judgments.

Reconnaissance visits have been conducted in the study

objectives were:

Consultation meetings

Secondary data collection

Present status of ICT (e.g.

Identiﬁcation of

with BMDA oﬃcials

(e.g. groundwater level,

smart meter andsmart

stakeholders

for selection of possible

irrigated area number

card) in groundwater

case study sites

of tubewells etc.)

management

However, the detail of the reconnaissance ﬁeld visit is given in Appendix-A. 02

INTRODUCTION

24º29′1.5″

Private (electricity)

Sujalpur-1 (Irrigation)

25º57′3.6″

25º50′51.0″

25º50′41.8″

25º51′36.0″

25º27′58.1″

Latitude

(Irrigation + Drinking)

Kaharol-1

25º45′35.6″

Makundapur-1 25º48′00.3″ (Irrigation)

(Irrigation + Drinking)

BG-1

Sujalpur-3 (Irrigation)

Private (electricity)

Sujalpur-2

Shanerhat (Irrigation)

Md. Mizanur Rahman (01916768616)

88º19′54.3″

88º19′58.6″ Anwarul (01939474676)

Khalilur Rahman 27

Rajshahi

Manager Name & Commanding District Mobile No. Area (ha)

88º20′56.9″ Md. Toslim Uddin (01193278528)

88º25′59.5″

Longitude

Godagari

Upazila

Paurashava

Godagari

5 no. Godagari

Union Union

88º35′11.4″

88º36′32.5″

88º31′33.3″

88º36′31.5″

Md. Muksedul (01871907276) Md. Fazlar (01750873017) Sirajul Islam (01737538254)

Md. Nazrul

Masud 88º36′52.4″ (01725592194) 100

Bharat Chandra Roy 88º38′39.5″ (01745558507)

89º18′6.6″

Dinajpur

Rangpur

Manager Name & Commanding Area (Acre) District Mobile No. Md. Ramuj Rabbani (01677249368)

Longitude

Kaharol

Birganj

Pirganj

Upazila

Kaharol

Makundapur

Mohammadpur

Sujalpur

Shanerhat

Union Union

Table 3.2. Locations of the case study sites at Birganj and KaharolUpazila in Dinajpur

Barind (LLp) 24º28′59.4″

24º29′20.9″

Amtoli-1 (Irrigation)

DTW No.

Latitude

Raninagar-03 24º23′47.4″ (Drinking+ Irrigation)

DTW No.

Sl.

Table 3.1. Locations of the case study sites at Godagari in Rajshahi

Isail

Dewnahata

Taratbari

Madanpur

Komorpur

Routhpara

Mouza

Surgongla

Amtoli

Raninagar

Mouza

Ganku K-44

K46

168,668

151,88

JL No.

193

320

JL No.

3.2.4 Re s p on s e M atr ix After the ﬁeld visit, CEGIS team found a number of

be compared. An arbitrary matrix has been developed

diﬀerences between ICT based irrigation system and

after the ﬁeld visit. The response matrix of DTWs in Barind

without having this facility. DTWs of these areas having

area with the use of smart card based prepaid meter and

smart card based meters and having no such facility can

traditional one is presented in table 3.3.

Table 3.3. Response Matrix Sl No.

Compared Items

With Smart card

01.

Irrigation cost/ acre

02.

Production cost for HYV. Boro (Tk./acre)

03.

Command area/acre

04.

Without Smart card

2100

3000

26200

27100

Electricity Bill (Tk. Acre)

1400

1600

05.

Water Demand in Robi season (m3/acre)*

4821

6116

06.

Pumping Hour in Robi season (hour/acre)

07.

Pilferage

Nil

High

08.

People perception

Acceptable

Not Acceptable

Source: ﬁeld survey, March 2016. (* This cost varies with time)

3.2.5 Sel e c tion of D e e p Tube We l l s (D TW ) in c as e s tu d y s ites Eight DTWs and one LLP (running with ICT based prepaid

inﬁltration (both leaching and percolation). As a result

meter system) have been selected in case study sites on

farmers need more water to balance high inﬁltration and

the

and

crop production in High Barind area. As the groundwater

Communication Technology (ICT). Two private DTWs which

abstraction and use depend on the agro-ecological,

are operated by electricity but without prepaid meter have

hydrogeological and social cultural characteristics of an

also been selected to observe the comparison. These

area, 10 numbers of tubewells were selected to

DTWs were selected in three districts (Rajshahi, Rangpur

understand the diversity of problems, opportunities and

and Dinajpur) according to the soil texture and AEZ (Level

potentiality. This helped to generate diﬀerent scenario

Barind tract and High Barind Tract). Soils of Madhupur clay

considering

is developed with both of these soils. But soils of High

characteristics of the selected locations in the two study

Barind are very porous, whereas Level Barind soils are

regions. The aquifer characteristics of the study areas are

medium porous (BARC, 2012). High porosity leads to high

given below:

basis

INTRODUCTION

practicing

the

Information

water

consumption

and

aquifer

Table 3.4. Aquifer properties of the study area

Sl. No

High Barind (Godagari Upazila

Properties

Level Barind (Kaharol)

& Parts of Pirganj Upazila)

01.

Transmissibility (sq. m/day)

500-1000 (Rajshahi)

500-1000 (Dinajpur)

02.

Ground Water Table (feet)

April-June 5.59-6.9

5.44-7.42

October- December 4.94-6.16

2.1-3.44

03.

Porosity (%)

Highly Porous (approx. 30)

Moderately Porous (approx. 26)

04.

Permeability

Highly Permeable

06.

Type of Aquifer

Unconﬁned

Unconﬁned/Semi conﬁned

07.

Thickness of Aquifer (Feet)

Around 60-70 (Homogeneous)

Upper 80 Middle 20

08.

Thickness of Clay layer (feet)

10-20

11.

Water Quality

Good Remarks:

Good

(No signiﬁcant amount of As, an intrusion of saline water is not found. Detail can be done after the ﬁeld visit ) 12.

Discharge rate (cusec)

13.

Recharge Rate (mm a-1)

<300 (Rajshahi)

300-600 (Dinajpur)

Sources: (UNDP, 1982; HTS/MMP, 1967; MMP/HTS, 1982; MMI, 1992; MMI, 1993; RUS, 1985; Baker et al., 1989; EPC/MMP, 1991; Ahmed, 1994; BADC, 2005)

BMDA has been chosen as the stakeholder organization to

prone

conduct this study because it is the pioneer organization in

successfully managed water stress situation. They have

ICT

also introduced ICT in irrigation system through people’s

application

for

groundwater

management

Bangladesh. BWDB also operate DTW in the drought

northern

part

Bangladesh.

But

BMDA

participation, where BWDB has some small projects only.

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

3.2.6

Developm e n t of Q u e s ti o n n a i re s an d C hec klis t

Questionnaires and checklist have been developed for

primary data collection. The questionnaires are developed

management, operation and maintenance cost and water

on the basis of total water withdrawal, monitoring

charge collection etc.

farmers,

pumping

hours,

impacts

water

groundwater level, water delivery systems, water demand

3.2.7 Co n d u c t in itial s t a ke ho l d e rs co n s u ltation wor k sho p Two consultation workshops were arranged at the

to discuss the study approaches, ďŹ nalize the study

beginning and before completion of the study. The ďŹ rst

methodology and the questionnaires to be used in the

consultation workshop was organized at the beginning of

ďŹ eld for data collection.

the study. The purpose of this consultation workshop was

INTRODUCTION

3.2.8 Field D ata Colle c t i o n t hro ug h F GD a n d K I I Field surveys were carried out in the selected Upazila to

conducted with farmers, eight KII were conducted with the

assess the impacts of ICT on groundwater management.

pump managers and eight FGDs with the irrigation farmers

Key Informant Interviewers (KII) and Focus group

and

discussion (FGD) were used for collecting necessary data

information. Moreover, Group discussions (GD) were held

and information. Each FGD involved 9 to11 persons.

with the concerned personnel’s of BMDA and BADC for the

Average age of the farmers was 34 years and there were

better understanding of the overall scenario. The detail of

both male and female farmers. Twelve KIIs were

the ﬁeld visit has been given in Appendix-C

beneﬁcial

for

collection

socio-economic

3.2.9 Data e n tr y, p r oc e ssi n g a n d a n a l y si s Software’s such as Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Word

software was used. On the basis of the analyzed data this

have been used in quantitative data analyses, and word

draft study report is being prepared. The draft report will

processing respectively. In analyzing spatial data, ARCGIS

be sent to FAO for reviewing and receiving their feedbacks.

3.2.10 Pre p aration of C o mp re he n si ve c a se s tu d y re p or t/ d ra f t f i n a l re p o rt The ﬁnal outcome of the study is to prepare a well

feedbacks from the consultative workshop, the report will

structured case study report. After data collection, entry,

be revised according to the suggestions provided by FAO

processing and analysis this draft ﬁnal report has been

and all concerned from the workshop. After which this

prepared and the ﬁndings of the draft ﬁnal report will be

report will be ﬁnalized and be submitted to FAO.

presented in the consultative workshop. After obtaining

3.2.11 Or g an ization of d i sse mi n at i o n w o rk sho p After ﬁnalization of the case study report it will be

small dissemination workshop for the compatibility of the

disseminated among the relevant stakeholders through a

technology and its social acceptance

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Assessment of Compatibility of Technologies and Social Acceptance

4.1 In tro d u c tion Irrigation of agriculture land plays a vital role for the growth

are used to minor irrigation system and low-lift pumps

in crop production in Bangladesh. Shallow tubewells

(LLPs) are used to major irrigation system in the country.

(STWs), deep tubewells (DTWs) and hand tubewells (HTWs)

4.2 Typ e s of ir r ig ation e qui p me n t Various types of irrigation equipments are used for crop

lift pumps (LLPs). All DTWs in the study areas are operated

production in the selected study areas such as (i) deep

by electricity. Again, the STWs and LLPs in the study areas

tubewells (DTWs), (ii) shallow Tubewells (STWs) and (iii) low

are operated by electricity and diesel.

D e e p Tube w e l l (D TW) G o d a ga r i U p a z i l a , Ra j s h a h i

Pirgan j Up azil a, Ran gpur

A total 719 number of DTW were in operation

In Pirganj Upazila, during the Boro Season

throughout the Godagari Upazila in Rajshahi

of 2013-14, total 219 nos. of DTW was in

district during Boro Season in 2013-14. Among

operation.

those, 714 nos. were controlled by BMDA which

controlled by BADC, 77 were controlled by

were operated by smart card based prepaid

BADA and rest 76 nos. of DTW were

meter and the rest of the DTWs were controlled

controlled by other agencies. The total

by other agencies. Total area then irrigated was

irrigated area was 5702 (ha) and the

19,895 (ha) and the number of beneﬁciaries was

number

44,105. (BADC, 2014)

(BADC, 2014).

Among

which

beneﬁciaries

was

were

11,750.

Bi rga njUpa z i la , D i n a j p u r

K haharo l e Up azil a, Din aj p ur

In the Boro Season of 2013-14, a total 288 of

Total 179 nos. of DTWs was in operation throughout

DTW was in operation throughout the Birganj

the Khaharole Upazila of Dinajpur district in the Boro

Upazila in Dinajpur district. Among them 2were

Season of 2013-14.Among which 10were controlled by

controlled by BADC, 270 were controlled by

BADC, 164 were controlled by BMDA and rest 5 DTW

BADA and rest 16 nos. of DTW were controlled

were controlled by other agencies. The total irrigated

by other agencies. Total area irrigated was

area was 2,217 (ha) and the number of beneﬁciaries

7,749 (ha) and the number of beneﬁciaries was

was 6,275. (BADC, 2014).

15,960. (BADC, 2014).

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Table 4.1. Upazila wise irrigation equipment (DTW) operated by electricity in the study area

District

Rajshahi

Upazila

Mode of Irrigation equipment

Organization

Godagari

Birganj DTW

Dinajpur Khaharole

Rangpur

Pirganj

Electricity

Irrigated

No. of

Number

Area (ha)

BeneďŹ ciaries

BADC

BMDA

714

19765

43720

Others

130

385

BADC

BMDA

270

7526

15410

Others

180

470

BADC

296

415

BMDA

164

1746

5740

Others

175

120

BADC

2712

3850

BMDA

1945

4850

Others

1045

3050

Source: BADC-DAE-BMDA, 2013-2014, Minor Irrigation Survey Report, BADC, Sech Bhaban, Dhaka.

Upazila wise DTWs operated by Electricity 800

No. of DTWSs

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 BADC

BMDA Others BADC

BMDA Others

DTW

Godagari

Birganj

Khaharole

Pirganj

Upazila Figure 4.1: Upazila wise DTWs in the study area 02

ASSESSMENT OF COMPATIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE

Shallow Tu b e we ll ( S TW) G o d a ga r i U p a zi la , Ra js ha hi During the Boro Season of 2013-14, total 2515 nos. of private STW was in operation in Godagari Upazila. Among the STWs, 8 nos. were operated by electricity and rest were operated by diesel engine. Total irrigated area was 3109 (ha) and the total number of beneﬁciaries was 8220. (BADC, 2014)

P i r ga n j U p a zi la , Ra ng p u r In total 17527 nos. of private STW was in operation throughout the Pirganj Upazila in Rangpur district during the Boro Season of 2013-14. Among the STWs, 1215 nos. were operated by electricity and the rest were operated by diesel engine. Total irrigated area was 28539 (ha) and the number of beneﬁciaries was 114263. (BADC, 2014)

Bi r ga n j U p a zi la , D i na jp u r In Boro Season of 2013-14, a total 8280 number of private STW were in operation throughout the Birganj Upazila in Dinajpur district. Among them, 1730 were operated by electricity and the rest were operated by diesel engine. Total irrigated area was 22399 (ha) and the number of beneﬁciaries was 47,895. (BADC, 2014)

Kh a h a ro l e U p a zi la , D i na jp u r In total 8280 nos. of private STWs were in operation throughout the Khaharole Upazila in Dinajpur district during the Boro Season of 2013-14. Among which 601 were operated by electricity while the rest were operated by diesel engine. Total irrigated area was 14,275 (ha) and the number of beneﬁciaries was 33973. (BADC, 2014)

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Table 4.2. Upazila wise irrigation equipment (STW) operated by electricity in the study area

District

Upazila

Rajshahi

Mode of Irrigation equipment

Organization

Godagari

Birganj STW

Dinajpur Khaharole

Rangpur

Pirganj

Electricity

Irrigated

No. of

Number

Area (ha)

BeneďŹ ciaries

BADC

Private

Others

BADC

Private

1730

6689

9585

Others

BADC

Private

601

3005

5409

Others

BADC

Private

1215

6887

33254

Others

Source: BADC-DAE-BMDA, 2013-2014, Minor Irrigation Survey Report, BADC, Sech Bhaban, Dhaka.

Upazila wise STWs operated by Electricity 2000 1800 1600 No. of STWs

1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200

STW

Godagari

Birganj

Khaharole

Pirganj

Upazila

Figure 4.2: Upazila wise STWs operated by electricity in the study area

INTRODUCTION

Others

Private

BADC

Others

Private

BADC

Others

Private

BADC

Others

Private

BADC

Table 4.3.Upazila wise irrigation equipment (STW) operated by diesel engine in the study area

District

Upazila

Rajshahi

Mode of Irrigation equipment

Godagari

Birganj STW

Dinajpur Khaharole

Rangpur

Pirganj

Organization

Diesel

Irrigated

No. of

Number

Area (ha)

BeneďŹ ciaries

BADC

BMDA

2507

3079

8220

Others

BADC

BMDA

6550

15710

38310

Others

BADC

BMDA

3970

11270

28564

Others

BADC

BMDA

16312

21652

81009

Others

Source: BADC-DAE-BMDA, 2013-2014, Minor Irrigation Survey Report, BADC, Sech Bhaban, Dhaka.

Upazila wise STWs operated by Electricity 18000 16000

No. of STWs

14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 BADC Private Others BADC Private Others BADC Private Others BADC Private Others

STW

Godagari

Birganj

Khaharole

Pirganj

Upazila

Figure 4.3: Upazila wise STWs operated by diesel in the study area

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Low Li f t P ump (L L P ) Godagari Upazila, Rajshahi In total 515 nos. of private LLPs were in operation in Godagari Upazila at Rajshahi district during Boro Season of 2013-14. Among these LLPs, 35 nos. were operated by electricity and the rest were operated by diesel engine. Total irrigated area was 1750 (ha) and the number of beneﬁciaries was 3970. (BADC, 2014)

Birganj Upazila, Dinajpur In total, 5 private LLPs were in operation throughout the Birganj Upazila in Dinajpur district operated by electricity during the Boro Season of 2013-14. Total irrigated area was 60 (ha) and the number of beneﬁciaries was 16. (BADC, 2014)

Table 4.4.Upazila wise irrigation equipment (LLp) operated by electricity in the study area District

Rajshahi

Upazila

Mode of Irrigation equipment

Godagari

Birganj LLp

Dinajpur Khaharole

Rangpur

Pirganj

Organization

Electricity

Irrigated

No. of

Number

Area (ha)

Beneﬁciaries

BADC

BMDA

430

450

Others

815

1505

BADC

BMDA

Others

BADC

BMDA

Others

BADC

BMDA

Others

Source: BADC-DAE-BMDA, 2013-2014, Minor Irrigation Survey Report, BADC, Sech Bhaban, Dhaka. Table 4.5. Upazila wise irrigation equipment (LLP) operated by diesel in the study area District

Rajshahi

Upazila

Mode of Irrigation equipment

Godagari

Birganj LLp

Dinajpur Khaharole

Rangpur

Pirganj

Organization

Diesel

Irrigated

No. of

Number

Area (ha)

Beneﬁciaries

BADC

BMDA

480

505

2015

Others

BADC

BMDA

Others

BADC

BMDA

Others

BADC

BMDA

Others

Source: BADC-DAE-BMDA, 2013-2014, Minor Irrigation Survey Report, BADC, Sech Bhaban, Dhaka. 02

INTRODUCTION

Upazila wise LLP operated by electricity 25

No. of LLp

20 15 10 5 0 BADC

BMDA Others

BADC

BMDA Others BADC

BMDA Others

LLp

Godagari

Birganj

Khaharole

Pirganj

Upazila Figure 4.4: Upazila wise LLps operated by electricity in the study area

Upazila wise LLp operated by diesel 600 400 300 200 100

LLp

Godagari

Birganj

Khaharole

Pirganj

Others

BMDA

BADC

Others

BMDA

BADC

Others

BMDA

BADC

Others

BMDA

0 BADC

No. of LLp

500

Upazila

Figure 4.5: Upazila wise LLps operated by diesel in the study area

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

4.3 .1 Perc e n tag e ( % ) o f I C T use r f o r grou n d wate r m oni t o ri n g G o da ga r i U p a zi la , Ra js ha hi A total of 719 no. of DTWs were in operation for irrigation

operated by smart card based prepaid meters and 19765

purpose in Godagari Upazila during the Boro season of

hectares of land have been irrigated throughout the

2013-14.Among the DTWs, 99 percent (%) of DTWs were

Godagari Upazila in Rajshahi district of Bangladesh.

DTW (Others) 1%

DTW (BMDA) 99%

Figure 4.6: Percentage (%) of DTW under diďŹ&#x20AC;erent organization at Godagari Upazila in Rajshahi district

Pi r ga n j Upa zi la , Ra ng p u r In Pirganj Upazila, a total of 219 no. of DTWs were in

operated by smart card based prepaid meters and 1945

operation for irrigation purpose during the Boro Season of

hectares of lands have been irrigated throughout the

2013-14. Among which, 35 percent (%) of DTWs were

Pirganj Upazila in Rangpur district of Bangladesh.

DTW (Others) 35%

DTW (BADC) 30%

DTW (BMDA) 35%

Figure 4.7: Percentage (%) of DTW under diďŹ&#x20AC;erent organization at Pirganj Upazila in Rangpur district 02

ASSESSMENT OF COMPATIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE

B i r ga n j Upa zi la , D i na jp u r In Boro Season of 2013-14, about 288 no. of DTWs were in

meters and 7526 hectares of lands have been irrigated

operation for irrigation purpose. Among which, 58 percent

throughout the Birganj Upazila in Dinajpur district of

(%) of DTWs were operated by smart card based prepaid

Bangladesh.

K h a h a ro l e U p a zi la , D i na jp u r A total of 179 numbers of DTWs were in operation for

smart card based prepaid meters and 1746 hectares of

irrigation purpose in Khaharole Upazila at Dinajpur district.

lands have been irrigated throughout the Khaharole

Among which, 35 percent (%) of DTWs were operated by

Upazila in Dinajpur district of Bangladesh.

Table 4.6. Summary of smart card based prepaid meter used DTWs in the study area No. of ICT based DTW

Irrigated Area (ha)

No. of BeneďŹ ciaries

SI.No.

District

Upazila

Rajshahi

Godagari

714

19765

43720

Rangpur

Pirganj

1945

4850

Birganj

274

7526

15410

Khaharole

164

1746

5740

3. 4.

Dinajpur

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

4.3 .2 Typ e s of h ard ware a n d so f t w a re use d i n IC T b as e d G W m ana ge me n t & mo n i t o ri n g Diﬀerent types of hardware’s and software’s were used in ICT based GW monitoring and management such as; (i) SMS (system master station)

(ii) VS (vending station)

(iii) MVU (mobile vending unit)

(iv) SC (smart card)

(v) CR (Card Reader)

(vi) CP (Card Printer) and

(vii) prepaid box

0 0 0 0 0 0

For prepaid metering system every farmer

Then for every pump station BMDA use a

is an owner of a smart card which is

prepaid meter with a LCD display which is

embedded with his photo, name and a

hung on along the energy measuring

user number which is provided by BMDA.

meter. All the prepaid meters, air valves and start control units need to be installed in each water pump house.

Each local oﬃce will have a Vending

After one or two days interval a

Station (VS) and each vending dealer will

responsible oﬃcial of BMDA visit the

have a Mobile Vending Unit (MVU) for

pump station and insert his checking card

facilitating the charging of cards of the

in the meter’s slot and the meter

farmers.

automatically upload the whole information of previous pump operations.

For continuous updating and monitoring of the collected data, all VS will be connected to a System Master Station (SMS) to be located at the Head Oﬃce of BMDA. For which, the Head Oﬃce will automatically be able to know all vending information. The daily sales report, weekly consumption report, dealer-wise sales report etc. can be generated from the SMS. Other than the report generation, the overall control of the VS will be maintained through the SMS. 02

ASSESSMENT OF COMPATIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE

Smart Card

Mobile Vending unit

Pre Paid meter

Card Reader

Card Printer

Vending Station

Figure 4.9: Equipments for prepaid meter System

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Database & Ne twor kin g S y st e m BMDA oﬃcials use a central server which is called SMS

computer and connects with the SMS through telephone

(System Master Station) to store all information and the

line. The VS is used for charging or uploading the meter

all the data such as: - user information, charging

information. To collect information from VS to SMS oﬃcials

information, meter information etc. For storing all these

of BMDA use telephone lines. This procedure is called

data there is a database called SQL Server and for charging

telephone networking or Virtual Private Network (VPN).

the user card BMDA oﬃcials use database software called

BMDA oﬃcials create a dial-up connection for the VS and

PMS (Payment Management System). The server

by using the telephone line the VS are connected with

computer is established at the Head Oﬃce of BMDA. Every

SMS. Then a responsible person who is operating the VS

Upazila oﬃce contains VS (Vending Station), which is a

uploads the data or charge the user card.

SMS:

System Master Station

VS:

Vending Station

Figure 4.10: Flow diagram of prepaid pump usages and energy measuring system

INTRODUCTION

4 .3 .3 Pre p aid m e te r c ha rgi n g arran g e m e n t for sma rt C a rd Each local oﬃce has a Vending Station (VS) and each

charge in his/her user card). After charging money s/he

vending dealer has a Mobile Vending Unit (MVU) for

goes to his respective pump house and inserts his/her

facilitating the charging of cards of the farmers. The

card in the meters slot. The meter then starts

farmers/users go to the respective vending dealers and

automatically. After fulﬁlling his/her demand s/he presses

place his/her demand (how much money s/he wants to

the button on the meter and pulls out his/her card back.

4 .3 .4 Vo lu m e tr ic an d un i t w at e r d i st ri but i o n throu g h b u r ie d p i p e usi n g sma rt c a rd In case of smart card based prepaid metering system,

water (Source: BMDA, 2016). This means that the farmers

water is distributed through the buried pipes and the local

have to pay 100 taka/hour for 203880 litres of water and 1

farmers have to pay 100 taka/hour for every 2 cusec of

taka for 2038.80 litres of water.

4 .4 U s er fr ie n d lin e s s o f I C T ( s m ar t c ard b as e d p re p a i d me t e r) Smart card based prepaid meters are very eﬀective and they have positive impacts because:

Farmers can establish their rights in terms of water use. They can get water at any time in any amount.

In case of irrigation smart card based prepaid metering system; farmers have to pay 2100 BDT/acre where as they have to pay 3000 BDT/acre in case of having no prepaid meter system(ﬁgure 4.11).

Smart card prepaid meter is very easy to use and operate. Even an illiterate farmer can use it easily.

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Figure 4.11: Change in cost of irrigation under diﬀerent mode of irrigation

4.5 Diffic u ltie s / Pr ob le m o f a c c o rd i n g t o t he use r ICT based pumps have a number of

Sharecroppers cannot aﬀord enough land to meet up their needs. So, they

positive

some

moved to share-out and large farmers for extra land. When someone

drawbacks as well. These drawbacks and

issues.

cultivates others land, he/she cannot raise their voice against any injustice of

problems

are

But

has

after

the superior ones. Under this kind of circumstances, large and share out

consultation with the users and BMDA

identiﬁed

farmers gradually increase their control over DTWs. As a result, discrimination

authority. According to the users, the

increases and beneﬁts of ICT on groundwater management is deprived.

prepaid card system does not properly work all the time. Sometimes, the recharged amount is vanished from farmers account without any cause. BMDA authority pointed out it as a technical problem but they have no history to compensate the same to the farmers in this regards. Besides this, some ground problems are found in the overall system. Most of these drawbacks were found in Dinajpur. According to ﬁeld

ﬁndings;

marginal,

small

and

share-in farmers (sharecropper) are dominated by sharing out (farmers, who give their lands to share in farmers for cultivation on the basis of some terms and condition) and the large farmers. 02

INTRODUCTION

Figure 4.12: Problems related to smart card use in ﬁeld level survey

4.6 Acce p tan c e of te c hn o l o gy f o r sust a i n a bl e use ( p re s e n t an d fu tu re p e rc e p t i o n ) At present, acceptance of smart card based prepaid meter in case of groundwater use is very satisfactory because of: The use of smart card based prepaid meter has reduced the irrigation cost due to direct cash payment through card

Commanding

Production cost

area has been increased with

Eﬃcient use of

the use of same

water has

volume of water

reduced the

has been reduced due to economic use of water

electricity cost

The use of smart cards is very much appreciated at the

section 4.5, technology does not perform perfectly all the

local level. Most of the farmers easily accept this

time. As a result, installed money sometimes disappears

technology. But some exceptions are also found. At

from end users. Besides this some social dominance also

present, almost 98% people appreciated this technology

arises among the beneﬁciaries. Most of these are

as it reduces the irrigation cost. But only 2% mentioned it

associated with the social stratiﬁcation (Section 4.5).Social

as an ineﬀective system because they faced some

acceptance of ICT based prepaid meter is shown in ﬁgure

technical problems of ICT. As we mentioned earlier in

4.13.

Figure 4.13: Social acceptance of ICT based prepaid meter

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Water De livery Service and Its Impact on WRM

5.1 Wa t er d el ivery syst em before u sin g I CT Primarily, it is irrigation that is needed for crop production. Proper water distribution system and its efficient management play very important roles in the command area development of any irrigation project. In Bangladesh, BADC first introduced DTWs in the northern part of Bangladesh. After that, BMDA developed low cost channel for the improvement of water distribution system in 1980s. At the initial stage, before using ICT based prepaid meter water was distributed through earthen canals. The conveyance efficiency of traditional earthen channel is 50-55% and the rate of water loss was 40-45% (BARI, 2007) during distribution. Water loss through seepage and percolation appears as additional loss in case of earthen canal when any cracks occurred on them. As a result, operational cost of earthen

Figure 5.1: Earthen canal irrigation system in Bangladesh

canals appeared as a burden to the farmers unless the command area was large enough.

5.2 Wate r d e liv e r y s ys t e m a f t e r usi n g IC T To reduce huge water loss, BMDA has developed the buried pipe distribution systems to reduce water loss. Generally in DTW of 1.5 to 2 cusec capacity the present command area is very small (22 to 40 acres) with conventional earthen canal system. This can be increased from 60 to 120 acres by installation of buried pipe irrigation system and can reduce the cost of irrigation. At present the buried irrigation system is expanded by BMDA and BADC (figure 5.2) in the DTW system for increasing the command area and reducing the cost of irrigation for crop production. They have also developed DTW operation by using smart card based prepaid meters with minimum irrigation charge on hour basis. After the introduction of smart card, Figure 5.2: Buried pipe irrigation system in Bangladesh command area has also been increased because of limited withdrawal of ground water. At present, farmers are very much alert about the use of excess water in their fields. On the other hand, farmers can irrigate their field anytime as per their need with the use of smart cards.

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Figure 5.3 shows that the command area and the irrigated

Before ICT use

After ICT use

area before introducing ICT based prepaid meter are about 50 acres and 42 acres respectively. But after introduction of ICT based prepaid meter the command area and irrigated area are about 75 acres and 71 acres respectively. Water when distributed through earthen canal system, the irrigation efficiency was 84%. After introducing buried system irrigation the efficiency increases to about 95%. This indicates that irrigation efficiency has

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Command area

Irrigated area

been increased due to the change in water delivery pattern.

Irrigation coverage (Source: Field information’s, March, 2016).

Figure 5.3: Irrigation coverage before and after introduction of ICT

5.3 Mech an is m b e twe e n d e l i ve ry and Paym e n t Sys te m The regulatory system of the Barind project is an innova-

unoﬃcial payments. Moreover, the registration of wells

tive solution to render groundwater use transparent and

and the enforcement of a well spacing limit at the initial

regulation accountable. Contrary to other irrigation

stage of the project were facilitated by the under-devel-

systems, the water is paid for by volume and payments are

oped state of groundwater irrigation in Barind. By starting

made without cash transactions between individuals. The

from scratch, fraud during the registration process could

automatic payment at vending machines assures that

largely be avoided.

everyone pays the same price and reduces the risk of

5.4 O b s e r v e d c h an g e s o n d e l i ve ry s ys te m by u s in g I C T Irrigation eﬃciency as well as the command area has

followed by potato and some vegetables were found. But

increased after the introduction of ICT. Though there were

now a days, farmers grow diﬀerent types of crops such as

buried pipes in the Barind area before the introduction of

wheat, potato, mustard, HYV Boro, various kinds of vegeta-

ICT, yet their eﬃciency and command area has increased

bles, onion seed etc. Change in the cropping pattern due

after installation of ICT. Not only this, crop diversiﬁcation

to the change in water delivery system as well as introduc-

has also been found in the areas where ICT application is

tion of ICT based prepaid meters is shown in table 5.1.

applied. Before installation of prepaid meters, paddy

Table 5.1. Observed changes in cropping pattern Item

Kharif-1

Before ICT use After ICT use

HYV. Aus

Kharif-2

Rabi

HYV. Aman

HYV. Boro

HYV. Aman

HYV. Boro, Wheat, Pulse

ASSESSMENT OF COMPATIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE

others

Vegetation

(Source: Field information’s, March, 2016) Figure 5.4: Crop diversification in Barind region of Bangladesh Transformation after installation of prepaid meter in crop fields is shown in Table 5.2. Table 5.2. Transformation after installation of prepaid meter in crop field

Observed parameter

Before prepaid meter

After prepaid meter

Comparison

Command Area (acre)

50% increase

Irrigated Area (acre)

69% increase

Irrigation eﬃciency (%)

13% increase

Number of Beneﬁciaries (per DTWs)

23% increase

Water Demand in Robi season (m3/acre)*

6116

4821

21% decrease

Pumping Hour in Robi season (hour/acre)

30% decrease

Irrigation charge/acre (BDT)

3000

2100

30% decrease

Electric Bill/acre (BDT)

1600

1400

12% decrease

Operation cost/year (BDT)*

35,000

14% decrease

Maintenance cost (BDT)*

20,000

Around same

Source: ﬁeld survey, March 2016. (*This cost varies with time)

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

N.B. Maintenance cost includes regular service and replace-

After introduction of ICT based prepaid meters, the opera-

ment of pumps. This cost is variable because pumps

tional cost reduces around 14% per year in an acre. On the

replacement may require twice or thrice in a speciﬁc year

other hand, the development cost of ICT based prepaid

while no replacement in the following year. BMDA pays the

meter is increased substantially compared to diesel and

total operational and maintenance cost. Besides, farmers

traditional operated pumps. But this cost is being

have to pay 100 taka/acre to the driver (operator of the

minimized in the long run as progressively (as what?)

pump) every year. They have to pay the transport and

because of operation and maintenance cost reduces

labour cost of every replacement and maintenance of the

drastically. This scenario balances the overall situation.

pump, which does not exceed 200 BDT/acre/year.

Now a day, BMDA oﬃcials are responsible for the installation and maintenance of the DTWs.

5.5 Im p act of I CT on D e live ry S ys tem an d WR M

5.5.1 Positiv e im p ac ts o f I C T o n w at e r w i t hd ra w a l Before introducing the smart card based prepaid meter

have high water demand. Decrease in pumping hour

the average pumping hour during the Boro season was

proves that water withdrawal reduces signiﬁcantly after the

about 30 hours. But after the introduction of ICT based

introduction of ICT (Figure 5.5). The average water demand

prepaid meter the average pumping hour has reduced to

in the Boro season was around 6116m3, which reduced to

about 21 hours. It is also observed that, during the Boro

around 4821m3 with the use of smart cards. This phenom-

season the demand of water is more severe than in other

enon indicates the positive impact of ICT, which ultimately

seasons, because most of the crops grown in this season

helps to achieve the sustainable use of ground water.

ASSESSMENT OF COMPATIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE

Av e rag e p u m p in g ho ur/a c re ( Bo ro se a so n )

After ICT use

Average pumping hour/acre

Before ICT use

Hour Figure 5.5: Average pumping hour per acre (Boro season)

Wat e r D e ma n d

After ICT use

Water Demand (cubic metre/acre)

Before ICT use

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

Cubic metre/acre Figure 5.6: Average water demand in Boro season (m3/acre)

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

5 .5.2 Inc re as e in ir r ig at e d a re a a n d nu m b e r of tu b e we l l s The use of ICT in Barind area was started in 2005. At that

The increase of DTWs has increased the irrigated area.

time, the number of deep tubewells was only 7,500 in that

Only 30,000 ha area was under irrigation in 2005, which

area whereas it increased to 14,000 in 2012 (ﬁg. 5.7).

has increased to 60,000 ha in 2012 (ﬁg.5.8). This vast area

Besides, a large number of private DTWs also extract

accumulates a large variety of crops and improves the

ground water every year.

overall socio-economic condition of the farmers.

15000 10000 5000

2011-12

2009-10

2010-11

2008-09

2007-08

2005-06

2006-07

2004-05

2002-03

2003-04

2001-02

2000-01

1999-2000

1998-99

1996-97

1997-98

1995-96

1993-94

1994-95

1992-93

1990-91

1991-92

1989-90

1987-88

1988-89

1986-87

1984-85

1985-86

Number of Deeptube wells/ year Source: IWMI. 2013. Proceedings of the National Seminar on Groundwater Governance in Srilanka Figure 5.7: Year-wise deep tubewells in operation

Irrigated area (ha/year) 60000 40000 20000

Source: IWMI. 2013. Proceedings of the National Seminar on Groundwater Governance in Srilanka Figure 5.8: Year-wise irrigated area in operation

ASSESSMENT OF COMPATIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE

2010-11

2009-10

2008-09

2007-08

2006-07

2005-06

2004-05

2003-04

2002-03

2001-02

2000-01

1999-2000

1997-98

1998-99

1996-97

1994-95

1995-96

1993-94

1991-92

1992-93

1990-91

1988-89

1989-90

1987-88

1985-86

1986-87

1984-85

Year

5.5.3 Mechanism of early warning system for ICT use in GWM At the time of irrigation using smart cards, the prepaid meter that houses the smart card always shows the reading of balance. As a result, the farmers always remain cautious about the balance. All of them have a tendency to save their money hence they do not waste any water.

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Synergy across Water-Energy and Food

6.1 Wate r d e p e n d e n c y o n c ro p p ro d uc t i o n The application of water in land is to assist the production

time and frequency of irrigation for some of the important

of crops. Grain crops reveal their need for water by wilting

ﬁeld crops as recommended by the Bangladesh Rice

temporarily. It is better to base the irrigation schedule on

Research Institute and Bangladesh Agricultural Research

observations made of the moisture status of the soil. The

Institute are mentioned here:

Rice For rice a good yield can be obtained if the soil is in saturated condition from the time of transplanting. The number of tillers increases sufficiently if the field is in saturated condition up to 30 to 45 days after transplanting. The yield of rice is not hampered if the field remains dry for 3 days after disappearing of standing water in between each irrigation. Water requirements of rice are maximum at booting and flowering stages. During this period sufficient water should be maintained in the plot to get a good yield. For rice a single excessive irrigation should be avoided. Instead, frequent small irrigation is preferable. The depth of water in each irrigation should be 5 to 7 cm. The frequency of irrigation can be determined by dividing the depth of irrigation by the water to be depleted from the soil per day. Supplemental irrigation is beneficial for higher yields of rice, especially if there is drought at the critical growth stages of Aus and T Aman. Generally, around 60 mm water helps increase the yields of T Aman. Supplemental irrigation for T Aman is possible through rainwater harvesting, artificial irrigation facilities are not available). Adequate water (up to 60 mm) for T. Aman can be harvested if a ditch having an area equivalent to 5% of the planted area with 2 m depth is constructed at one corner. Aus paddy can also be cultivated on time if supplementary irrigation can be provided. This will also help in timely planting of Aman.

Wheat For obtaining a higher yield generally 2 to 3 irrigations are required for wheat. But the requirement varies from place to place due to variations in weather conditions and soil types. The ﬁrst irrigation needs to be applied after 17 to 21 days of sowing. This irrigation may be delayed if there is suﬃcient moisture in the soil. Irrigation is needed at heading and grain formation stages. The second irrigation should be applied after 40 to 45 days and the third irrigation after 70 to 75 days of sowing. The depth of water in each irrigation should be 6 to 8 cm.

Potato Irrigation is important to obtain high yield of potato. The number of potatoes per plant is reduced if moisture stress occurs at the early stage. The grain size becomes smaller and irregular if moisture stress persists at the later stage. The ﬁrst irrigation should be applied within 20 to 25 days of sowing and the second and third within 40 to 45 and 60 to 65 days, respectively, after sowing. In water shortage areas, if only one irrigation has to be applied, it should be within 20 to 25 days of sowing.

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Maize Generally 4-5 irrigations are required for maize. The time of first, second, third and fourth irrigations are to be applied at 15 to 20, 30 to 35, 60 to 70, and 85 to 95 days after sowing respectively. The depth of water in each irrigation should be 6 to 8 cm at the initial stage and 8 to 10 cm at the later stage. Standing water must be removed at the flowering and grain filling stages.

Mustard The yield increases if irrigation is applied properly and timely. In most cases, the expected yield is obtained with 2 irrigations, but the range may be 1 to 3 depending on the variety and location. Irrigations should be applied after 25 to 30 days and 50 to 55 days of sowing. If the moisture content of the soil is less at the germination stage, light irrigation after 10 to 15 days of sowing may be helpful.

Onion Frequent small irrigations are preferable for better yield of onion. One or two irrigations should be applied after transplanting of seedlings. Then 4 to 5 light irrigations are required during the entire growing season at an interval of 10 to 15 days. The depth of irrigation should preferably be 2 to 3 cm at the early stage and 3 to 4 cm at the later stage. Standing water in the ﬁeld is harmful for onion.

Tomato In Rabi season the yield of tomato increases 2-3 times if properly irrigated. Initially irrigation is required daily after transplanting the seedlings. The intervals may then be gradually increased from 3 to 4 days to 10 to 12 days. The irrigation depth needs to be 3 to 4 cm at initial stages and 4 to 6 cm at later stages.

6. 2 L inkag e b e twe e n wat e r- e n e rg y a n d f o o d Water, energy and food are inextricably linked. Water is an

may save water but may also result in higher energy use.

input for producing agricultural goods in the ﬁelds and

Recognizing

along the entire agro-food supply chain. Energy is required

trade-oﬀs is central to jointly ensuring water, energy and

to produce and distribute water and food: to pump water

food security. The global community is well aware of food,

from groundwater or surface water sources, to power

energy and water challenges, but has so far addressed

tractors and irrigation machinery, and to process and

them in isolation, within scrotal boundaries. At the country

transport agricultural goods.

level,

these

fragmented

synergies

scrotal

and

balancing

responsibilities,

these

lack

coordination, and inconsistencies between laws and Agriculture is currently the largest user of water at the

regulatory frameworks may lead to misaligned incentives. If

global level, accounting for 70% of total withdrawal. The

water, energy and food security are to be simultaneously

food production and supply chain accounts for about 30%

achieved, decision-makers, including those responsible for

of the total global energy consumption. There are many

only a single sector, need to consider broader inﬂuences

synergies and trade-oﬀs between water and energy use

and cross-scrotal impacts. A nexus approach to scrotal

and food production. Use of water to irrigate crops might

management, through enhanced dialogue, collaboration

promote food production but it can also reduce river ﬂows

and coordination, is needed to ensure that the co-beneﬁts

and the hydropower potential. Growing bio-energy crops

and trade-oﬀs are considered and that appropriate

under irrigated agriculture can increase the overall water

safeguards are put in place. Source: World Water

withdrawals and jeopardize food security. Converting

Development Report 2014

surface irrigation into high eﬃciency pressurized irrigation

ASSESSMENT OF COMPATIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE

Wat er Sup p ly Secu rit y

Available Wat er R es o urces

Fo o d Securit y

Energy Security

Figure 6.1: Linkage between water-energy and food

6 . 3 IC T be n e fits in wat e r- e n e rg y a n d f o o d n ex us The main concept of water-energy-food nexus is the

the uptake of water then evaporation and other losses will

sustainable use of these resources as well as to ensure the

also be reduced. At present, farmers know the exact

best use of these limited resources and this is also similar

amount of water in his ďŹ eld by knowing the timing of

to this research. After introduction of ICT, pumping hours

pumping hour. As a result, around 30% of water demand

have reduced up to 30% and electric bills have reduced by

has been reduced. So, they basically use the optimum

12%. At present, farmers are very cautious about the

water, which helps to create a win-win situation in water

optimum use of water in their ďŹ eld. As a result, minimum

use for both present and future generation.

energy is being used and maximum purpose is meeting up. It ultimately helps to achieve the sustainable use of energy

In terms of crop and food production, optimum use of

use.

water helps to achieve the maximum growth of crop and yield. On the other hand, irrigated area has also been

Besides, groundwater uptake and consumption has also

increased around 69% after introduction of ICT. In this new

been reduced after ICT initiation. In Bangladesh around 25

area more crops is cultivated and more production is

to 30% of water is lost by evaporation. If we can minimize

achieved.

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Cost and Benefit Analysis

7.1 Wate r u s e c os t b e fo re a n d a f t e r IC T use It is observed from the ﬁnancial analysis that water use

system is about 3000 BDT/acre. It is also observed from

cost in case of prepaid metering system is about 2100

the ﬁnancial analysis that the water use cost has decreased

BDT/acre which in case of without prepaid metering

by 30% by using smart card based prepaid meter.

7.2 Cro p Pr od u c tion c o st be f o re a n d a f t e r I C T use It is observed from the ﬁnancial analysis that among the

return without the use of smart card prepaid meter

studied crops by the highest net return for using smart

highest net return (Tk.149800/acre) is found for Potato

card prepaid meter (Tk.150700/acre) is found for Potato

followed

Pulses

(Tk.12300/acre) Wheat (Tk. 12250/acre), hybrid Boro

(Tk.13200/acre) Wheat (Tk. 13150/acre), hybrid Boro

(Tk.5900/acre), hybrid Aus (Tk.6500/acre) and hybrid Aman

(Tk.6800/acre), hybrid Aus (Tk.6500/acre) and hybrid Aman

(Tk.5400/acre). Financial proﬁtability among diﬀerent crops

(Tk.5400/acre). It is also observed from the ﬁnancial

(with and without smart card based prepaid meter) is

analysis that among the studied crops the highest net

shown in table 7.1 and ﬁgures 7.1& 7.2

Vegetables

(Tk.

78400/acre),

Vegetables

(Tk.

77500/acre),

Pulses

Table 7.1. Financial proﬁtability among diﬀerent crops (with and without smart card based prepaid meter) Inputs Per Acre

SI. No

Crop

Production Cost

Selling Cost

Net Return

Beneﬁt Cost

Taka

ratio

ICT User 1

HYV. Aus

19500

26000

6500

1.33

HYV. Aman

22200

27600

5400

1.24

HYV. Boro

26200

33000

6800

1.26

Potato

29300

180000

150700

6.14

Wheat

22100

35250

13150

1.60

Vegetables

25600

104000

78400

4.06

Pulses

8700

21900

13200

2.52

HYV. Aus

19500

26000

6500

1.33

HYV. Aman

22200

27600

5400

1.24

HYV. Boro

27100

33000

5900

1.22

Potato

30200

180000

149800

5.96

Wheat

23000

35250

12250

1.53

Vegetables

26500

104000

77500

3.92

Pulses

9600

21900

12300

2.28

Non User

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Production cost

Selling cost

Net return cost

18000

Net return ( Tk/acre)

16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000

es Pu

es Ve ge ta bl

at he W

ta to Po

o H

YV .B

an YV .A m H

YV .A us

Types of Crops

Figure 7.1: Cost and return of diﬀerent crops by using smart card based prepaid meter

Figure 7.2: Cost and return of diﬀerent crops without smart card based prepaid meter

In smart card based prepaid meter the highest beneﬁt cost

found for Potato (5.96) followed by Vegetables (3.92),

ratio is found for potato (6.14) followed by vegetables

Pulses (2.28), Wheat (1.53), hybrid Aus (1.33), hybrid Aman

(4.06), pulses (2.52), wheat (1.60), hybrid aus (1.33), hybrid

(1.24) and hybrid Boro (1.22). Change in beneﬁt cost ratio

boro (1.26) and hybrid aman (1.24). Without smart card

with and without smart card based prepaid meter is shown

based prepaid meter, the highest beneﬁt cost ratio is

in table 7.2 and ﬁgure 7.3

ASSESSMENT OF COMPATIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE

Table 7.2.Change in beneﬁt cost ratio with and without smart card based prepaid meter

Beneﬁt Cost ratio

SI. No

Crop

Inputs Per Acre

Change in Beneﬁt Cost ratio

for ICT user

HYV. Aus

1.33

0.00

HYV. Aman

1.24

0.00

HYV. Boro

1.26

0.04

Potato

6.14

0.18

Wheat

1.60

0.06

Vegetables

4.06

0.14

Pulses

2.52

0.24

Beneﬁt/Cost for non user

Beneﬁt/Cost for ICT user 7

Beneﬁt Cost Ratio

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 HYV. Aus HYV. Aman HYV. Boro

Potato

Wheat

Vegetables Pulses

Types of Crop

Figure 7.3: Beneﬁt Cost ration of diﬀerent crops by using with and without smart card based prepaid meter

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

7 .3 C han g e in c r op are a be f o re a n d a f t e r IC T use Figure 7.5 indicates the changes in major crop area of

increase in cropped area is 16832 ha for Boro rice).

the study area. Analysis shows that the crop area

Cropping pattern had also been changed after intro-

particularly of Boro rice has increased signiďŹ cantly

ducing ICT. Before ICT use the main crop types were

over time resulting mainly for expansion of groundwa-

HYV. Aman, HYV. Boroand Patato. After the use of ICT,

ter facilities. Before introducing smart card based

HYV Aman, HYV Aus, HYV Boro, Potato, Wheat, Pulse

prepaid meter the cropped area for Boro rice was

and vegetables turned as main crops. Cropped area

16638 ha which after introducing smart card based

(ha) according to the cropping pattern before and after

prepaid meter has increased to 33470 ha (i.e. net

the use of ICT shown in table 7.3 and ďŹ gure 7.4.

Table 7.3. Changes in cropped area (ha) before and after ICT

SI. No

Crops

Cropped area (ha) before ICT

Cropped area (ha) after ICT

HYV Aman

88312

HYV Aus

45878

HYV Boro

16638

33470

Potato

26476

19429

Wheat

5996

Pulse

6411

Vegetables

10227

ASSESSMENT OF COMPATIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE

Cropped area (ha) before ICT

Cropped area after ICT

90000

Cropped area (ha)

80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 HYV. Aus

HYV. Aman

HYV. Boro

Potato

Wheat

Vegetables

Pulses

Types of Crop Figure 7.4: Change in Cropped area (ha) using with and without smart card based prepaid meter

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Potentials for Adoption and Expansion in the Region

ASSESSMENT OF COMPATIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE

8.1 C o n s train ts for ad op tio n o f I C T 8.1.1 Phys ic al an d Poli c y C o n t ex t Policies can make or break ground water markets by either

management will not be possible if there is no limitation in

encouraging

discharge

deployment

hindering

development

properly

Bangladesh is going to be a digital country within 2021. To

coordinated and developed out of clear research and

achieve this goal, proper ICT governance should be

careful examination of the water sector within a given

adopted.

country. Coherent cross-sector policies and a multi

investment as well as will prevent stable coordination and

stakeholder formulated water resources management

comprehensive planning to address future requirements

strategy are essential for the success and sustainability of

and proper integration. Proper governance in this sector

these tools. At present no policies are available to monitor

will create certain safeguards that will encourage eﬃciency

groundwater

and eﬀectiveness.

Policies

(Groundwater

and

management)

systems.

GWM

the

therefore

management.

need

Sustainable

water

Lack of ICT governance has impacts on

8 .1.2 Ins titu tion al A r ra n ge me n t Smart card is a very recent technology for sustainable

Research-Barind) oﬀers credit for the initial installation, but

water management, and needs huge initial investment for

that is not adequate. This system could easily spread

installation. At present BMDA bears the major portion of

among farmers if more and more credits become available

this cost. Some NGO’s like CARB (Center for Action

in this sector.

8 .2 Op p ortu n itie s an d S c op e o f Ex p a n si o n 8 .2.1 O p p or tu n itie s ICT use in GWM has a wide application and a clear set of

and thus decreases consumption. Some major areas

beneﬁts, which, in general, increases water use eﬃciency

where improvement is evident are listed below:

Impro vem ent o f water s u p p ly s ystem Each farmer has his own smart card so by using it they can get water any time as per requirement. In the past, the managers and land lords controlled the overall irrigation, for which water right could not be achieved most of the time.

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

R e d uce I r r i g ati o n a nd p ro d u c tion Cost As advance payment is required for getting water so everyone will try not to lose even a drop of water. This will minimize the total irrigation cost. As consequence to this, production cost will also be decreased. Irrigation cost with no metering system is about 3000 tk/acre where as it is about 2100 tk/acre for the use of smart card based metering system.

In crea si n g Co mma nd i ng A rea Due to economic use of water the commanding area can be increased through the use of same irrigation equipment. Before using the smart card based prepaid meter commanding area of each DTW was about 50 acre which has increased up to 75 acre after using ICT i.e. increase around 75%.

No sco pe o f p end i ng i r r i g ati o n charg e In the smart card system, all charges have to be paid before any irrigation. This prepaid system will be realized automatically and there will be no scope of irrigation charge to remain pending.

Lack o f Mi s ma na g ement There will be no scope of cheating the farmers by any operator or middlemen. Farmers will get their total water for the money they paid for buying their cards. There is also no chance of cards being stolen, as every card contains its owner’s picture and no card can be used outside of its speciﬁc location.

Meter Te m p er i ng There is no scope of tempering the meter. Any tempering or tempering attempt can be easily identiﬁed from the meter, as the meters are being monitored centrally by software.

R e a l Jud gm e nt Real judgment of the farmers as well as of the authority is possible by using smart card based prepaid meters. Farmers can get information at regular interval, how much money is available in his card and how many times can he get water can be discerned by themselves.

Ea sy to use Smart card is a very recent technology and is easy in operation and even a non-literate farmer can use it easily.

ASSESSMENT OF COMPATIBILITY OF TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE

R e d uce e l e c tr i c i ty c o s t Optimum and proper use of electricity is possible for the optimum use of water through a smart card system. From the ﬁeld data it is observed that 12% of electricity bill decreases due to the introduction of ICT based prepaid meters

In crea se revenu e There is no chance of system loss and pilferage for the use of smart card system. So the revenue of the service oﬀering company (BMDA) will increase.

8.2.2 Scop e of Exp an s io n Application of ICT on groundwater management was ﬁrst

irrigation system in all areas under their coverage and only

introduced by BMDA in 2005 in 16 districts of the

then the sustainability of ground water management

north-western region of Bangladesh. At present, this

would be ensured. Bangladesh Water Development Board

organization has successfully managed the application of

(BWDB) is going to introduce ICT on surface water

ICT based prepaid meters in its overall system. There is

management in the Muhuri Irrigation Project (MIP). BWDB

ample scope of expansion of the Barind Model in other

has a wide scope to apply it on the Ganges Kobadak

regions of Bangladesh. BADC has already started their

Irrigation Project (GKIP) and Teesta Barrage Project (TBP).

irrigation by using ICT, i.e., smart card based prepaid

Again, Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority

meters. They have already installed around 1500 sets of

(DWASA) can apply the smart card based prepaid meters in

prepaid meters and on top of it, installation of another 590

drinking water purposes under its command area. Local

prepaid meters is in progress. In the near future, BADC

Government Engineering Department (LGED) can also

has a plan of installing another 2000 prepaid meters in the

introduce smart card based prepaid meters in their

northern part i.e., in Mymensingh, Jamalpur, Kishoregonj

projects.

districts. BADC should disseminate the smart card based

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Conclusions and Suggestions

9.1 C onc lu s ion The study was carried out with the objective of determining

Number of beneﬁciaries under each deep tubewells has

the impact of ICT on ground water management in

increased because of less demand of water. Beneﬁciaries’

Bangladesh. Three upazilas of Rajshahi and Dinajpur were

number increased up to 23% in comparison to that of

selected as study area. The study has been completed

2005.

through conducting a number of major activities such as: i) collection of secondary data and information on aquifer

Decrease in ground water extraction lead to the

lithology, groundwater level, number of deep tubewells etc.

sustainable use of this resource because almost 30-35% of

(ii) reconnaissance ﬁeld survey for selection of study area.

water loss from the crop ﬁeld had been reduced. This kind

(iii) preparation of inception report on the basis of

of water loss has reduced near about zero.

reconnaissance ﬁeld visit (iv) primary data collection through consultation with farmers, BMDA and BADC

In consequence of ICT application on ground water

oﬃcials, pump managers, local stakeholders etc (v) Primary

management, the overall production cost has decreased.

and secondary data analysis for determining the impacts of

Irrigation cost dropped to 2100tk/acre from 3000 tk/acre

ICT based prepaid meters on ground water management

for the use of smart card based metering system.

(vi) consultation workshop with ﬁeld level stakeholders and (vii) reviewing of diﬀerent technical documents (report,

Due to economic use of water, for introduction of ICT the

training manual etc). Based on the ﬁndings of the study,

commanding area of each DTW has increased from 50 acre

the following conclusion are been made

to 75 acre in comparison to that of 2005.

: Water demand in irrigation gradually decreases around

The overall electricity cost has decreased by about 12%

30% after introduction of the ICT. At present farmers are

and pumping hour has decreased by around 30% for the

very cautious about the use of water because they have to

use of ICT in irrigation water management.

pay for each and every drop of groundwater.

9.2 Sugg e s tion s Based on findings of the study, the following suggestions are made: Groundwater is one of the precious elements of nature. Application of ICT on groundwater management was first introduced by BMDA in 2005 in 16 districts of the north-western region of Bangladesh. There is a wide scope of expansion of Barind Model in other regions of the country. Some technical problems are found from the field survey; which are, disappearance of the recharged amount from user’s (farmer) account, which could never been compensated. BMDA authority should take necessary steps to monitor such technical problems for the betterment of the entire process. Radius of influence of each DTW is around 2500 ft, but the extension of buried pipe is up to 1800 ft. As a result, water when distributed some loss of water takes place due to seepage and percolation. So, BMDA authority should extend the underground buried pipe system in future. This will increase the overall efficiency of the delivery system. Shallow tubewells (STW) operation should be restricted in the command areas of Deep tubewells.

IMPACT OF ICT IN GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH