Honours Review 10

HONOURS REVIEW

Table 3-8

of

Explaining the Rise of Retake Roma Why the Romans took control over cleaning up Rome Marieke van Beek, Luca Leithui ser, Jacky Wang, Emma van Wezenbeek

9 - 16

Celebrating Molecular Machines The molecular world

Anouk Lubbe

17 - 22

23 - 30

Five Lessons from my PhD Richard Oberdieck

From Gunboat Diplomacy to a Staple of Theatre

150 years of Shakespeare performance in Japan Stan Reiner van Zon

Law for Future Generations:

31 - 36

Problems and challenges in enforcing the human right to a sustainable development

Contents 37 - 42

Living with an Untamed Predator An interview with Tariq Suleiman Piotr G.S. Schulkes

43 - 48

The Past, Present and Future of Islam An interview with Dr. Carool Kersten Dora Vrhoci, Jennifer Hong, Thari Zweers

Variety is the spice of life, and difference of opinion

bigger and faster planes have made it possible to

is the oil the keeps the academic machine lubrica-

actually go there, wherever “there” is.

ted. In an age of entrepreneurship and business,

Unfortunately, the cultural and intellectual richness

it is important to maintain and encourage the

of the world is often taken for granted. We are

breadth of the academic world, and not allow the

entering a period of anti-intellectualism, radical

amorphous concepts of “societal relevance” or

societal changes and increased political tribalism.

“return on investment” dominate what is resear-

In a period of increased globalisation and intercon-

ched and why. Diversity, in all its forms, should

nectedness, the world is simultaneously becoming

be embraced, lest we find ourselves on a slippery

more isolated and societal divisions are deepe-

slope having to decide what is acceptable and

ning. With this tenth issue of Honours Review, with

what is not. The world contains nature as different

articles spanning the world, from Japan to the

as the Norwegian fjords and the parched Sahara,

Netherlands to Egypt, we hope to highlight some

populated by humans inhabiting anything from

of the brilliance humans are capable of. It is, after

skyscrapers in Manhattan to bamboo huts deep in

all, the species which wrote Shakespeare and put a

the Amazon rainforest, and it is the home of both

man on the moon.

the giant African elephant and the tiny Kiwi bird.

Thanks to technology, it has become easier than

On behalf of the Editorial Board,

ever to experience this variety. The internet has

Piotr G.S. Schulkes

put David Attenborough in your living room, and

3

Explaining the Rise of Retake Roma Why the Romans took control over cleaning up Rome Author: Marieke van Beek, Luca Leithuijser, Jacky Wang, Emma van Wezenbeek Illustrations: Jesper Vos 4

“Great stretches of the Tiber riverfront walkways that about the high travertine embankments built after disastrous flooding in 1870 have been abandoned to the dubious artistic talents of graffiti taggers. Joggers and cyclists must dodge litter, overgrown vegetation and improvised encampments of homeless people, despite decades of promises by city officials to clean up the river’s banks.”

- New York Times, April 2016

This piece, first published by The New York Times, dispels

The process is apparent and triggers discussion about peo-

the illusions of Rome’s romantic character through its vivid

ples’ motives for engaging in it. The question, however, is to

illustration of Rome’s current state of decay. Romans call this

know how sustainable this local initiative is in terms of time

development the degrado of their city [1].

and the extent to which it is self-supporting, since it de-

As a local inhabitant would notice, waste is floating around

pends on volunteering citizens. Accordingly, it is interesting

in the streets and many walls are covered with graffiti,

to consider why people are willing to contribute to this sche-

posters and stickers. In reaction to this degrado of the city

me and what factors influence its possible sustainability [2].

of Rome, a local citizen initiative called ‘Retake Roma’ has

Thus, Retake Roma becomes an illustrative case study that

emerged. The movement consists of almost 90 neighbour-

could contribute to the understanding of citizens’ initiatives

hood groups spread throughout the city which organizes

and community participation.

clean up events every week. Their mission is to “combat decay, valorize the common goods and to disseminate civic sense” (1).

The initiative of Retake Roma is interesting to look into,

Motives for community participation and volunteering

given that waste management is a public service which falls

5

under the responsibility of the municipality of Rome. In fact,

Several underlying reasons may play a role in the process

the inhabitants of Rome pay annual taxes for waste collec-

of setting up a citizen initiative and engaging in community

tion services, although it is evident that revenue from these

participation. A common ideal or fight can unite people

taxes is insufficient considering the inefficiency of waste

who consequently organize themselves, whether formally

collection on behalf of the government. As a result, it seems

or informally. Over time, the initiative can then develop into

that, with the emergence of Retake Roma, inhabitants have

a formal organization (2). Clary and his fellow researchers

taken responsibility for cleaning up the city and thereby

used functionalist theory to describe motivations underlying

contribute to combatting the inefficient waste collection in

volunteerism. Their factor analyses on diverse samples of vo-

their city.

lunteers resulted in the following six motivational factors for

[1] A state of various

participation in volunteerism (3). Firstly, volun-

responsibility themselves, even though they are

small deteriorations

teer work can allow for people to convey values

already paying for waste management in their

in the urban space

associated with altruistic and humanitarian con-

city. Place attachment is likely critical for active

of Rome that include

cerns for others. Furthermore, volunteerism can

engagement, especially given the assumption

graffiti, posters,

be a learning experience and have function of

that positive attachments [3] to certain places

deteriorating urban

understanding, since it can help volunteers gain

lead to higher willingness of citizens to partici-

décor, and lastly, ineffective collection and treatment of waste. In short, the degrade involves a “set of visual signifiers of neglect and inciviltà (Italian for ‘incivility’) in the management of urban space” (8).

new experiences, skills, and abilities. Additio-

pate in their protection. The main triggers are

nally, it holds a social function that relates to the

the emotional (place affect), cognitive (place

motivation of citizens to engage in relationships

identity), and functional bonds (place dependen-

with others, or to take part in activities that are

ce) one can have with a place (6). Furthermore,

genuinely considered valuable. Volunteerism

it is argued that places foster a sense of com-

can also be beneficial for one’s career. It can for

mitment and responsibility. A strong, positive

example enlarge one’s network or refine skills

sense of connection with the city of Rome may

needed for future professions. Furthermore,

thus be a reason for inhabitants to engage in

protective motives can lessen negative features

local initiatives. One participant stated: “Rome

of one’s self-image, for instance by weakening

is my home town and we [the Retakers] want it

the sense of anxiety or guilt about being more

to look the way we like it, namely clean.” Indeed,

successful than others. Lastly, people might

place attachment seems to be the dominating

seek to enhance personal development, aug-

motive for Retakers to participate in the initia-

ment personal growth and self-esteem through

tive. The name of the initiative itself also refers

volunteerism.

to the city: “It is about retaking Rome’s dignity”, Rebecca Spitzmiller, the initiator of Retake Roma,

Which of these factors are then recognised by

explains. This seems to indicate that people

[2] Sustainability de-

participants of Retake Roma? In response to

are mostly compelled by intrinsic rather than

pends upon the moti-

interviews and surveys conducted in Rome in

extrinsic drives. It can then be questioned if

vation of partici-

May 2016, participants mainly emphasized that

participants of Retake Roma have other common

pants, the efficiency

the social aspect of the initiative is crucial for

characteristics besides their shared motivations

and the effectiveness

their involvement: working in a group that shares

and love for Rome. Rebecca Spitzmiller indica-

of the initiative,

their own values is an enjoyable activity for them

ted that the group of volunteers is diverse and

and the support of

(4). Moreover, cooperation is essential for Retake

consists of both higher-educated and lower-edu-

inhabitants for

Roma, since many hands make light work. A

cated people, people who have travelled around

the initiative that are

participant explained: “If every single person

the world and have experienced how citizens

necessary to sustain

just cleans a small piece of the street in front of

can take care of their environment. Also, some

and continue

your house, then the whole city will change.”

engage in other volunteering projects, while

after the starting

It became clear that many people involved in

others are participating solely in Retake Roma.

phase, and to obtain

Retake Roma aimed to motivate others to take

It can therefore be concluded that Retake Roma

its goals efficiently

action out of love for their city. Besides combat-

attracts a diverse audience and is accessible to

and effectively.

ting the waste issue in Rome, Retakers themsel-

many citizens.

ves also benefitted from participating in Retake Roma. A great majority of the ‘Retakers’, the informal autonym of the participants of Retake Roma, indicated that they strongly believed that

How sustainable is Retake Roma?

they have enhance their personal development.

With respect to incentives, in the case of Italy,

If Retake Roma aims to contribute to solving the

intrinsic motivation appears to be decisive (5).

waste issue in Rome, how can this project sustain

This factor may also be applied at the local level

its impact in the long run? According to inhabi-

to Retake Roma: the participants are taking

tants and participants alike, taking responsibility 6

[3] Place attach-

is crucial. While it is the responsibility of the

and eventually disappears after participants have

ment: “a positive

municipality and Azienda Municipale Ambien-

cleaned a particular place multiple times. Regar-

affective bond bet-

te (AMA) to provide waste collection services,

ding Retake Roma’s potential – it now has more

ween an individual

these organisations have unfortunately failed to

than 90 neighbourhood groups – the initiative

and a specific place,

do so. One of the inhabitants mentioned that

continues to grow. According to the participants,

the main characte-

“AMA has a very important role, but there is too

Retake Roma is embedded in the city. “I think it

ristic, of which is the

much bureaucracy and corruption. We pay taxes

is hard to eliminate Retake Roma from voluntary

tendency of the in-

for AMA as the service, unfortunately, [it] is very

work in Rome now”, one participant stated. Ano-

dividual to maintain

bad.” In line with this statement, another inhabi-

ther participant mentioned that “you can see the

closeness to such a

tant added that “AMA is a bad organization and

results of your work, which is really rewarding.”

place” (10).

has no capacity to solve this problem, they are

The Retakers also commented that the initiative

staying inside instead of cleaning the city.”

still has growing potential, and thus could become more effective in the future. One participant

However, Rebecca Spitzmiller has expressed a

said that the initiative has a “contagious effect”

slightly different view. “It is everyone’s respon-

and could also be an inspiration for other cities

sibility to clean up”, Rebecca firmly stated, “the

with similar problems.

waste collection services are pretty bad, but Roman people do not have the attitude to just pick something up and throw it in a garbage can.” According to Rebecca, the initiative should also come from citizens, and locals should take the responsibility to keep the environment clean and to respect the historical beauty belonging to their towns. Greater awareness of the waste issue among Roman citizens could contribute to both the sustainability of the initiative and to thoroughly solving the issue. Raising civic awareness is therefore one of the main purposes of Retake Roma. Rebecca Spitzmiller further mentioned: “those who are participating have become aware of the state their environment was in and decided to take responsibility.” Furthermore, the campaign of Retake Roma also aims to clean up the city. Notably, there is recidivism here, which means that Roman citizens place for example stickers at places that have just been cleaned.

Although the initiative’s clean-up sessions do not guarantee that the place will remain clean, the initiative is effective as littering tends to decline 7

The future of Retake Roma Retake Roma seems to be successful in achieving its current goals, in both increasing civic awareness and cleaning up the city. Retake Roma, through the work it is doing, is practicing what it preaches: participants can show that they value Rome by getting their hands dirty for the city.

The city of Rome is clearly central in the initiative, as citizens feel strongly connected to Rome and indicate that they really care about their living environment. The social aspect of Retake Roma, namely working together and achieving common goals, is also of great value to the participants. Concerning taking responsibility, involvement of all stakeholders, including the AMA

References

and the municipality, is important. Nevertheless,

1. “Domande frequenti”, Retake Roma, accessed May 2, 2016.

people have indicated that inhabitants of the

https://www.retakeroma.org/f-a-q/

city need to take more responsibility. In fact, the

2. Van Dam, R. I., Van Salverda, I. E., and During, R. 2010. Burgers en

participants of Retake Roma have made a start in

Landschap deel 3: Strategieën van burgerinitiatieven. Wageningen: Alterra.

doing this by cleaning up the city which may im-

3. Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R. D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A. A., Haugen,

ply a slow change in the mindset of some Roman

J., and Miene, P. 1998. Understanding and Assessing the Motivations

inhabitants. As a result, more and more people

of volunteers: a functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social

are joining Retake Roma, which means that they

Psychology, 74, no. 6, 516-1530.

are increasingly aware of the waste issue and the

4. Van Beek, M.G.J., Leithuijser, L.L., Wang, Y., Van Wezenbeek, E.C. (2016). On

possibility to do something about it. If this effect

the current degrado of the city of Rome: the impact of Retake Roma on the waste issue.

indeed appears to be contagious, as many par-

5. Fiorillo, D. 2011. Do monetary rewards crowd out the intrinsic motivation of

ticipants expect and as can be concluded from

volunteers? Some empirical evidence for Italian volunteers. Annals of public and

the current development of Retake Roma, the

cooperative economics, 82, no. 2: 139-165.

initiative could continue and extend its contribu-

6. Halpenny, E. A. 2010. Pro-environmental behaviours and park visitors:

tion to a cleaner Rome in the long run. As such,

The effect of place attachment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30, no. 4: 409-421.

Retake Roma can serve as an example for other

7. Hurenkamp, M., Tonkens, E., and Duyvendak, J. W. 2006. Wat burgers bezielt:

cities struggling with the same problem. Initia-

een onderzoek naar burgerinitiatieven. Amsterdam: Universiteit van Amsterdam/

tives that are comparable to Retake Roma are

NICIS Kenniscentrum Grote steden.

highly recommended to consider the importance

8. Ivasiuc, A. 2015. Securitising the Roma, Purifying Rome: The Rhetoric of Insecuri-

of having a clear goal that is dear to the hearts of

ty, Urban Decay and Everyday Practices of Purification. In RC21 International Conference.

people. When people are confronted daily with

9. Pongrácz, E., and Pohjola, V. J. 2004. Re-defining waste, the concept of owner

the negative consequences of an issue that

ship and the role of waste management. Resources, Conservation and Recycling,

touches upon something that they strongly va-

40, no. 2: 141-153.

lue, they appear to be intrinsically motivated to

10. Hidalgo, M. C., and Hernandez, B. 2001. Place attachment: Conceptual and

invest their time in solving the issue.

empirical questions. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21, no. 3: 273-281.

8

9

The molecular world Author: Anouk Lubbe Illustrations: Daniel Janse Typography: Nyckle Bos 10

“We may try to imagine dividing a millimetre by one thousand, and then again by one thousand, where we arrive at the molecular scale, but we cannot actually comprehend how small this really is or what this world looks like.’’

11

Molecules are small. Unbelievably small. We know that

transported in the body to the exact location of a tumour

we consist of molecules, and that everything we see and

or infection. However, save for some more specialized news

touch consists of molecules, yet this tiny world of atoms

outlets, accounts of the actual scientific achievement have

and molecules is as alienic to us as the vastness of the

been lacking. This is understandable; for once it actually is

outer space. We may try to imagine dividing a

rocket science. Just with very tiny rockets. Although under-

millimetre by one thousand, and then again by one

standing the science behind Prof. Feringa’s miniature machi-

thousand, where we arrive at the molecular scale, but

nes is challenging, the concept is less complex. Therefore,

we cannot actually comprehend how small this really is

this article will not explain how these molecules operate, but

or what this world looks like. This is no intellectual

why their development is so revolutionary. Nanotechnology

failure; we have just arrived at the boundaries of our

is a topic that was first raised in 1959, by Richard Feynman in

imagination. The molecular world, apart from being unimagi-

his landmark lecture “There Is Plenty of Room at the Bottom”

nably small, is governed by a whole different set of rules than

(2). Conventional organic chemistry deals with molecules on

the world around us. Random thermal movement and

a massive scale; chemical transformations are performed on

viscous forces dominate, while a concept like gravity

a scale of a million million million molecules. A mole, which

plays no significant role on the molecule scale. For a

is a standard unit of measurement, consists of 6.02 x 10 23

molecule to perform directional movement is, therefore,

molecules, which in the case of water molecules amounts to

in the words of physicist R. Dean Astumian, akin to

18 mL. Feynman imagined a new branch of science, in which

“swimming in molasses and walking through a hurricane” (1).

molecules and atoms could be individually manipulated. His

It is for accomplishing this monumental feat that the Univer-

talk contained several revolutionary thought experiments,

sity of Groningen’s Professor Ben L. Feringa was awarded

many of which by now have seen some form of realization,

the 2016 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, together with Jean-Pierre

but I would like to highlight one that sound particularly exci-

Sauvage and J. Fraser Stoddart. After a multitude of inter-

ting. “[…] although it is a very wild idea, it would

views, biographies, and television appearances, the general

be interesting in surgery if you could swallow the surgeon.

audience will be familiar with stories regarding Prof. Ferin-

You put the mechanical surgeon inside the blood vessel and

ga’s youth in the Dutch countryside, the years of scientific

it goes into the heart and ‘looks’ around. (Of course

struggle in the laboratory, and future visions of drugs being

the information has to be fed out.) It finds out which valve is

“Conventional organic chemistry deals with molecules on a massive scale; chemical transformations are performed on a scale of a million million million molecules.”

the faulty one and takes a little knife and slices it out.”

of particles in a liquid or gas. Collisions between the parti-

This story may sound like science fiction, but nearly sixty

cles, in this case molecules or atoms, result in a continuous

years later, we are not so far from recreating it into reality.

change in direction. A glass of water may appear still, but

In the medical sciences, devices become smaller and smal-

contains an immense storm of tumbling water molecules, and

ler through a top-down approach (3). Nanotechnologists

even on a windless day, the molecules in the air are flying

approach this challenge from a bottom-up perspective,

around in all directions. The molecules themselves are also

creating larger and more sophisticated systems from small

continuously susceptible to change. Atoms in a molecule are

building blocks. “Smart drugs” are already created; drugs

often connected by a single bond, which acts as an axle. As

that can target the infected location in a body or that work

a result, the atoms can spin around the axle randomly, acting

only where they are required (4). But Feynman’s imagined

as non-directional rotors. These restrictions do not mean that

surgeon is not just a cure. It also provides analysis and diag-

directional movement on the nanoscale is impossible, merely

nosis. It is, in short, a complex machine. And, as Browne and

that it is highly challenging. In nature, a variety of molecular

Feringa argue, at the heart of every machine is its motor: “a

motors creating directional movement can be found in the

thing that imparts motion” (5).

form of enzymes, large biomolecules that induce or accelerate chemical processes in a cell. Among others are myosin,

Creating directional movement

which generates muscle contraction, kinesin, which moves cargo by walking along microscopic pathways, and dynein, which is responsible for the rotation of flagella, the small ‘tails’ that bacteria use for movement. Although all the-

Directional movement in the world around us is a natural

se enzymes are on the molecular scale quite large, they are

concept. A rocket is shot into space, a bicycle is moving al-

still single molecules, or, at most, conglomerates consisting

ong the street, a ball is kicked towards a goal. In the molecu-

of a few molecules. For example, one step of a kinesin motor

lar world, this concept is not natural at all. Astumian’s compa-

protein constitutes a movement of 8 nm, ~30 times the size

rison may sound poetic, but it is surprisingly accurate. At this

of a water molecule (6). Compared to the step size of a hu-

length scale one of the most dominant forces is the so-called

man (80 cm, ~300.000.000 times the size of a water molecu-

Brownian motion. Brownian motion is the random movement

le), kinesin step size and water molecules are more or less of 12

“A glass of water may appear still, but contains an immense storm of tumbling water molecules.’’

[1] Artificial molecular machines are tiny man-made molecules or

13

molecular complexes that

the same magnitude. However, the functionality

only possible in one rotational direction. In the

are able to perform work

of an enzyme is an immensely complex inter-

Feringa group, in the 1990s, another type of

in a controlled manner.

play of chemical interactions that after years of

controlled rotation was investigated. Molecular

They are the nanoversions

intensive investigations we can only roughly un-

switches are molecules, usually containing less

of machines that we know

derstand and barely predict. To design, create,

than 100 atoms (in comparison, enzymes often

in the macrosco- pic world

and operate a synthetic motor enzyme, is simply

contain many thousands of atoms) that can exist

such as motors, cars, eleva-

beyond our current abilities. The solution? Scale

in two or more forms. The Feringa team worked

tors, and submarines. The

it down even more. Many molecules contain

on a type of switch that consists of two halves

achievements in this eld

axles around which random movement (that is,

connected by a double axis. Under the influence

were recently celebrated

rotation) can occur. The challenge is, therefore,

of UV light, one half can flip with respect to the

with the highest possible

not to create movement, but to control it. Ideal-

other, thereby interchanging between the two

honour: the Nobel Prize in

ly, motion in one direction is entirely halted, but

forms. In 1999, the Feringa group reported the

Chemistry. In their scientific

even partial restriction can be used to generate

first light-driven molecular motor (7). This design

background article, the

overall directional motion. A wheel that rotates

implemented a ratchet-and-pawl mechanism in

Nobel Prize committee

270° counter clockwise for every 360° clockwise

a molecular switch in order to generate irrever-

remarked that: “[...] we

rotation will still have a net clockwise rotation.

sible, fully unidirectional rotation. A detailed de-

are at the dawn of a new

Two approaches towards controlled movement

scription of the mechanics of this motor, aimed

industrial revolution of the

have been of key importance to Feringa’s deve-

at a non-chemist audience trained in the natural

twenty-first century” (1). A

lopment of the rotary molecular motor. First of

sciences can be found in reference (8). The years

revolution that has been

all, there is the ratchet-and-pawl mechanism [1].

following this initial discovery were dedicated

started by the pioneering

This system consists of a gear with asymmetrical

to gaining understanding, and further refining

research of the 2016 Che-

‘shark-fin-shaped’ teeth that rotates on an axle,

of the system. Of course, the group of Feringa

mistry laureates Sauvage,

and a pawl that slots into the gaps between the

was hardly the only one working on the challen-

Stoddart and Feringa.

teeth. In one direction, the pawl slides over the

ge of regulating motion at the molecular scale.

curved side of a fin, falls down into the gap, and

Stoddart and co-workers achieved great success

continues to slide over the next fin. However,

by building ‘rotaxanes’, shuttle-type interlocked

if an attempt is made to rotate the gear in the

molecules where a molecular ring can be moved

opposite direction, the pawl will be stuck behind

along a track through external control such as

the first fin it meets. As a result, movement is

light, pH changes, or the addition of chemicals.

“Of course, we know that nano-sized surgeons do not yet exist. But what Sauvage, Stoddart, Feringa and many others in the field have demonstrated in the last 15 years is that, someday, they just might.’’

Jean-Pierre Sauvage, the other Chemistry laure-

development of super-resolved fluorescence

ate of 2016, is mainly recognized for developing

microscopy”, a technique that is used worldwide

a synthetic methodology that paved the way for

to visualize objects that are too small to detect

Stoddarts achievements, and early investigati-

with optical microscopes, and “for the develop-

ons in interlocked molecules. The investigations

ment of multiscale models for complex chemical

of these two researchers and their co-workers

systems”, work that has laid the foundation for

resulted in creating controlled linear motion at

computational methods that chemists now use

the molecular scale, while Feringa is credited

on a daily basis (9). Although many of the major

for developing the first controlled rotational

scientific achievements that have been awar-

movement.

ded a Nobel Prize have a theoretical, or at least very fundamental basis, applicability seems

Molecular machinery

to be an important criterion. The justification given in 2016, “for the design and synthesis of molecular machines”, indicates the same.

Although revolutionary, the development of

Returning to Feynman’s envisioned surgeon; the

directional molecular motors by itself might

overcrowded alkenes and rotaxanes discussed

not have been enough to merit a Nobel Prize

above constitute merely the motorization of this

in Chemistry. In the last few years, the Prize has

system. Building the entire machine would be

been awarded “for mechanistic studies of DNA

the ultimate application for directionally moving

repair”, which is of immense importance in the

molecules. Of course, we know that nano-sized

development of cancer treatment, “for the

surgeons do not yet exist. But what Sauvage, Stoddart, Feringa and many others in the field have demonstrated in the last 15 years is that someday, they just might. In nanotechnology, the translation of movement on the nanoscale to movement on the macroscale (i.e., using the directional movement of a molecule to power a much larger process) is one of the most important challenges. Initially rotaxanes and

14

light-driven motors were operated in very large batches,

It seems logical to wonder what it all is for; a real nano-sur-

simply floating around randomly in solution. By fixing these

geon might still be decades away. But it is through scientific

systems on a surface, they all face the same direction and

achievement, such as described here, that we gain a deeper

can therefore be used in a collective manner. For compa-

understanding of the molecular world. By designing tools

rison, imagine a car with a million tiny wheels which all roll

such as molecular machines, shuttles, and vehicles that on

in a different, random direction. The car will never move,

the nanoscale are able to perform functions very similar

unless the wheels can all be aligned in the same way. Such

to their macroscopic counterparts, a future world in which

large molecule parks have been used to induce movement

nanorobots perform useful, daily tasks, comes within sight.

of a liquid droplet suspended on the surface, an effort which

And perhaps most important of all, the tiny machines built

in size can be compared to a group of ants transporting an

by Sauvage, Stoddart, and Feringa have the power to inspire

object with a diameter of 4 km (10,11). On the other hand,

scientist and layman alike. We may never truly understand

Feynman envisioned the individual manipulation of molecu-

what the molecular world looks like, but we can certainly

les. An absolute landmark achievement on the road towards

dream of it.

this crucial objective is the development of Feringa’s nanocar. This molecule consists of four molecular motors fused together on a central frame. By deposition of the nanocars on a surface, one individual molecule could be moved ~6 nm in a straight line by rotating the motors, which act as wheels (12). Applications such as these, both the translation of molecular movement into macroscale action, and the precise operation of single molecule, demonstrate the full potential molecular machinery, and transform the field from a promising novelty to a practical tool for the nanoscientists. Designing, synthesizing, and operating the molecular nanocar is a project that took ten years of effort by a large group of people. As a result, a molecule was created that can move an infinitesimally small distance, thus far only under ultra-high vacuum and at an extremely low temperature.

15

“By designing tools such as molecular machines, shuttles, and vehicles that on the nanoscale are able to perform functions very similar to their macroscopic counterparts, a future world in which nanorobots perform useful, daily tasks, comes within sight.’’

References 1. R. Dean Astumian. 2007. Design principles for Brownian molecular

9. “The Nobel Prize in Chemistry,” Nobelprize.org, accessed May 30,

macnes: how to swim in molasses and walk in a hurricane. Phys. Chem.

2017. https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/.

Chem. Phys. 9, no. 37 : 5067–83.

10. José Berná, David A. Leigh, Monika Lubomska, Sandra M. Mendo-

2. Richard P. Feynman. 1960. There’s plenty of room at the bottom. Eng

za, Emilio M. Pérez, Petra Rudolf, Gilberto Teobaldi, Francesco Zerbet-

Sci. 23, no.5 : 22–36.

to. 2005. Macroscopic transport by synthetic molecular machines. Nat

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16

Five Lessons from my PhD Author: Richard Oberdieck Illustrations: Jasmijn ter Stege

The theme of this edition is celebration; which I am celebrating?

For me, the 16th of January was the day: Finally, all corrections for my PhD thesis were accepted. I was done. This is my personal celebration, but a celebration nonetheless! After three years and countless hours spent on reading and writing papers, coding and preparing PowerPoint presentations, it was finally over. While I tried to let this fact sink in over a celebratory beer, I reflected upon my time as a PhD student and began to analyse what I wish I had known when I got started with all of it.

Two beers and some pondering later, I came up with five lessons from my PhD. 17

I. A PhD is not a job, but you are also not a student.

I do not know about you, but when I started my PhD I thought that it would basically be like writing a master’s thesis, or doing a research project, just for a longer period of time. I thought I’d be going to the same parties, and have the same life style as a student. But that is not the case. You are effectively employed: you have a desk, a salary, a boss, and you have milestones to accomplish. Ask anybody: that is the definition of having a job. However, it’s like a job, but it’s not a job, because there are some key differences.

First, you typically tend to have much more freedom than you would have in an industrial or other academic position, and, more importantly, you cannot be promoted or get a (significant) raise. What you sign up for is what you will get for the next three to five years. You may see how your friends, who work in industry, get a promotion or change their jobs, but unless PhD-life is cruel to you (see the last point in this list for an example), this is not going to happen to you. Similarly, you may know some people who study for a bachelor’s or master’s degree, and notice that their rhythm of lectures, sports sessions and parties just does not apply to you anymore. So, before you commit to a PhD, be aware that you will go from being a student to something like a job, but not a job.

18

II. Prepare yourself for the “life after the PhD.” This was probably the biggest lesson for me. When I started my project, I dove into it and got to work straight away. I got super excited and spent my time just working on the questions at hand. However, one thing that you should never lose sight of: a PhD is finite! One way or another, it will come to an end. And when it does, you need somewhere to go to: maybe academia, maybe industry, maybe consulting, or maybe you want to stay at university for a second degree – you cannot be a PhD student forever. As “the PhD movie” brilliantly puts it: “You can’t marry your thesis.” However, don’t despair, because you are also in a unique position: as a PhD student, you typically have a lot of freedom when it comes to the specifics of your research, especially later on in your project.

This means, once you start thinking about the “what’s next” question, you can already begin to acquire the specific skills that are relevant for your future. For example, you want to work in industry? Then call up some companies (really, they are nice people), or just look at the job ads, and find out what specific skills or competence areas they are looking for in a candidate, such as a particular programming language or proficiency in a certain program.

While you are a PhD student, it will be very easy to get acquainted with these things, but it will be next to impossible once you are done. Therefore, my advice: be proactive! At least a year before the end of your PhD, try thinking about what’s next and find out what you need to get there.

19

III. Always work based on first principles. Question everything.

When I began my PhD, I thought I was entering a world where the truth rules, where science is produced and where only the most robust and proven theories could be found. Let me be absolutely clear: this is NOT true. In any given field, you can find published articles that directly contradict each other. You can encounter statements that range from somewhat vague to blatantly false. Sure, the fundamentals are (most probably) going to be correct, but when it gets down to the nitty-gritty, you can’t be so sure. This does not mean that there are not genuinely brilliant articles out there, but even those were written by human beings. And even a high-impact journal like Nature does not guarantee that all the results presented there are reproducible. Just consider this article from mid-January, where the authors tried to reproduce results from famous papers.

Out of five papers, one was “non-reproducible”, two were “substantially reproduced” and two got “uninterpretable results.” Does this mean the results are wrong?

Not necessarily. But it means you should always question everything, and always go by first principles. That implies starting with statements you know (or assume) to be true, and work your way towards the conclusion that you (or anybody for that matter) are trying to reach. Importantly, thoroughly ensure whether every single step checks out. This is really painful and takes a lot of time, but it will also save you from pursuing research that does not make sense or that flat out won’t work.

20

IV. People who haven’t done a PhD don’t know what it is like.

This was actually quite surprising to me.

During my PhD, I was always surrounded by academics, i.e. people who either already obtained a PhD or were in the process of getting one. However, talk to people outside of the academic world, and I promise you that you will nd more than a few who do not know what a PhD is or, if they do know, have a prejudicial view of it. At a job interview, one interviewer once told me: “I thought PhD students just sit alone in a room all day and think.” Why do I consider this realisation a lesson? Because I always thought that even though I wasn’t crawling up the job ladder (see the first point), I was at least getting a degree that would bring me a reputational boost, a sort of certificate for my proven analytical and critical thinking on a complex topic.

However, many people who do not have a PhD will not see it as such. They will regard a PhD as part of your student life.

This is not helped by the fact that in the US PhD students are part of so-called “graduate schools”. So be prepared to explain why you did a PhD, and why this is good for you.

Not just to other people, but most importantly to yourself!

Is it worth it to spend years on something that people who haven’t done it will often not appreciate?

21

V. Choose your supervisor wisely.

This may be the most obvious thing on the list, but it is also the most important thing when it comes to your PhD. And there are many reasons for this: building a connection with your supervisor, learning from somebody with a huge amount of experience, and so on. But, to me at least, the single most important reason is this: you don’t have anything until you have your degree. Sure, you learn some stuff and get to know people, but trust me when I tell you that if you don’t finish your PhD, the time you spent on it will almost certainly not count towards much. The reason is that most people do not consider it a job (see the previous point). This does not mean that you should force yourself through it just because completing the PhD seems like the only option. This type of thinking will eventually wear you down: consider that almost 50% of all PhD students have been diagnosed with clinical depression! However, what this means is that you should inform yourself about being a PhD student before you get started, which brings me back to the supervisor. Unless things go really, really wrong (e.g., bodily harm, criminal behaviour), your supervisor will be your boss for your entire PhD. This person will decide about your

may save you from some serious trouble, and put your mind

workload, about who you collaborate with, about what you

at ease. So, to come back to the theme of “celebration”, I

publish and what you do your research on. You will be linked

am now not only celebrating obtaining my PhD, but also the

to this person throughout your PhD life and will even intro-

knowledge, friends and understanding I gained along the

duce yourself as “PhD student of Dr./ Prof. XYZ”. Most likely,

way. The lessons I mentioned might sound harsh, but that

this person will also give feedback, and be your mentor. In

is not my intention. I loved doing my PhD: it was an inspi-

short, your supervisor is the most important person in your

ring, and flat out amazing part of my life. I had the joy of

professional life for your entire PhD. Therefore, know what

diving into a topic so deeply that it felt natural to me. I had

you get yourself into. Specifically, I would ask the following

awesome colleagues with whom I worked “in the trenches”

two questions: (a) do I like what this person is working on

and formed great friendships. I was lucky enough to have a

(you will probably work on those topics)? And (b) do I like

fantastic supervisor whose trust in me still surprises me to

this person as my boss? You can answer question (a) with

this day (along the lines of: “Really? He let me do that?”).

some reading of his or her most recent papers (i.e., the last

But this is not what those lessons are about. These lessons

two years), while question (b) is a bit more tricky. Personally,

are about the stuff surrounding your PhD. The things that

I would suggest trying to contact former PhD students of

you don’t notice when they are there, but which might be

the professor (current ones will not always be honest) to ask

really frustrating if they are not. So my advice is: take care of

them about the supervisor. If you take the time to do this, it

these 5 things, and enjoy your PhD to the fullest!

22

From Gunboat Diplomacy to a Staple of Theatre 150 years of Shakespeare performance in Japan Author: Stan Reiner van Zon Illustrations: Jesper Vos 23

24

[1] Shakespeare (1564-1616) was

Whenever I tell laymen, students, or even

emperor, defeated at every turn, begrudgingly

an English Renaissance poet and

some professors that I specialize in Japanese

sued for peace. In August, the peace treaty

play- wright responsible for approxi-

Shakespeare [1] productions, their reply is

was signed. China submitted to all British

mately 38 plays, 154 sonnets, and

often: “I did not know the Japanese produce

demands, including the cession of Hong Kong.

a number of minor works. Already

Shakespeare.” Yet, not only do the Japanese

The First Opium War had lasted a little under

well respected in his own lifetime,

have a Shakespearean tradition that is now

three and a half years (4). The events marked

Shakespeare’s fame continued to

almost 150 years old, and has seen more than

the start of what later Chinese historiography

grow posthumously to the point of

one production go on to global fame, Sha-

would come to call the “century of humiliation”

being widely considered the greatest

kespeare’s enduring presence in Japan also

(5). The humbling of China by the British did

author-poet of the English language,

bears witness to the colossal importance of

not go unnoticed in nearby Japan. As news of

and possibly the greatest dramatist in

Western cultural influence on modern Japane-

the War’s result trickled in, some reacted with

world history. His works include wi-

se history. At the same time, that this comes

shock, and feared it portended Japan’s own

dely known classics such as Hamlet,

as a surprise to many is consistent with how

fate, while others were more dismissive of its

Romeo and Juliet, and Macbeth. In

Japan is generally understood in the West.

relevance to their own country’s situation (6).

Even now, in the 21 century, the penchant in

The cultural and political debate on how to

anniversary of his death, even Prince

the West for ‘orientalizing’ Japan as something

process these events was still ongoing when in

Charles himself took to the stage on

innately foreign, in both its traditional and

1853 Commodore Matthew Perry arrived with

live television to offer a Shakespeare

modern culture, remains strong (1,2). Japanese

three U.S. warships to demand the opening of

performance.

arts and culture, including Japanese Sha-

trade relations at the explicit threat of force.

kespeare productions, receive the most Wes-

These two events, the Opium War and Com-

tern attention when they present something

modore Perry’s mission, represent a turning

that is recognizably ‘Japanese’ to the Western

point in Japanese history. Before this date, the

audience (3). The ways in which Japan has

Japanese government had for centuries been

internally debated and struggled with Western

able to dictate the terms on which foreigners

influence remains obscured in these displays

came to, and traded with, Japan. But starting

of exotic ‘Japaneseness’ (1). This article will use

in 1853, the foreigners were making the dictati-

the recent celebrations for the 450

th

st

the case study of the Japanese Shakespeare

ons, and the Japanese government, unwilling

[2] The Unequal Treaties refers to a

tradition to convey some of the breadth and

to start a conflict it could no more win than

series of treaties signed between the

depth of these hidden struggles, and lift a tip

China could, only got to sign on the dotted

Western imperial powers and several

of the ‘orientalist’ veil, so that the reader may

line. So strong was the example made of China

East Asian nations, including China

see beyond the stereotypes to what Western

ten years earlier that the single warning salvo

and Japan. The word ‘unequal’ refers

culture has meant to Japan from the Japanese

fired by Perry on his arrival was enough to

foremost to the treaties’ terms, which

perspective

make Japan sign on to a set of treaties with the Western powers that, save for Japan not nee-

heavily favored the Western powers.

But it also captures the cultural experience of the nations subjected to

. Arrival

by gunboat

those that had been forced onto China following the First Opium War (6). But the Japanese

them. Both in China and Japan, the

25

ding to cede territory, were largely identical to

treaties were experienced as national

To begin the story of the Japanese Shakespea-

government that signed these unequal treaties

humiliations, and their renegotiations

re tradition we must go back not to Japan,

[2] did not survive to do much more than watch

were top priorities to these countries’

but to 19th century China, as in the spring

the ink dry (5,7). Soon longstanding domestic

governments for as long as the trea-

of 1842 British warships were sailing up the

grievances mixed with anger over the govern-

ties remained in effect (5,7).

Yangtze River. In May of that year, the British

ment’s handling of these foreign impositions,

defeated the Chinese garrison at Chapu and

and led to the overthrow of the feudal govern-

took Shanghai. A few months and several

ment in the so-called Meiji Revolution of 1868.

more battles later, the fleet was in sight of the

Upon assuming power, the new Meiji govern-

great city of Nanking. A battle for Nanking

ment made it their top propriety to transform

was narrowly averted when the Tao-kuang

Japan into a nation that could once more be

treated with Western powers as an equal. In

were ahead, behind, or outside of the pre-

the 1868 Charter Oath, announcing the aims of

vailing winds of their time. This article provides

the new government, the government formu-

only a cursory overview, and readers may find

lated its goal as: “Knowledge shall be sought

more detailed treatments in the bibliography.

throughout the world so as to strengthen the foundations of imperial rule.” In practice, this ‘global’ knowledge meant Western knowledge (8). But, what exactly did they need to learn?

What was the true source of Western strength that Japan needed to study and adopt? Western technology? Its market economies? Its arts and culture? The Meiji reformers had no way to answer these questions, except through trial

“Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as to strengthen the foundations of imperial rule.”

and error (9). Countless aspect of Western society, from railroads to ballroom dancing, were imported and adopted, either out of a sincere

Finding Shakespeare

belief in the superiority of all things Western, a pragmatic belief that it would strengthen Ja-

Shakespeare arrival in Japan was a gradual

pan militarily and economically, or just because

process. The first translated Shakespearean

doing things ‘the Western way’ was the fad of

work was not even an original, but Tales from

the moment (8). At the same time, a new Japa-

Shakespeare, an early 19th -century children’s

nese identity was being formed in reaction to,

book adaptation of twenty Shakespeare plays

and in dialogue with, the tidal wave of Western

(11). The earliest known performances were

influence flooding the country (6). It is in this

brief scenes performed in English by, and

complex and chaotic context that Shakespeare

for, foreign residents in Tokyo with at best

was first introduced into Japan. As a result,

minimal Japanese attendance (12). The first

Japanese Shakespeare productions are never

Shakespearean performance that was by, in,

only literary adaptations, but also always in

and for the Japanese, opened in 1885. It was a

part an expression of the ways in which Japa-

whole four steps removed from the Shakespea-

nese people, individually and collectively, have

rean source text, being a kabuki adaptation

sought to negotiate the joined and conflicting

of a literary adaptation of a translation of the

identities of being Japanese, Western, modern,

above-mentioned children’s book adaptation

and/or traditional, and more (1).

of The Merchant of Venice. It was a hit, selling out for the entirety of its month-long run, and

The ways of Shakespeare

would be revived several times in the following decade (11). In the same decade, the first direct adaptation of a Shakespearean original was pu-

This article distinguishes three stages in

blished when Julius Caesar was adapted into a

the history of the Japanese Shakespearean

script for bunraku, traditional Japanese puppet

tradition: 1) Finding Shakespeare, 2) ‘Wes-

theater (12). A few years later, a heavily adapted

tern’ Japanese Shakespeare, and 3) Modern

version of Hamlet was published in serialized

Japanese Shakespeare (10). However, Japanese

form in a newspaper (13). These examples, only

Shakespeare productions were (and are) as

a few of many more, are representative of the

much the work of individual artistic endeavors

kinds of works being produced [3]. This early

as products of their era. The differentiation of

period can best be described as a period of

major trends here should not be taken as

experimentation seeking to find the best path

excluding the existence of individuals who

to cross the distances (linguistically, culturally, 26

[3] There have been various scholarly

and theatrically) between pre-modern Japan

towards Shakespeare that, as shall be esta-

efforts to systematize the history of

and Shakespeare. But this happened in the

blished in the next section, would survive long

Japanese Shakespeare. This article’s

context of a time when pre- modern Japan was

after this first period of syncretic experimenta-

humble attempt is particularly in-

itself rapidly becoming just a memory – albeit

tion had come to an end.

debted to the recent overview by the

a potent cultural memory that lasts to this day

Shakespearean scholars Gallimore

– and Western culture was often considered

'Western' Japanese Shakespeare

and Minami in A History of Japanese

both the future, and innately superior. This

Theatre (10). They distinguish seven

latter belief was epitomized in a prologue that

stages of Shakespeare reception

was added to the above-mentioned adaptati-

(the dates here have been added for

on of The Merchant of Venice. In this prologue,

The change in practice that marks the second

clarity and are approximations of the

three students discuss Western and Asian lite-

stage reflects a change in the conception of

article’s treatment):

rature. Yukari Yoshihara, when discussing this

Shakespeare amongst Japanese producers

production, provides the following translation

and audiences. Brandon, in “Shakespeare in

(1) pre-1868: ‘prehistory’

(11): “NAKAMURA: Western novels are surely

Kabuki”, describes how the early kabuki adap-

(2) 1885-1900s: kabuki adaptations

superior to Chinese or Japanese novels in

tations localized Shakespeare’s plays as if they

(3) 1900s: shimpa adaptations

their high spiritual and moral standards. Yet, it

were Japanese stories in Japanese settings

(4) 1907-1940s: early shingeki

seems to me, Chinese and Japanese novels are

expressing a Japanese perspective (14). This

translations

better in that they are much more entertaining

began to change when from 1903 to 1911 the

(5) 1950-1970s: mature shingeki

than Western ones. WADA: I disagree. Wes-

adaptations werephased out in favor of direct

replication of British productions

tern novels might seem less entertaining, but

translations of the original Shakespearean

(6) 1970-1980s: Little Theatre adap-

it is because our taste is not totally civilized. In

plays (14). The direct translations aimed for

tations in contemporary style

the West, because people’s minds are civilized,

fidelity to their source material, but this had

(7) 1990s-present: reinvention.

they do not want savage, superstitious and

the side-effect of making their ‘foreignness’

barbaric entertainment from their novels.

all the more obvious. Linguistically, Japanese audiences were experiencing a purer Shakespeare, but, culturally, it was a Shakespeare more distant than before (14). Shimpa, a new

“In the West, because people's minds are civilized, they do not want savage, superstitious and barbaric entertainment from their novels.”

style of Japanese theater that mixed Japanese and Western elements, and that experienced great popularity in early 20 th -century Japan, enjoyed brief success staging Shakespeare not in pre-Meiji but in contemporary Japan. Yet, it too dropped Shakespeare from its repertoire for the same reason as kabuki companies did: the idea that a Shakespeare set in Japan was insuficiently authentic (15). Alongside the new perception of Shakespeare as a foreign and Western author came the belief that therefore the only authentic Shakespeare was a ‘Western’ Shakespeare. As a result, the sole heir

27

On the other hand, Asians seek only savage

to Shakespearean performance would be the

and superstitious entertainment from their

theater that most closely followed Western

novels. So for us Japanese, who are han-kai

models: the shingeki theater (15). However,

(half-civilized), Western novels seem to be less

two major issues mar the shingeki dominan-

entertaining.” Not all Japanese shared this

ce in Shakespearean production that would

level of self-deprecation and idolization of the

last well into the post-war period. First, while

West, but it is representative of an attitude

Shakespeare was continually read and studied

by shingeki actors and directors, actual Sha-

Japanese view of the West that often lacked

kespeare productions grew relatively rare (10).

the nuance to allow Western culture its own

Several of the pioneering shingeki productions

history. Being Western and being modern

in the 1900s had been Shakespeare produc-

were amalgamated to one and the same, and

tions, but in subsequent decades shingeki

Shakespeare was treated as if a contemporary

actors and directors preferred producing

of Henrik Ibsen and Maxim Gorky (1). This is in

contemporary European theater or their own

many ways a mirror image of the West’s ‘orien-

original scripts. The primary reason was that

talist’ practice of seeing Japan in an equally

many in the shingeki movement had become

reductive fashion centered on its traditional

proponents of a politicized Marxist theater and

pre-modern culture (15). In this sense, it is

found contemporary European and their own

quite emblematic of historical attitudes on

original plays more amendable to these poli-

both sides that Kurosawa’s movie was recei-

tical goals than Shakespeare (16,17). To make

ved in England and America as representative

matters worse, from 1938 till 1945 Shakespeare

of ‘Japanese’ Shakespeare, while in its native

production in Japan ceased entirely in the

country it was, in fact, a rejection of the domi-

fraught political climate of the run-up to and

nant Japanese Shakespearean tradition of the

course of the Pacific War. Second, Shakespea-

preceding half century (1,15). However, in spite

rean scholars consider the shingeki Shakespea-

of international acclaim for Kurosawa’s master-

re productions that were staged as marked

piece, its influence on theater was minor and

by a dearth of creativity and genuine engage-

shingeki would continue dominating Japanese

ment with the text. This is best summarized by

Shakespeare for another decade. In the 60s,

Sasayama, Mulryne, and Shewring: “[shingeki

various new theater movements arose that

theater] represented a form of deference

contested the orthodoxies of shingeki theater.

towards the West, rather than the discovery

In addition, the first visits of the Royal Sha-

of a culturally relevant idiom” (18). Shingeki

kespeare Company to Japan in 1970, 1972, and

Shakespeare productions would all too often

1973, proved seminal moments in Japanese

see the imitation of Western examples as a

Shakespeare history. One contemporary com-

cause in and of itself, regardless of the cultural

ment by the then soon-to-be internationally

relevance or artistic merit of what was being

famous director Tadashi Suzuki epitomizes the

imitated (18).

reaction by up-and-coming Japanese directors: “Now that I have seen [Trevor Nunn’s] The

Modern Japanese Shakespeare

Winter’s Tale, all Shakespeare plays that are put on stage by shingeki companies here seem to me nothing but dull and shoddy imitations of Western productions. Since such imitations

One of the first cracks in shingeki’s dominance

can never surpass the originals, I think we have

of Japanese Shakespeare came in 1957. In that

no choice but to start tackling Shakespeare

year, Akira Kurosawa released his Macbeth

with our uniquely Japanese sense of theatre”

movie adaptation Kumonosujou (translating

(19). The result was an explosion of creativity.

to “spider web castle”), better known in the

Japanese directors felt a freedom to adapt

West under the title Throne of Blood. Kurosa-

and engage with Shakespeare that had not

wa adapted Macbeth to a historical Japanese

been widespread since the early 20 th century.

samurai setting, breaking with the prevailing

From Yukio Ninagawa’s production spectacles

shingeki practice. In addition, he emphasized

to Norio Deguchi’s Shakespeare in jeans, and

Shakespeare’s position as a historical figure.

Suzuki’s own heavily adapted post-modern

Part of the turn to shingeki’s ‘Western’ theater

Shakespeares (19,10), there was no longer a

as the only authentic Shakespeare had been a

single dominant style but just a collection of 28

artist-directors, each approaching Shakespeare from their own position as an artist, a human, and a Japanese person living with the cultural baggage which that implies (20,10). In 1988, Japan even saw the opening of its own Globe Theater. For 14 years, the Tokyo Globe was dedicated exclusively to Shakespearean performances and served as a center of Shakespearean innovation in Japan (21,10). While Shakespeare production in the 21st century declined, compared to the veritable boom it had experienced in the late 80s and 90s, its creativity increased. In addition to the myriad ways in which the successors to shingeki theater have experimented with Shakespea-

Conclusion

rean productions, there has been a return to interest from Japan’s traditional theaters such

To conclude, the history of Japanese Sha-

as noh, kabuki, or kyogen, in adapting Sha-

kespeare reflects the long and complicated

kespeare to their formats (10).

history of Western influences in modern Japan.

Starting in the late 19th and early 20 th century, when loose and indirect adaptations flourished and experienced popular success. Followed by the early to mid-20 th century, when imitation of Western productions according to shingeki theater was dominant. And finally concluding in the current era where Japanese Shakespeare is produced in a plethora of styles by just as many directors. Like Western culture itself, Shakespeare has become irretrievably embedded in the cultural make up of modern Japanese theater. Few captured the solidly of this embedment better than Japanese playwright Inoue Hisashi when, in the 1970s, he, in a play filled with Shakespeare references, mocked the over-reliance of some Japanese theaters on Shakespearean repertoire with the lines: “Shakespeare is a rice chest, a source of income. As long as he exists, we will never starve” (19). But, if it has been captured better, it might have been captured by scholars Gallimore and Minami, when they recall this image at the end of their own article on the history of Japanese Shakespeare, and give it a twist for the 21st century: Shakespeare’s everlasting rice chest is no longer just a source of income, he has become “a staple from which Japanese audiences continue to feed” (10).

29

“Now that I have seen [Trevor Nunn’s] The Winter’s Tale, all Shakespeare plays that are put on stage by shingeki companies here seem to me nothing but dull and shoddy imitations of Western productions.”

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(13) Kishi, Tetsuo. 2001. ‘When Suicide Becomes an Act of Honour: “Julius Caesar” and “Hamlet” in

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Volume 10: Late Ch’ing 1800–1911, Part 1. Edited by J.K Fairbank. Cambridge: Cambridge University

R. Minami et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 33-53.

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(5) Wang, Dong. 2005. China’s Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History. Lanham: Lexington

et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 21-32.

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(16) Powell, Brian. 2016. ‘Birth of modern theatre: shimpa and shingeki’. In: A History of Japanese

(6) Gordon, Andrew. 2003. A Modern History of Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Theatre. Edited by Jonah Salz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 200–234.

(7) Auslin, Michael R. 2004. Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of

(17) Zheng, Guohe. 2016. ‘Rise of shingeki: Western-style theatre’. In: A History of Japanese Theatre.

Japanese Diplomacy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Edited by Jonah Salz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 235–247.

(8) Varley, Paul. 2000. Japanese Culture, Fourth Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

(18) Sasayama, T. et al. 1998. ‘Introduction’. In: Shakespeare and the Japanese Stage. Edited by T.

(9) Powell, Brian. 2016. ‘Preface to Part II: Modern Theatre’. In: A History of Japanese Theatre. Edited

Sasayama et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1-11.

by Jonah Salz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 197–199.

(19) Senda, Akihiko. 1998. ‘The Rebirth of Shakespeare in Japan: from the 1960s to the 1990s.’ In:

(10) Gallimore, D. and Minami, R. 2016. ‘Seven stages of Shakespeare reception’. In: A History of

Shakespeare and the Japanese Stage. Edited by T. Sasayami et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Japanese Theatre. Edited by Jonah Salz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 484–496.

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(11) Yoshihara, Yukari. 2001. ‘Japan as “half-civilized”: an early Japanese adaptation of Shakespeare’s

(20) Anzai, Tetsuo. 2001. ‘What do we mean by “Japanese” Shakespeare?’ In: Performing Shakespea-

“The Merchant of Venice” and Japan’s construction of its national image in the late nineteenth

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century.’ In: Performing Shakespeare in Japan. Edited by R Minami et al. Cambridge: Cambridge

(21) Suematsu, Michiko. 2009. “The Tokyo Globe Years 1988-2002.” In: Shakespeare in Hollywood,

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(12) Minami, Ryuta. 1998. ‘Chronological table of Shakespeare

121-128.

30

Law for Future Generations Problems and challenges in enforcing the human right to a sustainable development

Author: Merlijn T. M. Hoppema 31

The famous UN report “Our Common Future”, more commonly known as the Brundtland Report, defines sustainable development as: “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (1). The term ‘“sustainable development” occupies the minds of scholars from different disciplines all around the world.

While there is a great disagreement on its definition, an even more contentious subject is its implementation. Nevertheless, the term has already found prominent usage in different international environmental treaties, such as the Rio+20 Declaration (2). More importantly, it has even been proposed to comprise a human right: the human right to a sustainable development (2). The effect of this right, however, would not only influence the lives of the current generation but also the generations to come. What does this mean? How can such a right be implemented?

I. Three generations of human rights The Czech jurist Karel Vasak classified human rights

rights is a rather new concept extending the notion

into three generations (3). In this concept, civil and

of the rights of the second generation. The decisive

political rights form the first generation. They are

difference is that third generation human rights are

the oldest rights, developed in the 18

th century

applicable to societies or peoples and cannot be

during the American drive for independence and the

claimed by individuals alone. Examples for this type

French Revolution. They resulted in the American

are the right to peace and, most importantly, the

Declaration of Independence and in the Déclaration

right to sustainable development (4).

des Droits de l’Homme et du Citoyens, essentially the first human rights documents in history. Their purpose is to protect citizens against abuse of the state’s monopoly on the use of force and they can be described as negative rights, dictating the state to refrain from negative actions. Some examples are the right to freedom of speech and the right of assembly. The second generation of human rights are known as socio-economic rights. As opposed to the first generation, these rights are considered positive rights. They oblige the state to act in accordance with the requirements of these rights. An important example is the right to appropriate housing, the government is obliged to actively take measures to fulfill this right. The third generation of human

32

II. The right to life of future generations

33

Even though third generation rights are a recent

it will be gone by the time the former could stand

idea, they can be linked to human rights that are

up for their rights. Therefore, a pressing question

much older and much more established. Therefore,

emerges: how could such an enforcement of the

they are as fundamental as those right for a functio-

right to a sustainable development look in practice?

ning society and the human well-being. The rights to

Enforcement of third, but also of second generation

life and to health are named in the Universal Decla-

rights, proves to be more problematic than is the

ration of Human Rights, as well as in practically every

case for first generation rights. It is harder for judges

constitution around the globe (5). This should not

to assess whether there has been a violation of these

come as a surprise, since these rights may well be

rights, since these rights always involve a political

regarded as the ultimate human rights, as they are

component, in addition to a legal one. Some even

the precondition for all other human rights (2).

see them exclusively as political rights with no legal

If global warming, pollution of the environment

component whatsoever (8). The question whether

and other man-made processes damaging nature

judges can or even should concern themselves with

continue at the same pace as today, future human

these kinds of questions is hotly debated. Conse-

generations might inherit a planet hostile to life.

quently, the number of cases in which this topic was

“Every generation receives a natural legacy in trust

dealt with – in national systems as well as internatio-

from its ancestors and holds it in trust for its des-

nally and on European Union level – remain limited

cendants”(6). This fundamental circle of life could

until this day. There are, however, two cases that

be ultimately broken by our generation in the next

deserve to be mentioned in this context: The case

decades. Future human generations, however, have

of Grootboom vs. the Rebublic of South Africa and

a right to life as much as humans who are alive at the

the Urgenda case. The case of Grootboom vs. the

present time. Therefore, human rights are also appli-

Republic of South Africa, which was decided in the

cable to future generations which makes sustainable

year 2000, was groundbreaking since it was the first

development an obligation to act for our generati-

case in which a court gave legal effect to second

ons. The Hague Declaration, to which 24 states are

generation rights. The South African Constitution

a party, acknowledged this in 1989 already (7). This

is, regarding the granting of rights, one of the most

concept, however, is significantly different to classi-

progressive constitutions of the world (8).

cal human rights cases and confronts legal scholars

Notably, it even acknowledges the right to sustai-

with a problem. The ones having an enforceable

nable development in Section 24 of its constitution,

right here are yet to be born and the ones violating

which is revolutionary (9). In this case, however, the

(socio-economic) right to housing was the matter of

other hand, creating an incentive for the legislator to

interest. The court decided in favor of the plaintiff, a

make new laws pursuing this aim. It gives hope for

woman who was in the unfortunate situation of being

the future that other courts might follow this prece-

homeless; thereby ordering the government to make

dence. In New Zealand, one can witness a different

reasonable efforts to provide her with housing (10).

approach which ultimately, however, is aimed at the

This case serves as a precedence that it is indeed

same goal. Here, the legislator took the unprece-

possible for a court to give effect to socio-economic

dented decision to grant a river human rights (12).

rights and illustrates the fact that there is a legal

The right to sustainable development is, hereby, not

component to second generation rights, not merely

granted to future generations, but nature itself co-

a political one. The second case, a case which is

mes to enjoy the protection that is granted to human

known as the Urgenda case, is more recent and is

beings under the law. Stemming from the tradition of

expressly concerned with environmental conserva-

the Maori people of viewing rivers and mountains as

tion and sustainable development. The non-profit

living beings, this decision has the potential of being

environmental organization Urgenda sued the go-

a game-changer in human rights law. The application

vernment of the Netherlands for not making enough

of human rights to other creatures and even “dead”

efforts to comply with treaties promoting sustainable

objects is revolutionary and had never been brought

development (11). Even though the government

into practice yet. It could be the start of a variety

appealed it, the decision of the court in favor of

of further developments in human rights law in the

Urgenda is certainly making this a landmark case

future.

already. It is the first time that a court gives legal effect to environmental treaties, which were always regarded as rather “soft” law, that left considerable discretion to the states regarding their implementation. A court implicitly ordering the government of a country to take action in order to comply with the standards of sustainable development can therefore be seen as a first step in the direction of making this rather vague concept legally enforceable. It does so by, on the one hand, interpreting existing laws in the light of sustainable development and, on the 34

IIl. The role of a right to a sustainable development in economy and society When talking about sustainable development, the first thing

stimulus to reorganize companies in a sustainable manner,

that comes to mind is the protection of the environment.

it could also provide the necessary legal remedies to hold

While it is undoubtedly true that this is this ultimate aim, the

those accountable that enrich themselves on the cost of our

term sustainable development comprises more than conser-

planet and its resources. As mentioned above, the temp-

vation of natural ecosystems at all costs. Aspects of econo-

tation of taking a quick but unsustainable profit must be

my and society play an important role in this process and

made undesirable for power-wielders in the economy and

only balancing these three elements – society, economy and

politics. A legal framework following the logic of a human

environment – can be called a truly sustainable development

right to a healthy planet could provide a valuable and useful

(13). Finding solutions to promote environmental protection

tool in this project. Another issue is the one of standing

in the current economic system is certainly one of the, if

before a court. In most countries one has to prove a direct

not the, most challenging task in the context of sustainable

concern, in order to challenge a law or an administrative

development. Until today, the progress of mankind is mainly

regulation before a (constitutional/administrative) court. It is

based on exploitation of natural resources. Therefore, it is

undoubtedly true, that this makes sense to a certain extent.

not surprising that economic growth and a sustainable tre-

If anyone could challenge any act of a public authority, re-

atment of nature were until recently received as antagonists.

gardless of their involvement in the matter, the courts would

No wonder that until now “economic actors [were] primarily

be flooded with cases and chaos and stalemate would be

involved in what can be coined a negative fashion” (14). As

the result. A problem here, however, arises with regard to

long as it is more profitable to take a quick profit at the cost

nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), which aim to pro-

of the environment over investing in longterm, sustainable,

tect the enviroment. If they are not allowed to have standing

solutions, it is unlikely that anything will change for the

in environmental matters, their possibilities are considerably

better. However, attempts to develop profitable economic

limited. Such an issue arose in 2010 in Sweden. Four NGOs

models, which are at the same time sustainable have indeed

wanted to challenge the issuing of licenses, which permit-

been undertaken (15). Taking a look at how many countries

ted wolf hunting. However, under Swedish law they had

signed the Paris Agreement compared to how few did so

no standing in this issue before the administrative courts

some years earlier for the Kyoto Protocol, it is undeniable

of the country because they were not directly affected by

that the awareness of the climate and environment problem

the law in the eyes of the law. They eventually managed to

is growing. The fact that economic profit and environmental

make their claim by using the sidetrack of filing a complaint

protection must not necessarily oppose each other is slowly

to the European Commission, which took action against

but surely also being realized by producers of goods. Never-

Sweden (16). This is not an ideal situation. A constitutionally

theless, this awareness comes slowly and its implementation

guaranteed right to a sustainable development would grant

comes at even slower pace. Moreover, it is dependent on

more organizations, as well as individuals, standing in cases

the action of some individuals in high positions. A universal

related to the matter of environmental protection. The incre-

solution by means of binding and enforceable laws can only

ased amount of cases that would probably be the result of

and must come from law-making authorities. A legally en-

this measure must be dealt with for the sake of the generati-

forceable right to sustainable development could contribute

ons that come after us.

to this process in multiple ways. Next to giving a positive 35

IV. Conclusion References (1) World Commission on Environment and Development. 1987. Our Common Future.

The concept of a legally enforceable human right to a sustai-

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

nable development is far from flawless and is faced with pro-

(2) Horn, L. 2013. Reframing Human Rights in Sustainable Development. Journal of the

blems regarding its practical implementation. Challenging

Australasian Law Teachers Association 55, no. 6 : 1-15.

times demand creative solutions and a “thinking outside the

(3) Vasak, Karel. 1977. Human Rights: A Thirty-Year Struggle: The Sustainable Efforts to

box” attitude. First attempts to tackle this issue on a legal

Give Force of Law to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. UNESCO Courier 30,

level have been undertaken as the Urgenda case shows.

no. 11.

Generally, the awareness of the climate problem is growing.

(4) Cornescu, A. V. 2009. The Generations of Human’s Rights. In Dny Práva - 2009- Days

It is unlikely that minor throwbacks, for example the with-

of Law: The Conference Proceedings. Brno: Masaryk University.

drawal of the USA from the Paris Climate Agreement, will

(5) UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948,

stop the overall process towards a better protection of the

217 A (III).

Earth for the sake of the generations that come after us.

(6)Brown Weiss, Edith. 2010. In Fairness to Future Generations. Environment: Science

This development, however, has only just begun and there

and Policy for Sustainable Development 32, no. 3 : 6-31.

is still a lot to be done. It is crucial to create hard and fast

(7) The Hague Declartion (1989) 28 ILM 1308.

rules regarding sustainable development that can be legally

(8) Wiles, Ellen. 2006. Aspirational Principles Or Enforceable Rights? the Future for

enforced in order to secure future generations’ right to life.

Socio-Economic Rights in National Law. Merican University International Law Review 22,

To ensure this, the antagonist relationship of protection of

no. 1 : 35-64.

nature and economic growth must be overcome. Accor-

(9) SA 1996 Constitution.

dingly, in order for this to happen, there must be a way to

(10) Government of the Republic of South Africa and Others v Grootboom and Others

pressure power-wielders to act accordingly.

(CCT11/00) [2000] ZACC 19; 2001 (1) SA 46; 2000 (11) BCLR 1169 (4 October 2000).

(11) “The Urgenda Climate Case Against the Dutch Government,” Urgenda, accessed September 10, 2017. http://www.urgenda.nl/en/climate-case/.

(12) “New Zealand river granted same legal rights as human being,” The Guardian, accessed September 10, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/16/newzealand-river-granted-same-legal-rights-as-human-being.

(13) Barral, V. 2012. Sustainable Development in International Law: Nature and Operation of an Evolutive Legal Norm. The European Journal of International Law 23, no. 2 : 377400.

(14) Squintani, L., H. Vedder, B. Vanheusden, and M. Reese, eds. 2014. Sustainable Energy United in Diversity: Challenges and Approaches in Energy Transition in the EU. European Environmental Law Forum Book Series. 1st ed.: European Environmental Law Forum.

(15) Haanaes, K. 2013. “Making Sustainability Profitable.” Harvard Business Review 91, no. 3.

(16) Yaffa Epstein, Jan Darpö. 2013. The Wild has no Words: Environmental NGOs Empowered to Speak for Protected Species as Swedish Courts Apply EU and International Environmental Law. Journal for European Environmental & Planning Law 10, no. 3 : 250-261.

36

Author: Piotr G.S. Schulkes Calligraphy: Jan Johan Draaistra 37

[1] The Muslim

Of the 57 years between Nasser’s coup in 1952 and Mubarak’s resignation in 2011, Egypt has spent

Brotherhood

only four and a half without an active government-imposed state of emergency. By 2011, people were

is Egypt’s most

sick of it, and millions of Egyptians took to the streets to voice their discontent against a government

persistent opposi-

which had brutally supressed freedom of speech and turned a blind eye to corruption for decades.

tional party. Some

Hosni Mubarak, in power since 1981, was deposed, an interim government was formed, and Muham-

consider it a terrorist

mad Morsi’s Muslim Brotherhood government won the 2012 elections, only to be removed in a military

organisation, as

coup 13 months later in July 2013 [1]. Since then, military strongman Abdel Fattah al-Sisi has ruled the

both Hamas and

country and its current political landscape is almost indistinguishable from that of before 2011.

al-Qaida have had

I met Tariq Suleiman in Cairo when a teacher asked him to come speak about his experiences from the

members related to

2011 Revolution in one of her classes. Interested in his story, I asked if he wanted to talk more about

the MB. However, in

it. Thankfully, he said yes, and what follows is a snapshot into a disarrayed and chaotic country whose

Egypt, it is largely a

future seemed bright but has taken a sharp turn for the worse.

popular movement used as a scapegoat by the government.

“They sometimes look at your WhatsApp messages, your Facebook, everything.”

State of never-ending emergency “I don’t feel safe anywhere. In the past eight

legalises censorship and grants vast power to

months I have been going out maybe once or

Egypt’s armed services, can be declared for

twice a week, and when I do I try to use Ubers

three months and may then be renewed once.

and avoid public transportation.” In Cairo, the

After a Coptic church bombing in April 2017,

police can inspect you whenever they want, for

the government imposed a three-month state

the most asinine of reasons: “They stop people

of emergency, which was renewed in July and

who express fear or weakness. It all depends on

ran out on October 10 th. However, after only

appearances. People who look poor get inspec-

three days, a new state of emergency was

ted much more, or people with big beards.”

declared on October 13th with remarkably little

Despite not having a big beard nor looking

public backlash. “I think many people are okay

particularly poor, Tariq has been stopped sever-

with the army ruling like this. The majority of

al times. “I was investigated in a metro station

Egyptian people are not against oppression and

simply because I looked interesting to the secu-

as long as they can feed their children, that’s

rity. Luckily, they did not inspect my phone.

good enough.” The Roman idea of ‘bread and

They sometimes look at your WhatsApp mes-

circuses’ comes to mind. “People here are suc-

sages, your Facebook, everything. This wasn’t

kers for nationalism. They will believe anything

legal before, but now there’s a state of emer-

you tell them if you dress it up in nationalist

gency, so everything is legal.” According to the

clothing. It’s like Make America Great Again,

2014 constitution, a state of emergency, which

but in Egypt.”

38

Unfortunately for the 96 million people living in Egypt, President Sisi’s track record of improving the country is lacking at best. “Sisi, in my opinion, uses nationalism for his own goals. He wants to make himself more powerful, richer. He wants to build his own legacy, but is like a distracted kid who doesn’t know what toy to play with.” Slightly frustrated, Tariq continues: “It was better under Mubarak. That is a fact, and I don’t like to say it out loud. At least he was bit diplomatic, a bit careful. Of course, he was also concerned with his personal glory and legacy, but he wanted Egypt to move forward.” Among other things, Mubarak wanted downtown Cairo to look like Manhattan. “It wasn’t a good view, but at least he had a view.”

“The majority of Egyptians are not against oppression, as long as they can feed their children that’s good enough.”

All rulers in all ages have tried to impose a false view of the world upon their followers “Sisi’s regime is like an untamed predator. They

med Forces (EAF), who have regularly used their

don’t mind arresting and torturing people while

power for political gain in the past. “Whenever

the media knows about it. They just do it.” Sisi

it is important for the military to gain populari-

inspires fear among the general population, but

ty, they do it.” The EAF control a staggeringly

also demands obedience from the country’s

large amount of the economy, with Transpa-

political elite. During the inauguration of a con-

rency International estimating the number to

struction project in Egypt’s Nile Delta region,

be between 45 and 60 percent (1). “They have

the president received a question from a mem-

outlets to sell everything: food, furniture, sports

ber of parliament about why he was removing

clubs, hotels, wedding halls, anything. They can

energy subsidies without first having achieved

create a food crisis, a basic needs crisis, and

the stated goal of obtaining a national minimum

then supply the demand themselves. Less than

wage of 3,000 Egyptian Pounds, which is just

a year ago there was a crisis in powdered milk

under 150 euros, per month. “Sisi was outra-

for babies, it just disappeared. One could only

ged. He was furious. He yelled ‘who are you?’

find it on the black market, and it stayed like this

and ‘do you have any idea what we are doing

for about a month. Then, surprise, surprise, the

for this country?’ and so on. By the time he had

military outlets had half-priced powdered milk.”

finished this magnificent speech, the whole area

When supplying powdered milk to the masses

erupted in applause. Sisi is a megalomaniac,

doesn’t cut it, the government can quickly be-

and he is becoming angrier all the time.” The

come more hands-on.

president is also the head of the Egyptian Ar39

‘Pretty fair’ elections In Egypt, it is far from uncommon for people to

has a criminal record.”If he is not imprisoned,

[2] The two islands

disappear. Tariq spent a month in prison and

Khalid Ali and his supporters will still have to

in question are

could only contact his family because a fellow

face overwhelming uphill battles. In addition

uninhabited rocks

inmate had smuggled in a phone. “It is very

to the shocking degree of control the Egyptian

between Saudi

scary. I am trying to keep a low profile until I can

military has over the economy and thereby the

Arabia and Egypt.

get out of Egypt. A friend of mine spent time in

population, Sisi has the support of the people

They are of strategic

prison for being close to a protest, he was not

on his side. In 2013, the now-president won 97

importance as they

even a part of it, and yesterday he was arrested

percent of the popular vote, which sounds more

are at the entrance

again. He is not a political person, he is very

like a North Korean hermit-kingdom ‘election’

to Israel and Jor-

normal: he graduated, got married and now

than a democratic process. Although Tariq says

dan’s only access to

works as an engineer, but yesterday the police

that ap- pearances can be deceiving. “I actually

the Gulf of Aqaba.

entered his house, arrested him, and nobody

believe they were pretty fair. Many people did

In 2016, Egypt de-

knows where he is.” This engineer’s family was

not vote, and there was only one candidate

cla- red they would

not given any information about his wherea-

who people knew, but he was supported by

be handed over

bouts or why he was arrested. “This has been

solely liberals. Compare this to Sisi: he was

to Saudi Arabia,

happening a lot recently. There is some sort of

supported by pro-regime individuals, anybody

but this claim was

crackdown to anyone who might be a threat in

who disliked the Muslim Brotherhood , some

overturned by the

the next presidential elections” which will be

revolutionaries, and the people who felt nostal-

Egyptian courts.

held in the first half of 2018. I asked him why

gia for the age of Nasser. Compared to these

the government was doing this – preparing for

groups of people, liberals are nothing.” Another

elections more than a year away. Limiting unrest

possible turn of events is that President Sisi

or tying up loose ends seem to be the most

will be dethroned by the very people he leads.

likely reasons for the suppression. “It is both”

“The military probably has more power through

he said, and everybody is a target. “Khalid Ali

other state organs, such as military intelligence

is a human rights lawyer who is also the head of

and the media. I think Sisi is afraid, afraid that

an up-and-coming political party.” He also sued

the military establishment will introduce another

the government in 2016 for giving two islands in

candidate. The current minister of defence is an

[3] December 2016

the Strait of Tiran to Saudi Arabia [2]. “He is the

option, so is Ahmad Shafiy, Mubarak’s minister

29 Copts killed in a

only one known to run for president against Sisi

of aviation. Especially the latter might have a

church bombing

next year, but yesterday he was also arrested.”

good chance against Sisi.” It is more than likely,

The charges which have been levelled against

then, that Egypt will find itself under the rule

February 2017

Ali are peculiar at best, and nobody knows who

of a military dictator after 2018 as well. “In the

Islamist terrorist cell

led them. “The charges against Khalid Ali come

government propaganda the military is praised

in the Sinai calls for

from the day the government lost the court

to the point of ridiculousness. They say ‘this

attacks on Christians

case in regards to the islands. He was carried

country is unstable, there is terrorism, and only

on peoples’ shoulders and they were chanting.

a military man can control the country and fight

April 2017

At this point he gave the middle finger to the

this terrorism’.” At the moment, the northern

Two church bom-

camera, like a metaphorical middle finger to the

Sinai Peninsula has been taken over by a group

bings kill 45 people

state. This action might put him in prison.” The

which has associated itself with the Islamic

chances that Khalid Ali will spend more than

State, and has been launching attacks against

May 2017

a negligible time in prison for this are small,

Copts with frightening regularity [3]. There is

At least 28 Coptic

however: “The problem is that if a court consi-

little indication that the military government is

pilgrims killed in

ders him guilty, and he spends even 24 hours in

even remotely successful.

central Egypt

prison, he cannot run for president because he 40

“They can create a food crisis, a basic needs crisis, and then supply the demand themselves.”

War in the streets, politics in the classrooms One of the most infamous videos from the 2011

“Local people have communal problems, such

Egyptian Revolution took place on Qasr el-Nil

as forced evictions, and they go through the

bridge, leading onto Tahrir Square. Filmed by

legal channels but nothing happens. Even at

journalists from their hotel room balconies, it

universities, where there are elections

shows an armoured truck belonging to the cen-

for student councils and such, the adminis-

tral security forces ploughing into demonstra-

tration does not care.” The administration at

[4] Bessim Youssef

tors who are trying to make their way onto the

the American University of Cairo, generally

is a comedian and

Square. People are being run over while being

considered the most prestigious university in

television persona-

shot at by water cannons and choked by tear

Egypt, shut down a Skype interview with Bessim

lity originally from

gas. “I was among those people, actually. There

Youssef [4] because they did not want him to

Egypt, but was

was a time when younger people romanticized

speak to their students after the screening of

forced to leave the

participating in the revolution, but they should

one of his films. “They blamed it on ‘technical

country after the

not do that.” He smiles, and continues: “Nowa-

di culties’, but everybody knows that isn’t true –

Morsi government

days I feel like an old man, saying this, but it

the official explanation is always a euphemism

called for his arrest.

is not smart to put yourself in a situation which

of the real one. It also regularly happened

will end badly. Participating is good, but you

that students would find themselves facing an

need to know when it’s a good time to leave.

investigation and temporary expulsion without

You develop a sixth sense over time: you hear

knowing what kind of law they broke. Thankful-

certain sirens or see certain things and you

ly, this did improve after 2011 when students

know they will attack soon. Then you know you

became more politically active, and both Cairo

have to pack up and leave, before people get

University and the German University now have

hurt. From experience, when they attack, peo-

strong political movements.” There are always

ple always get hurt and people die.” Among

people who disagree with the anti-establish-

those hurt was Tariq himself, “Tear gas canisters

ment crowd though: “I had a girl in my class

are roughly the size of Pepsi-cans and shot from

who said that she would bomb the protesters if

cannons into the air. One of them hit my leg

she was in the position of the state, while being

and broke it.” Sadly, risking your life and taking

fully aware that I was active in those protests.”

to the streets is often the only way to be heard.

41

Revolutions, then and now Many people thought the Egyptian revolution in

“Consider people who were poor before this

2011 would open a new chapter in the coun-

event, and try to imagine their situation now.”

[5] The protest law

try’s history, but Sisi’s brutality has made a

Unfortunately, voicing discontent is harder and

was created in 2013

convincing case for proving the opposite. Tariq,

riskier than ever. “People are afraid of protes-

by interim president

among many others, feel that the revolution

ting due to the new protest law [5]. Any group

Adly Mansour and

has failed. “I believe this utopian period on

of more than five people can get thrown into

requires a three-day

Tahrir Square was fake. The real revolution was

prison for ‘staging a protest’” which is at best

notification before

th

from the 25 till the

28th

of January, everything

an unclear definition. “You have to ask for

demonstrations are

between the 28th and February 10 th was just

permission to protest now, and even if a court

allowed to take

a festival in the streets. Many people who are

allows it the minister of interior can cancel this

place. The Ministry

now pro-regime participated in these festivities.

permission without justification. How are you

of Inte- rior can also

They are proud of it because they went against

meant to protest against all of these problems?

move or cancel

Mubarak. For them, the revolution was about

How do you make a stand or prove your point

the protests if they

him, not the ideologies he represented.” Ideas

or do anything without being able to protest,

consider it to be

such as corruption, oppression and limited

stand in the street, or occupy a public space?

necessary.

freedom. Public opinion has also been affected

There is a genuine danger of something terrible

by Sisi’s disastrous monetary policies, with the

happening: people can and will resort to violen-

Egyptian Pound losing almost 50 percent of its

ce. It is the only form of expression left.”

value within 72 hours in late 2016.

“From experience, when they attack, people get hurt and people will die.”

References: Henry Harding, “ANALYSIS: Egypt’s Military-Economic Empire”, Middle East Eye, last modified 2016, accessed November 5, 2017, http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/analysis-egypts-military-economic-empire-35257665.

42

An interview with Dr. Carool Kersten Authors: Dora Vrhoci, Jennifer Hong, Thari Zweers Illustrations: Jasmijn ter Stege Calligraphy: Jan Johan Draaistra 43

44

“Islam does not exist, but Muslim do.”

Born in the Year of the Dragon, Kersten has always been quite lucky. A series of fortunate events – from unexpected job offers, to an unexpected honey trap – have enabled him to acquire a unique combination of knowledge about the Muslim world, and create a bird’s-eye view on Islam as a global phenomenon.

Luckily for Honours Review, Kersten has agreed to reveal some of his in-depth knowledge of global Islam in an interview on the current trends and challenges in the Muslim world, such as the polarisation in the Middle East, the change-making force of the middle class and the mobilising power of religion. From these challenges and trends, Kersten has been able to synthesise a bold argument centred around the quote: “Islam does not exist, but Muslims do.”

lopments in the Muslim world. His controversial statement encapsulates what, according to him, is one of the main challenges Muslims across the globe are currently facing: the challenge of defining their own identity. Currently, due to the diverging interpretations of its tradition and faith, the Muslim world finds itself in the midst of a cultural war. Kersten predicts that this cultural war may continue to grow more critical and engender an even greater polarisation among the Muslim society globally. Kersten believes, however, that the key to overcoming this challenge lies in education – more specifically, the education of the middle classes. As Kersten puts it, “the middle class is the key to development.” While the role of the “poor and the downtrodden” should not be neglected, Kersten elaborates that the middle class is the ultimate “changemaker” – “not the elites,

Self-discovery, middle class and PR “Islam does not exist” – a bold statement to be made in a world where religion has beco-me such a sensitive topic. Yet, Carool Kersten, a historian on Islam and the Arab world, has made a habit out of using it as the opening line of his lectures. He goes on to state that Islam, in fact, does not mean anything, nor says anything.

Unsurprisingly, these statements are regularly met with confusion and anger from his students.

However, wasting no time to witness his students starting a protest against the controversial statements on Islam, he always adds: “...but Muslim do”. At first, Kersten’s bold remark may seem like a tease with the sole purpose of baffling his students, but it carries a much deeper significance for the present deve-

45

they live in a cocoon.” He explains that within societies with a developed middle class, families generally opt for education, and aspire to provide their children with an academic degree.

As a result, these academically educated children are equipped with knowledge crucial for handling fundamental societal issues, and steering its further development in a democratic direction. Kersten additionally emphasises the importance of the education of the middle class by stating that “if they don’t want to be self-destructive because of seemingly irresolvable political problems, you would need a middle class, and that of sufficient size” and adequate education “in order to have a changemaker” in society. Kersten furthermore stresses that the middle class has a very good reason to be a changemaker in society as they usually have “too much to lose”, due to which “failure is not an option”, as opposed to the elites which

“The media does not mitigate the problem, and is oftentimes the driving force behind the sensationalism which engulfs events which involve Muslims.”

have the alternative option of going into exile.

“it contributes to the public relations problem”,

Kersten points out that the Muslim world must

further explaining that “you cannot blame

also deal with an externally oriented challenge

people for being scared of Islam or Muslims.”

of managing its public relations, in addition to

In that sense, the public’s overexposure to the

the internal problem of Muslims defining their

framework created by the media prompts the

own identity and cultivating political change. It

public to dismiss topics on Muslims and Islam

is not a secret that, over the last few decades,

“as a basket-case.” This contributes to building

the Western public has come to perceive the

an even greater fence between the Muslim wor-

Muslim world more negatively. This shift in

ld and the Western public. By drawing a parallel

perception can be attributed to the numerous

to Africa, Kersten suggests that the fence has

incidents in the Western world (e.g., the Charlie

exacerbated the public’s image of the Muslim

Hebdo shooting, and the bombings in Brussels

world, declaring it to be, at this point, “beyond

in 2015), as well as the increasingly xenophobic

help.”

rhetoric of far-right populist parties across Europe, which have produced an aura of terrorism associated with the Middle East and Islam.

Religion, moreover, has garnered a plethora

Muslim in the thousand island countries

of interest after 9/11, with Kersten noting that the number of students in his class has tripled.

As an academic of Muslim studies, Kersten’s

While Kersten has no reservations against the

chosen area of specializations may be conside-

attention religion has gotten as an academic,

red unorthodox. Compared to other scholars

he often disagrees with the motivation behind

that take a more traditional approach of stu-

this attention. An example of this could be

dying the Middle East, Kersten distinguished

when “something bad happened in the Muslim

himself by looking at both the Middle East and

world” which then incited intrigue and curiosi-

Southeast Asia, even publishing several books

ty. The media does not mitigate the problem,

on Muslims in Indonesia, namely Islam in Indo-

and is oftentimes the driving force behind the

nesia and the History of Islam in Indonesia.

sensationalism which engulfs events which

Despite having a larger Muslim population than

involve Muslims, Islam, or the Middle East. In

any country in the Arab world, Indonesia is

doing so, they fuel the Muslim world’s already

often overlooked. Located different continents,

less-than-stellar reputation. Kersten summarises

the roles of Muslims in the Middle East and

this “problem of the media” by asserting that

Indonesia are unsurprisingly quite different.

46

“The Muslim world finds itself in the midst of a cultural war.”

Comparing the Island Country to other Muslim

the development of Indonesia is ultimately the

majority nations, Kersten suggests that Indo-

same as for other developing countries and the

nesia had previously established a felicitous

Muslim world. As indicated in the previous sec-

religious identity: “I think Indonesia as a Muslim

tion, Indonesia’s fate, like the rest of the Muslim

majority country got it quite right in 1945, how

world, hinges on the middle class. Kersten

they conceived it, because they have not made

further added to the importance of the middle

it part of the national identity. They said, we

class for Indonesia by sharing a remark made by

need to keep Islam, the majority religion, at

a former Indonesian minister, whose name he

arm’s length of the constitution and political process.” An objective realised by Pancasila,

was not allowed to divulge due to the Chatham House rules: “to become a prosperous country

Indonesia’s doctrine and national ideology, with

our middle class will have to quadruple over

the first of the five principles in the doctrine

the next 25 years within a generation, it has to

‘Ketuhanan yang MahaEsa’ essentially dictating

happen for prosperity to come.”

that Indonesian citizens can neither be agnostic nor atheist, and instead must hold one of the recognised religions in the country, but not necessarily Muslim. In his opinion, Kersten

A lesson from the Middle East

believes that Indonesia very much qualifies as both a secular and religious state. However, he admits that over the past two decades, Indonesia has struggled to uphold the doctrine due to the increasing tension among different religions, something he attributes to “the price you pay for democratisation.” In many respects, the Middle East and Indonesia, as parts of the Muslim world, are fairly distinct from each other yet face the same challenges. As mentioned before, the divergence from the first principle of

Pancasila has gradually become more apparent,

non-existence of Islam, and the essentiality of a well-educated middle class to push for a fundamental shift towards a more democratic society does not differ very much from the classical idea of the necessity of a “large” and “well-articulated” middle class to “press for liberal democracy” formulated by political scientists Inglehart and Welzel (1). While pursuing a liberal democracy may be far-fetched in the socio-political context of the Middle

showing that beneath the ostensible diversity, a

East, it cannot be denied that Kersten’s emp-

state of animosity exists among Indonesian citi-

hasis on the importance of the middle class,

zens. The present intrareligion and interreligion

as well as its change-making potential, holds

conflict in Indonesia exhibits the segregation

promise. Moreover, it yields intriguing food for

among religions that can only inhibit the coun-

thought on the possibility of a tangible change

try’s development. In response to this, accor-

emerging in the Muslim world, fuelled by the

ding to Kersten, to avoid downfall, the key to

47

Kersten’s central assertion concerning the

power of education. Moreover, Kersten feels

“We need to keep Islam, the majority religion, at arm’s length of the constitution and political process.”

Kersten's key turning points Kersten’s life is typified by the fact that

that the Middle East and the Western world

he was born in the Year of the Dragon.

in their handling of primarily Syrian refugees

Next to being a meticulous student

highlights the West’s clumsy activity, in con-

during his first time at university, he has

trast to its far-from-clumsy economic potential,

found that being flexible and saying

amidst what Western Europe perceives as one

‘yes’ to unexpected opportunities has

of the biggest immigration crises in the past

provided him with a dynamic career.

few decades. As Kersten emphasises, the West

Kersten began his studies of Arabic

can learn a lot from Middle Eastern countries

Language and Culture at the former

like Lebanon which have, throughout history,

Catholic University Nijmegen in the

effectively dealt with much larger portions of

Netherlands (now Radboud University

refugees, despite a much lower financial por-

Nijmegen). After finishing his degree he

tion reserved for aid. Another valuable insight

took a chance and applied at a Dutch

that Kersten’s interview brings to the fore is

construction company through which he

the usually neglected dynamic of the Islamic

was able to stay in Saudi Arabia for the

religion in Indonesia. Although commonly left

next ten years of his life. Planning to take

out in studies on Islam, the developments in

a sabbatical from work, Kersten then

Indonesia can widen our perspective on Islam

moved to Thailand where he was offered

on a global scale. The similar dynamic between

a teaching position at Payap University

the identity crisis in the Muslim world across the

in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Thus returning

globe, as well as the essentiality of the middle

to academia he continued to pursue a

class in both Indonesia and the Middle East,

PhD at the School of Oriental and Afri-

allow us to draw parallels between apparently

can Studies (SOAS). While still finishing

incomparable, yet strikingly similar regions, and

his PhD, Kersten was tipped off by a

synthesise conclusions which may have bigger

colleague at SOAS about a professor-

implications for the present development in the

ship at King’s College. Not believing his

Muslim world in the long run. Finally, although

application was going to stand a chance

not all of us are accompanied by the luck of a

against more experienced members in

dragon, we can at least turn luck on our side by

his field, he went into the interview quite

reflecting on the insights of those who are.

relaxed, telling “an outrageous story.”

Waiting for his train an hour later, King’s College offered him a job. His life story so far has thus left him with this advice to give to young students: prepare the best you can but try to be flexible when opportunity arises. Good luck!

References: Inglehart, Ronald and Christian Welzel. “How Development Leads to Democracy: What We Know About Modernization.” Foreign Affairs 88. 2 (2009): 33-48.

48

49

Editorial Board Piotr G.S. Schulkes – President Eliza Spakman – Organisational Officer Dora Vrhoci – Design Thari Zweers – Blog Jennifer Hong – Public Relations

Graphic Design Nyckle Bos // Jan Johan Draaistra //

Illustrators Daniel Janse // instagram.com/nattesokken Jasmijn ter Stege // Jesper Vos // instagram.com/crint_predits

Cover Daniel Janse //

We thank our reviewers, the Council of Experts, the Honours College team, Geja Duiker and the Minerva Art Academy for their work and support. We acknowledge the University of Groningen Honours College for their financial support.

Issue 10 / February 2018 / ISSN 2214-6083 Edition: 500 copies Honours Review is a publication of students at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands.

For more info, visit: www.honoursreview.com Facebook: Honours Review Instagram: @HonoursReview

50

Celebrate Celebrate, because your parents do, Because you like the scent of candles, or the thrill of birthday dew.

Celebrate because it’s useful learning early to mix true and fake, And cause auntie gets upset when you’re not smiling too.

Or simply celebrate, because cake.

Celebrate that Christ today absolved our sins by dying on the cross, Or celebrate because that means you get a few days off.

Leaving school, toast the end of all those years of dumb dictation, Then celebrate, in later life, your kids’ triumphant graduation.

Dance your worst to Celebration, Because Madonna wants you to And everybody wants to party with you.

We’ll say we celebrate a life, so we don’t have to mourn the death.

We mark the passing of one made-up year into the next With world-wide fireworks in between: We’ll celebrate some random notion and so call it into being, And the vaguer our occasion is, the richer our excesses.

We celebrate successes to make sure they were successes, And so celebrate the 10th edition of some student magazine.

Bas Sprenger de Rover