de Halve Maen, Vol. 95, No. 1

deHalveMaen JournalofTheHollandSocietyofNewYork Vol.95,No.12022

Joinusatour132nd Dinner Dance Saturday, October29th 6:00pmto11:00pm TheLotosClub 5East66th Street New York City 2022 Gold Medalist Whitney Donhauser Presidentand Ronay Menschel Director, The Museumofthe Cityof New York Black Tie *Proofof vaccinationisa venue requirement Support The Holland Societyof New York andjoinusforthisgreattradition! $250– Burgher Guard(Under-40) Attendees $300– Members, Friends,and Fellows $325– Guests $500– Patron Ticket $3,000– Tableof10 Make yourcheckpayableto: The Holland Societyof New York andmail your responseandpaymentto1345 Avenueofthe Americas,33/F, New York,NY10105. Or visitour websiteatwww.hollandsociety.organdpayvia Paypal. Name:_________________________________________________________________________________________ Address:________________________________________________________________________________________ Tel:_____________________________ Email:________________________________________________________

16HereandThere inNewNetherlandStudies 17SocietyActivities 19InMemoriam

President Col.Adrian T. BogartIII

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TheHolland SocietyofNew Yorkwasorganizedin1885tocollectandpreserve informationrespectingthehistoryandsettlementofNewNetherlandbythe Dutch,toperpetuatethe memory,fosterandpromotetheprinciplesandvirtues ofthe Dutchancestorsofitsmembers,tomaintainalibraryrelatingtotheDutch inAmerica,andtopreparepapers,essays,books,etc.,inregardtothehistory andgenealogyoftheDutchinAmerica.TheSocietyisprincipallyorganized ofdescendantsofthe residentsoftheDutchcoloniesinthepresent-day United Statespriortoorduringtheyear1675.Inquiriesrespectingthe severalcriteria formembershipareinvited.

Cover:Hortus BotanicusLeiden,1610.EngravingbyJanCornelisz Woudanusafter WillemIsaacsz vanSwanenburg Publicdomain, courtesy WikimediaCommons.

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MagazineoftheDutchColonialPeriodinAmerica VOL.XCVSpring2022 NUMBER1

David William Voorhees

NewAmsterdamGarden byJoel

Spring2022 1

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13A TasteofAmerica’sDutchPast

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INTHISISSUE: ’s Corner a Seventeenth-Century W. Grossman byPeterRose

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VanderGroen,gardenerto WilliamIII,princeofOrange, publishedthisworkinAmsterdamin1667andexpandedit ina1669edition.Theworkwaswidelypopularthroughout theDutchworld.The PleasurableCountryLife openswith descriptionsofaristocraticcountrygardens,including200 prints ofintricate beds; sectionson plant cultivation forfoodor medicine,distilling,andbeekeepingbyAmsterdam physician andbotanistPetrusNijland;andconcludeswithcookbook De VerstandigeKock (TheSensibleCook)byanunknown author.The finalsectionisbestknowntotwenty-first-century Americansthroughthewritingsofnotedculinaryhistorian PeterG.Rose.

Rosehasprepared TheSensible Cook’s recipesonthe“open hearthoronamodernstoveandfoundthemtobeworkable anddelicious.”Althoughwritten over three anda halfcenturies ago,sherelateshow TheSensible Cook “sounds verymodern” attimes.“Whatstrikes meishowuptodate therecipesseem.” Ifthecookbooksoftheirdescendantscontinuedtraditional Dutchfoodways,theyalsoincorporatedthecuisinesofother culturesintothedailydiet,“albeitinwaysthatwerefamiliar tothem.”Thus,Americanscontinuetoeatdishesthatcanbe tracedbacktothefoodwaysbroughttoNewNetherlandby theearlyDutchsettlers.The“Dutchinfluence,particularly theculinaryinfluence,”shenotes,“persiststothisday.”

EWYORKERSHAVE traditionallyshownlittle interestintheirownhistory.“Weneverwasteatear overthedeathofanoldFogy,especiallyaDutch one,”theauthor ofan1853 Putnam’s Magazine articlestated. Hewasreferringtothedestruction in 1828 ofoneofNew York City’s oldestDutchbuildings.Theauthorwentontodescribe theremnantsofNewAmsterdamasbeing“unalloyedbyany admixtureofprogressivegrace,”which“mustbeadmittedto surpassindesolationalltheothervarietiesofconservatism extant.”DisregardforNewAmsterdam’smaterialanddocumentarylegacycontinued.Oldbuildingswererazedwithout debate;oldrecordsweretossedhaving littlecashvalue.

2 deHalveMaen

Inthis issue of deHalve Maen PeterRosereminds us of TheSensibleCook’s role inthecreationofanAmerican cuisine.Shenotesthat“therearecopiesof ThePleasurable Country Life foundinlibraries throughouttheUnitedStates,” suggestingthattheDutcheitherbroughtthisbookwiththem oraskedtheircontactsintheRepublictosendit.“InNew Netherland,outofnecessity,kitchengardenswerestartedas soonasahousewasbuilt.”Itisnotsurprisingthatthesettlers continuedtoprepare thekindoffoodstheywerefamiliar with inEurope,“duplicatinglifeintheNetherlandsasbestasthey could.”

Editor ’s Corner

ArchaeologistJoelGrossmantakesusinthisissue’s first articleonanexcitingjourneybacktotheseventeenth-century DutchoriginsofNew YorkCity.Overafour-monthperiod in1983–1984Grossmanoversawexcavationsmandatedby New York’s LandmarksPreservationCommissionon a block of PearlStreet locatedinlowerManhattan’s financialdistrict PearlStreet,Grossmantellsus,wasthenonManhattan’s shorelineandthe“epicenter”ofthesettlement’scommercial activity.Theprojectconsistedofaone-monthtestingand site-preparationphasefollowedbyanintensivethree-month datarecoveryphase.What theyfoundwerethewell-preserved remnantsofManhattan’searliestDutchsettlement.

These essaysdemonstratethatNewNetherland’s influenceremainsnotonlyinarchaeologicalartifact s butalso inthevery fiberofourculture,yetknowledgeofourpastis rapidlydisappearing.Inthepastyear,threetowering figures inpromotingNewNetherlandstudies,RuthPiwonkaand ShirleyDunn,bothHollandSocietyofNew YorkFellows, and RodericBlackburn havepassedaway. Blackburnand Piwonka’simpressive1988 RemembranceofPatria.Dutch ArtsandCulture inColonialAmerica,1609–1776 and Shirley Dunn’spopularbooksonthemid-HudsonRiver Valleymade NewNetherland studiesaccessibleto a broaderaudience. Itisimperativethatwekeepalivetheenthusiasmthatthey generatedforourDutchheritage. David William Voorhees Editor heritage.

ProfessorLeoHershkowitz’ssavingofNewAmsterdam’s Dutch-languagemunicipalrecords from dumpstersinthe 1950sisbutoneexample.Despiteindifference,theinfluence ofourDutchheritageremainsallaroundus.Thisissueof de HalveMaen providestwoexamples.

Forbotanicalreferences,Grossmanusedapopularseventeenth-centuryworkproducedbyJanvanderGroen, Het Vermakelijck Landtleven (ThePleasurableCountryLife ).

Drawingfromthepreservedseeds,throughidentification andcomparison,achangingenvironmentofthecolonialwaterfrontemerged. Takingthesediscoveriesonestepfurther, Grossmanexplored recent scholarly insights intostylistic trendsinseventeenth-andeighteenth-centurygarden designin theDutchRepublic Combiningthemultiplelines ofevidence withcomputer-generated graphics,Grossmancreated a viable 3Dmodelofanearlyseventeenth-centuryNewAmsterdam garden populatedwith theappropriate plants. The culmination ofthejourneyisbeingabletogazeforthe firsttimeuponthe environmentalsurroundingsofourforebearers.

Thediscoveriesareindeedimpressive.Theyincludedthe foundationsandcobblestone flooroftheDutch WestIndia Company’s first warehouseinNorth America, aswellas featuresandstructuralelementsoftworesidences.Theexcavatorsretrievedanamazing43,318undisturbedcolonial artifacts.Ofparticularinterestwastherecoveryofcolonial plantmatterandseeds.In1984,Grossmaninformsus,little availableEnglishliteratureoncolonialDutchhorticultureor gardendesignexisted.NowanarrativeoftheNewAmsterdamgardencouldbeconstructed.Anarrativethatincluded anenvironmentalchangenotreportedinthewritten records.

N

byJoel W. Grossman

pavementfacingthebayknownasthe “Strand”(meaning“shore”or“beach”), waslaidoutin1630.4 TheStrand,fronting thiswideshorelinecenterofcommercial activity, was nextto the fortress.It served asthemainaccess routetothe localimport/exportdockatMooreStreet, and to theweeklymarket atthecorner ofPearl andWhitehall Streets that tookplace in frontofthewesternmost lot(nineteenth C lot 14) ofthe block.

In additio n tothe“Heermans’ warehouse”(itwas theWIC’s),theblockcontainedthe settlement’s first church, one of theearliesttaverns, the first company-initiateddoctor ’s officeofDr. HansKierstead (whosefamilysettled intheblockin1638 and livedthereuntilabout1710),8 and the residenceofWICSecretaryCornelius Van Tienhoven. Major features andstructural elementsofboththe Kiersteadand Van Ti enhovenresidences we reex ca vated, and,insomecases,theirartifactsidentified with thetimingofthe seventeenth and eighteenth-centuryoccupations

4 EstherSingleton, DutchNew York (New York,1909, rprt.2018),14.

1 Joel W. Grossman,“PhaseIReportandMitigationReport fortheBroadStreetPlazaSite,N.Y.:AreaI,Lots12–14.” (New York,1983):LMPCReportNo.316—Availablefor digitaldownloadfromtheNYCLandmarksPreservation Commission,NYC.ArchaeologyReports LPC(nyc.gov). Thename“BroadFinancialCenter”isamisnomer.Broad Streetwastwoblocksaway,tothenorth-east,markedbya colonialtidaloutlettoCollectPond.Thecorrectnamefor thesiteisthe“PearlStreetSite,”adesignationfollowed inthisarticle.

6 Joel W. Grossman,ed.,withcontributionsby(inalphabeticalorder),KarenBluth,BonnieA.Bogumil,Diane Dallal,MichaelDavenport,JosephE.Diamond,Haskell Greenfield,LeoHershkowitz,MelbaJ.Myers,GeorgeE. Myers,Jr.,PeterNamuth,AndrewNeuhart,LisaPanet, WilliamI.RobertsIV,NancyA.Stehling,SaraStone, andMindy Washington, TheExcavationofAugustine Heermans’ Warehouse andAssociatedseventeenth-century Dutch WestIndiaCompanyDeposits,TheBroadFinancial CenterMitigationReport (New York,1985),hereafercited as ExcavationsReport. [GrossmanauthoredsectionsIA, IB,andIC,“Introduction,”andSectionX:“Conclusions: SummaryofResults,”X1–21].

7 Jameson,375;seeGrossman,“Indices,”86;JaapJacobs, NewNetherland:ADutchColonyinSeventeenthCentury America (LeidenandBoston,2005),258.

The discoveriesfromtheblock includedthefoundationsandcobblestone floor ofthecolony’s firstwarehouseinNorth America, a majortacticalandlogistica l factorlendingtothesuperioreconomic infrastructureintradefortheDutch West IndiaCompany(WIC).5 After1638,the warehousewasadministeredbyAugusti jnHeermanns,whoarrivedin1633and workedfortheDutchtradingcompany ofPete r GabrysofAmsterdam 6 Pete r GabryswasthesonofCharlesorCaral Gabrys,merchantofAmsterdamand a WICdirector.7

A 3DReconstruction of a Seventeenth-Century NewAmsterdamGarden

Joel W. Grossmanis a professionalarchaeologist.He receivedhisBAandPh.D.in AndeanarchaeologyasaFulbright-SpecialCareerFellowfromtheUniversityof California,Berkeley.In1983Greenhouse Consultants,Inc. , ofAtlanta,Geo rg ia, undercontractwiththe firmofFoxand FowleArchitects,Inc.,employedhimas fielddirector,principalinvestigator(PI), andprincipalauthor(PA)toconduct archaeological researchatthecornerof PearlandWhitehallStreets(33Whitehall Street),forHROInternational, LTD.(The RonsonOrganization).

2 In2011Iwrotetherevisedchronology,ethnohistory, andethnobotanyofseventeenth-centuryNewAmsterdam, excavatedalongPearlStreetinLowerManhattan,titled “ArchaeologicalIndicesofEnvironmentalChangeand ColonialEthnobotanyinseventeenthCenturyDutchNew Amsterdam”[hereaafterGrossman,“Indices”].Thearticle ispublishedaschapter8in EnvironmentalHistoryofthe HudsonRiver:HumanUsesthatChangedtheEcology, EcologythatChangedHumanUses(SUNYPress,as theProceedingsofHudsonRiverEnvironmentalSociety (HRES) Conference:EnvironmentalHistoryoftheHudson River:HumanUsesthatChangedtheEcology,Ecology thatChangedHumanUses(HydePark,NY.November 6th,2009,Peekskill,NY).

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HROUGHOUT THE WINTER of1983 and 1984, archaeological investigationswereinitiatedalong theoriginalcolonialshorelinebloc k at PearlStreetintheFinancia l Districtof LowerManhattan.MandatedbytheNew YorkCity LandmarksPreservation Commissionover a four-month fieldseason (October 1,1983–February2,1984), the projectconsistedof aone-monthtesting andsite-preparationphase,andthenan intensivethree-monthdatarecoveryphase ofwide- areaexcavations . 1 Thi s multistagedeepurbanhistoric archaeological testingprogramledtothediscoveryofthe well-preservedearly Dutchsettlementof New Amsterdam.2

8 Jameson,375.

TheexcavationfocusedonPearlStreet, anillustriousblockin N ew Yo rkCity history Itwas the epicenterofshoreline commercialactivity, andas described by JohnH.Innes,was the“seatofthelarge partofthewholesaleandretailtradeofthe town.”3 PearlStreet,awide,shell-covered,

T

3 JohnH.Innes, NewAmsterdam,andItsPeople:Studies, Socialand Topographical,ofthe TownUnderDutchand EarlyEnglishRule (New York,1902),45.

5 “DescriptionofthetowneofMannadens,1661,”inJ. FranklinJameson,ed., NarrativesofNewNetherland, 1609–1664 (New York,1909),86.

Thestratifiedarchaeologicalrecordof theburiedDutchsettlementalso yielded strongquantified,naturallystratified, datedandundisturbed,ethnobotanical evidenceofenvironmentalchangeduring

13 Ibid.;Grossman,“Indices,”77–122;Joel W. Grossman, “Mrs.Kierstead’s Rear Yard:TheArchaeologicalDiscovery andEthno-botanical,Cartographic,andArchivalReanalysis oftheSeventeenth-CenturyDutch WestIndiaCompany RemainsinLowerManhattan,New York,”givenbeforethe RegiaCivitasandInstituteofArchaeologyoftheHungarian AcademyofSciencesConference,Medieval Townsand It’s Citizens,Budapest,June1–4,2000;Grossman,“Mrs. Kierstead’s Rear Yard:TheArchaeologicalDiscoveryand Ethno-botanicalReanalysisofColonialDutch WestIndia CompanyRemains inLowerManhattan,New York,”invited paper beforethe30thAnnualMeetingoftheSocietyforHistoricalArchaeology, (Quebec,January7,2000);Grossman, “FromRaritanlandingtoAlbany’s Riverfront:ThePath Toward Total 3DArchaeologicalSite Recording,” inCharles Fisher, ed., People, PlacesandMaterialThings:Historical ArchaeologyofAlbany, New York Chapter15:Battlesand Breakthroughs, New YorkState MuseumBulletin 499 (Albany, 2003), 167–86;Grossman,“TheFuture ofArchaeologyinthe 21st Century:HumanLandscapeInteractions,” Encyclopedia ofArchaeology, DeborahPearsall,ed.(Oxford,2008),vol. 2,1458–1476;Grossman, Indices, 77–122.

9 Ibid.,332.

These archaeologicaldiscoveriesofundisturbed colonial remains resulted in the recovery, computerinventory, andconser vation of 43,318Dutch, British,and Na tiveAmericanartifacts,ofwhich 21,746 artifacts, or50 percent,predate theearly eighteenthcentury. Of these,thirty-five, or 44percent of thetotalofeightyexcavated stratigraphiccomponents,derivedfrom undisturbedcolonial-erafeature s and deposits.12

These capabilities wereintegrated with mainframeFortrancomputer-based,database-controlledlaboratory, conservation, anddataprocessinginanon-sitefacility andoff-site laboratoryofGreenhouse Consultants,Inc., under whose contract I worked as field director In thiscontext, the conservator played a centralrolein managingthestrategy oftheexcavation andtheongoingemergencychemical stabilization of the often-fragilecolonial finds.The conservatoralsocontrolled the

Van TienhovencamefromUtrechtto New Netherland in1633as a WICclerk under theadministration of Wouter van Twiller.9 TheWIC appointedhim aspro vincialsecretaryfrom1638to1656. 10 Ti enhovenwas a man ofgr ea t st ature andgreatcontroversary Inadditionto representingWICinterest s beforecompanymagistrates in Amsterdamin1650, his famealso includes a much-referenced 1650manifesto,“AnswertotheRepresentationoftheNew Netherland,”discussed below, onwhat wetodaylabel as a brief ethnobotany ofDutchhorticulture inNew Netherland. Hisstature,however, is for evertinged by his involvement in“Kieft’s massacre”of1643.11 It is not a coincidence tha t his p rofe ssio na l ben chm arks —hi s 1633 arrival, and his promotion to secre tary in 1638—coincide with my suggested start and end dates for the five-year-long period ofinitial occupation on the block

10 Van Tienhoven also servedas fiscalfrom1652until1656. SeeJacobs,486.

11 For the 1650manifestosee,Jameson, Narratives,333. Whilethe1643episodeisknownas“Kieft’smassacre,”it was Van Tienhovenwholedthereconnaissanceteamthat broughtabouttheslaughterofeightyLenapemen,women, andchildrenonFebruary25and26attheirencampment inPavonia,NewJersey,ibid.,228.

Figure1.3Dterrainmodelshowing theextentoftheseventeenth-century NewAmsterdamrelativetothe topographyandgroundcoverof LowerManhattanandthemodern settingoftheexcavatedblock(red rectangle)oftheDutch WestIndia CompanydiscoveredfrontingPearl andWhitehallStreets.Notethe culturallydefinedopenground coverandlackofcontinuous forestcanopy.Thelandscapewas alteredandmaintainedbyhuman clearingand firebyindigenous andDutchsettlers,alike.The3D terrainmodelisrenderedafteran earlierversionpublishedinthe volume EnvironmentalHistoryof theHudsonRiver (Grossman2011, Figure8.1,CourtesySUNYPress).

thecolonialperiod,evidencenototherwise available throughthewrittenorarchival recor d alon e( fi gures 2 and3) 13 Thus, after first introducingthe archaeological discoveryanditsrecordofpreserved colonialseeds, recent insightsintostylist trendsinthehistoryof seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Dutchgardendesign will behighlighted Thethreelinesof evidence—archaeological,ethnobotanical, andarchival—will then becombinedto presentfor the first time a 3Dcomputer modelof what an earlyseventeenth-century New Netherland gardenmight have looked like (figure 5).

12 Grossman, ExcavationsReport, X-7.

4 deHalveMaen

The Ar ch aeologicalDiscovery : The deeplyinterredarchaeologicalsitewas excavatedeighttotwelvefeetbelow streetgradeinmidwinter. Therescue excavation was done over a sixteen-week periodbyprotectingthearchaeologists andartifactsfrom t heelementsunder heatedall-weather, plastic-andsteel-reinforced,air-inflated, custom-built“greenhouse”shelters. We used a varietyof applied-technology toolstoexpeditethe discovery, exposure, and inventory pro cessofexcavating the buriedsettlement. Theseapplied-technology aids included a high-precision computerinfraredtransit forpinpoint-precisecoordinate(x, y, z) recording,the developmentofoverhead stereophotogrammetricrecordingsystems toreduce thetimeneededformanual field documentation ofhand-drawnplans, and thedevelopmentandinstallationof a concurrenton-siteconservationfacility.

15 Grossman,“SectionB,TheEarliest1640–1650Features andDeposits,”ibid.,X:12.

We quickly realized we had discovered theburiedDutchsettlementbecause restingontheexposed“greenclay” ofthe underlying depositswas a museum-quality, earlyseventeenth-centuryDutch-decoratedsmokingpipe, with a fleur-de-lys moldedinto it in relief We werestanding ontheearlyseventeenth-centurysurface. Indeed,wewere standin g on thefourhundred-year-oldsurfaceoftheWI C warehouse.

enteenthcentury Theteamalsodiscovered threeseventeenth-centuryyellow brick structures,two oval artifact-filledcisterns and a massiverectangularyellowbrick structure,interpretedtobe a uniquecistern form, measuring five by tenfeetinplan, withaninteriorrectangular basin plastered withtriangular tiles with a seven-coursethick, yellow-brick base.16 Its waterworn interiorsuggeststhatitheldliquids,probably water The yellowbrick “cistern” was madeof small (7 x3x1 inch) imported rectangularyello w Dutchbricks,often usedasballastin trans-Atlantic voyages andfor theconstruction ofcisterns.17 It wassawedintoquarter sections,boxed up for long-termstorage, andarchived in the warehouse ofNew YorkCity.

Anotherunique findwastheexposureof thesurviving first course of a small(7.5 x 9.5 feet), dry-laid, stonefoundation, discovered filledwith a discarded,orrejected, shipment of7,196 smashed clay smoking pipes, from twodistinctpipe cashdeposits inthesmallbuilding—butwithcross mend s betweenthemth atren der them contemporary— rep re senting t wo early eighteenth-centuryperiods , postdating 1720 Theearly eighteenth-century pipe forms can bedescribedas “ordinary”late seventeenth-toearlyeighteenth-centur y pipes ofthetype archaeologists find after theDutchoccupationperiodinManhattan

The overforty-threethousandexcavated andconservedDutch,NativeAmerican, and British artifacts(now housed inthe New Yo rkStateMuseuminAlbany) includedhundreds of impressive exhibition-qualityspecimens. Ofnote,while thediscoveries includednoearlycolonial coins,wediddiscover a veryearly token, a copperalloycommemorativetoken, withthedate of 1590onone side.On theobverse, thetoken isembossedwith sixbunched arrows in a fist representing

designandimplementationoftheNational ParkServicedatabase system fortheinventory andquantification of theidentity, material, age, provenience,coordinates, classofartifact,identifieddates, and the artifactassociationsofallexcavateditems. Theseenhancedcapabilitiesprovided daily feedbackoftabulated breakdowns oftheidentity, provenience,andageof all excavated, conserved, and stabilized artifacts—concurrent with the fieldwork, instead of longafter.14

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20 Ibid.,VII:39.

Pipesmoking wasubiquitous amongmenin theseventeenth century.Johann CarlLoth, calledCarlotto Bavarese,“Old ManLightinga Pipe”(c.1660). ArtInstituteof Chicago.

(1664).18 Some,approximately36percent, aremarkedwiththemaker ’s markof “RT”for theRobert Tippet family, half fromBristolandhalffromLondon. 19 Themassof the smashed pipe cash (99 percent unsmoked)oftheover7,000broken pipes contained a minimumnumber of882completepipe bowls, a discovery that represented thelargest such findof colonialsmokingpipesinNorthAmerican historicalarchaeology 20

16 Grossman,“SummaryofResults,”X:25.

Finally,in additiontothe firstwarehouse andthehomesofthesettlement’s first residents,the excavation uncovered three earlyseventeenth-centurydouble-barrel wood encistern s orprivie s outsidethe warehouse.Each had an exterior builder ’s trench withartifacts thatdated theconstructionofthefeature,andwell-preserved colonialartifacts inits interior fillwhich dated thecontents tothe early tolatesev-

19 Ibid.,VII:39–40.

14 MelbaMyers,“ConservationandDataProcessing,”in Grossman, ExcavationsReport,III:1–14.

17 Ibid.,X:27–29.

Basedon a preliminaryPhaseI cultural resource sensitivity studyoftheblock by theauthorin1983, I gambledthatthe earlyfeaturesandstructuralremainsofthe settlementwerepreservedbelowtheearly nineteenth-centur y basemen t floors,in waterloggeddeposits facing encroaching sealevelrise. I firstdewateredthe block with well heads drilledonthesurrounding streets,broughtindockworkerstoput in protective shoring tobolster adjacent buildingsagainst collapse,andusedheavy equipment,andmanydumptruckloads, tocutawayandhaul off therubble fill fromthebasements.Followingthe fill removal, I deployedlargebackhoe-mountedjackhammerstopenetrat e through th e four-course-thic k basementfloors , apparentlylaiddown tobuffer the early nineteenth-centuryresidentsfrom t he risingwater table Oncethroughthebrick flooringthroughout the entireblock, the excavation penetrateddown tothe underlying lensesof“green clay,” interspersed withbandsofwaterloggedredsandsofthe original landsurface at thesouthern tipof Manhattan.15

18 Dallal,“Pipes,”PlateVI-11.

The Chronological Framework:Archaeological and Archival TimeMarkers. The datesofthe featuresandcolonial deposits were basedpredominantly on establishingtheinitial manufacturedateforeach categoryofceramics, glass,andceramic smokin g pipesrecovered t hroughcontrollednaturalstratigraphi c excavation. Earlyglassfromtheseventeenth century wasdifficult todate, and it wasonly with thearrival ofdiagnostic glass types inthe eighteenthandnineteenthcenturies that dateable types become recognizable The onesecuretimemarkerforearlyglass wastheinitialappearanceofleadglass after1676. All glass was testedforlead byscanningeach fragmentwithultraviolet lightwhichcausedthe specimen toglow if lead ispresent.24 Nodated colonial coins, otherthantheearly token,wererecovered, sonocoin dateswere available.Theshort ageof coinageinthecolonylastedintothe late1640s.“In1649,Stuyvesantand his councilsuggested importingten thousand guilders incoin fromtheDutchRepublic toreduce theuse of sewant” or wampum, forbarter 25

6 deHalveMaen

Theearlyartifactdates for theinitial phaseofoccupationaresupportedbysome

of thefew survivingcolonial documents from earlyseventeenth-century litigation concerningdisputes overearlyconstructionprojects inLower Manhattan inthe vicinityofPearlStreet,priortothedateof thelitigationin1639. One surviving legal briefrecordedtheconstruction ofoneof severaltobaccobarnswhichmeasured, inonecase,onehundredfeetinlength, twenty-fourfee t inwidth,bytenfeet high.31 Theseearlystoragestructures were thefocusofcommercialactivityinthe colony “Already in1638, theprovincial governmentappointedthe firsttobacco inspectors... to supervise thequalityof theNew Netherlandtobacco.”32

21 WilliamI.Roberts,“ArtifactAnalysis:SmallFinds,” ExcavationsReport VIII:1–27; TokenProvenence: StrataGroup-1A,Component6,Context135,VIII:19, PlateVIII-2.

22 Augustijn(akaAugustine)Heerman’arrivedinNew Amsterdamin1633,Jameson, Narratives,289.

23 Roberts,“SmallFinds,”VIII:16–18;PlateVIII-2.

24 JosephDiamond,“ArtifactAnalysis:Glass,” Excavations Report,VI-16.

27 W. M. KelsoandB.Straub,“1996Interimreportofthe APVAexcavationsatJamestown”(Virginia:Association forthePreservationof VirginiaAntiquities,1997),14;Seth Mallios, AttheEdgeofthePrecipice:Frontier Ventures, Jamestown’sHinterland,andtheArchaeologyof44JC802 (Richmond, VA,2000),50,Figure58;Grossman,“Human LandscapeInteractions,”81.

of thedeposits dating tobetweenthe first quarteroftheseventeenth and first quarter oftheeighteenthcenturies , post-1720. In other words,these threeearlyperiods overlappedwiththesocial andeconomic transition from a Dutchculturalfocusto a British-dominated society.

29 Cf. JournalofGlassStudies X (Corning,1986), 114 andXI,43.Leeds1961exhib.Cat.No.33.

It isimportanttohighlighttheassigned dateof 1633for the initial occupationof thesite. This revisedassessmentisbased ontheavailabilityofnewcomparative materialsfrom Jamestown, Virginia; the Netherlands;theinternationalcompari sonswith datedDutchpipeforms;from seventeenth-century legaldocuments over constructiondisputesoverearlystructures along Pearl Streetafter1633;26 and from the datesofrecovered colonialartifacts fromtightlychronologicallycontrolled farmsteadsitesinthehinterlandofthe rural Virginia nearJamestown.27 Multiple linesofarchaeologicalevidence fromthe earliest depositsandfeaturesatthePearl Street site,come together to supportan earlyseventeenth-centurystartdate.These cluesincludedpost-1630-erapipebowl forms,decorativetilemotifs including a cornerbull’s,orspider ’s, head, a corner designelementnowdateableto a revised Terminuspost quem (“limit afterwhich” orTPQ)ofthe 1620s, and finally, initial manufacturedates forDutchearthenware and delftware withTPQ dates as earlyas post-1600,andsome with earlyearthen waretypeswithTPQdatesofpost-1580 28

25 Jacobs,126,108.

28 Ibid.;NancyA.StehlingandMelbaMyers,“Artifact Analysis:Ceramics,” ExcavationReport, V-I-V48.

31 Jacobs,126,179.

six ofthe unitedprovinces ofthe Dutch Republic 21 The token, issued byPrince MauriceofNassautocommemorat e his election as stadtholderofthe city of Utrecht,wasdiscoveredwedgedin a crevasse inthecobblestone floor ofHeer mans’ warehouse.22 The token musthave arrivedasan heirloombroughtfrom the Netherlands,becauseitsdateprecededthe founding ofthe Dutchsettlementbysome thirtytofortyyears.23

The laboratoryanalysis ofthedatedar tifacts permitted thereconstruction of five major periods ofoccupation,ofwhich the lasttwo wereephemeral innatureand too small,in bothartifactand seed count,to warrant comparisonwithearlier botanical samples. The threeprimarycomparative periodsspannedfrom the first third ofthe seventeenth century, throughtothe first quarter ofthe eighteenth century. These three-timemarkerswere demarcated first bytheearliestpost-1633,early-seven teenth-century finds; then bypost-1680, late-seventeenth-centurydeposits;and finallybypost-1720,early-eighteenth-century, contexts. Asmentioned,thesubsequent post-1795 andpost-1844features contained toofew seeds for viable comparison.Ofthe43,318predominantly colonialartifacts excavated, over50per centderived from the first threeperiods

32 Ibid.

26 A.J. F. VanLaer, New YorkHistoricalManuscripts; Dutch Vol.I.RegisteroftheProvincialSecretary, 1638–1642 (Baltimore,1974), 111;Innes, NewAmsterdamandits People,5,45.

Finally, inadditiontotheseearlyartifact TPQs, orinitialmanufacturedates,anear lypost-1633 initialoccupationdate along PearlStreetissupportedbytherecovery ofeighteenpost-1620 andpost-1630glass pruntsorroemers (raisedrelief-molded decorative adornosintheformofraspberriesonthe stemof Dutchand German goblets)fromtheearliestseventeenth-centuryComponents(a)ComponentIA,foundationsand(b)early seventeenth-century features,IIA,allrestrictedtotheearly seventeenthcentury The Corning Journal ofGlass Studies publishedtwotechnical benchmarks, ortimemarkers,concerning theearly-seventeenth-centuryantiquityof prunts:“Abell-shapedfootwasintroduced about1620and thepruntswereformedas raspberry orlion’s headmasksfrom about 1630.”29 Similar glassadornos have been recoveredfrom tightly dated shipwrecks fromthe first quarteroftheseventeenth century 30

The earliestcharacterizationsoftheir residencesdescribedthei r homes being madefrom“hewnplanks,withgardens enclosed behindand with the sideswith hewnplanks.”33 Windmills werebuiltin lower Manhattanearlyon.Therewas a horse millin1626,and a wind-powered millsawed timberfor theship NieuNederland in 1630and1631 34 Specific to the PearlStreetblock,Innessuggestedin1902 that withina fewyears after1633“they extendedeasterlyalongPearlStreet[to become] the seatoftradefor thetowne

30 Diamond,“ArtifactAnalysis:Glass,” ExcavationsReport,VI-0-VI-12;JaneKlose, IdentifyingCeramics:an introductiontotheanalysisandinterpretationofceramics excavatedfrom17thto20thcenturyarchaeologicalsites andshipwrecksinthesouth-westernCape (Cape Town, 2007),35,135;Grossman, Indices,80–84.

33 Jameson, Narratives,94.

34 Jacobs,129.

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A totalof 2,085plant specimens(mostly charred seeds) wererecoveredfromthe excavationofth e Dutc h settlement,of which 1,457,orabout70percent, were identifiedtothe genus orspecies level by LisaPanetofGreenhouse ConsultantsInc. A total oftwenty-ninedistinctseedtypes

36 Innes,3,58;Stokes, Iconography,267.

The diversityandrelativenumbers of seedsamples were rendered as three-di mensionalserrations,orstatistical cross-tabulationsofshiftingplanttypes betwee n th e threemajortemp or alan d analytica l sample groups:earlyseventeenth-century(p o st -1633)deposits, lateseventeenth-century(post-1680) contexts,andtheearlyeighteenth-century(post-1720)contexts. 41 Theearl y seventeenth-centurydeposit s coincided with theperiodofDutchrule Thelate seventeenth-centurysampleoverlapped withthepost-1664takeoverofthecolony bytheEnglish 42

TheArchaeologicalandEthnobotanical Plan t Record : Thes e colonial-era s hift s inartifactratiosthroughtimewere also paralleledbymarked, quantifiable,changesintheratios,orrelativeproportions, ofplant remains(mostlyinthe formof charredseeds)fromthethreedefi nable periodsofoccupation(early-seventeenth toearly-eighteenthcentury) from which adequateseedsampleswererecovered.

Inaddition,a 1639affidavit before Secretary Van Tienhoven,wholived withinthe investigatedblock,specificallyreferredto theextentof b uildingsinthe1630s. 37 Thebrief listed the constructionof a bake house, a churchwithhouse andstable in the rear,a large shed forbothbuildings, a goathouse, aswellasother structures.38 His home(BuildingA)wasexcavatedandreconstructed, likePompeii, by carefully removing a parallelseriesoflinealstainsintheburie d earlyseventeenth-centuryredsand ofthe colonial surface, torevealthenegative impressionsof horizontal hewn woodenbeams oftheearlyseventeenth-centurybasement / first-floorframework.Theexcavationalso revealed thestratig raphically ass ociated, earlyseventeenth-century shell-mortared stonefoundationsofhishome,aswellas two contemporaryearlyseventeenth-century artifact-filleddouble-barrel wooden cisterns (onecoveredbyaneighteenth-centurywall), andwhat hasbecome a somewhatfamous find, a well-preservedburiedropebasketim mediately outside Van Tienhoven’s home.39

were i denti fiedfromtheentir e sample fro m allperiod s represented. 43 A total of 117 distinct seeds, comprisingtwelve different planttypes,wereidentifiedinthe earliest,post-1633,earlyseventeenth-centurysample. Ten new varieties,fora total componentseedcountofseventy-three, were introduced in the secondhalfofthe seventeenthcentury, and then threewere addedforthelaterearlyeighteenth-centurysample (figure2).Somewererepresentedbysingleseeds; others, suchaswas the casewithraspberries, wererepresentedby 1,175specimens from onecontext.44

43 Grossman, Indices,90, Table8.2;seeFigures1,2and5.

40 VanLaer, 111;Grossman, Indices,80–84.

andthefocusofshorelinecommercia l activity.”35 Thebrewery andtavernwere inplace by1631, and“ameanbarn” of a church was erectedby1633.36

35 VanLaer, 111;Innes, NewAmsterdamandIt’sPeople, 5,45;Grossman,“Indices,”81.

37 Jacobs,66.Thispracticeofsanctionedcivillitigation wasinplaceearlyon.Jacobswrote:“Alreadyin1625,the customarypracticesincivillawintheNetherlandswere establishedinNewNetherland.”

Figure2.3Dcross-tabulationplotofchangingdistributionoftabulated planttypesbytimefromarchaeologicallyrecovered,identifi ed,and datedhistoricseedsfromtheoriginalcolonialsurface,colonialbuilding foundations,andfromthecontentsofdouble-barrelwoodencisterns,and featuresoftheseventeenth-centuryDutch WestIndiaCompany(WIC)site. AfterGrossman, HumanLandscapeInteractions,Figure2:1462;See Grossman,“Indices.”

mergedjetsofwater and airbubbles.The waterjetsbroke up the soil matrix, and theairbubbles helped separate and float theseedstothesurface tobe skimmed off with fine sieves Eachbatch ofrecovered seedswassortedunder a microscopeto separateandidentify seeds to thegenus andspecieslevels bystratigraphicassociationanddate.

39 DianeDallal,“Van Tienhoven’sbasket: Treasureor Trash?”in Oneman’strashisanotherman’streasure, A. G.A.vanDongen,ed.(Rotterdam,1996),215–24.

41 Grossman, Indices, Tables8.4,8.5and8.6.See figures 1,2,and5.

Samplesofsoil,fromundisturbedand well-date d depositswere“floated”to recover theseeds witha custom-designed watertank systemwithcirculatingsub-

42 Jacobs,99.

38 VanLaer,108–109.

Basedonthesenewarchaeologicaland archivallinesofevidence overthe revised agedeterminationsand antiquity oftheear liestcolonialartifactfrom thesite,together withthedatesestablishedbyearlyseven teenth-century legal documents describing constructioninitiativesalongthestreet detailed by Van Laer(1974), I arguethat theblock along Pearl atWhitehallwas first occupiedover a five-yearperiodbetween 1633and1638.40 These linesofchronologi callycontrolledarchaeologicalandhistorical evidence alsoprovide a clearthree-phase, diachronic, orsequentialframework for the analysisofthe environmentallysignificant changesinplant diversity betweenthe early seventeenthandearly eighteenthcenturies (figures 2 and 3).

44 Ibid.

Netherlandin1639)45 andonespecimenof citrus—borrowedfromexploitedindigenousplants,knowntoarchaeologistsasthe EasternAgriculturalComplex.46 Among theplant membersof this constellation of nativefoodsareincludedpumpkin,acorn, strawberry, raspberry, andtobacco.Ofthis complex, acorns, strawberries, andraspberriescontinuedandincreasedineach subsequentdatedsampleunti l the first decade of the eighteenthcentury Seeds ofchenopods, Amaranthus or pigwee d and Chenopodium orgoosefoot,wereboth part of theEastern AgriculturalComplex, andwere well representedintheearly seventeenth-centurysample (see figure2) Tobacco seedswererecoveredfrom two seventeenth-centurydeposits;onefrom theearly fill of a double-barrelwooden cistern(Component 13), andfromthe fill of a seventeenth-century rope bucket, or cask,cutinto thelowest redsandsofthe site(Component 38).47

8 deHalveMaen

45 Jacobs,107.

Ingeneral, th esequantifiedtrends showeda 38-percentdecreaseinspecies diversitybetween theearliest periodand thesecond,post-1680sample,andaneven sharperdecreaseofabout70 percentby theearlyeighteenthcentury (figure 3).

Together, theseidentificationsandcom parisonsprovidedcriticalnewevidence tocharacterizethechangingenvironmen t andshiftingplantcommunitiesofthe DutchandNativeAmericanwaterfront residents ofthe PearlStreet block.The earliestseventeenth-century seeds, from thepost-1633sample,revealedthat exceptforpeachpitsonlyindigenous cultigensandnative andforeign“weed” typescouldbeidentified(see figure2).

48 VanCleafBachman, PeltriesorPlantations:TheEconomicPoliciesoftheDutch WestIndiaCompanyandNew Netherland,1623–1639 (Baltimore,1969),63.

49 LeoHerschkowitz,“BlockHistory”in Excavations Report,vol.II:1–38.

Asa footnotetosomeofthehigh-profile plantsrecovered,the presenceoftobacco fromexclusivelyseventeenth-century contexts—withnonefromlaterdepos its—isconsistentwithcolonialaccounts ofthe earlyeconomyand practicesof the Dutch tobacco tradersofNewNetherland Itisalsoconsistentwith accounts ofMr Heermans,whooperatedthe colony’s first warehouse,discoveredasoneofthemajor findsoftheexcavation.The Dutchtriedto replicatetheabundantlocalsuppliesof indigenous tobaccogrown by the Native AmericansonLong Islandbeginning with

50 OliverA.Rink, HollandontheHudson:AnEconomic andSocialHistoryofDutchNew York (Ithaca,1998),8.

thetenureofGovernorMinuitin1630,but withlittlesuccesscomparedtotheaccomplishmentsofDutchplantersinBrazil and Guyana.48 Instead,theDutchresidentsand merchants ofNewNetherlandgottheir tobacc o viabarter w ith N ativ e traders fromLongIsland,Englishsettlers in New England,andthrough a livelycoastaltrade withtheEnglishcolonistsof Virginia.49 Between1641and1664,Dutchmerchants investedin fourteen voyages oftrade to English Virginia and“maintained a coastal fleetof sloopsto bring ‘VirginiaLeaves’ toNewAmsterdam.” 50 The excavated earlyseventeenth-centurywarehouseof AugustineHeermans, served as a critical

Theidentified samplesweretabulatedand enteredin a computer databaselisting the coordinates, artifactassociations,and the most recentdatesoftheassociateddiag nosticartifacts.Theascribeddatesforeach ofthe botanicalsampleswereestablished ontheidentified age of thelatestartifacts excavatedinassociation witheachsample ofrecoveredcharred seeds.

Fifteenwerefood cultigens, and thirteen represented medicina l plants.The only identifiedcultigensintheearliestpost1633deposits were—exceptforpeaches (peachorchardsare documentedin New

46 WilliamCronon, ChangesintheLand,Indians,Colonists,andtheEcologyofNewEngland (New York,1953); AlfredCrosby, TheColumbianExchanges:Biologicaland CulturalConsequencesof1492,forwardbyOttovanMering(Westport,CT,1972);PaulA.DelcourtandHazelR. Delcourt, Prehistoric NativeAmerican EcologicalChange: HumanEcosystemsinEasternNorthAmericaSincethe Pleistocene (New York,2004); WilliamM.Denevan,“The PristineMyth:TheLandscapeoftheAmericasin1492,” AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers 82, no.3(1992),369–85;J.E.Hammett,“Ethnohistoryof aboriginallandscapesinthesoutheasternU.S.,”inPaulE. Minnisand WayneJ.Elisens,eds., BiodiversityandNative America (Norman,OK,2001),248–99;G.M.Day,“The IndianasanEcologicalFactorintheNortheasternForest,” Ecology 34(1953),2:329–46.

47 Grossman,“Indices,”88, Table8.2.

Figure3. Two-dimensionalcross-tabulationplot detailingdiminishingplantdiversitybetween theearlyseventeenthandearlyeighteenth centuries.Thequantifiedcomparisonsdocument a 38-percentdropinplantdiversitybetweenthe earlyseventeenthandlateseventeenthcenturies (post-1680)and a nearly70-percentdropin plantdiversitybytheearlyeighteenthcentury (post-1710).(AfterGrossman2011: Table8.2; courtesyofSUNYPress).Nativeseedsand medicinalplantsshowedthesharpestreductions. Medicinalplantsdroppedfromthirteen tothree bytheearlyeighteenthcentury. Nativeseeds andpotherbsdroppedfromsixvarietiesdown tooneoverthesameperiod.(SeeGrossman 2011).Thesediachronicpatternsofspecies reductionsuggestthelocalenvironmentof lowerManhattan(belowCanal)hadundergone significanthabitatimpacts,specieslossand ecosystemdegradationby the middletotheend oftheseventeenthcentury.

Theearlyseventeenth-century flotation sampleyielded a total 117 seeds,from thirty-eight differentcontextsrepresent ingnineteenplanttypes, and theycould beidentified tothe speciesorgenuslevel (afte r Grossman2011:90, Ta bl e 8.4).

4.Therangeofidentifiedplantsshowed significant,orderofmagnitude,dropsin thediversityofplantsbetweentheearly seventeenthcentury, andthe early eigh teenthcenturies.Thequantifiedtotals byperiodshowed a 38-percentdecrease between the early and late seventeenth centuries,andaneven sharperdecrease of about70percentbytheearly eigh teenthcentury.

5. Themarkedshifts,ordrop-offs, in relativeplant diversitybetweentheearly seventeenth-andearlyeighteenth-cen turysamplessuggestthatthelocal urban settinghadundergoneprofound environmentaltransformationsbythe earlyeighteenth century.56

51 Innes, NewAmsterdamanditsPeople,54,281.

57 JohnDixonHunt,ed., TheDutchGardenintheSeventeenthCentury (Washington,D.C.,1990);JohnDixon Hunt,FlorikeEdmond,PaulHoftijzer,andRobert P. W. Visser,eds., CarolusClusius: Towardsaculturehistoryof theRenaissancenaturalist (Amsterdam,2007),9–48;De Jong1990,Oldenburger-Embers1990).

Finally, thechronologicalcontrasts between the earlyseventeenth-and early eighteenth-centurysamplesexcavated fromthecolonialsite documentanapproximate70-percentdropinspecies diversity in lessthana hundred years.54 Thispost-1664periodofEnglishinfluenceswasmarkedbythecontinuityof several cultigens fromthe earliest early seventeenth-centur y occupationphase, andbytheintroductionofnewplant types. Oftheinitial weed varieties, purs laneand carpetweedcontinued and were predominant, whiletheindigenousgrains of Amaranthus or pigweed, and Chenopodium or goosefoot,dropped out of the sequenceaftertheinitialpost-1633period, asdidcitrus.55 Of theearliestfoodsources, pumpkins, acorns,peaches, strawberries, andraspberriescontinued topredominate in thesample into theeighteenthcentury In addition,the transition to English rule coincidedwith the recoveryofninenew planttypes:clover, beans,pokeweed, blacknightshade , flax,sedge,min t or catnip,andgrape.

Insum, the archaeological plantrecord fromthe seventeenth-century PearlStreet excavationshowed five majorpatterns,or quantifiedtrends,withinthemulti-century recordofchanging plantdiversity:

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55 Sensitivitytothenutritionalandculturalsignificanceof chenopodsasakeyNativeAmericanfoodsource—with deeprootsinthearchaeologicalrecord—isnotnewin Americananthropology.ItcanbetracedbacktoSafford in1917withhisintroductionofPre-IncaAndeangrain, quinoa,tothescientificcommunity,andJ.D.Sauer ’s call in1950toreclassifyAmericanchenopodsofAmaranthand Chenopodiumasculturallycriticalgrainsin“TheGrain Amaranth:aSurveyofTheirHistoryandClassification,” AnnalsoftheMissouriBotanicalGarden 37 (1950):561632;seealso W. E.Safford,“A forgottencerealinancient America,” ProceedingsoftheNineteenthInternational CongressoftheAmericanists (Washington,D.C.,1917).

suggest s that m anyof t heidentified colonial plants were notonlynotsimply“weeds,” butinsteadfunctioned as foods, dyes, andmedicinal plants.

New ArchivalSourcesandChanging HorticulturalPatterns Through Time: Thearchaeologicalandbotanicalevidence from the1984 excavationand the

quantifiedcomparisonsbetweenthedated artifactsandplantspecimens documented chronologicallysigni fica ntch a ng es in plantdiversit y throughtimeacrossthe earlyNewNetherlandlandscape.The post-1680s shifts inartifacts documented bythe stratifiedchronology atthe Dutch We stIndiaCompanysitecannowbe seentobeparalleledbynewarchival evidenceabout changesingardendesign and functionbetween theearlyand late seventeenth centuriesinHolland.57 It’s an important story.

3.Therecoveredplan t varietiesindicatedemergent—especiallyforthe earliestearly seventeenth-centuryperiod—open, sun-drenched,chemically altered,anddisturbed ... often humanly disturbed,oranthropogenichabitatsand environmental conditions, commonly referred to as“wasteground.”

Inaddition,there wasatthetimeofthe excavationlittleavailablecomparativear chaeologicalorarchivaldata,orliterature, in Englishdealingwith the ethnobotany ofDutchhorticultureintheAmericas ingeneral,anddesignofcolonialDutch gardens Aslateas t helate1990s, t en to fiftee n yearsaftertheexcavationat Pearl Street,ourunderstandingsofDutch agriculturalhis torywer e hampered by a paucityofscholarlytranslationsfrom Dutch toEnglish

54 Ibid.,90; Table8.2;Figure2.

Thus,therecoveryofpreservedseventeenth-century plant remains fromthe colonialDutch settlementburied beneath 1984Manhattanpresentedsignificant new insightsinto thediversityandnatureof theseventeenth-and eighteenth-century environments ofNewNetherland.None oftheseventeenth-centuryplantsexca vated fromlowerManhattansuggest an ornamental flowergarden. Except forthe ubiquitous peach pit, all the plantsfrom the firsthalfoftheseventeenth-century depositswere dominated byadoptedindigenousplants andbythe introduction ofcolonizingEuropean “weed”exotics into t helocalenvironment. Th e da te d archaeologicalrecordalsoshowedthat theindigenousvarietiesdroppedout of thearchaeological sequence, first by the endofthe seventeenth century, andthen completelyaftertheEnglishtakeoverof New Yorkinthemid-eighteenthcentury (figure 3).

52 Grossman, Indices,88, Table8.2;seeFigures1,2&5.

1.Fortheearliestpost-1633period, theplants representedanequalmixof indigenousvarietiesandthose from, or possibly from,Europe.

Thetwoexceptionsweretheavailabilityofmid-seventeenth century works by Adrian van der Donckwith his 1655 DescriptionofNewNetherland, an official responsetoanearlier reporttothe Dutch West India Company by Van Tienhoven, who resided withinthePearl Street block. Ofrelevancetothisstudy, Tienhoven’s 1650reportbefor e Dutch We stIndi a Company officialsinAmsterdamlisted thecontentsofgardensinNewNetherland about twentyorthirtyyears after, I argue, theinitial occupationofPearl Street.In 1856,New Yo rkhistorianEdmundB.

2.Thisarchaeologicalbotanicalevidence,combinedwiththeethnobotanicalandethno-historicalrecor d

Thechangetothelateseventeenth-centurybotanicalinventory,a sampleof seventy-threespecimensfromthirty-two discretestratigraphiccontexts,represented the introductionofthree newplantvarieties (carpetweed, flax, andwoundwort),and a reductioninplantdiversity of over 57 percentfrom theprevioussample.52 The subsequentearlyeighteenth-centurysamplewasmarkedbytheintroductionoftwo newplantvarieties(cherryandAcacia)out ofatotalof fifteenplantsandadrop-off ofsixplants;itrepresentedanadditional 56-percentdeclineindiversity fromthe lateseventeenth-centuryplantinventory.53

entrepôtforboththistransatlanticand intercoastaltrade.Thisattributionisbased onsurviving archivalrecords, Heermans described himselfas“the first beginnerin the Virginia Tobaccotrade.”51

53 Ibid.SeeFigures2and3.

56 Grossman, Indices,90; Tables8.2and8.3,Figure5.

63 Ibid.,33.

10 deHalveMaen

gardensinHollanddid notbeginto flour ishuntil the draining oflowland swamps in the middleoftheseventeenthcentury created theavailability of newreclaimed lands.The firstelementsofelaboratecoun tryliving inornatelylandscaped country estatesbegan to flourish onlyafterthe end of the Eighty-Years’ War in 1648,when country housesandgardens werelaid out andimprovedeverywhere intheprovince ofHolland 60 Thisinitial,butshort-lived, stage inthedevelopmentof moreelaborat e garde n designswastruncated in 1672when “many countryhouseswere destroyedbythe invadingtroopsof Louis XIV.”61 Only after1672 were “generations ofburgersandmerchants [able] toinvest largeamounts ofcapital intheembellishmentoftheir countryestates.”62

58 E.B. O’CallaghanandB.Fernow,trans. Documents RelativetotheColonialHistoryoftheStateofNew York. 15vols.(Albany,1856),1:369.

Thesecond influxofinnovative ideas, coincidentwiththeriseof WilliamIII, broughtaboutinfluencesby, and copies of,Frenchgardenart,technology, and patterns of garden designinthe1670s and1680s WilliamIII sent membersof thecourttostudyinFranceandbring backtoHollandFrenchinnovationsin fountaindesignandtechnology, including theFrenchpracticeofmulticolored flower beds, hothouses,the introductionoftrop-

In1989,however, animportantbreak throughforEnglish-speakin g scholars cameaboutastheresultofaninternational forumonseventeenth-century Dutchgar densatDumbartonOaksin Washington, D.C., which was publishedin English in 1990.Organized byJamesDixonHuntand hosted inEnglish,thesymposiumbrought togetherleadingscholarsonthehistory, function,andexternalinfluences affecting thechangingpatternsinsixteenth-through eighteenth-centuryDutchgardendesign.59

62 Ibid.,32.

The adventofornatelyandcursively designed Dutchgardens, andgarden art, was spurredbytwo major influencesin thelate 1670s Onewas theriseof WilliamIIItotherank ofStadholderin1674 andhisconstruction of ornategardensat his country-huntinglodge between 1679 and 1684.63 Inspiredbythe court,other DutchStadtholders andmembersofthe

60 JohnDixonHunt,“‘ButWhodoesknowwhataDutch garden is?’:TheDutchGardenintheEnglishImagination,” inHunt, TheDutchGarden;SeealsoJohnDixonHuntand ErikdeJong,“TheAnglo-DutchGardenintheAgeof WilliamandMary,” JournalofGardenHistory 8(1988),2–3.

Figure4.a)Draftedhistorictemplateforanearlyseventeenth-century,four-partDutchgarden,theHortus BotanicusoftheUniversityof Leiden,designedin1601bythebotanistandphysicianCarolusClusius. PlanofClusius’s1601gardenwasdrawnbyJacquesdeGheynII(TjoinSieFat,1991,III2;Edmondet al.,2007).b)Photographbyauthorofonequadrantofthemodern¾replicaofClusius’sHortusBotanicus attheUniversityofLeidenin2009.Followingtheearlytemplate,thekitchengardenservednotfordecorationorleisure,butinsteadasamixed,four-part—orchard,berry,vegetable,andherb/medicinal—garden.

wealthymerchantclass begantoemulate thistransformationoffarm-likecountry retreatsintoelaborateestateswithornately landscapedgardens,butonlyafter 1680.64

Th e firstmanifestationsofelaborate countryhome s andcursivelydesigned

O’Callaghanquoted Tienhovenasfollows: “madeandplanted inseason allsorts of potherbs, particularlyparsnips,carrots , andcabbage,whichbringgreatplenty[to] husbandman’s dwelling... whatever else isnormally foundin a cabbageorkitchen garden.”58 Untilrecently, this brieflisting, together with Van der Donck’s writings, were t heonlydescr i pti vematerialsin Englishpertainingtogardensfrom Dutch literatureoftheseventeenthcentury, whichwere limited in their characterizations oftheinterior makeupand design of a seventeenth-century garden.

64 Ibid.,37.

61 Erik deJong,“ForProfitandOrnament:thefunction andMeaningofDutchGardenArtinthePeriodof William andMary,”inHunt,13–48.

68 Hunt,182.

66 CarlaOldenburger-Ebbers,“NotesonPlantsUsedin DutchGardensintheSecondHalfoftheSeventeenth Century,”inHunt,164.

69 VanderGroen, DenNederlandtsenHovenier (1969, reprUtrecht).

72 Oldenburger-Ebbers,“NotesonPlantsUsedinDutch Gardensin the SecondHalfoftheSeventeenthCentury,” inHunt,167.

70 Grossman, Indices,98.

74 Ibid.

Unti l the reignof William IIIinthe 1680s,garde ns weresmall , fen ced-off enclosuressymmetrically subdividedto accommodatea vastdiversityofdomestic and foreign plants.TheDutch wordfor garden, tuin, means “fenced in” and“enclosedspace.66 “The termmostfrequently appliedtothemwas“little, ” andtheir featureswere a seriesofself-contained areasandwhatin1633John Evelyncalled “close-walks.”67

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WhiletheexcavationatPearlStreet identifiedth er ange ofcolonia l plants presentinLowerManhattan in the seven teenthandeighteenthcenturies, the Van derGroenbookbothlistedappropriate pl ant sf or a pr ope r Dutchga rden , and following the templatesofClusiusnearly a centurybefore,definedtheinternal layoutandcompositionof a small fourpartgarden.Thisimportant translationof Van derGroen,described in detail how a properDutch gardenwastobesubdivided upintoquadrilateralsectionsandseparate beds,whatplantswereappropriatefor plantingwhere, and forwhatpurposes. Oldenburger-Ebberstranslated oneof Van derGroen’s proscriptionsforthelayoutof a Dutchgarden,asfollows:

The squareorrectangular area was firstdivide d int o fourequa l parts bytwocrossingpaths.Insidethe enclosingfence or wallwas a narrow borderand a path.Thefourpartswere then divided into a patternofrect angular beds Part oftheareamight

67 DeJong,“ForProfitandOrnament:theFunctionand MeaningofDutchGardenArtinthePeriodof Williamand Mary,1650–1702,”inHunt,15.

ical plants,andFrench patternsof garden design with diagonalsubdivisions;these were adoptedby theDutchbetween 1680 and1685.65

He cited Van derGroen’s listtodocu mentsomeofthemostcultivatedandused plantsinseventeenthcentury Holland It includedsix hundredspeciesof bothdo mestic andimportedexotics,andincluded apple, pear, sweet cherry, Morello cherry, plum,peach , apricot,almond,dwarf Russianalmond,blackmulberry, quince, medlar, dwarfmedlar, blackwalnut,hazel fig,raspberry, red currant,andgooseberry. Other coreplants inseventeenthcentury Holland included: “orange, lemon, lime, fig,prickly pear, pomegranate,olive,oleander, commonmyrtle,laurel,strawberry tree, carob treeandJudas tree.”72

Oldenburger-Ebbers’researchinto seventeenth-centurybotanicalsources wentontodistinguishthedifference between theuseand distributionofpre 1680multi-crop“orchard”versustheir subsequentmanifestationaslargescale installationswithlongrowsofwidely spacedmonocrop fruit trees.Inessence, as I illustrate withthe3Dreconstruction, theearlyseventeenth-centuryorchardwas a mixed,four-partdesign,with a fruit, berry, vegetable,andpotherb/medicinal amalgamationplants (see figure5). To quoteOldenburger-Ebbers , “Theseventeenth-centuryorchardwasfruitand berry garden; alongside fruittrees,there wereberry bushesandgrapevines.The orchardwasusually fencedin a square orrectangle. For theboundaryofthe orchard, Van derGroenadvisedspecific

In conclusion,thepreservedplant remainsfoundinassociationwithdated archaeological artifactsfromtheundisturbed,naturallystratifi ed, colonialdepositsdiscoveredat PearlandWhitehall Streets haveemergedas keyenvironmentaltimecapsules,andecologicalindicators ofenvironmental change, for thereconstructionofpast environmentalconditions andlocal habitats.Theidentifiedshiftsin therelativeproportionsofdatedplantvarieties suggestthatprofoundenvironmental changeortraumaappeartohavebeenwell underwayduringthe earliest,post-1633 period (figures 2 and 3). Ifwhat thequantified archaeological datasuggestisindeed thecase, they imply thatbythetimeofthe lateeighteenthand nineteenthcenturies, when Europeanand Americannaturalists begantopublish invitingdescriptionsand paint romantic landscapes promoting the beautyofeasternNorth Americanenvironmentalconditions,thehabitatsoflower Manhattan hadbeenalreadydrastically changedfrom pre-contact conditions.The implicationsarenotgood forthoseusing historicbotanicaldescriptionsbyeighteenth-and nineteenth-century naturalists to reconstructtheenvironmentalcharacteristics, and therange ofplant communities, indigenoustotheformercolonial landscape. Together, thearchaeological andethnobotanicalevidence (figures1, 2,and3)stronglysuggests thatasearly as thesecond quarteroftheseventeenth century the environment ofthe colonial New Yorkregion had long since ceased

Thelistwasdiverseand international Some plantscame fromthe Netherlands, othersfromNorth,Central, SouthAmeri ca,India,Indonesia,andtheCapeofGood Hope.NorthAmericanplantsadaptedwell toHolland, and included the sunflower, Canadianlily, Rocky MountainRedCedar, andevening primrose.However, whilethe Dutch mayhavebeenfondofimporting exoticsandsouvenirsfromforeign trading posts,theycouldnotsuccessfullycultivate tropicalplantsuntilhothouses wereintroducedintoHolland after1685.73

73 Ibid.,170.

also beturnedinto a flowergarden orornamentalarrangementofbox. Some garden plans indicatealsothat theFrenchpatternofdivisionwas sometimesused.Theareawas firstdivided by twodiagonalsand theninto rectangularbeds. The four respective divisions ofthekitchen gardenwere usuallydevotedtobrassisasandroots, salad pl ants,medicinalherbs , and aromaticherbs.71

A breakthroughintheavailabilityof original texts,astranslations ofotherwise unavailableDutch works inbotanical and ethnobotanicalhistory, came about asthe result ofthe modernrelease of a pivotal lateseventeenth-centurybook, The Dutch Gardener byJanvanderGroen,originally published inHollandin 1669.68 Hiswork was, in turn, basedonthe original teach ingsandtemplatesofCarolusClusius, botanist and physician,whodesignedthe Hortu s Botanicas of th e Univ ersityof Leideninthebeginningoftheseventeenth century 69 Asthe following articleby Peter Roseillustrates, The DutchGardener is partof a collectedvolume containing a cookbookwithcriticalculinaryinfor mation,withtastyseventeenth-centur y recipes offeredin English.70

65 Ibid.,40.

71 PeterG.Rose, TheSensibleGardner:DutchFoodwaysin theOldandNew World (Syracuse,1989 ;paperbackedition 1998];PeterG.Rose, HistoryonOurPlate:Recipesfrom AmericasDutchPastfor Today’sCook (Syracuse,2019).

species,including alderorrowan,” and recommendedthat for “fragrance in the garden, chamomile wasplantedbyarbors and along walks.”74

75 MartinDaunton,ed., TheOrganisationofKnowledge in VictorianBritain (Oxford,2005).

ofthe Dutch VisitingScholarsprogram— sponsoredbytheNetherlandsInstitute ofHeritage.

The three-dimensionalreconstruction

The3DModel: Finally, withthesethree streamsofinformation(archaeological , thedatedPearlStreetsamplesofearly seventeenth and early eighteenth-century DutchandBritish-eraseeds,combined withfigures 2 and3,historical,and ethnobotanicalinsightsintoNewNetherlandgardendesign,andtemplatesfor early s eventeenth-centur y gardensby Van derGroen), I hadtheopportunityto photographthemodern ¾ scalemodelof theoriginalHortusBotanicusofLeiden (figures4aand4b).Thi s opportunit y cameaboutwhilepresentinginAmster damonthePearlStreetdiscoveryforthe celebrationofthe400thanniversaryof thevoyagesofHenryHudson—aspart

Building from thesemultiple linesof evidence,itbecamepossibletoconstruct inthecompute r, and populatewiththe appropriateplants, a viable 3Dmodelof anearlyseventeenth-centuryDutch garden (figure 5).Eachplant isanindependent3D .obj filethatcanbeanimated,individually, orenmassewith other plants, to sway in thewind.Finally, theconstructionprocess forthe 3D modelmandatedthe need for “digitalcultivation”andcomputerizedtillingto portray the“plowed”soil asdigital elevationmodels (DEMs)ofeachofthe cultivated plotswithridges and furrows. Thefurrows alsoprovided each computer modelwithraisedridgesinrows,with intervening channelsforirrigation.

tobe,inthewordsofThomasAquinas, a pristinereflectionof“God’s Orderin theUniverse.”75

above shows thefour-partlayoutand dis tribution ofplants withina typical early seventeenth-centuryDutchgarden Itwas laid outin life and in templatebyClusius, thephysician andbotanistforthe Hortus BotanicusofLeidenin1601 (figure4a and4b). In accordancewith hisguidance andthelater writingsof Van der Groen, I renderedthe gardenas arelatively small, four-sidedplot,dividedinfour quadrants, withintersecting interiorpathsandinterior fencing, withfruit treespositioned along thecorners and sides Shadetrees border theproperty, andgrapevinesaretrellised along the sides ofinteriorfencing, which separated theother functionalareas(animals,people)withinthelargerDutc h compound Cornwas grown outsidethe gardenboundaries.

12 deHalveMaen

Figure5.Earlyseventeenth-centurymixedfour-partfruit,berry,vegetable,andpotherb/medicinalgarden. The3Dcomputermodelwasrenderedbytheauthoroverasix-monthperiod,usingtheterrain-andlandscapemodelingprogram VuedeEsprit-4.Eachplantisanindividual3d.obj filethatcanbeanimatedenmassewithother plantstoswayinthewind.The3Dmodelshowsthefour-partlayoutanddistributionofplantswithinatypical earlyseventeenth-centuryDutchgarden.Thethree-dimensionalgardenreconstructionisbasedontwolinesof evidence:1)thedatedPearlStreetarchaeologicalsampleofchangingseeddiversitythroughtime,betweenthe earlyseventeenthandearly eighteenthcenturies,combinedwith,2)theseventeenth-centurytemplatesofgardens byClusius,aswellasthedescriptionsofgardencompositionsandstructuresby VanderGruenaka.GheynII (Egmondetal.,2007,9–49).

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A TasteofAmerica’s Dutch Past

I

The informativevolumefurthercontains De Ve rstandigeHovenier ( The SensibleGardener) byPetrusNijland,an Amsterdamphysicianandbotanist.Nijlandgives a calendarforthecultivation offruittrees,vegetables,andherbsand indicateshowtheycanbeusedforfood ormedicine.

Th e PleasurableCountryLife’s third

parttitled The ExperiencedHousekeepe r isalsowrittenbyNijland.Thissection isaboutmedicinesforpeopleaswell asanimals,towhichtwosmallseparate partsareadded.The firstpartisontheart ofdistillingandhowtodistillmedicinal watersandoilsfromherbs, flowers,and seeds;thesecondpart, TheDiligentBeekeeper , isonbeekeeping.Thecookbook De Verstandige Kock (TheSensible Cook)

byPeterG.Rose 1 JanvanderGroen,etal, Het VermakelijckLandtleven (Amsterdam,1669).

T ISMOST interestingto findthat JoelGrossmanuse s for bot anical referencesandgardenlayoutsinhis previousarticlepartofthesamebook I haveusedforseventeenth-centuryDutch culinaryinformation.Thiscollectivevolume, Het Ve rmakelijc k Landtleven (The PleasurableCountryLife ),containsnot only DenNederlandtsenHovenier ( The DutchGardener ) byJanvanderGroen (gardenertothePrinceofOrange),but ithastwomoreparts, DenErvaren Huys-houder ( TheExperiencedHousekeeper ) and DenNaerstigenBye-houder ( TheDiligentBeekeeper ), finishingwith De Ve rst a ndigeKock ( TheSensible Cook ), a cookbookthatgivesrecipesfor thefoodstu ff s grownincountryhome gardens.1

thedesignofgardensand fl owerbeds andendswith200graphiclayoutsof intricatebeds.

PeterG.Roseisanaward-winningfood historian.She contributed a syndicated col umnonfamilyfoodandcookingtotheNew York-basedGannettnewspapersformore thantwentyyearsaswellasfornewspapers and magazinesintheNetherlands. A Dutch native,Shebegan researchingtheinfluence ofthe Dutch on theAmericankitchen inthe early1980s.Hernumerousbooksinclude TheSensible Cook: DutchFoodways in theOldandtheNew World; Foodsofthe Hudson:ASeasonalSamplingoftheRegion'sBounty (1993);and Matters of Taste: Food and Drinkin Seventeenth-Century DutchArtand Life wit h Dr DonnaR. Barnes(2002).

In DeNederlandtsenHovenier ( The Dutc h Gardener ), JanvanderGroen startsthevolumewit h picture s ofthe beautifulgardensofroyalhousesinRijswijk , Honsholredijk , Te n Bosch,and elsewhere.Hecontinueswithdescrip tionsoftreesand flowersanddiscusses

cabbage salad) as eaten by the Dutch in Albany around 1750. He describes how his Dutch landlady used the inner leaves ofcabbage,“cuttheminlongstrips, about1/12to1/8ofaninchwide,seldom more,”and dr esse d the m wit h oi l an d vinegar. Hegoesontowrite,“Inplace ofoil,meltedbutterisfrequentl y used.” Thebutter iskeptwarmby the fire, sothat when itispouredoverthecabbage itwilts theleavessomewh a t. K alm c omment s that“thisdishhas a verypleasing flavor andtastesbetterthanonecanimagine.” 2

14 deHalveMaen

The “AboutallSortsofGreensto Stew” section featuresspinach, beet,head lettuce,endive,sorrel,borage,bugloss, RumexPatientia (a kind ofsorrel), celery, andasparagus,potherbs,andartichokes.

Thatregiste r includes the fo l lo w ing vegetables,underthetwoheadings:the firsttitled“AboutSalad”andthesecond “AboutAllSortsofGreenstoStew.”

Theverycompleteregistergoesonto listallsortsofmeat,game,poultry, and salted,smoked,anddried fish,aswellas sea-andfresh-water fish,andendswith variousbakedgoods.Overtheyears, I havepreparedthecookbook’s recipeson theopenhearthoron a modernstoveand foundthemtobeworkableanddelicious. Whatstrikesmeishowuptodatethe recipesseem.Mostpeoplemightthink

3

Al thoughwritte n intheseventeenth century, TheSensibleCook soundsvery modernattimes.Forexample,itbegins with a “CookingRegister, inwhichmost ofall dishesarenamedthat oneisusedto preparing,sothatoneisabletoquickly thinkofwhatonewantstopreparewhen oneisin a hurry.”

3 SensibleCook,48.

The PleasurableCountyLif e was writtenat a timewhen,throughland reclamation,morelandbecameavailable intheNetherlandsandthosepeoplewho wantedto escapethecitieswherethe y hadtheirhomebusinessesbuilt a country homewheretheycouldenjoythefresh airandgrowtheirownfood.Itappealed totheDutchfrugalspiritthatbygrowing itinone’s owngardenonecouldenjoy theproducewithoutneedingtopurchase it.ThepaintingbyJoachimBeuckelaer showsthekindofvegetablesthatcould begrown;seedsforthemwerebrought toNewNetherlandbythesettlers.

For example,therecipeforasparagus: theyare“justboiled,nottoolongand eatenwithoil,vinega r an d pepper;or withmeltedbutte r andfreshlygrate d nutm eg” (a wayofpre paringasparagus stil l commo n inhousehold s intheNeth erlands).

JoachimBeuckelaer,“TheFourElements:Earth.AFruitand

Th e “AboutSalad”sectio n features: headlettuce,endive,leaflettuce,lamb’s lettuce , hops sal ad , shootsofendive roots,wildchicoryordandelion,beetroots,chicoryroots,redcabbage,white cabbage,onion,boiledorfried.

2 PeterKalm, PeterKalm’s TravelsinNorthAmerica,The English Versionof1770, AdolphB.Benson,ed.(New York,1964),609.

byanunknown aut hor, wi thseparat e sectionsonbutcheringand confectionery, completesthebook.

VegetableMarketwiththeFlightintoEgyptinthe Background”(1569).NationalGallery,London.Courtesy WikimediaCommons.

offoodinthepastas“agrayglob,”but nothingisfurtherfrom the truthhere.

It isnoteworthythat cabbages arementionedundertheheadingofsalad.They wouldmakesaladsinwintertime,when neitherlettucesnorotherleafgreen s were growinginthegarden.Swedishbotanist PeterKalmwrote a descriptionofcoleslaw (fromtheDutchterm koolsla , or

Intheirnewcolony, the settlerscontinuedtopreparefamiliarfoods.Asdiaries andinventoriesnote,thesettlersbrought withthemtheimplementsusedforcookingthesefamiliarfoods,duplicatinglife intheNetherlandsasbestastheycould. CookbooksfromtheirAmericandescendantsshowthatwhiletheycontinued theirtraditionalDutchfoodways,they alsoincorporatednativefoodsintotheir dailydiet,albeitinwaysthatwerefamiliartothem.5 Forinstance,theymade pu mpkincornmealpancakes,pumpkin sweetmeat,oraddedcranberriesinstead of the usual raisinsandapplestotheir favorite olie-koecken (deep-friedballsof

5 SeeJoelGrossman’sarticle,“A 3DReconstructionof a Seventeenth-CenturyNewAmsterdam Garden,”inthisissue of deHalveMaen.

Spring2022 15

6 DonnaBarnes,PeterRose, Matterof Taste:Foodand DrinkinSeventeenth-CenturyDutchArtandLife (Syracuse,NY,2002),24.

EverydayAmericanseatdishesthat canbetracedbacktothefood way s broughttoNewNetherlandbytheearly Dutchsettlers,whopla nt ed frui t trees (amongthemapples,pears,and,peaches), vegetablessuch aslettuces, cabbages, parsnips,carrots,andbeets , andherbs suchasparsley, rosemary, ch iv es , and tarragon.Farmanimals,particularly horses,pigs,andcows,wereamongthe mostvaluableimportedcommodities.

In NewNetherland,outofnecessity, kitchengardenswerestartedassoonas a housewasbuilt.Forthedailybread— wheatwas grownintheBeverwijck/ Albanyarea,whereitgrewwell,while ryegrewaroundNewAmsterdam.

Settle rsofNewNetherlandeither brought thisbookwiththem,or, more likely, asked fortheirfamil y orcontacts inthehomelandtosendit,asweknow theywerewonttodo.Therearecopies of Th e Plea surableCountyLif e foundin librariesthroughouttheUnitedStates.

AdriaenvanderDonck, a graduateof theUniversityofLeidenwith a doctor ateincivilandcanonlaw, cametoNew

Netherlandin1641tobecomeschout (sheriff) forPatroonKiliaenvanRensselaer(c.1585–1643)inRensselaerswijck (nowAlbanyandRensselaercounties). Hewrote A DescriptionofNewNether lan d(firstpublishedin1655)toentice hisfellowcountrymentosettleinthe newcolony Hereportedthatallsortsof Europeanfruitsandvegetables“thrive well,”andmarveledattheabundanceof native fish,fowl,andotherwildlife.4

flavored dough,forerunners to the dough nut).Lover s ofporridgefounditeas y togetusedto sapaen (Indiancornmeal mush), buttheyaddedmilktoit.This dishbecamesuchanintegralpartofthe DutchAmericandietthatitismentioned undertheheadingofNationalDisheson an183 0 menufor t heSaintNicholas ’ DayDinnerheldattheAmericanHotel inAlbany 6

Ja n St een,“TheFatKitchen”(1665–1670), LiechtensteinMuseum.Courtesy WikimediaCommons.

4 Adriaen Van der Donck, A DescriptionofNew Netherland, Diederick WillemGoedhuys,trans.,Charles T. Gehring and WilliamA.Starna,eds.,forewordbyRussellShorto (UniversityofNebraska,2008).

Cookies,pancakes , waffles,wafers, olie-koecken,pretzels,andcoleslaware someofthedishesthatwerebroughtto America bythe Dutchcolonists.While theDutchperiodofNewNetherlandonly lasted officiallyfrom1609to1664,the Dutchinfluence,particularlytheculinary influence,persiststothisday

in Hudson,New Yo rk,an d ofthePitt stown,New Yo rk,HistoricalSociety MelissaThompson-Flyn n is a ret ired Ar m y o fficeran da corporat e secr etary of a Wa shington D. C. tr ad e association , withexperienceinorganizationand projectmanagement,administration, andlogistics .

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inNewNetherlandStudies

The presentationprovided a fascinating summaryofhowtheinhabitantsofNew Amsterda m li v ed : wheretheyworked , whotheymarried,andeven whatthey drank.Thepresentationfeaturedsliding timemapsand a 3D walkdownStone Street,th e city’s fi rs t paved st reet. It wasthisdiverseseventeenth-century population,saidtohavespokeneighteen languages,whichlaidthefoundationfor present-dayNew YorkCityanditsculture.

NewNetherlandInstitute

heNewNetherland Institut e announcedthewinnersofitsCharles W. WendellResearchGrant. Theseannual grantsareawardedtohonorthememory ofDr Charles W. Wendell,whoserved ontheNNI’s boardfrom2000to2015 an d asit s president 2 006–2012.Th e grantcovers a periodfromoneweekup tosixmonths,partofwhichmaybedevotedtoresidency attheNewNetherland ResearchCenter(NNRC),andprovides a stipendof$1,000–$5,000,depending upontheproject’s scope.Researchmust dealwiththeDutchexperienceinNorth AmericaandtheDutchAtlantic World, andisexpectedtoresultin a publishable article or a componentof a largerwork. Researchersinanydiscipline,including familyhistoryorbiography, areencour agedtoapply.

RuthPiwonkaheldanM.A.inEnglish literaturefromIndianaUniversity She move d toKinderhook , Ne w Yo rk , in 1969,wheresh e be ca me deepl y inte restedinHudsonRiver Valleyregional history, art,andarchitecture.Sheserved asexecutivedirectoroftheColumbia CountyHistoricalSociety, 1976–1983, andco-authoredwithRodericBlackburn A Vi sibleHeritage.ColumbiaCounty, New Yo rk. A HistoryinArtandArchitecture (1977)and RemembranceofPatria (1988);shealsowrote A PortraitofLivingsto n Manor (1986).Sheworkedon a varietyofprojectsparticularlyrelated toColumbiaCounty, includingNational RegisterofHistoricPlacesnominations andcountymuseumexhibitions.

Besideswritingwidelyontheregion’s seventeenth-andeighteenth-century Dutchhistoryandmaterialculture,PiwonkaatthetimeofherdeathwasKinderhookvillage historian. Her affiliations werebroad,coveringschooldistrictsin ColumbiaCounty.

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Adds TwoNewBoard Members

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NewNetherlandInstitute Announces Wendell ResearchGrant Winners

HereandThere

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The RuthPiwonkaScholarshipisavailableto a college-boundstudentfromany ColumbiaCountyschool.Application s areduebyMay1.Allapplicationswill bereviewedbyJacobLeislerInstitute boardmembers.Thescholarship awardee willbeannouncedbyJune1.Forfurther informationandapplication g uidelines contacttheLeislerInstituteatinfo@ jacobleislerinstitute.org.

NewAmsterdamHistory CenterMappingEarly New YorkDemonstration

n January 27,2022,theNewAmsterdamHistoryCenter[NAHC] heldanonlinedemonstrationofitsongoingproject,“MappingEarlyNew York.” Theproject‘sgoalistocreate a detailed visualencyclopediaoftheDutchcolonialperiodusingthe1660CastelloPlan ofNewAmsterdamasitbasis. NAHC Trustee ToyaDubin,whoinitiatedand direct s th e center ’s pr oject,hostedthe presentation.

heNewNetherland Institute[NNI] inAlbany, New York,hasannounced the appointment onFebruary12,2022,of twonew members:Annettevan Rooyand MelissaThompson-Flynn.Annette Van RooyhasbeeninvolvedwiththeNNIon aninformalbasisformanyyearsasthe wifeoflastPast-PresidentJippeHiemstra.She als o servedasth e executive directoroftheHollandSocietyofNew Yorkfrom1990to2012andiscurrently the treasurer oftheJacobLeislerInstitute

JacobLeislerInstitute AnnouncesRuthPiwonka Scholarship

he Jacob Leisler Institute inHudson New Yorkannouncedthatithasestablished a studentscholarshiptohonor RuthPiwonka,belovedtrusteeemeritus ofitsboard,whopassedawayinAugust 2021.Th e annua l scholarship is tobe givento a ColumbiaCounty, New York, studentwhoisacceptedatanaccredited collegeoruniversityandhasdeclared a majororanintentiontodeclare a major inhistory.

A fullvi deoofth e presenta tionca n beviewedathttps://vimeo. com/673734793?embedded=true&source=vimeo_logo&owner=124293119.

The 2022 awardees are Evan Haefeli, associateprofessorofhistoryat Te xas A&MUniversit y, forhisbookmanuscript,“One GreatFamily: TheIroquois League and the PacificationoftheEastern Woodland”;BJLillis,Ph.D. candidatein historyatPrincetonUniversity, forhis dissertation,“A Valley between Worlds: SlaveryDispossession,andtheCreationof a Settler-Colonial SocietyintheHudson Valley 1659–1766”; Aagje Lybeer, Ph.D candidateinarthistoryattheUniversityof St Andrew/GhentUniversity Joint Ph.D Program,for her dissertation,“The Power ofBodyLanguage:Posture inDutchSeventeenth-CenturyPortrait ure.”

endowmentstandsatapproximately$6.5 million.The budget remainedunchanged, althoughdues hadfallenconsiderablydue to theCOVID-19pandemic.Nonetheless, theSociety’s financialpositionremained sound.

ChristopherCortright,chairoftheNominatingCommittee,gaveremarksabout thethreenewtrusteesbeingelected : JonathanDoucette,Ethan Van Ness,and AbbieMcMillen.Theslateaspresented wasapprovedbyproxiesSarahLeff erts FosdickandRev PaulLent.TheSociety reelectedCol.AdrianThomasBogartIII asPresidentfor a thirdone-yearterm, andChristopherCortrightandD avid Ditmars werereelectedas Trusteesand Branch Presidents;andDavidConklin andLaurieBogart Wileswerereelected toanothertermas Trustees.Theelection ofEthan Van Ness,JonathanDoucette, andAbbie McMillenasnew Trusteeswas con firm ed;Sarah Leff ertsFosdick was

Spring2022 17

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Themainportionoftheannualmeetingwastheelectionof officersforthe comingyear TheslateofthePresident and Tr ustees,whichhadbeenvoted electronicallybyproxy, waspresented.

TheHollandSociety ofNew York’s137th AnnualMeeting tookplaceinthe elegantsettingof Manhattan’sLotos ClubonApril2, 2022.

TreasurerDavidConklinreportedthe

Pre s id entBogartthankedall th e memberspresentfor a successfulyear Hethen p resentedhighlight s ofhis proposedvisionfortheSociety’s future growthcontainedin a missionstatement hehaddrafted.Hethanked Tr ustee Rev PaulLentforencouraginghimto composethis visionstatementtoserve asthecornerstoneof a Campaignfor Learningcommemoratingtheserie s of upcoming400thanniversarie s weplanto celebrate,includingthe1624foundingof NewNetherlandandthelegendary1626 sale ofManhattantotheDutchfor60 guilders(themythical$24).Presiden t Bogartdetailed hisobjectiveto“keep the HollandSocietygreat”byadheringtothe Society’s originalobjectivescontained initsbylaws:tocollectandpreservethe historyofNewNetherland;toperpetuate thememoryofDutchancestorsandmem bers;toassemble a library(modernizedto includedigitizationofrecords);tocause to havereadbeforethesocietypapers andessaysregardingDutchcolonialhistory;tocausetobepublishedbooksand articlesregardingsame;andtosupport philanthropicpursuitsinaccordancewith theprinciplesoftheSociety.

AnnualMeeting

SocietyActivities

HEONE HUNDRED thirty-seventh AnnualMeetingoftheHollandSocietyofNew YorkwasheldonSaturday, April2,2022,intheLotosClublibrary at 5 East66thStreet,Manhattan. Twenty-tw o Member s attendedth e me et ing inpersonandaboutsixtyMembersvia Zoom.Hollan d Society Pr esidentCol Adrian T. BogartIIIcalledthebusiness meetingtoorderat4:01p.m.Domine PaulD. Lent followed with an invocation. President Bogartmade a motiontowaive thereadingofthepriorannualmeeting minutesand toapprovetheminutesofthe priorAnnualMeetingofApril24,2021. Themotionwasapproved.

SallyQuackenbushMasonpresented theSecretary’s reportdetailingme mbershipnumber s and deHa lv e Maen hard-copysubscribers.Shereportedthat thereare780AnnualandLifeMembers, 105Friends,forty-twoHonorarySpous-

es,andseventeenFellows.Thereare265 deHalveMae n hard-copysubscribers. BetweenApril2021andApril2022, fifty-onenewmembersandelevennew Friendswereelected.

Ms. Masonnextreadthenecrologyof thosewhohadrecentlypassed.Domine Lentgave a prayerintheirhonor.He thenreadHenry Van Dyke’s poem, “Gone FromMySight”andinvitedcomments fromthosepresent in memoryofourrecentlydeceasedmembers. TrusteeLaurie Bogart Wilesspokemovinglyabouther father, AdrianBogartJr (elected1959, deceased November25,2021),whois alsoPr esidentBogart’s fatherandExecutiveDirectorSarahBogartCooney’s grandfather, sayingthathelovedGod, country, andfamily(inthatorder),and thathewouldwantthemembersofthe HollandSocietytobemoreof a “familyoffamilies.”Shealsoexpressed delightthattheSocietyplanstorevive itstraditionalregattaattheSeawahaka Corinthian YachtClubonLongIslandin honorofherfather, whoformerlyhosted thispopularevent.

Dr Mos te rma n ’s lecturewasdrawn fromherrecentbook.Inherpresentation, sheexploredthehistoryofenslavement an d th e enslaved’s re sistanceinNew NetherlandandNew Yo rkfrom1627 to1827,when s laver yofficiall y ended inthestate.Addressingthebelief t hat Dutch colonistspracticed a more humane systemofslavery, shedemonstrated thewaysracializedspatialcontrolin DutchAmericansocietysharedmuchin commonwithenslavementpracticeson Southernplantations.ThroughtheexaminationofDutchAmericanhomes,Dutc h Reformedchurches,andpublicspacesin predominantlyNew Yorkcommunities, sheshowshow ens laversincreasingly usedtheirdominanceoverthesespaces tocontrolthepeopletheyenslaved.Atthe sametime,enslavedpeoplesresistedsuch controlbyescapingormodifyingthese spacesandexpandingtheirmobilit y and activitieswithinthem.Thelecturewas followedbyalivelyquestion-and-answer conversation.

18 deHalveMaen

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Above:Theoystersandshrimp display,quicklyemptied,was reminiscentofthesettingsof New York’sGildedAge.

Lecture Series: Dr. AndreaMosterman

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Dr Mosterman’s HollandSociety lecture isavailableon YouTubeat:https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=aY0cHGxAgV0.

Thisinaugurallectureinthe Socie t y’s 2022LectureSeriesfeature d Dr Andrea Mosterman, associateprofessorin AtlantichistoryandJoseph Tregleprofessorin earlyAmericanhistoryattheUniversity ofNewOrleans.Dr Mostermanfocuses herresearchonslaveryandtheslavetrade intheDutchAtlanticworld.Herrecent book SpacesofEnslavement: A History ofSlaveryandResistanceinDutchNew Yo rk(CornellUniversityPress,October 2021 ) wonth e 2020 New N eth e rl a nd Institute’s Hendricks Award forthebest book-lengthmanuscriptrelatingtoNew

Right:Ayouthfulcrowdadded energetic flairtothefestivities.

SpringReception

N MAY 17, 2022,theHollandSocietyofNew YorkLectureSeries continuedintheParishHallatSt.Mark’s Church-in-the-Boweryin M anhattan.

HEHOLLANDSOCIETYofNew York’s AnnualSpring Receptionwas heldonSaturday, April2nd,attheLotos Club,at 5 p.m.,followin g theAnnua l Meeting.AboutsixtyMembers,Friends, andtheirguestsenjoyedthefestivities. Thereceptionincludedthreeenormous tables filledwithhorsd’oeuvres,fruit and cheeses, a roastbeefentréewithvegetablesandpotatoes,aswellas a barserving wine,beer, andsoftdrinks.Particularly impressivewasthehugedisplayofraw oysters,whichhadbeen a stapleofthe NewNetherlanddietintheseventeenth century Beautifu l flowerarrangements wereprovide d byCold S pringHa rbor Flowers.Therewas a particularlyyouthfu l group w hoattended, w ithman y in theirtwentiesandthirties.TheSociety waspleasedtosubsequentlywelcomeas full member s threepotentialmembers whoattendedtheSpringReception.

Dr.Andrea Mosterman’s fascinatinglecture onthespacesof slaveryinNew Netherlandand New Yorkwas revelatory.

Nethe rlan d andtheDutchcolonialexperience.

announcedastheChairmanoftheElection Ethan Van Ness,JonathanDoucette, andAbbieMcMilleneachspoke.Ms. Masonthankedoutgoing TrusteesJames MiddaghandChristopherCortrightfor theirserviceas w el l as a ll t hebranch presidentsfortheirsupportingroleinthe Society

The meetingadjournedat5:01p.m.

Aboveright:Membersand guestsrenewedoldfriendships andmadenewones.

Mr.Schenckis survived byhis wife of sixty years, Tod;fourchildren,Kathleen Sch enc kG lassford of H ou ston, Te xa s, whojoinedHollandSocietywiththe firstyearofwomenmembers;Gregory Schenck of Houston, Texas;stepdaughter Robin AndersonStait andstepson RaymondAnderson,alsobothofHouston, Te xas;seve n grandchildren;an d three great-grandchildren.The familyhosted a reception on April 1 at Bradshaw Carter FuneralHomeofHouston.Theservicefor Christianburialwas conductedatChrist the KingEvangelical Lutheran Churchon April2.Interment took placeonApril 3 atCedarCemeteryinLaGrange, Texas, where a graveside servicewithmilitary honorswas officiatedbyPastorLeMae Higgins.

Mr Schenck’s lovefor classicalmusic andopera was sparkedbyhismother. He andhiswife, Tod,supportedFestival Hill, Round Top, Texas,musicprojectssince the1970sandenthusiasticallyattended concertseachyear Singingwas a devotion ofMr. Schenck’s.Hejoinedthe Texas GermanSocietyandsangwiththeirchoral group.Hewastheonlynon-native German

Spring2022 19

LeighKent LydeckerJr.

Mr. Schenckadmired Germanic architecture,history, people,andcustoms He was adocentatthe 1855Kreische Stone HouseandBreweryonMonumentHill, LaGrange, Texas,since1998.Forten years,heorganizedandnarratedindividual storiesof the courageousmen involved in the September17,1842, DawsonCreek Massacrenear San A ntoniodeBexar, Texas.Hesupervisedrestorationworkon the18 60 Wi tt e-Schmid- Haus M useum nearShelby for the Texas GermanSocietyand remainedactively involvedinthe operation of the museum fordecades.

theinternationalarena. He covered truck and intermodalevents throughout North America,Europe, Asia,and Australiafor forty-fiveyears.

An interestin history, classical music, andhischurc h communitywereMr Schenck’s passions Hebecame actively involvedintherestoration of pioneer Texasbuildingsin1971.His first restoration projectwastheballoon-framedfarmhouse inLa Grange, Texas,originally builtby theKn igg e familyin1872 , and,later, the restoration of a one-roomsandstone cabinbuilt by theKniggesabout1870. An1880 Victorianhousewasmovedfrom Smithville tohis property atLaGrange andrestored on the farmtosave itfrom destruction. A typical German four-room housethathadstartedas aone-roomcedar logcabininthe1840s wasrestoredonits originalsiteonthefarm.Thelargest projectwas moving the1847 Willrichfamily hometotheSchenck portionofthe Bluff andrebuildingthefachwerkstructureto becometheSchenckfamily home.Oak beam s salvagedfrom t he1865 Tr inity LutheranChurchatBlackJackSprings wereused in the construction. The most recen t projectwasrebuildingan1859 oak log house movedto Texas from his cousin’s farm inLiscomb, Iowa.

Christian religion had a particular influence onMr.Schenck.Hewas a memberof thecongregationat Christthe KingEvan gelicalLutheranChurch, Houston, Texas. As a student atAlgona High School, he had memorizedSamuel TaylorColeridge’s poem “The Rimeofthe Ancient Mariner,” whichhe recited overtheyears Hisfavor itestanzawerelines614-617: “Heprayeth best who loveth best.All thingsboth great and small.Forthe dearGodloveth us.He made and loveth all.”

Colonel Ly deckerattendedpublic schoolsinMaywoodandBogota,New Jersey. As a boyhe was activeintheBoy

singerandtrulyenjoyedlearningmore aboutthe German languageandinflections from these friends.

Up ondi sc hargefromtheservicein 1953,Mr SchenckmovedtoHouston, Texas,andbeganworkas a writerandphotographerfor TunnellPublicationsInc He was editorof Trailer/Body Builderstrade magazine for forty years, plus thecompany’s two other magazinesinthetruck transportation field.Mr. Schenckretired frompublishingin1998 yetcontinued as a consultant and field editor, especiallyin

Holland Societyof New YorkMember PaulSchenck diedpeacefullyathishome inHouston, Texas,onMarch30,2022.Mr Schenck wasborn on February2,1929, inAlgona,Iowa,thesonofAlfredB. Schenck andElizabeth Upton.Heclaimed descentfrom RoelofMartens’Schenck, whoemigratedfromAmersfoort,Holland, toFlatlands,Long Island,in1650.The HollandSocietyelected Mr Schenck to membership onMarch 9, 2006.

PaulEdgarSchenck

Col.Leigh Kent Lydecker Jr. of Oakland, New Jersey,passed away peacefullywith family byhisside on May 11, 2022, atthe ageofninety-seven.Colonel Lydeckerwas bornonApril2,1925,onhisfamily’s farm inMaywood,BergenCounty,New Jersey, son ofCol Leigh Kent Lydecker Sr and Doroth y Fishe r. Mr Ly deckerclaimed descent from Ryck Lydecker, who immigrated toNewAmsterdambefore1653 andsettled in Bushwick , Lon g Island, in1660.Colonel Lydeckerwaselected tomembershipintheHollandSociety in 1944.

Mr SchenckwasraisedonthefamilyhomesteadinAlgonasettledbyhis great-grandfather HoracePorter Schenck in1856.Heattended withthree brothers a one-room ruralschooladjacentto the farm.Mr. SchenckgraduatedfromAlgona High Schoolin1946and thenreceiveda bachelor ’s degree inEnglishfrom Iowa State Teachers College, nowtheUniversityofNorthernIowa,inCedarFalls, in January1950. He wasdraftedintothe UnitedStatesMarineCorpsduringthe Korean Conflict. Heserved almost three years, firstin theenlisted ranks and then as a commissioned officer—thelast year in Yokosuka, Japan. The Marine Corps provided pivotalexperiences, discipline, andleadershipfo r Paulthatendured throughouthislifetime

Mr Sc hen ck marriedJanetAn n Fye in Vinton,Iowa, on May21,1950. The couplehadtwochildren:KathleenAnn Schenck,bornonAugust5,1953,and GregoryPaulSchenck,bornonAugust 13, 1955, bothinHouston, Texas The couple divorced.Hemarriedforhissecond wife Wanda Lynn Toddy (“Tod”) Tunnell AndersoninHouston, Texas,inMay1962. Hiswifehadtwochildren byherprevious husband,Robin Andersonand Raymond Anderson.

InMemoriam

Afterreturninghome,Colonel Lydecker attended StevensInstituteof Technology, inHoboken,New Jersey He graduatedin 1951, with a degreeinmechanicalengineering and a commission assecondlieu tenantintheAirForce,servingtwo years inthePhilippines Later, hewas recalled toactivedutyduring theKorean War, and afterwards,joined the AirForce Reserves.

While in the Air Force, he received the Air Force Commendation Medal, the Armed Forces Reserve Medal with Cluster, the NationalDe fens e ServiceMedal,the AirForceLongevityMedal and the DistinguishedServiceMedal.Dedicatedto serviceand reaching thetopofhis field, Colonel Lydecker spent thirty-three years inthe Air ForceReservesbefore retiring as afull bird colonel (inthefootsteps of hisfather).

Colonel Lydecker methisfuturewife, JaneEkdahl, in1953whileworkingas anengineer for Babcock& Wilcox Com pany inBuffalo,New York Hewason a jobatthe NiagaraMohawk Powerplant where she was employed asa statistical technician.Theymarriedin1955.The couplehadtwosons,Leigh K. Lydecker III,bornonJuly3,1955,andMarkE. Lydecker, born on July 18,1957,and a daughter, Katharine (“Kitsy”) Lydecker, born September 1960.

ScoutsandachievedtherankofEagle Scout (his first merit badgebeing inbee keeping).HewasdraftedintotheU.S. Army onhis eighteenth birthday in1943 butreceiveda deferment until July so he couldgraduate fromBogotaHigh School inJune.Beforeentering World War II, he receivedtrainingin fieldartillery, then sailed toEnglandin January1944, to pre parefor the invasionofEurope Hisunit arrived in Normandy’s OmahaBeachon D-Day plus 7, wasassignedto the190th FieldArtilleryBattalion,andsaw action inFrance,Belgium, and Germany. Upon hisarrival attheSiegfriedLine,hewas assignedto th e 692nd Ta nkDestroyer Battalion. After the Battle ofthe Bulge, Leighwasassignedtothe104thInfantry “Timberwolf”Division.Hewasonthe frontlines foranincredible321days and receivedtheBronzeArrowheadforthe NormandyInvasion, fivebattlestarsand theCombatInfantryman Badge. A highly decorate d war hero,Colone l Ly decker went onto servehiscountry inthemilitaryfor thirty-sevenyears.He was deeply proudto be of service.

way Healsoenjoyedhissummer homein theAdirondacks(known as “Deerland”), wherehehadanothergardenandwas constantlyworkingonrenovationsand multipleprojects.Colonel Lydeckertook upbeekeeping again inhisearlyeighties and becameone oftheoldestbeekeepers inNewJersey, tendingmeticulouslytohis hives and servingas amentor withinthe community.

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Colonel Lydeckerwasdeeplyinvolved inhislocal community. Hewas a member ofthe HighMountain GolfClub,Republican Club,Holland SocietyofNew York, Chi PhiFraternity, AmericanLegion,and VFW He servedontheBoardof YMCA ofHackensack, FloodControl, EnvironmentalCo mmission,PlanningBoard, FEMA, andmanyother organizationsand charities Hewas alsoanactivemember ofSt Alban’s Church EpiscopalChurch in Oakland, New Jersey.

Colonel Lydecker ’s wifeofsixty-seven years,Jane, passed away eighteenhours afterhisdeath.The couplearesurvived by thei r sons , Leigh Ly deckerII I of Wallkill, New York,MarkE. Lydeckerof Hackettstown, NewJersey, anddaughter, Katharine Lydecker Rockstroh ofClifton Park, New York;six grandchildren;and twogreat-grandsons.ACelebrationofLife forColonel Lyfecker andhis wife,Jane, was held on Tuesday, June 28,2022, at St. Alban’sEpiscopalChurchinOakland, NewJersey. Intermentwas atLong Lake CemeteryinLong Lake, New York.

In1966,Colonel Lydeckermoved the familyto Oakland, New Jersey, where he andhis wiferemainedfor fifty-sixyears. Neighbors wereinvitedtotheirannual clambake,soeveryoneonLongHillcould gettoknoweachother. Colonel Lydecker was anenthusiasticand skillful gardener Active andadventurous,heloved playing tennisand golfandtravelingaround the worl d withJane.Heenjoyedcruising throughth e Unite d Statesan d Princ e Edward Islands inhis Winnebago,where hemade countless newfriendsalongthe