Distance knowledge transfer by Gareth Roberts

Distance Knowledge Transfer a design perspective on the future of distance education

Gareth I. Roberts

The University of the Arts Master of Industrial Design Program Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ÂŠ May 2010

Distance Knowledge Transfer

a design perspective on the future of distance education Gareth I. Roberts This thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Industrial Design at The University of the Arts Approved:

-----------------------------------------------------------------------Dr. Slavko Milekic, MD, PhD Thesis Director Professor of Cognitive Science and Digital Design, UArts

-----------------------------------------------------------------------Dr. Benjamin Olshin Associate Professor of Philosophy, UArts

-----------------------------------------------------------------------Jonas Milder Associate Professor, UArts Director MID Program

Acknowledgements This project would not have been possible without the help of a lot of fantastic people... First and foremost, I would like to send a special thanks to my wife, Carol. Your support and encouragement was invaluable. Thanks for putting up with me during the last two years! A big thank-you to: My thesis committee: Dr. Slavko Milekic, M.D., PhD - Thesis Director Dr. Benjamin B. Olshin, PhD. Jonas Milder My Parents, Ian and Teresa Roberts My Father In Law, Dr. Edison Strong And, the following people who went above and beyond to help me with the project: Marjo M채enp채채 Mari Laine-Hernandez Paul Nuschke

Thesis Statement â&#x20AC;&#x153;Design can help greatly improve the efficiency of distance education through the development of tools that enhance the Knowledge-Transfer process.â&#x20AC;?

This book documents the University of the Arts Master of Industrial Design thesis project of Gareth Roberts, conducted in the spring semester of 2010. While the investigation attempts to promote a new approach to distance education, its main goal is to open a new dialogue about how design can be used as a tool to shape the next evolution of the industry. It is by no means the solution to the problems facing distance education today, merely one possibility that would advance the cause of distance education in the 21st century. I welcome any comments, thoughts or questions. Regards, Gareth Roberts groberts@uarts.edu

Table of Contents: Chapter 1:

Introduction

Page 10

Methodology

Page 14

Chapter 3:

Research

Page 24

Chapter 4:

Eye Tracking Investigation

Page 46

Chapter 5:

Engaging the Stakeholders

Page 62

Chapter 6:

Synthesis

Page 70

Chapter 7:

Concept Development

Page 80

Chapter 8:

Conclusion

Page 96

Chapter 9:

Future Directions

Page 100

Chapter 2:

Chapter 1:

Introduction

1.0 INTRODUCTION Distance Education has been explored in many different forms, and the first recognized exploration dates back to 1728 when Caleb Phillips launched his ‘New method of short hand’ course in the Boston Gazette. The program proposed by Phillips was exceptionally innovative for the time, and looked at addressing the needs of a dispersed student population for the first time. To conduct his program, Phillips engaged rural students who would be sent course material each week by taking advantage of the rapidly expanding U.S. postal system, and relied on essays and assignments that were returned by mail to assess student progress.1 The success of this model lead to a series of similar, small scale projects in the 1800’s, and its potential was further recognized when the University of London became the first institution to formally offer distance courses in 1858 with Queen Victoria chartering their External Programme. Largescale explorations soon followed suit in the United States of America when Anna Eliot Ticknor launched the ‘Society to encourage studies at home’ in 1873 in Boston, Massachusetts. Her ground-breaking institution was developed to cater for the education needs for women around the country who were unable to access education because of their location, or their family commitments.2 Although these pioneering programs were successful, it wasn’t until the 20th century that a sustainable model was developed for distance education by taking advantage of the rapidly expanding postal services in many countries, which had become more affordable and thus more suitable for the transfer educational materials. At the same time, advancements in other communication technologies including invention of motion pictures led some, including Thomas Edison, to predict that the classic form of classroom teaching would be obsolete before the first quarter of the century

1 2

“The History of Distance Learning” n. pag. Web. 18 Jan 2010 <http://www. distancelearning.com/History-of-Distance-Learning.html> Eliot, Samuel. Society to Encourage Studies at Home. Boston: River side. 1897. Print.

was passed.3 Instead, it wasn’t until the late 20th century that distance education began to gain credibility as a genuine alternative to traditional class-room based education. The introduction of communication mediums including radio and television lead to some mildly successful explorations of new distance teaching models, but the real break-through for distance education was made possible firstly through the introduction of personal computers in the 1980’s, and then the creation of the internet in the early 1990’s. Finally the technical infrastructure required to conduct wide-scale distance education was now available, and the market penetration of personal computers allowed stakeholders the opportunity to access information digitally with virtually no delay. Recognizing the advantages this new age of distance education could have for both the student and institution alike, many institutions including the University of Phoenix, now the college with the largest student body in the U.S.A., started investing heavily in the concept and began developed new models for providing education through online classes. Today, the need for a distance education programs are more pressing than ever, as college applicants are expected to far outgrow the positions available within the current infrastructure in the next five years.4 And, with communication technology permeating every aspect of our lives, it would seem that technology-enhanced distance education should be thriving. Unfortunately, it isn’t. Instead, the distance-education systems employed throughout the western world have stagnated through a lack of development and innovative thinking, resulting in the widespread misconception that distance education is merely a last-resort substitute for its more traditional classroom-based learning counterpart. This, however, need not be the case. In fact, there is plenty of evidence to suggest the exact opposite, that technology-enhanced learning has 3 4

Jeffries, Michael. “Research in Distance Education”. n. pag. Web. 1 Mar 2010 <http://www.digitalschool.net/edu/DL_history_mJeffries.html> Howell, Scott L., Peter B. Williams, and Nathan K. Lindsay. “Thirty-Two Trends Affecting Distance Education: An Informed Foundation for Strategic Planning”. n. pag. Web. 12 March 2010 < http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi= 10.1.1.130.9987&rep=rep1&type=pdf.>

the potential to eclipse the potential of traditional learning models if it is developed correctly. Consider firstly the medium in which distanceeducation is supported, and what that medium affords the stakeholders. When considering the digital medium in terms of education, the first and most obvious advantage people tend to attribute is the ability to study wherever they choose, and whenever they choose. But, this is merely the most superficial advantage. The digital realm can support synchronous or asynchronous communication, it can document any interaction within its boundary, it can provide access to almost limitless information through the internet, and it can be harnessed to perform exceptionally complex tasks and remove unnecessary cognitive burden from the user. More importantly, the digital medium is a data-rich environment that can be harnessed to compensate for the loss of the much-needed tacit feedback instructors tend to rely upon. With recent advancements in technologies such as simple webcam-based eye-tracking, environments can be created to support online learning through the capture and analysis of eye metrics to provide usability within an e-learning environment for the student, and insight into student cognition of presented information. With this in mind, I propose that it is well past time for a new model of technology-enhanced distance education. Whereas the current model of distance education is forcing old conventions on a system that is poorly suited to support them, I am suggesting that design can be harnessed to develop new digital tools that will improve the efficiency of knowledge-transfer in distance education. This project will therefore focus on the development of such digital tools that will act as a catalyst for a new dialogue about distance education, in the hope that new models can be developed that create a better user experience for the stakeholders involved.

Chapter 2:

Methodology

2.0 METHODOLOGY It is clear that this is not a typical industrial design thesis in the traditional sense; in fact some would argue that an investigation into distance education and knowledge transfer is a research investigation first and foremost. While I do not dispute the fact that this project is in fact very different from traditional design, it is most definitely a design project. It is an investigation that builds upon the design process, engaging stakeholders in the act of co-designing solutions for the problems they are facing in their every-day life within Distance Education, premised by a thorough research phase of investigation into the history and current state of the industry. While the phases of research and design are seemingly separated in this formulation of the design task at hand, it is important to note that design and research are not mutually exclusive, and in fact both rely heavily upon each other. There is a new movement in design that hopes to embrace interdisciplinary collaboration, and therefore has the potential of breaking down these barriers between design and research in the hope of finding a balanced approach to the projects we investigate as we go forth. Design and research can no longer be independent of each other, in fact, for innovative solutions to any project they must both be embraced and used as valuable tools for tackling the complex problems facing our societies today. While it is clear that the specific focus of improving knowledge transfer in the realm of distance education is, on the surface, very different from traditional design challenges, it is my contention that embracing the design process will help develop user-centered solutions through the act of co-design. Design, as a discipline, is focused on providing innovative perspectives to a given project through the act of researching and prototyping, and aims to produce user-centered solutions to the problems faced by the stakeholders involved. With this in mind, Design is therefore perfectly suited to the development of complex systems, including distance knowledge transfer. Moreover, while traditional design projects may make assumptions about their target user group and develop products based on their own preferences and perspectives, the co-design process engages the stakeholders of the system in question in all phases of development, builds upon their knowledge base, their experiences, and their inherent knowledge of the system to help

develop design solutions that are user-driven, and therefore suited to the stakeholders specific needs. With the co-design process as the backbone of the project architecture, a plan was developed that engaged stakeholders in three distinct phases of the project to help bring validity to the findings of the project. Firstly, stakeholders would be interviewed in the focused research phase, then during the concept development phase and finally in the testing phase. Figure 1 below shows the project outline as it planned. Focused Research

Thesis Statement

Area of Interest

Topic Exploration

Test With Stakeholders

Concept Development

Engage with Stakeholders

Refine

Themes Identified

Figure 2.1: Project Outline Building from this project architecture, 8 distinct project phases were identified;

- Project Definition - Research - Engaging with the Stakeholders - Analysis - Synthesis - Concept Development and Prototyping - Testing - Refinement

While the plan helped guide the project, a true design process is never as clean-cut as first intended. Instead, changes in the development of the project cause phases to overlap, and become more organic. Figure 2.2 shows the actual process that was undertaken to complete the project, and where the phases were introduced.

Research

Project Definition

Figure 2.2: The ACTUAL Project Process (Authors’ diagram)

Experiment

Synthesis

Test

Analysis EngagingÂ Stakeholders

Refinement

2.1 Phase 1: Project Definition The initial phase of this thesis exploration was the definition of specific focal point of distance education that framed a specific area of research. Building from my interest in, and exposure to distance education, initial research was undertaken to probe the potential avenues of exploration that could help define the project. What became immediately obvious was the need for a better understanding of how knowledge is transferred within the field of distance education, leading to the development of the project thesis statement, as follows: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Design can help greatly improve the efficiency of Distance Education through the development of tools that enhance the Knowledge-Transfer process.â&#x20AC;? 2.2 Phase 2: Research With the entry point of the project set, the next phase involved thorough research into the fields of distance education, communication and knowledge transfer. While the prime focus was on a thorough understanding of current practices in distance education in order to fuel an investigation of possible areas of the field in need of re-evaluation, the research also ventured into the history of distance education with the aim of better understanding how the current practices evolved and why they were adopted. Concurrently, research was undertaken to better understand current communication technologies and innovative interface technologies, highlighting the potential application of eye tracking to support knowledge transfer. With this identified, further research was undertaken to understand the capabilities of eye tracking, of what eye metrics could reveal about the cognition of the student, and how this information could be made relevant for the stakeholders of distance education. With the theoretical investigation of eye tracking technologies proving to be fruitful, a portable eye tracking device was obtained and used to explore the capabilities first hand.

2.2.1 Eye Tracking Investigation After obtaining a Mirametrix S-1 Portable Eye Tracker, a small experiment was designed to explore the known connections between eye movements and cognition. The experiment involved an investigation of basic eye metrics including eye fixations, saccades and gaze patterns in relation to the complexity of presented information, in the hope of detecting eye trigger mechanisms for a potential eye-tracking enabled interface for distance education. To test the validity of the investigation, the experiment was conducted with two distinct user groups, native English speaking students at the University of the Arts, Philadelphia, and non-native English speaking students at the Aalto University, Helsinki and Pori Campuses in Finland. The two groups were chosen to help highlight the influences of language on eye metrics. Further details of the experiment can be found in chapter 5: Eye Tracking Investigation 2.3 Phase 3: Engaging with Stakeholders Concurrently with the comprehensive investigation of distance education, knowledge transfer and new technologies including Eye Tracking, stakeholders of distance education were engaged in order to gain a better understanding of the challenges facing the discipline. For the purposes of this project, two distinct groups were chosen, Instructors who have or are currently engaged in teaching classes through distance education, and students who have or are currently enrolled in distance education courses. While the needs of the two distinct groups are clearly different, both perspectives needed to be considered to ensure the design solutions developed are suitable for all stakeholders of distance education. Firstly, to gain a better understanding of distance teaching, on-line education instructors from the University of the Arts Continued Education Department, and the University of Arkansas at Monticello were engaged and formally interviewed. These interviews focused on gaining a thorough understanding of what technologies are currently in use, what are the biggest challenges to conducting courses online, and what needs are not currently being

addressed with contemporary distance education tools. Additionally, students who have been, or are currently enrolled in online education courses were engaged to ensure an informed perspective of the students was brought to the design process. This investigation took the form of an on-line survey, and was aimed at gauging the experiences of students in the on-line community. In specific, the investigation was focused on understanding what systems students currently use, how student work and progress is being assessed, what advantages distance education affords them, and what changes they would like to see to improve their experiences. 2.4 Phase 4: Analysis With a plethora of data now obtained, the process of finding meaning from the responses was undertaken with the aim of determining specific areas of investigation that will advance the cause of distance education for the stakeholders involved. This process involved compiling the responses of the stakeholders, and finding commonalities that bridged both stakeholder groups. In the end, four areas of commonality were identified, being communication, connectivity, feedback and collaboration. For more information, see chapter 6: Analysis. 2.5 Phase 5: Synthesis With the key building blocks of the investigation completed, the task of synthesizing the separate modules was undertaken next. Linking the research to the responses of the stakeholders and the investigation of new technologies, it became apparent that there was a need to redefine the system of distance education of the future. Building from the knowledge that the five previous eras of distance education were each founded on a significant advancement in communication technology (See chapter 3: Background Research), it became necessary to outline the framework for a new era of distance education, which I have termed Adaptable, DigitallyEnhanced Education (ADEE). (See Chapter 7: Adaptable, Digitally-Enhanced Education).

2.6 Phase 6: Concept Development and Prototyping Given the framework provided by the defining of ADEE, a brain-storming process was undertaken to propose a series of potential digital tools to aid in knowledge transfer in the field of distance education. These tools were centered around the four main areas of concentration defined in the analysis process, each centered around the core goal of increasing the efficiency of knowledge transfer. While there are numerous concepts that should be further investigated and developed, a series of three concepts were chosen for development as proof-of-concept prototypes. The aim of this was to highlight some capabilities of eye tracking as a valuable tool for knowledge transfer, without being an all-encompassing illustration of its potential usage. For more information, please see chapter 8: Concept Development and Prototyping. 2.7 Phase 7: Testing With the digital prototypes developed in Revolution Media, a simple programming software, they were taken to the Museums and the Web Conference (MW2010), and used in a demonstration session to highlight the use of eye tracking technology to enhance knowledge transfer. This process once again offered the opportunity to engage stakeholders in the area, including instructors, students and administrative personel. The great advantage of this was the ability to share the current digital tools, enable stakeholders to engage with them, and to obtain vital feedback about the design and usability of the tools created. See Chapter 9: Testing for more information. 2.8 Phase 8: Refinement Building from the feedback obtained at the MW2010 conference, the prototypes were revisited, and re-evaluated. Building from the stakeholder input, the second iteration of the tools were developed, and were proposed as concepts for further research.

Chapter 3:

Research

3.0 BACKGROUND RESEARCH With the entry point to the thesis investigation of distance education framed by the project thesis statement, a thorough investigation of peer-reviewed literature focused on the area was investigated. The research covered the current definitions of distance education, its history, the history of communication technologies, the science of knowledge transfer and the potential of new technologies to aid in the knowledge transfer process. 3.1 What is the current definition of Distance Education? As an obvious starting point, it was essential to have a thorough understanding of the area being investigated. The genre of distance education has been widely investigated, and as such there are many competing academic theories of distance education as we currently understand it, each with their own merit. Furthermore, the genre has been segmented in three separate, yet interrelated subsets, being distance learning, distance teaching and distance education. Distance learning is, as its name alludes to, the area of distance education relating specifically to the learner. The study of this area has been focused on the perspective of the student or knowledge recipient, and what is required to enable the student to learn from information presented to them. In contrast, distance teaching is an area of study focused specifically on the process of providing educational materials for use in the process of teaching, and is thus focused on the needs of the instructor or knowledge provider. Keeping in mind the entry point of the project is an investigation of Knowledge Transfer, neither of these areas of study fully encompass this goal. Knowledge Transfer cannot be restricted to either the pure dissemination of knowledge - that is, distance teaching, nor the simple reception of knowledge - that is, distance learning. Instead, this project encompasses both the dissemination of knowledge and the reception of knowledge, along with the all-important transfer process. The project thus takes as its main concern the over-arching genre known as distance education.

While many theories of contemporary distance education have been developed and promoted, each with their strengths and weaknesses, the following definition authored by Desmond Keegan was chosen as the most appropriate for this investigation, which describes distance education as1: 1. The separation of teacher and learner which distinguishing it from face-to-face lecturing; 2. The influence of an educational organization which distinguishes it from private study; 3. The use of technical media, usually print, to unite teacher and learner and carry the educational content; 4. The provision of two-way communication so that the student may benefit from or even initiate dialogue; 5. The possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and socialization purposes; and 6. The participation in an industrialized form of education which, if accepted, contains the genus of radical separation of distance education from other forms within the educational spectrum. While there are many rival definitions to this concept forwarded by Keegan, it has been widely adopted as one of the preeminent theories of contemporary distance education. It is unbiased in its perspective, encompasses the needs of both knowledge provider and knowledge recipient, and defines the knowledge transfer process. 3.2 A brief history of Distance Education Distance education is not a new concept, in fact it roots date back to the 1700â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s when correspondence education was first attempted with the aim of providing educational materials for students dispersed from centralized institutions. At the time, most students wishing to undertake college studies were required to move long distances to cities where institutions were located, and thus the potential for a new format of instruction that could cater for those unable to relocate was heralded with a lot of enthusiasm. 1.

Keegan, D. Foundations of Distance Education. London: Routledge press 1990. pp. 44. Print.

The theory was very simple, and planned to take advantage of the most advanced communication innovation of its day, the postal system. Students would be sent course material weekly, and then would be required to submit essays or tests on which they would be graded. Despite the moderate success of this format of education, it was not widely accessible until the late 1800’s when expansion and advancements in the postal systems enabled for the first time reliable and expedient transfer of information from an institution to a student body. Institutions now had a platform whereby successful business models around correspondence education could be developed, leading to the creation of significant distance education systems like the University of London’s External Programme in 1858, the Society to Encourage Studies at Home in Boston in 1873, and the University of Australia’s Department of Correspondence Studies in 1911.2 However, the advancement of correspondence education was soon eclipsed by the upcoming technology-enhanced distance learning systems that began to grip the education sector at the beginning of the 20th century. With the invention and civilian introduction of radio in the 1920’s, over 200 Universities, Colleges and Schools obtained licenses from the federal government to develop instructional radio broadcasts capable of expanding the influence of correspondence education. The innovation proved to lack traction, and by the beginning of the Second World War only one college level credit course had been officially launched, and it failed to attract any applicants.3 Despite the failure of instructional radio, the introduction of television broadcasting in the post-war 1940’s lead to the development of instructional television, which was far more successful. With this new media, students were now able to access information in a more tangible format that could support theories and descriptions of concepts with visuals and demonstrations. Seeing the expanded potential of communication media the US Army and

2 3

“The History of Distance Learning”. Web. 18 Feb 2010. <http://www.distancelearningnet.com/the-history-of-distance-learning/> Nasseh, Bizhan. “A Brief History of Distance Education”. Web. 24 Feb 2010 < http://www.bsu.edu/classes/nasseh/study/history.html>

Navy, along with many government agencies and large businesses began investing in distance education and collaborated with educational Institutions to explore the role technology could play to enhance the distance education process. This enthusiasm was short-lived however, and distance education struggled to gain credibility as a serious alternative to traditional studies. Despite studies of the day concluding there was no identifiable disparity in the education of distance and traditional students, the programs stagnated, and by the 1960’s the majority of the funding for distance education research began to fade away. The turning of the tide, it would seem, occurred in the late 1960’s when The Open University was formed in Britain, founded on the belief that “communications technology could bring high quality degree-level learning to people who had not had the opportunity to attend campus universities”4. The college took advantage of the booming technology sector and widescale penetration of communication devices, and by 1971 began providing education to students in what is now widely regarded as the first successful distance education institution. The 1980’s saw further developments in technology in the form of Personal Computers, providing a new platform on which to push distance education forward. With the introduction of the Internet in the early 1990’s, an entirely new medium for the transfer of knowledge had become available, and the modern conception of online-based distance education was founded. Through this media, students could now have almost instantaneous access to a myriad of sources of information, and could interact with fellow students, faculty and institutions with abandon. 3.3 The Current State of Distance Education Distance education in the 21st century is a common concept to most people, and the majority of college graduates have experienced it in some form 4

“History of the OU”. Web. 27 Feb 2010 < http://www.open.ac.uk/about/ou/ p3.shtm>

during their studies. In general, it involves an institution hosting an educational course through the use of a Content Management System (CMS), where relevant course materials such as lectures, readings, assignments and syllabi are located and made accessible for students to view and download. Depending on the CMS in use, communication functions may also be mediated through the system in the form of threaded discussions, email or chat-rooms. These are generally used asynchronously, although some systems provide the means for instant messaging, or even web-conferencing. However, most institutions provide little instruction or incentives for the users of the systems, so most courses rely on the dated concept of providing textbased lecture materials, and email correspondence.

Professor

Packaged Info on a given topic

Group Project

Student

Knowledge is comprehended

Assignments and Exams

Project Team

Quantitative Feedback Loop

Figure 1: Current state of Distance Education (Authors’ diagram) With over 66%5 of current two and four year college institutions offering some form of distance education study programs the industry should be a very successful model, yet there are numerous problems the system is currently experiencing. First and foremost is the incredible attrition rates currently afflicting even the biggest colleges such as the university of Phoenix, who 5

“Education Center Online”. Web. April 14 2010 < http://www educationcenteronline. org/e-Learning/Distance-Learning-Statistics.html>

have a matriculation rate of a mere 4% of online students, in comparison to the 55% expected from traditional institutions6. Distance education colleges are also often criticized for the low quality of education, the lack of support for students, and their aggressive recruiting practices. One of the biggest issues seems to be the way distance education courses are being formatted. Although the medium used for distance education is radically different to the traditional education format, colleges are seemingly falling into the trap of trying to create a digital analogue of the classroom setting. Unfortunately, teaching on-line courses require very different techniques than those used in the classroom, yet the common lecture format is retained in most cases and forced to work in the new medium. If we take a closer look at the differences between the on-line learning realm and that of the classroom, it becomes increasingly obvious that opportunities are being lost. The on-line realm is a data-rich environment, capable of being far more flexible and more easily customized than the traditional classroom setting. As of yet, this potential remains essentially untapped. Likewise, the on-line environment may seem to make it far more difficult for instructors to monitor the progress of the students they are teaching, but advances in technology have set the stage for the implementation of technologies that can efficiently evaluate how a student learns. With this information, e-learning environments can be created that adapt to the student, presenting the course information to them in a manor that suits them. 3.4 A Systemic view of the History of Distance Education While it is evident that distance education has relied on the advancement of communication technologies in its evolution, Michael M. Moore and Greg Kearsley forward the concept that the development of distance education can be segmented into five distinct periods to date. The catalyst for each evolutionary jump in the form of distance education corresponds with a significant advancement in communication technologies or a fundamental shift in educational thinking7. These categories are: 6

Dillon, Sam. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Troubles Grow for a University Built on Profitsâ&#x20AC;?. Web. 17 Feb 2010 < http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/11/education/11phoenix.html?_r=1>

History of Distance Education Timeline - 1770 - Now

Correspondence/Home Study Caleb Phillips launches the ‘New Method of Shorthand’ course in Boston, regarded as the first correspondence course.

London’s External Programme London’s External Programme, a correspondence institution is chartered by Queen Victoria in 1858.

Society to Encourage Study at Home The educational needs of Women were advanced in 1873 when the Society to Encourage Study at Home was chartered to provide education for housewives unable to attend traditional institutions.

’s

Figure 2: Distance Education Timeline (Authors’ diagram)

Broadcast Radio / Television Following WW1, the potential of radio as an educational medium was explored, leading to 200 Universities and colleges obtaining licenses to develop radio-based courses. By the beginning of WW2, only one had been implemented, and it failed to attract a single applicant. However, following WW2 Educational Television was found to be far more successful.

Open Universities In the late 1960’s, the introduction of the Open University in the UK heralded the development of a sustainable distance education model that was widely successful.

Interactive Teleconferencing In the 1970’s, AT&T introduced Teleconferencing, founded on the communication breakthrough of digital compression of audio and video streams in real-time

Online-Based Classes The advancements of Personal Computers in the 1980’s, paired with the introduction of the Internet in the 1990’s lead to the current form of distance education, online-based classes.

ome

ere to tered

Adaptable, Digitally Enhanced Education

ns.

With the influx of Mobile Communication Technologies and webcam-based eye-tracking, the next phase of distance education will be centered around adapting information to suit the stakeholders,

’s

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Correspondence/Home study The concept of correspondence study dates back to the 1770’s, and was made possible by the use of the civilian postal system. Broadcast Radio / Television After WW1, advancements in Radio technologies led to the exploration of instructional radio as an alternative to correspondence study. Although there was a great deal of investment in the concept, the concept was viewed as a failure when only one US-based institution managed to implement a for-credit radio-based course, and even then it failed to attract any students. Despite its failure, it is credited with developing the platform of Television-based education which became moderately successful after WW2, and which is still in use in several forms today. Open Universities using combined approaches In the late 1960’s, the UK Government launched an initiative to revolutionize correspondence education, the Open University. The premise of this institution was to provide quality collegiate education for students wishing to study at their own convenience, and took advantage of television-based education and typical postalbased correspondence. Its success led to many institutions worldwide adopting similar ambitions, and is credited with launching distance education institutions as a credible alternative to traditional universities. Interactive Teleconferencing In the 1970’s, AT&T piloted a program to develop teleconferencing built on the breakthroughs in digital compression of audio streams in real-time, plus the affordability of utilizing satellite communication. This led to the adoption of video conferencing in the 1980’s in big business, and then the experimentation of the technology in the educational setting. Online-based classes With the creation and development of the Internet in the late 1980’s, online-based classes became the new model for distance education and grew in popularity in the 1990’s. The platform offered new

Moore, M.G. and Kearsley, G. Distance Education A Systems View. Belmont: Wadsworth. 1996. Print.

channels of communication, including the use of contentmanagement systems that could allow students to access information at their leisure, and the adoption of e-mail as the default communication tool.

3.5 How is Knowledge Transferred? The transfer of knowledge is exceptionally complex, and is dependant on both the method of teaching and the method of learning. To further explain, the concept will be broken down into an investigation of how we as humans learn, and then an analysis of the knowledge transfer process. 3.5.1 How do we learn? Before we can investigate knowledge transfer in the education sector, it is important to give some background on how we learn. I general, our learning takes place in one of two modes; first hand and second hand experiences. First-Hand Experiences First- hand experiences are fundamental to our learning. They ‘…depend on people directly interacting with the phenomena of interest.”8. In essence, this is learning by doing, and is one of the most fundamental ways we learn. Through our own interaction with our environment, we take in a large amount of information, and can use this to help us navigate our environment in the future. In this mode, we are totally self reliant with learning. We can be put into an environment in which we are intended to learn, but it is our own actions that promote the knowledge formulation. Second-Hand Experiences When we consider learning through second-hand experiences, we are talking about accessing information, interpreting it and then creating our 8

Schwartz, Daniel L., Taylor Martin and Na’ilah Nasir. “Design for Knowledge Evolution: Towards a Prescriptive Theory for Integrating First- and Second-Hand Knowledge”. Cognition, Education, and Communication Technology. Ed. Gardenfors, Peter, and Petter Johansson. Lawrence Erlbaum. 2005. 21-52. Print.

own conclusions from it. This is the traditional mode of education, whereby we are presented with information relating to a given topic and are charged with comprehending it. This can take several different forms, including; The Apprentice Model The apprentice model is probably the oldest form of human knowledge transfer. Before we developed verbal or visual language, we learnt from observation and mimicking. By following the actions and strategies of parents, children were able to learn how to walk, feed themselves, and become selfdependant through their childhood. This also allowed generations to build off the knowledge of the previous generations, and thus was able to better exploit their cognitive capacity to further the capabilities of the race, and thus we were able as a species to develop tools and thrive. Although this model seems archaic, it is still used to this day in formal education. Whereas in pre-historic settings this form of education was unstructured, its benefit was exploited when we began ‘specializing’ in a vocation to better our civilization. Trades people to this day regularly take apprentices, who are allowed to observe the practices and techniques of a ‘master’ as they go about their daily work. Through this process of observation, the student develops real-world skills, and is soon competent in their desired trade. Although this process may seem less formal than education in a classroom setting, it does have some significant advantages. Unlike classroom education, you are learning relevant skills to a given discipline in the context in which it is intended to be used. It also allows the student to have far greater access to the master, and thus may encourage greater knowledge transfer.9 The Scholar Model This mode is similar in some ways to the apprentice model, except here the knowledge is now abstracted from the ‘master’, and is instead presented 9

B. Wilson and P. Cole “A review of cognitive teaching models”. Educational Technology Research and Development 39.4 (1991): 47-64. Print.

through textbooks or other forms of communication. In this mode, it is essential to understand the cognitive narrative being presented, and thus the role of the instructor is vital. The information presented must have an unambiguous narrative if it is to be interpreted correctly. This puts great importance on the role of the instructor to be able to present information, guide the knowledgetransfer process, and cater to the differing requirements of the student body. Unlike the Apprentice model, this is a mediated knowledge transfer process, with the transfer ‘interface’ being the teacher or instructor. Although the first- and second-hand experiences can be considered independently from an academic perspective, it is important to recognize that they often work hand in hand to improve knowledge transfer. Take, for example, the case forwarded by Schwartz et al: “First hand experiences are highly relevant to learning. No amount of reading is sufficient to learn to drive a car. People need a chance to turn the wheel, feel the acceleration, and hit the brakes in real time.” 3.5.2 The Process of Knowledge Transfer For knowledge to be transferred, it must be converted into information, transferred to the recipient, and then comprehended.

In distinction to learning, knowledge transfer can be thought of as transferring non-experiential information between a knowledge disseminator and a knowledge recipient. By breaking down the concept of knowledge transfer, we can outline 5 distinct steps in the process. 1. The Knowledge Disseminator The knowledge Disseminator is the holder of the content-specific information that a knowledge recipient wishes to access. This is independent of whether this is a direct transfer between the disseminator and the recipient (The apprentice model), or if it is a process mediated by a knowledge vessel (the Tutor Model).

2. The Conversion of Knowledge into Transferable Information While the transfer of knowledge is the ultimate goal of any educational system, it cannot be transferred directly. Knowledge is a temporal embodiment of information and experiences, and must be converted into a form of transferable information before being communicated to the knowledge recipient. This transferable information can take many forms, including demonstrations (The apprentice model), written descriptions and theories (The scholar model) or direct experiences. In distance education, this is most commonly achieved through the transmittal of written information, potentially supplemented by text books or other forms of media to convey concepts to the recipient. The process of converting knowledge to transferable information must be carefully assessed, as it inherently introduces bias into the content as the knowledge disseminator has a natural learning style and teaching style, and thus will influence the efficiency of knowledge transfer. 3. The Information Transfer Process The transfer of the information can likewise take many forms, and may be completed by the knowledge disseminator or by another expert in the field (knowledge vessel) referencing the knowledge disseminator. Once again, the inclusion of another person, the Knowledge Vessel, introduces further bias into the system and thus further influences the efficiency of knowledge transfer. The transfer process may include lectures, readings, demonstrations, experiences or any other type of communication medium. 4. The Reception of Information In order for the knowledge recipient to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;learnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, they must first access the concept-specific information provided by the knowledge disseminator. In the field of online-based distance education, this is usually achieved through the accessing of information posted within a given Content Management System such as Blackboard or Sakai. Increasingly, communication channels including Google Docs, Wikis, YouTube and other social media channels are being engaged to augment this process.

5. The Conversion of Information into Knowledge Once the recipient has obtained the relevant information, they are charged with the act of accessing the valuable content and converting it to knowledge. While the information provided may contain all of the necessary information on a given concept, the learning style of the recipient greatly effects the efficiency of knowledge transfer, and must be considered. Further information on the effect of learning styles on knowledge transfer can be found in section 3.6. 3.6 Learning Styles Another key aspect of understanding the learning process is the learning style of the individual in question. Every person is unique, and thus people naturally learn in different ways, and have bias towards certain learning methods. This concept is not new, in fact many thorough studies of this form have been undertaken, and numerous credible models for determining learning styles have been created. For the purposes of this investigation, I will be concentrating on the Felder-Silverman model developed in 1988.10 The Felder-Silverman model was initially created to help Engineering Educators better facilitate their classes to their students, but was soon widely acclaimed and adopted as a credible learning-style model. It outlines five separate categories on which to determine an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning style, each with polar positions. In all, the model outlines 32 individual learning styles. The Felder-Silverman model forwards the concept that each of these 32 unique learning models require a matching teaching style for optimum knowledge transfer. However, the polarity within certain categories covered is disproportionate, and therefore some categories will influence knowledge transfer in a far more significant way than others. Learning styles are of significant importance to the act of knowledge transfer, as it directly effects the amount of information that is accessible to the user, and is unique to each user. The current state of education has two approaches to counter the effects of learning styles on education, firstly 10

Felder, Richard M., and Linda Silverman â&#x20AC;&#x153;Learning and Teaching Stylesâ&#x20AC;?. Journal of Engineering Education, 78.7 (1988): 674-681

presentations may be delivered in a mode that suits the average student, and thus is an attempt at compromise. While the content delivered may not suit the majority of the student body perfectly, it will ensure that the majority of students will be able to take away a satisfactory amount of information from the presentation. The second approach is to provide redundancy in presentations, and aims to provide information in a variety of formats and encourages students to find and access information in the mode that best suits their learning style.

Table 1: Felder-Silverman Model (Felder et al. P675) Clearly there are problems with both formats, and many assumptions are made in the creation of these presentations. Knowing the typical profile of engineering student, Felder and Silverman found that they could narrow down the categories of learning types, and could thus enable instructors to

develop content that suited a greater percentage of their student population. However, in more diverse student groups, this approach becomes almost impossible, and leaves the instructor with a choice to provide redundancy of information (a very time consuming process) or to leave the responsibility of accessing the information they present to the student, increasing their cognitive load.

Text-Based Information

Visual Learning Style

Low Knowledge Transfer

Visual Information

Visual Learning Style

High Knowledge Transfer

Figure 2: Effects of Learning Style on Knowledge Transfer (Authors’ diagram)

While this is a problem that has been facing the stakeholders in education for generations, this need not be the case. With recent advancements in technology, new educational design solutions that do not punish the stakeholders for their individual learning styles and preferences are now achievable, and will be investigated later in this project. 3.7 Cognitive Narrative and Distance Education Throughout human history, the concept of narrative has been vital to the knowledge-transfer process. It has even been argued that narrative is essential to the learning process, as it is the backbone of how we interpret our world around us from birth. As cognitive creatures, we try to link events, bring relevance to our daily lives, and build our ‘story’.11 With our dependency upon narrative to help us understand our world, it is logical therefore that narrative is also therefore essential to education and knowledge transfer. In fact, there have numerous studies that suggest that texts make excessive demands on human cognitive processes if they do not obey the concepts of narrative because it is unfamiliar to us. With this in mind, the presentation of materials in education has a huge impact on the knowledge transfer. When we think about the best teachers we have experienced throughout our lives, it is often hard to quantify why they were better than others. In many cases, we had teachers who taught similar subjects, who were equally committed to their profession, and who had access to equal resources. Yet, some teachers are better than others. This may in part be due to their hold on the concepts of narrative, as they were likely better at presenting information, making links to previously learnt concepts, and being able to bring relevance to our every-day experiences. This is especially the case with distance education, and it could be argued that it is one of the biggest downfalls of the current system. Even to this

Tuffield Mischa M., Nigel R. Shadbolt, and David E. Millard. “Narrative as a Form of Knowledge Transfer: Narrative Theory and Semantics”. 1st AKT Doctoral Symposium. Milton Keynes, UK.: June 2005

day, few online courses deal with integrating the information they present, and instead post readings and multi-media items that together cover the concepts required for satisfactory completion of a given subject. However, without an instructor mediating the access to this information, it is very difficult to ensure the presentation of information follows a consistent narrative, and therefore the message can become confused. This problem is exacerbated by the currently accepted notion that on-line courses are easier to manage, and thus instructors are given fewer resources and less time to manage the programs. For an on-line course to be truly successful, it must be able to present information within a cognitive narrative that is robust enough that it no longer needs direct influence from the instructor. It is the hope of this project to propose methods by which this concept of cognitive narrative can be strengthened in on-line education with the hope that it will increase the efficiency of knowledge transfer. 3.8 Current Distance Education Systems Popular educational Content Management Systems include Blackboard, Sakai Project and WebCT

Throughout the industry of distance education, many systems have been developed and employed to mediate the process of transferring knowledge over distance. While these programs were developed by a myriad of different software providers, the basic premise of each are quite similar. The core element of these systems are known as Content Management Systems (CMS) 3.8.1 Popular Content Management Systems Content Management Systems (CMS) have been the core component of distance education, and act as the mediating technology between the student and their instructors and host institutions. Their primary function is to provide a central hub where students can access their class materials, manage their curriculum and submit their work for grading. While there are many different software packages available, there are three major systems that are popular with distance education providers; Blackboard, WebCT and Sakai. Each system has a distinct identity, but they

primarily perform the same basic functions: • • • • • •

Host Course Content Provide access to course-specific communication channels including drop boxes and chat rooms Grading Course Calenders Institutional Messaging Access to Transcripts

While each of the individual programs are different, trends introduced in one are often copied soon after by the others, and thus the functionality of each is quite similar. However, drawing from interviews conducted with stakeholders of the industry, the potential of each system is poorly understood. For example, each of the systems offer methods of mediating online chat-rooms, but few of the stakeholders interviewed used that feature because they either did not know it existed, or were more familiar with the workings of external social-media channels. The use of external content management channels such as flickr and google docs is now common place because they are tools that are accessible to the stakeholders. Moreover, the development of external programs often lead that of the educational systems, as was seen with the introduction of Google Docs, which allows multiple users to modify content in real-time from different computers. While the educational platforms work towards catching up, google docs are now becoming a staple of the educational sector, and new functions introduced in the CMS software are often overlooked once people have invested their time learning a different program. While the use of innovative programs is a step forward for distance education, using multiple channels to disperse and share information makes the job of mediating knowledge transfer even more complicated, and is confusing the over-all process. 3.9 Why Design Should Be Re-Evaluating Distance Education The current model of distance education is in dire need of change if it is going to live up to its potential and become a vital part of the education

sector in the 21st century. Until now, it has been used as a substitute for classroom education, and as such has lent heavily upon the structures of the traditional education setting. However, digital realm where distance education is positioned is vastly different, and thus traditional methods of teaching are less successful. A lot of the problems witnessed can come down to a misuse of the medium of distance education. Take, for example, the classroom setting. A teacher is the primary giver of information, aided by technology to support learning. This is a direct mode of knowledge transfer, from one individual to another. Perhaps more importantly, the teacher is in a position to direct the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;cognitive narrativeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;12 of the learning process, guiding students through the process of both accessing and comprehending information. In this setting, the teacher is ideally set in a position where they can monitor this knowledge transfer in real-time, and addresses any complications that may come up. Furthermore, they have control over the pace at which the students receive information, and can mediate discussions to help further the learning process in real time. This real-time interaction can lead to a group energy that is very useful to engage students in a concept, and can also create a healthy competition between students if directed correctly. The digital environment, on the other hand, fosters mediated knowledge transfer. The teacher or instructor is now removed from the primary role of giving information, and the digital medium becomes the primary mode of knowledge transfer. In this case, it is increasingly important that the systems used provide ample support for the student, and the cognitive narrative becomes even more important. In this arena, the teacher has little control on how students access the information presented, and the knowledge transfer interface becomes the leader of the cognitive narrative. The biggest task in understanding where the major opportunities lie for distance education is in understanding the medium used, and what is affords. Unlike the classroom, we are now dealing with the data-rich digital realm that can afford the user far more access to information. It can transfer 12

Gardenfors, Peter, and Petter Johansson. Cognition, Education, and Communication Technology. Lawrence Erlbaum. 2005. Print.

knowledge in real-time, with tools such as web conferencing used to mimic the classroom environment, but it can also be used asynchronously. And, unlike the classroom setting, it actively affords the capture of transient information that would be lost or inaccessible in real life. This means that stakeholders can now access far more information, from many different sources and perspectives to augment their learning. While improving the efficiency of knowledge transfer today is a necessity, its value in the coming years will only increase. Over 66% of degree-granting 2 and 4 year institutions in the United States are now offering for-credit courser remotely, and with the current student population of approximately 12.2 million forecast to increase by 19% to 18.2 million students by 201313, there has never been a more important time to revisit distance education and improve the services offered to the stakeholders.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;NCES Projects Enrollment, Expenditure, and Degree Increases to 2013â&#x20AC;?. National center for Educational Statistics. Web, Feb 2 2010. < http://www.nacubo. org/Research/News/NCES_Projects_Enrollment_Expenditure_and_Degree_ Increases_to_2013.html>

Chapter 4:

Eye Tracking Investigation

4.0 EYE TRACKING INVESTIGATION In addition to the primary-source research conducted around the central themes of distance education and knowledge transfer, another core aim of this project was to investigate the innovative application of new technologies to support the knowledge transfer process. While many new technologies have potential applications for distance education, eye tracking was chosen for further exploration because of its usefulness as a interface tool, and its ability to gauge a physiological response of a stakeholder and provide vital information about their cognitive state. 4.1 What is Eye Tracking? Eye tracking is a method of determining the location of a users eye fixation in space, and interpolating meaning from this information. The basic metrics tracked are the fixation location of the eye, the fixation duration, the saccadic movements of the eye (the rapid movements between eye fixations) and the dilation of the pupil. From these basic metrics, the gaze of the subject can be tracked, and can be used for a myriad of applications ranging from usability studies of websites to psycho-linguistic investigations of how subject read and interpret text.

For the purposes of this experiment, bright pupil eye tracking was used

4.1.1 Video-Based Eye Tracking The most common type of eye tracking is the video-based eye tracking, and is the method used for the following investigation for this project. The basic premise is to have an infrared sensitive video camera fixated on the subjects eye, either remotely or head mounted (e.g. attached to a pair of glasses), and to have an infrared light source illuminate the users eye. The pupil of the eye allows all of the infrared light to enter in, and provides great contrast between the iris and the pupil through the infrared camera. To help calibrate the location of the users gaze, an additional reference point is needed. This additional point is known as the glint, and is the reflection off the cornea of the eye. With eye tracking software such as the Mirametrix Tracker program used in the following experiment, the center of the pupil and the glint are tracked in real time, and combined with a calibration series

A eye fixation is an event where the eye of the user is stationary on a single point for between 100 and 500 milliseconds

of reference points on the computer screen, allow the program to interpolate where the users eye is fixated within the constraints of the screen. Shown right is the output of the Mirametrix Tracker program, showing the ‘Bright Pupil’ method indicating the center of the pupil and the glint location

Locking on the Users Eyes

Pupil Center Glint Location

Figure 4.1: Mirametrix Tracker Output (Authors’ picture)

4.1.2 Eye Movements in Reading Before we can begin to analyze the cognitive processes attributed to given eye movements, it is necessary to fully understand how the eye moves during reading. The physiological movements of the eye during reading can be broken into two major components, Saccades and Fixations. Fixations are defined as moments, usually in the order of 100 to 500 ms, where the eye comes to rest to take in visual information. Saccades, on the other hand, are the rapid eye movements between fixations, and last between 15-40ms. During this time, the eye is not taking in any visual information, saccades simply perform the function of shifting the gaze from one fixation to another. When we read a block of text in English, we typically read lines sequentially by scanning the text from left to right. The first fixation on a given line of text is typically between 5-7 characters left of the margin, and the right-most fixation is also typically 5-7 characters from the right margin. We then make a ‘return sweep’ to locate the beginning of the next paragraph, however this is usually very inaccurate and we tend to under-shoot the required position. This inaccuracy requires a very rapid corrective saccade to locate the optimal left-most fixation point as described above. Another interesting phenomena is the concept of reading regression. During reading, the eyes often move backwards in the text to re-visit portions of the presented information. The subject is often not even aware of this regression, especially when the regression is a mere few characters. However, this information can be vitally important when considering the subjects cognition of the information. Drawing from these parameters, we can begin to assess areas of cognitive difficulties a user has with a complex concept. In it’s raw form, the eyetracking data captured by a given system such as the Tobii Eye-Tracker is very ambiguous, and there are too many data points to be of much use. However, if we begin to filter the results, we can determine metrics such as the average fixation duration, the percentage of regressions, and the mean length of saccades. By comparing this information to a collection of base-

Figure 4.2 shows the typical eye movements witnessed during reading

Saccadic movement of the eye, lasting approximately 15-40 milliseconds.

Eye Fixation point, where the eye is stationary for between 100 and 500 milliseconds

Figure 4.2: Eye Movements during Reading (Authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; picture)

control metrics, readers struggling with a more complex concept will exhibit longer mean fixations, shorter forward saccades and a more regressions. Although this process is suitable for assessing the complexity of a given body of text, other methods are necessary for real-time cognitive assessment. In this case, the way a user reads an individual sentence or a given word can give significant insight into their cognitive processes. Take, for example, the eye-tracking enabled thesaurus developed by the University of Tampere in Finland. By simply assessing the fixation duration and regression patterns of the reader, the program can assess that the reader is having difficulty with the word or sentence, and can provide further information by linking to a thesaurus definition. In the case of Distance Learning, this could be of use in two significant ways. Firstly, data on the cognitive difficulties of a student group could be returned to an instructor, enabling them to address the concept in more detail in an

up-coming lecture or session. Alternatively, this information could fuel an e-learning interface that could assess the learning style of a given student, and then adapt by providing course content in the most accessible way for the student. 4.2 What can Eye-Tracking do for Distance Education? While contemporary distance education is almost exclusively delivered through the data-rich digital medium encompassed by the internet, there have been few attempts to take advantage of new technologies to support or enhance the efficiency of Distance Education Knowledge Transfer. We are now at a position in time when the average distance education student has access to sophisticated tools such as laptop computers with in-built webcams, and data-enabled cell phones. Thus, there are numerous new opportunities for advancement in distance education technology.

One such advancement that has the potential to greatly improve the efficiency of distance education knowledge transfer is the use of webcambased eye-tracking. While the connections between eye metrics and cognition have been explored thoroughly from a psycho-linguistic perspective with very interesting outcomes, the high cost of eye tracking equipment has to date meant that few studies have been explored that connect eye metrics and the knowledge transfer process for education. While the cost of highly-accurate eye tracking systems like the Tobii T-60 and even the Mirametrix S-1 portable eye tracking system is still prohibitive for mass use in education, there have been many recent advancements in the development of low-cost eye-tracking, and with an abundance of opensource software and a strong network of interested developers, affordable eye tracking technology will potentially become viable within the next decade. For the sake of this project, it is not the authors intention to explore the technical side of developing this type of low cost, webcam-based eye tracking system, instead the assumption is made that such technologies will soon be available.

With this assumption in mind, several major advantages of using this technology for distance education can be theorized. These are: The cognitive potential is a measure of the accessibility of the presented information for a specific user, and will be different for each individual

1. The use of eye-tracking to evaluate the cognitive potential of presented information

Many psycho-linguistic studies have been undertaken to explore the connection between eye movements and cognition when reading, and there are several ways to evaluate the cognitive state of a given reader through eye metrics. When reading a passage normally, the eye movements (Saccades and fixations) follow typical patterns. However, when the cognitive load of the reader is increased through confusion, there is an increase in the fixation times on certain areas of the text, and there is an increase in reading regressions. By exploring these patterns, a clutch mechanism for an e-learning environment could be developed based on a given regression trigger, that could be used to provide the reader with more information on a given subject or provide feedback to the instructor about the cognitive potential of the presented information.

Eye Metrics can potentially be monitored and used to garner information about a users learning style

2. The use of eye-tracking metrics to determine a readers learning style Another way to improve the efficiency of knowledge transfer in Distance Education is to ensure the student is receiving information that is accessible to their individual learning style. Everyone has a bias towards a certain sort of information, and if we can begin to cater the educational material to their needs, they will be better placed to retain more knowledge. There are numerous different types of tests that attempt to assess the learning style of a given individual (Take, for example the Myers Briggs test), but the majority of these methods require the user to take a standardized test to develop a profile. There are some serious concerns with this method, including that people can be prone to pick the answer they believe they should be answering for a given question, and not the answer that is the best suit for them. To counter this, I am suggesting that eye-tracking can be used to begin to formulate a learner profile of a student automatically, without requiring any direct input from the student.

4.3 Eye Tracking Experiment Building from this base knowledge of eye tracking and its connection with cognition, the next phase of the investigation was to explore what eye metrics could be efficiently captured by low-cost eye tracking equipment and how these could be used as trigger mechanisms for digital tools. In order to achieve this, a Mirametrix S-1 Portable eye tracker, complete with the Mirametrix tracker and observer software was obtained for experimentation. While there are many different presentation media used for transferring information in distance education, a decision was made to focus the initial investigation on augmenting presented information in a textual form, and in particular how useful feedback about the readers cognition could be captured and represented in a simple, usable fashion for the stakeholders involved. 4.3.1 Setting up the Experiment To achieve this goal, two student groups were engaged, students from the University of the Arts in Philadelphia, and students and faculty at the Aalto University in Finland (Pori and Helsinki Campuses). These two test groups were chosen for two main reasons; firstly the focus and areas of study at the two colleges are complementary and would likely have students with similar interests and intellect, and secondly so that the differences in eye metrics, if any, between native and non-native English speakers could be investigated. Before beginning the design of the experiment, several main areas of interest tied to cognition were first identified as the target areas of the investigation. While advanced eye-tracking systems currently used in psycho-linguistic investigations can track facial features with eye metrics, and can be tied in with other physiological sensors to determine cognition with precision, the goals of this thesis exploration can be equally achieved with a lower-tech approach. Instead, it was decided that three major eye metrics could be captured to give a reasonable determination of the cognitive state of the reader;

1 5 Users Eye

Mirametrix Tracker and Observer Software

Infrared LED Array

Inbuilt Webcam Mirametrix S-1 Portable Eye Tracker 3

•

Step 1: The user reads information on the computer display

•

Step 2: Infrared Light is shone at the users eye

•

Step 3: The infrared camera records the infrared image of the eye

•

Step 4: The Mirametrix Tracker program interprets the location of the pupil and the glint off the retina

•

Step 5: The Mirametrix Observer program collects this information in the form of an augmented video feed, and pure data points. Figure 4.3: Eye Tracking Experiment Set-Up (Authors’ picture)

Eye Tracking Experiment undertaken with Fraser Marshall at Uarts, Philadelphia USA using the Mirametrix S-1.

Figure 4.4: Eye Tracking Experiment 1 (Authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; picture) Eye Tracking Experiment undertaken with Topi Kauppinen at the Aalto University, Pori Finland using the Mirametrix S-1.

Figure 4.5: Eye Tracking Experiment 2 (Authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; picture)

1. The users natural reading speed, and how that is effected by more complex concepts and sentence structures

2. How a student accesses information, and whether they regress in the text to review certain presented concepts,

and

3. The presence of an increase in regressive saccades, which has been proven to be linked with a higher cognitive load.

With the three targeted phenomena of the investigation highlighted, the experiment was designed with the hope of isolating the effects of each so that conclusions could be drawn. A document containing seven separate text excerpts were chosen, and compiled to form the basic testing platform. Great care was made to ensure that there were no visual distractions within the experiment that could effect the data collected, and as such each section of text was presented on a blank white page, with size 16 Helvetica Neue text double spaced. The formatting of all pages was kept consistent. With one of the core aims of this experiment centered around determining how a users reading speed was influenced by higher cognition, the first presented page contained a paragraph from Harry Potter in the aim of getting a base-line reading speed for each participant. This page was chosen because of the fact that the book was written for a younger generation, and thus exhibited a basic sentence structure and grammar. As a control to test how familiarity with text would influence the reading speed, the second page contained the first paragraph of the United States Constitution, which is the same approximate length as the Harry Potter excerpt. With the base-level readings in place, the following page was an excerpt from a programming blog. While the aim here was not to test the users knowledge of the field of programing, the paragraph included many acronyms and an obscure word, â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;bletcherousâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. The purpose of including this was to see if readers were effected by these new elements, and whether eye-metric driven trigger mechanisms could be tied to support their learning. The next two pages of presented text contained more complex information,

Page one of the eye tracking experiment designed to determine the readers’ natural reading speed

Figure 4.6: Eye Tracking Testing (Authors’ picture) The Doppler Effect reading included to study the effect of increased cognitive load on eye metrics.

Figure 4.7: Eye Tracking Testing 2 (Authors’ picture)

the first being an outline of the Doppler Effect concept, and the second a description of Einsteins’ new theory of general relativity. The two concepts were presented together in order to introduce redundancy to guard against a participant having knowledge of one of the concepts that may effect the data. The final two pages were chosen for their much higher cognitive load, the first being an excerpt from Edgar Allan Poes’ Murders in the Rue Morgue. This paragraph was chosen because of its extremely complex sentence structure. The last page was a paragraph from Hegels’ theory of Aesthetics, and although the sentence structure is relatively straight forward, the content is exceptionally dense and thus was chosen to represent an extreme cognitive load. 4.3.2 Executing the Experiment With the investigation content framed, the experiment was then set up to gather data from each participant. The Mirametrix Tracker and Observer software was used to gather both the experimental data, and a video recording of the participants interaction with the content that included an overlay of their eye fixations and saccades. In order to ensure the calibration of the software was stable, each user was provided with an air mouse that they could click to turn the pages once they had completed reading them, preventing them from unintentionally moving out of the calibration zone of the Mirametrix S-1 Tracker. Students in Philadelphia were tested first, highlighting the need for a small re-evaluation in the goals of the experiment. While the reading speed and regressions and revisiting of text on the page was clearly evident in the captured data, the fidelity of the Mirametrix system made it impossible to obtain insight into the ‘regressive saccades’ that would illustrate a higher cognitive load. Fortunately, significant research into regressive saccades and its connection to higher cognitive loads already exist, so it was taken as a given for the future design of digital tools. Following the investigation with the Philadelphia-based participants, students at the Aalto University in Finland were also invited to participate.

Once again, the same experimental protocol was engaged, requiring each student to read through the pages of text after calibrating the Mirametrix system. In total, 6 students from Philadelphia and six students from Finland were engaged, and a data set and recording of the experiment session was captured from each participant. After each session, the participant was interviewed briefly to confirm the complexity of each given section of text to ensure the data collected was associated with cognition, and not some external influence that was not taken into account. 4.3.3 Analyzing the Results Once the experiments were completed, the data was collected and was then analyzed based on the criteria set for the experiment. With the video recordings of each session featuring an overlay showing the eye fixations and saccades, it was possible to determine the reading speed of a participant on any of the given pages to an accuracy of approximately 0.2 seconds. Given that every participant exhibited a unique natural reading speed determined by their performance on the first slide, each subsequent reading speed measurement was determined as a percentage decrease in reading speed to ensure data across the study group could be compared. While the reading speeds differed for each person, some basic trends became apparent. With the students in Philadelphia tested first, there were some clear results that were able to be garnered from the data collected. The students had little trouble with the initial readings, and as such their baseline reading speeds were taken as credible. However, with each subsequent page, their individual reading speed dropped significantly, and seemed to correlate to the participants description of the cognitive complexity of the presented information. In general, decreases in reading speed of between 12.5% - 40% were observed, with the greatest drop correlating to the Hegel reading which was unanimously selected as the text with the highest cognitive load. With this initial data compiled, the data obtained from the experiments with the Finnish students were analyzed next. Once again, each participant confirmed that they were essentially unaffected by the initial reading, and

thus it was confirmed as a credible base-reading speed. Confirming the results obtained with the Philadelphia students, the Finnish students also exhibited a significant drop in reading speed associated with the subsequent readings, and all participants also confirmed the Hegel reading as the most complex. However, there were two anomalies observed in the data collected, being that the reading speeds of the Finnish students was essentially back to their natural reading speed when they engaged the texts dealing with the Doppler Effect and Einsteins new theory of relativity. While this initially seemed counter-intuitive to the frameworks of this experiment, the interviews with the students following the experiments highlighted the cause of this result. Unlike the Philadelphian students, the Finnish students were all exposed to these complex physics concepts in depth during their secondary school education, and thus the concepts were familiar to them. Thus, the cognitive load induced by this reading was far less than that of the Philadelphia-based students, explaining the disparity in the data obtained. 4.3.4 Conclusions from the Eye Tracking Investigation From the eye tracking investigation, several conclusions could be confirmed that helped clarify the potential of eye tracking as a useful tool for knowledge transfer. Firstly, the information garnered through the use of the Mirametrix S-1 Eye Tracker was able to accurately gauge the reading speed of the user, and links between a drop in reading speed and higher cognitive load was found. Additionally, the experimental results exhibited many occasions with information was re-read, once again having links to higher cognitive load. Finally, the experiment found that when subjects have a thorough understanding of a complex concept, their reading speed increases. While these results may seem trivial, their use in aiding knowledge transfer are profound. By tracking simple eye metrics like a participants reading speed, gaze direction and fixations, a great deal of information regarding their cognitive state can be deduced. More importantly, these metrics are not tied to super-accurate eye tracking metrics, and thus have fantastic implications for the development of assistive knowledge transfer tools. As described earlier, webcam-based eye-tracking is on the verge of becoming

both cost effective and commercially available, and given the increasing levels of accuracy of such systems, the tracking of simple eye metrics is entirely possible. Keeping in mind that distance education is generally mediated through the digital environment, and that the most common tool is the laptop computer, the potential application of assistive knowledge transfer tools tied to eye metrics can help all stakeholders understand the cognitive state of the student. If the cognitive state of the student can be accurately gauged, gaps in student knowledge can be more efficiently addressed, and thus the efficiency of knowledge transfer can be greatly increased.

Chapter 5:

Engaging the Stakeholders

5.0 ENGAGING THE STAKEHOLDERS As an essential part of the co-design process engaged for this investigation, it was vital that the stakeholders of the current discipline of Distance Education were engaged. While a great deal of theoretical information can be garnered through peer-reviewed literature sources that can help guide a project significantly, the only true way of ensuring that a design is going to address the needs of the users is to access the information they inherently own. Through experiencing the system on a daily basis, the stakeholders hold a remarkable amount of knowledge that no book or journal article can replace. It is therefore the task of the designer to access this information, and ensure it plays a vital role in the development of any system. In order to ensure all perspectives of the stakeholder groups were considered, both students and instructors with experience with distance education were engaged. There were three stages when stakeholder involvement was necessary, firstly the initial investigation process to gain a better understanding of the needs of the distance education community, secondly in the experimentation process to gauge the effectiveness of tools like eye tracking for distance education purposes, and finally to help assess and refine the design solutions developed. 5.1 The Initial Interview Process To gain a thorough understanding of the needs and desires of the stakeholders, it was essential to engage with experts in the field. For the purposes of this investigation, these experts were broken into two groups, Instructors with current or recent experience teaching within the frameworks of distance education, and students with current or recent experience with learning through distance education courses. The engagement with the instructors included personal interviews with five current professors from The University of the Arts, The Art Institute and the University of Arkansas at Monticello. Each interview was involved a series of questions relating to the teachers experiences with teaching through distance education, where they thought the strengths of the system were, what weaknesses they perceived, and how they thought the system could

A Stakeholder is a person intimately involved with a given system. For the case of distance education, this would include students, instructors, etc.

Instructors from The University of the Arts, The Art Institute and the University of Arkansas at Monticello were interviewed to gain a better understanding of the current practices of distance education.

Figure 5.1: Instructor Survey (Authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; picture)

be improved. Additionally, a section of each interview was dedicated to exploring the topics the interviewee felt was most pertinent to the success of distance education, and thus took a more conversational form. Each interview took approximately 45 minutes, after which notes were compiled for further analysis. In conjunction with the personal interviews of the instructors, a web-based survey was developed to engage with the student body of distance education. Once again, the premise of this survey was to gain an understanding of each students experience with distance education, why they chose to engage with this style of education, what were the strengths and weaknesses of the system and what the current practices were. The survey was developed through the use of Surveymonkey, allowing links to the survey to be posted through social media avenues like facebook and twitter, and also through group e-mail to the student population at the University of the Arts.

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Total Started Survey: 7 Total Completed Survey: 6 (85.7%)

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Share Responses 1. In what year did you participate in a distance-education course, and through which institution?

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2006-2007, Santa Monica College

Wed, Mar 3, 2010 8:16 PM

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2009-present

Sun, Feb 28, 2010 9:20 AM

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2009-present at Saint Joseph's University

Sat, Feb 27, 2010 6:19 PM

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2007, Bucks County Community College

Wed, Feb 24, 2010 1:55 PM

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2006

Thu, Feb 18, 2010 4:36 PM

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2009 Deakin University

Wed, Feb 17, 2010 6:42 AM

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2009 - Esset

Wed, Feb 17, 2010 5:46 AM

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2. What types of on-line courses have you participated in?

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Purely on-line or correspondance

71.4%

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57.1%

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3. Why did you choose to study by distance education?

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Figure 5.2: Student Survey developed through SurveyMonkey 1. I had a job, many other things to do (applying topicture) schools), and was living with an Wed, Mar 3, 2010 8:16 PM (Authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

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elderly woman who liked it better when I was around.

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flexible schedule

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Convience

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convenience

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Page 1 of 7

The Online Survey contained 23 questions, and was distributed through social media channels such as facebook and twitter

The Stakeholder comments lead to the identification of four areas of concentration for the concept development; communication, feedback, connectivity and collaboration.

“Communication in a threaded discussion can be problematic. Sometimes people overpower the conversation...”

“..my students do not have a direct connection to me unless they call my office.”

”Waiting for an email response from the teacher (is frustrating)...”

“It is hard to help students get on track when your only mode of communication is email.”

“Not everyone responded quickly to emails, making communication at times difficult.” “Not so easy to talk with students.” “A higher grade of communication infrastructure to allow for video based lectures (is needed).” “It would have been nice to have a webinar type thing instead of basically teaching yourself through the text book.” “... something more interactive (is needed), as far as group discussions go. A lot of times that felt forced and only used because they were required.” “(I would like to see) the ability to chat live, in order to facilitate group discussions” “I would like to see technology being used in a better way.”

student responses

“...online courses keep the student/professor relationship from developing.” “The immediate feedback from a professor in a room is invaluable, and it is really hard to direct an asynchronous conversation the way a professor can in a classroom setting.” “Students in an online course can't always learn from others..” “Sometimes the professor can't get back to the student right away. This is especially true if there are different time zones involved and a student needs feedback right away.” “ In a classroom, you get a sense of when students are lost, you don’t get that online.” “It is extremely hard to develop working relationships with online education students.”

instructor responses

Figure 5.3: Finding meaning from the stakeholder responses (Authors’ picture)

5.2 Finding meaning from the data After the interview process was completed and the surveys returned, a great amount of unfiltered information had been collected. In order to find meaning from this, the information needed to be analyzed and common themes needed to be identified. To do this, the notes from each interview and the survey transcripts were reviewed, and all of the comments were written onto post-it notes and attached to a white board. This process of visualizing the data in a manipulatable form made the analysis process more efficient, and allowed

connections between concepts to be drawn, erased or modified. Annotations can easily be made, and the inter-relationship between all of the concepts were able to be fully explored in a dynamic way. 5.2.1 Communication Concerns From this process, several key areas of concern were highlighted. To begin with, many students and instructors had concerns with communication. Students felt that although the asynchronous nature of distance education was a key feature when it comes to scheduling study around their everyday life, they were not getting the access to fellow students and their instructor that they craved. They felt that questions were not being answered in a timely fashion, and that this adversely effected their learning. Likewise, Instructors had concerns about communication too. They felt that the current platform didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t encourage students to ask questions or discuss concepts with other students, and as such a great learning opportunity was lost. Additionally, some instructors had concerns about the current communication staples of the system, e-mail and threaded chat-rooms. They felt that they were labor intensive to manage, and that it was difficult for anyone to find meaning from the chat-room conversations, as there was little way of effectively sorting the content. 5.2.2 Questions about Feedback Another key concern of both parties was the apparent lack of feedback between students and instructors. Given the current platform of Distance Education, it was found that Instructors felt they had little way of gauging student progress, and that the traditional measuring stick, tests, assignments and exams highlighted issues with student learning too late for intervention on their behalf to be of significant value.

Unlike their traditional teaching counterparts, instructors engaging in distance education canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t rely upon the tacit feedback like student body language, attention or engagement to gauge their grasp of presented concepts, and thus they felt they do not have adequate tools to ensure students were understanding the content they present. The students

likewise had concerns about the feedback provided, as they felt they were unable to access information about their relative performance throughout the semester. 5.2.3 Connectivity Concerns Another key finding was the apparent disconnect between the stakeholders. Students wanted to connect with other students and wanted to access their instructors when they had questions, but the asynchronous format of distance education made this very problematic. Students who were working often studied late at night, and could not connect with their professors directly for obvious reasons. Instead, they had to rely upon email to gain the clarification they were seeking, which significantly compromised the cognitive narrative of their learning.

5.2.4 How can Collaboration be encouraged? The final major theme identified was the lack of collaboration in distance education. While there are communication technologies that make it entirely possible for groups to collaborate effectively without ever being in the same location, it was difficult to encourage collaboration in Distance Education causes. Instructors felt that collaborative learning is a great tool for students to gain a better understanding of concepts presented within a course, but felt powerless to have the process work to the same level as it does when students are in the same physical space. This resulted in students either being forced to collaborate on group assignments, or the concept was abandoned.

Students, too, recognized the learning opportunities when working in groups, and lamented the isolation of the current distance education process. They felt that group assignments were very difficult to facilitate, as students had different schedules, motivations and interests that were often difficult to gauge, and thus it was complicated to make the concept work on projects except for basic assignments that could be easily sub-divided.

Chapter 6:

Synthesis

6.0 SYNTHESIS With the stakeholder-driven areas of concern highlighted and the eye tracking investigation yielding promising results on its potential as a tool for distance education, the next task was synthesizing the needs of the stakeholders into a coherent narrative. What had become obvious from the initial research, the engagement with the stakeholders and the exploration of new technologies was that the current distance education ideology was premised on technologies and theories that are quickly being left behind. With the development of new technologies, a move to increasingly mobile communication and a drive for a re-evaluation of distance education, there is a need to redefine the next evolution of distance education 6.1 The case for a re-evaluation of Distance Education Theory The field of distance education, as it has now become commonly termed, has been in a constant state of evolution from its early beginnings in the late 1700’s in the form of Correspondence Study. Since that time, the field has been greatly influenced by advancements in communication technologies, and has adapted to the needs of the changing world it is servicing. As discussed earlier, the development of distance education can be segmented into five distinct periods to date. The catalyst for each evolutionary jump in the form of distance education corresponds with a significant advancement in communication technologies or a fundamental shift in educational thinking. These five periods, as succinctly presented by M. Moore in his book “Distance Education: A Systems View” are: 1. Correspondence/Home study • Initiated in the 1770’s • Made possible by the advancement in the mail system 2. Broadcast Radio / Television • Educational Radio explored after WW1 • Educational TV Broadcasting explored in the post WW2 1940’s

Open Universities using combined approaches • Chartered in the late 1960’s • Commercially viable business model

4. Interactive Teleconferencing • Explored beginning in the 1970’s • Based on advancements in Satellite Technology and digital compression capability of audio streams in real-time 5. Online-based classes • Explored beginning in the 1990’s • Based on potential of the Internet • Utilizes Email and Chat-rooms as the major communication tool, plus Content Management Systems for distribution of information. When these periods are carefully considered, trends begin to appear that give insight into the potential future of Distance Education. From the beginning, correspondence education was focused on making educational more accessible to the masses, and as it has evolved, advances in technology have enabled the accessibility to increase. With the mail system, the educational material was provided to the student at a location of their choosing, with the compromise being that there was a delay in transmittal of a couple of days. This allowed for two-way communication, but at a significant time delay. Next, with the onset of instructional radio and television, the delays in presentation of materials was significantly reduced, and was once again available at the students home through their radio or television sets. Although this was essentially a one-way channel of communication, the well-established format of mail-based correspondence was retained to ensure students could submit their work to the institutions. With the onset of Teleconferencing, two-way communication was now possible through video, and people were able to interact in real-time. While this was a useful channel for lectures and discussions, the submittal of work was still handled through the postal system, and thus still retained a delay in the communication channels. This delay was significantly reduced with the implementation of the internet, and had the added benefit of bringing both the information

distribution and the lecture/discussion forum together into one cohesive communication channel. As can be seen, there are three major themes that the industry have been grappling with, being the accessibility of information, the media used for the presentation of concepts and the delay in asynchronous communication. The current format of online-based education has significantly reduced the delay in transmittal of information, but the accessibility of information is still a major concern. For the majority of its existence, online-based education required students to access the internet, which necessitated the use of a computer. For a lot of people, this meant that this information was still location-based, as it required the student to be at home to access their computer, or at a wifi hot-spot where they could connect to the internet. One of the biggest challenges facing the industry is the grapple with how material should be presented, and in what medium. The contemporary form of distance education dates back to the beginnings of the commercial computer age in the 1980â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, with the birth of the Internet opening new avenues for the dissemination of information. At the time, the accepted theories concentrated on the use of communication technologies to support the interaction between student and instructor, and placed the learner at the center of the model. However, this model neglected the needs of the instructor, and made little attempt to understand what the digital environment offered distance learning. With the model biased towards the learner and a lack of understanding on the part of institutions for what is required to develop course content for digital media, instructors in general had poor resources, limited time and limited training to develop their teaching materials. This lack of consideration of the digital medium and the limited time dedicated to the formulation of course content lead to distance education materials leaning heavily upon the structure of traditional classroom-based courses, a task the medium is obviously not entirely suitable for. The result of this was the stagnation of development of distance education, and the growing belief that it is merely a second-rate version of traditional education used in extreme circumstances when students are not able to attend classes in person, or to lower over-head costs for the hosting institution. Now twenty years after the current systems were introduced, little

advancement have been made. Content Management systems have been developed to enable many different channels of communication, but their capabilities are poorly understood and rarely engaged. In their place, some instructors are working around the limitations of current systems by engaging other social and public communication channels such as Skype, YouTube and Google docs to address shortcomings. The complication here is that there is little attempt made to synthesize all of those channels of information, and thus it becomes difficult to access all of the required information, and it is almost impossible to archive for future use. However, recent movements within the industry are indicating a change in approach is at hand. In recent years instructors, often independent of the over arching institutional support have tended to explore the more accessible channels of communication (social media hubs), and communication technologies have also advanced greatly. Mobile devices and smart-phones have made the process of accessing information increasingly easy, and supporting interface technologies such as touch-screens and eye tracking set the stage for new ways to interact with content and thus offer great new potentials for distance education. To date, smart phones have been adopted by an astounding 12% of the us population, with the user-base growing consistently.1 The case for such a surge in mobile communication technologies is backed by the release of devices such as the Apple I-Pad, which has the potential to take the mobile e-learning market by storm. While the system does not currently incorporate a webcam, it features audio that can be used with skype or other conferencing software to connect people in real-time, and its HD video capacity and development kit allowing users to develop interactive educational applications. Additionally, the recent leak of the new 4G Apple I-Phone, widely regarded as the leader in the smart-phone field features a forward-facing camera, opening further opportunities to embrace video conferencing, and in the future camera-based eye tracking features. Complementing this is the speculation that there will soon be a bluetooth 1

Petrie, P. and Loic Tallon. “The IPhone Effect? Comparing Visitors’ and Museum Professionals’ Evolving Expectations of Mobile Interpretation Tools”. Museums and the Web Conference. Denver: April 13 2010

74 Smart devices are now featuring user-facing cameras

12% of the U.S. Population have smart phones, and adoption is increasing rapidly adaptive content

an estimated 700,000 iPads have been sold, and the educational potential is being explored in depth

Wifi locations are growing, as is the adoption of wireless modems

assess learning style

Eye Tracking

new interface tool understand student cognition provide useful feedback

Adaptive, Digitally Enhanced Education

Figure 6.1: Case for ADEE (Authors’ diagram)

webcam for the I-Pad2, and given Apple’s recent purchase of Tobii eyetracking equipment for their internal research the platform for the next evolutionary jump in communication technologies are in place3. With this in mind, it is clear that the online-based class period defined by M. Moore as the current embodiment of distance education is once again evolving, and that impending advancements in mobile communication technologies are driving the need for a fresh approach for the industry. To do so, the industry will need to embrace the new communication tools offered by the current digital age.

2 3

Brandon, B. “Apple’s iPad: What does it offer for e-Learning?”. Web. 22 April 2010. < http://www.learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/370/> Unknown Author. “Is Apple Adding Eye Tracking to Their Tablet?”. Web. 22 April 2010 <http://eyetrackingupdate.com/2010/01/26/is-apple-adding-eye-trackingto-their-tablet/>

6.2 Supporting Educational Systems Supporting the case for a reevaluation of distance education is the creation of innovative educational content databases, including MITâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s OpenCourseWare and Rice Universities Connexions project. These databases aim to increase accessibility to a wide variety of information, creating the potential resource database for an adaptive content management system to draw from in order to provide students with information suited to their learning style. 6.2.1 MITâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s OpenCourseWare One of the biggest problems for the development of innovative distance education systems has been the lack of access to advanced references for given subjects and cutting edge research on topics. MIT have recently begun their OpenCourseWare project to address this, and have taken the innovative step of providing access to virtually all of their undergraduate and graduate course materials through an on-line database. Although this is not in itself a distance learning initiative, it does provide vital resources for the transfer of knowledge over distances. Through this program, students throughout the world are now able to access quality course content presented by specialists in their field, no matter where they may be. This access to information is vital to the development of distance education, and provides a valuable resource to students and instructors alike. 6.2.2 Rice Universities Connexions Project Another innovative project is the Rice University Connexions project. This project, much like MITâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s OpenCourseWare is a database of information, but instead of being an initiative allowing access to the institution, it focuses on collecting modules of information globally. It is an open initiative, meaning any person can contribute information, and relies upon peer review to ensure the materials are correct and appropriate. The driving premise behind Connexions is to develop a database of knowledge from a myriad of perspectives in order to enable the collation of

Student Cognition Cognitive Potential of Presented Information

Professor

Packaged Info on a given topic

Knowledge Transfer Interface

Student

Knowledge is comprehended

Assignments and Exams

Student Interaction / group performance

Group Project

Project Team

Adaptive Content Management System

Quantitative Feedback Loop

Figure 6.2: Potential Channels of Feedback offered by ADEE (Authors’ Diagram) learning materials that suit individual needs of students or institutions. In this way, entire textbooks could be tailored to support a students’ learning style, and thus increase the efficiency of knowledge transfer. 6.3 Adaptive, Digitally Enhanced Education (ADEE) As can be seen, Distance Education is once again on the cusp of an evolutionary jump lead by advancements in new technologies and mobile communication. It is the intention of the author to therefore forward the concept of a new framework for distance education known as ‘Adaptable Digitally Enhanced Education’. Adaptable Digitally Enhanced Education (ADEE) is a model for facilitating education through online media, and takes advantage of the digital platform and new communication technologies to enhance the education process. Moreover, it promises to embrace interface

technologies such as eye tracking to adapt course content to the user, instead of requiring the user to adapt to the materials. The following criteria were determined as essential for ADEE: 1. 2.

The embracement of mobile communication technologies to increase the accessibility of information for the stakeholders of distance education. The transfer of customized, concept specific information that suits the learning style of the recipient through digital means, including adaptable e-texts.

The existence of an e-learning environment to host the formal education process.

The facilitation of multi-way synchronous and asynchronous communication between stakeholders mediated through the e-learning environment.

The use of new data-gathering technologies, including webcambased eye-tracking to provide useful feedback about cognition for students and instructors and to adapt content to the users needs and strengths.

6. The use of digital tools to reduced the cognitive load of both instructors and students, thereby increasing the efficiency of knowledge transfer. Within these guidelines, ADEE will be another step forward for distance education. It will enable content to become even more accessible, as it will embrace new portable media devices like the Apple I-Phone 4G and the I-pad, ensuring course content is accessible whenever, and more importantly wherever the stakeholder pleases. Removing the location constraints on the communication channels of distance education will once again reduce the delay in the asynchronous communication, and the devices will support the presentation of course content in a myriad of modes. ADEE encourages innovative thinking for distance education whereby new technologies are embraced to enhance the experiences for the stakeholders involved. Creating a learning environment that is adaptive to each individual user will ensure they are accessing information in a mode that suits their learning style. As such, it

is not biased towards either the student or the instructor, and instead hopes to increase the efficiency of knowledge transfer for all stakeholders involved by reducing their cognitive load through the integration of digital tools. 6.4 Modes of Education for ADEE The frameworks of ADEE have been constructed to advance the cause of distance education as a genuine alternative to traditional study. While it is premised on the assumption that the student and instructor are separated at the time of information transfer, it has not been limited to only this situation. It is the intention of the author that both traditional and distance teaching formats could embrace similar knowledge dissemination practices, and take advantage of the benefits provided by using an adaptive information platform. Given the feedback garnered from the stakeholder interviews, most people tend to prefer the hybrid learning format whereby part of the education is asynchronous, and part is in person with fellow students and the instructor. However, when considering the advantages of an adaptive, digitally enhanced education format, the traditional format of hybrid learning is too limiting as it still requires all stakeholders to be centrally located to facilitate physical meetings. Instead, building on advancements in mobile communications and other supporting technologies, an adaptive evolution of hybrid teaching could be adopted where students and instructors meet in real time, but mediated through a digital environment. For the sake of this project, the concept has been labelled Digitally Mediated Hybrid courses (DMH). Digitally Mediated Hybrid courses have the potential of taking advantage of adaptive content management systems (CMS) that provide students with information tailored to their needs, but also reinforce their learning by facilitating face-to-face conversation with fellow students and instructors. With integrated technologies like webcam-based eye tracking becoming feasible, DMH courses can be mediated through a central CMS, and offer a myriad of potential communication pathways to encourage collaborative learning. Furthermore, any interaction mediated through the digital environment allows for the recording and analysis of the sessions, and gives further insight into the progress of student learning and thus knowledge

Chapter 7:

Concept Development

7.0 CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT Given the opportunities defined by the embracement of ADEE and the stakeholder-driven areas of concentration, the next phase of the investigation was to begin concept ideation and development. This phase introduced many design-driven practices, including brain-storming sessions, quick prototyping, stakeholder testing and iteration. The following concepts that arose from this process are possible digital tools that would help support the frameworks of ADEE, and are by no means an all-encompassing investigation of all of the tools needed to achieve ADEE. Instead, they are forwarded as possible tools that could advance the causes outlined by Assistive, Digitally Enhanced Education, and are intended to further the dialogue surrounding distance education reform. 7.1 Cognitive Narrative Concept As the background research highlighted, the knowledge one is able to garner from presented information is greatly effected by its cognitive narrative. This concept aims to strengthen the cognitive narrative of presented information by providing visual cues that help guide the knowledge-transfer process. 7.1.1 Principles behind the Cognitive Narrative Concept The principles behind this concept are quite simple, and rely upon knowing where the eye of the stakeholder is fixated within the presented information. In many cases, presented concepts involve a mix of different media that complement each other. The idea behind this is simple, if a concept presented in text form can be supported by other media including visuals or interactive elements, the ability of the user to retain knowledge is greatly increased. Unfortunately, until now there has been little way of leading a user through the material in a way that optimizes the knowledge transfer, leading a lot of users to access one type of media, most likely the text, before viewing the supporting media. This support of the cognitive narrative can be introduced in a number of ways, each focused on enabling the user to access relevant information when it is most efficient for them to do so. Moreover, while the aim of the

system is to lead the user through the task of accessing information, it is important to ensure that the interface takes the users natural preferences into account and doesn’t force information upon them, the final decision of whether to engage the additional materials must still remain with the user. With this in mind, there are two main approaches that were proposed for this concept. Firstly, eye-sensitive zones within the presented information are used to trigger actions of supportive learning, with the aim of reinforcing concepts being investigated. The purpose of this approach is to allow a student to access information on a given concept, and then immediately reinforce that learning with other media channels to enhance the knowledge transfer. The second approach is to monitor specific words, concepts or details within presented information, and provide definitions or additional information to fill in voids in comprehension where necessary. 7.1.2 Cognitive Narrative Concept Development To begin the development of the Cognitive Narrative concept, it was necessary to choose a context that would provide a platform to demonstrate the flexibility of the tools it encompasses. For this purpose, the field of art history was chosen, specifically for the myriad of media channels available for the analysis of the content. For the purposes of the initial prototype, Van Goghs’ famous work, “the Starry Night’ was chosen due to the abundant layers of content within the work, and the significant amount of literature dedicated to its interpretation. The first prototype was developed in Revolution Media, a programming software package designed to support quick concept development. The premise behind the concept was to take a critique of an art historian, and then support the user accessing that information by providing supportive media. It has been found in previous studies that when presented with an image and an art-historians critique of a given work, most novice users access one media completely before accessing the supporting material, breaking the intended cognitive narrative and resulting in a less-efficient transfer of information. It is the intent of the author to provide the user with scaffolding within the application that teaches the user best practices of accessing the information, and that once the user becomes more adept at doing so, this

Opening Page of Cognitive Narrative Prototype that tracks the users interaction with the artwork in question

Figure 7.1: Cognitive Narrative Prototype Screenshot (Authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; picture) The cognitive narrative is strengthened by leading the reader from a text description of a concept, immediately to the image to reinforce their learning

Eye movements over a concept trigger a visual cue to draw the users eye from the concept to the visual

Figure 7.2: Cognitive Narrative Prototype Screenshot (Authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; picture)

scaffolding will be removed. The layout of the application was carefully considered in detail, and drawing from the conclusions of Piolat et al (1997), the screen was formatted in a fashion to prevent the need for any scrolling.1 In doing so, it has been found that subjects retain more information than those who use scrolling text, thus increasing the efficiency of the knowledge transfer process. Knowing that the user would then be required to turn the page in some fashion, an experiment was made with providing page turning driven by the eye metrics, whereby the interface would recognize when the reader was at the end of the page and automatically turn to the next section of text. The interface offered several levels of information, ranging from simple visual cues to draw the users eye from the concepts presented in the text back to the relevant areas of the artwork to immediately reinforce their learning, to additional information being presented when certain areas of the artwork was explored. An experiment was also made in the development of an eyeenabled gallery interface, whereby looking at a thumb-nail image enables the image to be magnified for exploration. Moving the viewers eye off the image returns it to thumb-nail size. 7.1.3 Testing of the Cognitive Narrative Concept With the initial prototype developed, the concept was presented and tested at the Museums and the Web conference (MW2010) in Denver, Co. During the one and a half hour demonstration slot, the prototype was tested by museum professionals, web developers and interested consumers who were able to experience the features of the concept and offer constructive feedback. While the majority of the testers liked the concept, the testing highlighted the need to adjust some of the time delays, especially with the page-turning function. At the time of testing the page turning delay was set at 500 Milliseconds, and most people felt it needed to be quicker.

Piolat, Annie, Jean-Yves Roussey, and Olivier Thunin â&#x20AC;&#x153;Effects of screen presentation on text reading and revisingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 47.1 (1997): 565-589

Figures 7.1 and 7.2 show the Cognitive Narrative concept being demonstrated at the Museums and the Web conference 2010 (MW2010) in Denver Colorado, April 16th, 2010

Figure 7.1: Demonstration of Cognitive Narrative Concept, MW2010 (Authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; picture)

Figure 7.2: Demonstration of Cognitive Narrative Concept, MW2010 (Authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; picture)

7.1.4 Next step in Development of the Cognitive Narrative concept While the concept was well received at the conference and generated a lot of very interesting conversations, the comments made by the testers will need to be addressed in the next iteration of the program. The timings of the eyeactivated activation of additional content needs to be researched further, and a greater tolerance for eye movements need to be allowed for. One of the biggest challenges encountered was the functionality of the Mirametrix software in regards to this type of prototype. The concept operated by slaving the cursor to the movements of the eye, with the assumption that the eyes would be continuously tracked. While this was the case for the majority of the time, split second blinking that was slower than the capture rate of the software occasionally caused the cursor to jump erratically over the screen for a fraction of a second, which was enough to trigger some unwanted eye-sensitive functions within the screen. 7.2 PULSE Concept As has been discussed at length throughout this project, one of the fundamental downfalls of the current generation of distance education is the loss of tacit feedback channels between stakeholders. Without it, monitoring the progress of student learning becomes exceptionally difficult for instructors as their default feedback pathways fall to test, quizzes, assignments and exams. While these age-old testing mechanisms are effective in gauging student learning and comprehension, they are merely a post-knowledge transfer test and often highlight gaps in student learning when it is too late to address. Instead, a new type of feedback is required to bridge the gap between stakeholders of distance education in, or close to, real-time. Drawing from the research conducted into eye tracking technology, the advancements in webcam-based eye tracking and the findings of the eye tracking investigation conducted for this project, the PULSE concept promotes the idea that an eye-metric driven application can help provide vital feedback channels, and thus increase the efficiency of knowledge transfer in distance education. It allows the stakeholder to actively monitor their progress, and helps them easily navigate through the course content provided.

7.2.1 Principles behind the PULSE Concept The premise of this concept is simple, to tie a physiological response to stakeholder cognition so that information about their comprehension of presented concepts can be monitored. Through this approach, if a concept is seen to be poorly understood, the instructor will get immediate feedback, and can thereby tailor their upcoming presentations to fill the voids in knowledge transfer. Drawing from the experiments and research, several eye metrics were targeted as potential trigger-mechanisms onto which functionality could be built for this application. The first, and most basic eye metric targeted is the reading speed of the user. The experiments conducted for this experiment highlighted the inverse relationship between reading speed and cognition, i.e. that reading speed drops as the users cognitive load is increased. By using concept tags throughout a given presentation, the reading speed of the user can be monitored and compared to their natural reading speed as a base indicator of increased cognitive load. While the reading speed is a good initial indicator of cognitive load, many outside influences can effect a user as they access information, and thus clutch mechanisms must be included to improve the accuracy of this measurement technique. A reader may move their attention away from the presented information, and thus the interface must be able to determine when the user is attempting to access information. Likewise, the interface must be able to recognize when someone is simply â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;skimmingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; the information, and thus differentiate between this and an increase in reading speed. To do this, fixation points of the eye can be monitored and analyzed. The eye movements associated with skimming text are vastly different from those observed when accessing information in a more traditional way, and therefore baseline measurements must be obtained to compare with. Ideally, this would be obtained without the need for a given stakeholder to have to undertake a set-up process, and would instead be an actively-updated user profile that would be autonomous. Another eye metric that can be easily monitored and can give vital

information about the cognitive load of the user is regressions in text, and regressive saccades. In general, if a user needs to revisit information in the text, they are having difficulty comprehending it. Furthermore, if an increase in regressive saccades are witnessed, it is a true indicator of a high cognitive load. As the complexity of presented information increases, the frequencies of these regressive saccades increase, and can be used as an indicator to tie application functionality to. 7.2.2 PULSE Concept Development The development of the PULSE concept began by creating an interface that gave some visual feedback tied to the time spent focusing on certain areas of the text. The initial prototype was developed and incorporated into the Cognitive Narrative concept, providing a highlight showing where the user was looking that grew in relation to the time spent focusing on the area of the screen. One of the most important aspects of this concept was a line connecting each fixation, allowing for the movement around the screen to be monitored so that conclusions can be drawn about the effectiveness of the narrative concept. While this was the aspect of the prototype tested at the MW2010 conference, this was only one part of a much bigger system designed for feedback. Instead of simply providing visual data only, there are a number of feedback channels that were investigated and proposed as possible solutions to bridge the gap between stakeholders. One such concept involved the use of tagging of concepts throughout the presented information, and monitoring the users comprehension of these through their reading speed and eye movements. While a definitive result outlining the exact comprehension can not be determined through this method, it does allow useful information by comparing the relative drop in reading speed across concepts, and can highlight areas that were poorly understood. To visualize this information, the interface can provide feedback in numerous ways to all parties involved. A student may be interested in their relative performance over the concepts covered, so a feedback mechanism similar to cloud tagging is proposed as a quick illustration of the concepts covered. Larger font would indicate concepts in need of revision, whereas

smaller tags would be concepts understood well. In this format, hyper-links between similar concepts could be included, allowing students easy access to information both within the presented course content, or via the Internet. Furthermore, by allowing students access to this type of visual feedback throughout the semester, they will have a continually updated indication of their progress, thus encouraging better study practices. While a similar type of feedback would be useful for instructors, they would require information for each student, and possibly more importantly, an understanding of the performance of the student body as a whole. Once again, the cloud tagging concept would provide instant information about the group understanding of concepts, clicking each of the topic names could give more in-depth detail about the performance of individual students, information about who is accessing additional information, and links to the additional resources accessed. 7.2.3 PULSE Prototype Once again, this prototype was developed in Revolution Media, and was a proof of concept in contrast to an operational system. The basic code was written by Dr. Slavko Milekic, and allowed semi-transparent red dots to be shown where the eye fixated. The duration of the eye fixation was depicted by an increase in circle diameter, and the gaze can be followed between fixations via the thin red lines connecting the fixation points. While this prototype does not convey specific information about the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; comprehension of the presented information, it is the basic underpinning of such a system. When combined with a comprehensive algorithm and concept tagging within the document, it would be able to provide far more thorough feedback about the ways in which the students access information, their comprehension of presented concepts, their strategies for accessing information, and thus could help develop a learning style profile that could be used by an adaptive e-learning environment to help filter information to suit their individual learning style.

Dr. Slavko Milekic is a Professor of Cognitive Science and Digital Design at The University of the Arts, Philadelphia. His research includes the study of eye tracking as an interface technology.

Figures 7.3 and 7.4 show the basic feedback concept as tested at the MW2010 conference in Denver, Colorado. While this feedback shows the basic exploration techniques adopted by the user while investigating the artwork, the underpinning design can be used as a platform to develop far more quantitative feedback channels

Figure 7.3: Concept Interface (Authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; picture)

Figure 7.4: Concept Interface showing feedback concept output (Authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; picture)

7.2.4 Future development of PULSE Prototype As previously mentioned, it is envisioned that this feedback concept can be developed into a far more versatile tool by addressing a greater range of quantitative and qualitative feedback modes. Some of these channels include the use of cloud tags, whereby concepts poorly understood could be presented as larger text as opposed to fully comprehended concepts that would be very small. The end goal is to provide a program underpinning that is versatile enough to provide feedback in a myriad of different formats, so that the interface can present the information in the way that suits the stakeholders learning style.

Figure 7.5 shows a potential feedback format to show students which concepts they need to review. Larger font concepts represent items that are of more importance for the subject, and the opacity represents the need for review. E.g. Student X has a good understanding of the Carnot Cycle, but would need to review the Isothermal Process. Concept Cloud Tags act as links to the course material covering the subjects in question Educational CMS accessible through mobile devices Figure 7.5: PULSE Prototype Cloud Tag Feedback (Authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; picture adapted from image < http://www.amitbhawani.com/blog/wp-content/ uploads/2010/03/Apple-Ipad-Front.jpg>)

Cloud tag concept. Larger words represent concepts of greater importance, and greater opacity indicates a need for further study

Figure 7.6 shows a potential mobile application giving students access to vital feedback about their cognition of vital concepts covered in a given subject.

PULSE GRAD 701 - MID Studio 1

Changing the nature of the task

Cognitive Load

PULSE

Affordances

Gibson Affordances

Cognitive Artifacts

Affordances

Affordances 101

Gibson Affordances Norman Affordances

Scaffolding

Theory of Affordances

Weak HOME

CORRIDOR

The ‘pulse’ gives the student immediate feedback about their relative comprehension of the concept in comparison to the expected level.

Figure 7.6 Mobile PULSE Prototype Cloud Tag Feedback (Authors’ picture)

7.3 Virtual Corridor Concept Another key concern of the current system of distance education that could be addressed by embracing recent advancements in communication technologies is the connection between stakeholders. The contemporary format of distance education fails to encourage interaction between stakeholders, partly due to the asynchronous nature of the system, but also due to a lack of transparency. As the system currently exists, there is no way of knowing when a fellow student or the instructor is available to answer a quick question, resulting in the workflow of students in need of help to be greatly impacted. The Virtual Corridor concept hopes to address these shortcomings by providing stakeholders unprecedented access to each other. 7.3.1 Principles behind the Virtual Corridor Concept The Virtual Corridor concept hopes to take advantage of the increasingly mobile communication technologies such as smart phones, and draw from trends developed in social media sites to bring transparency back to the virtual classroom. While students in a traditional learning environment benefit from interacting with their classmates, it is much harder to mediate these colleague relationships online. Furthermore, while a student struggling with a given concept can bump into their instructor in the corridors of their department and ask a few casual questions, the online student is left with the asynchronous channels of email and chat rooms to receive the help they need. Instead of taking this as a constraint of distance learning, we need only look to social media sites like Facebook to see that these distance relationships can be mediated far more successfully. These social media channels allow the user to see when their â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;friendsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; are online, and enables them to engage in instant messaging whenever they choose. If these friends were colleagues instead, the student in need of assistance may be able to contact their instructor or fellow students immediately and have some of their questions answered immediately. This would help to reduce stagnations in the students workflow due to confusion, and would potentially aid in knowledge transfer.

To assist in this process of sharing knowledge, the online corridor will allow students to ‘pass’ documents between each other by dragging them onto their mailbox, and would support multiple channels of communication including instant messaging, audio and video. Students would also be able to show current work on their computer by accessing the whiteboard function, allowing both students to see and modify documents in real-time.

Figure 7.7 shows the mobile Corridor concept envisioned to provide students with greater connectivity to fellow students and their instructor Portraits with a highlight indicate fellow students who are currently online Students can connect with fellow students or their instructor through Instant Messaging, Video Chat or by Calling.

Corridor

GRAD 701 - MID Studio 1

Me: Hey Fraser, can I ask you a couple of quick questions about Affordances?

Fraser: Sure, what are you having trouble with?

CALL

HOME

PULSE

HOME

PULSE

Figure 7.7 Mobile Corridor Prototype (Authors’ picture)

Chapter 8:

Conclusion

8.0 CONCLUSION Throughout this project, the author has aimed to present a case for the reevaluation of distance education. As has been explored in detail, the current evolution of distance education is rooted in the 1990â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development of the internet, and poorly understood the affordances of the new digital media on which it was hosted. Instead of embracing the unique characteristics of this new environment when developing the theories of distance education, the system adopted a conservative approach of trying to mimic the classroomstyle of knowledge transfer in the digital arena. While this was seen to be mildly successful in terms of students participating in this style of education, further exploration highlighted the fact that most people using distance education were unable to participate in traditional education due to family commitments, location constraints or monetary reasons, and thus distance education provided the better compromise to suit their unique requirements. While the current model was born on the foundation of the last evolution in communication technology, the Internet, we are currently on the cusp of another evolution of mobile communication technologies that will help shape a new generation in distance education that takes advantage of the platform offered through the digital environment. In addition, advancements in interface technologies, including webcam-based eye tracking technologies open the door for new ways of interacting with the digital environment, and offers amazing insight into the cognitive processes of the users, building a platform for significant new feedback channels to enhance the learning potential of students and reduce the time demands on instructors in manually monitoring each students progress individually. With these considerations in mind, I believe that there is a significant need for a new evolution in distance education, and that this move forward should reduce the cognitive load of the instructors, actively support students in their quest for knowledge, and promote the use of new interface technologies to support these aims. In chapter 6, I outline a theory for a potential future of distance education, Adaptive Digitally Enhanced Education. The premise of this is to create a learning environment that is adaptive to the user, be they student or instructor. By embracing digital tools, such as those outlined in chapter 7 to provide innovative solutions to the lack of feedback experienced

in distance education, the efficiency of knowledge transfer between instructor and teacher can be increased, and the cognitive load and time demands of both parties can be reduced. Students would be in a far better position to understand their progress throughout a semester, they would be given all the tools necessary to forward their own learning, and would likely be more motivated to do so. Likewise the instructors would have a far better grasp of the day-to-day progress of the student body, and would be in a better position to address gaps in the student learning throughout a semester. As has been shown through the eye tracking investigation undertaken for this project, there is great potential for eye tracking to help in this process. The metrics able to be obtained through eye tracking give a great deal of information about student cognition, and the active tracking of a users gaze and eye fixations can be used as a very efficient interface technology. Moreover, given that the most common communication platform for distance education, laptop computers, generally have webcams inbuilt and given the recent advancements of webcam-based eye tracking, implementing eye tracking technology is both achievable and low-cost. It would add significant functionality and performance to distance education platforms, and would not require the user to purchase any additional hardware to use.

Chapter 9:

Future Directions

100

9.0 FUTURE DIRECTIONS To this point, a new direction for distance education in the form of Adaptive, Digitally Enhanced Education has been proposed, and some digital tools that aim to increase the efficiency of knowledge transfer have been promoted. However, it is the intention of the author to pursue further development in adaptive learning technologies as the logical next step of the investigation. While eye tracking is an exceptionally valuable tool in determining the cognitive state of the student, additional channels of physiological feedback could greatly enhance the accuracy of such determinations, and help develop far more accurate profiles of each individual student. By using additional tools such as the monitoring of galvanic skin response through the interface keyboard or controls, in conjunction with pressure sensors in the keys, and facial tracking technologies, the cognitive load of the user could be accurately gauged, along with their emotional response to the presented information. Through these channels, a far more accurate idea of their learning styles could be developed, which in turn could be used to help channel information to students that directly suits their individual learning style. Although this would currently be a very difficult prospect, advancements in technology and the creation of innovative databases of information such as Rice Universities Connexions project or MITâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s OpenCourseWare, the infrastructure required to host such adaptive learning environments are quickly becoming a reality. With this as the underpinnings of a holistic content management system for distance education in use with the tools promoted throughout this project, the efficiency of knowledge transfer could be optimized for every individual student.

Appendices

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Gareth I. Roberts Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering - Monash University (Australia) Bachelor of Design (Industrial Design) - Monash University (Australia) Master of Industrial Design - The University of the Arts (U.S.A)

Mr. Roberts has a background in both mechanical engineering and industrial design, and after a period of time working as an engineer for an Architecture and Design firm in Memphis, Tennessee, he has returned to design. Areas of interest include design research, the innovative use of new technologies and user-centered design. For more information, visit: www.gareth-roberts.com

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