KitayskoVostochnaya shortcut-
Where derivation from Soviet Socialism begins Fu Yat Him, Horta
KitayskoVostochnaya shortcut-
Where derivation from Soviet Socialism begins Fu Yat Him, Horta
Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut The railway- where derivation from Soviet Socialism begins
THE RAILWAY-
Where derivation from Soviet Socialism BEGINS Kitaysko-Vostochnaya Railway, aka Chinese Eastern Railway, was constructed as a shortcut to Trans-Siberian Railway at the Far East Section. It linked Chita and Ussuriysk through Harbin ,and by-passed Khabarovsk. Being a land bridge in early 20th century Northeast Asia, the railway triggered a series of major historical events in the region, and resulted in an alternative urban landscape in contemporary China. In particular, the short influence of the Soviet Union in China during the 1950s has prevailed mostly in the process of urbanisation in the region. But through the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s, China has taken the alternative approaches to interpret Socialism and create urban models that were no longer comparable to the Soviet Union. As a result, the region owns the unique urban models that extended the Soviet planning practice in a certain sense but synthesised by the Chinese interpretation of socialism. Traveling in summer 2018, the book documented four cities erected along the Railway, from the centre city Harbin, resource extraction city Daqing, to the peripheral cities Hailar and Manzhouli. The four cities presented themselves with identical quality and context which reflect the transformation of Chinese discourses on urbanity. -4-
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut The railway- where derivation from Soviet Socialism begins
Fundamentally, the industrial structure along KitayskoVostochnaya railway is different from the coastal cities which blossomed after Deng Xiaoping's reform and opening up agenda. There consisted of major State Enterprises which run the heavy industries. The urban spaces and life are much associated with the industrial giants. As for the railway itself, the system is also different from the main splines along Chinese central and coastal regions. Rather than providing passenger and mailing services, the railway primarily connected to the heavy production plant to facilitate the production chains. With spur lines and marshalling yard scattered in the cities, the railway also defined and segregated the city form which resulted in difficulties on urban regeneration in postindustrial landscape. -6-
On above: Marshalling yard adjoining to Harbin East Railway station, which divided the city On the right: Urban segregation by railway is an issue to modern Harbin, removal works of spur line carrying out in progress Previous: The old and new railway bridge of KitayskoVostochnaya Railway
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut The railway- where derivation from Soviet Socialism begins
With the introduction of a parallel high-speed railway in an independent system, the importance of regular passenger trains running on the Kitaysko-Vostochnaya Railway continued to decrease. Fortunately, the Harbin Railway Administration which is the managing division has sustained the social responsibility of state enterprise. They keep the regular service at subsidized price for workers and pleasant commuting between the farms and industrial bases. Much locality is reflected here as compared to the express trains. It preserves the reputation of the People's railway.
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On above and right: High-speed Railway and Conventional Railway providing service of choices Next spread and the spread after: Station of Local Service and Express train Service
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut The railway- where derivation from Soviet Socialism begins
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut The railway- where derivation from Soviet Socialism begins
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut The railway- where derivation from Soviet Socialism begins
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On this spread and the spread after: Regular train service at hard seater class and hard sleeper class. Right of afforable travel. - 15 -
Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut The railway- where derivation from Soviet Socialism begins
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Harbin- City of Developed Socialism
HARBIN-
CITY OF DEVELOPED SOCIALISM Despite merely being a satellite Soviet city, Harbin has shared many of the qualities of a city in Developed Socialism. The term “Developed Socialism� was proposed during the Brezhnev era, claiming the Soviet Union had undergone industrialization and electrification. The material and mental health of citizens' wellbeing were generally fulfilled. The general proof of developed socialism shall be urban infrastructure, where there shall be reasonable balance of space between works, lives and leisures. Nonetheless, these reasonable provisions were just basic, the quality of life was not excessive and luxury. More precisely, developed socialism is a condition of an optimum labour condition to sustain a continuous industrial progression- It is a purpose rather than result. In the modern day Commuist China regime, the conceptual framework of urbanism is rather irrelevant to these objectives. Developed Socialism could only be traced in the cities raised before Sino-Soviet split, and most of them are situated in Northeast provinces, which contained certain underlying historic conditions before the spatial revolution took place in the socialist era- and the Urban history Harbin shall be accounted as a typical example.
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Harbin- City of Developed Socialism
Pre-Socialist Harbin With the erection of Kitaisko- Vostochnaya Railway, Harbin has been the headquarter of the railway and was significantly influenced by Russian migrants long before the Bolshevik Revolution. These migrants, including construction workers of the Railway as the first batch, and the White Army who exiled from the revolution as the Second Batch, had laid Harbin with DNA of imperialist Russia. Beside the rhetoric Orthodox Churches which is the Central Landmark of Harbin today, there parks and river embankments are also sharing some quality of Russian cities founded along the river course. But these imperial Russian DNA did not align very much to the socialist spatial revolution after 1917. With Japanese occupation and establishment of Manchukuo, the Soviet influence retreated from the Kitaisko-Vostochnaya Railway until the mid-1940s to exchange Japanese nonaggression to the official Union boundary. With Japanese occupation and establishment of Manchukuo, the Soviet influence retreated from the Kitaisko-Vostochnaya Railway until the mid-1940s to exchange Japanese non-aggression to the official Union boundary. The Japanese occupation was not fully destructive. Despite the Chinese in Manchukuo being treated inhumanely, it did leave with some industrial infrastructure which was most advanced in China, and underlied Harbin socialist spatial revolution after the war. - 20 -
On above: River Embankment of Harbin, with water-close design On the right: Site of Japanese invasion, where biological weapons were tested Previous: Communist statue in the micro-district of Harbin
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Harbin- City of Developed Socialism
Soviet Occupied Harbin What made Soviet influence penetrate into Harbin shall be traced from 1945. Gaining control on the Western Front warfare, the Soviet troops were mobilised to assimilate Japanese Kwantung Army just within a few months. As a result, Manchuria including Harbin was theoretically controlled by the Soviet Union. Yet, the Soviet forces withdrew from Manchuria soon after the Victory. Manchuria and Harbin was still yet to be a satellite to the USSR. There was a Stalin Park along Songhua River, but it has nothing to commemorate with the Soviet assistant to defeat the Japanese. Rather, the park is linked to the official narrative of Sino-Soviet friendship in the 1950s. - 22 -
On above: Communist sculpture in Stalin Park On the right: Victory Monument of defeating the flood
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Harbin- City of Developed Socialism
Socialist Spatial Revolution at Harbin The Socialist revolution did finally take place in Harbin after the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. When the First Five Years' Plan was launched in New China, reference was made to the success of early Soviet industrialisation. Having industrial infrastructure left by Manchukuo, Harbin owned the advantage to fulfill the early blueprint of New China. With the aid of the Soviet Union, Harbin kick started more than a dozen key construction projects before SinoSoviet split in late 1950s. This included modern electricity generation plants, aluminium plants, plane factory and car engine factories. Owing the fact that the Chinese Communist regime was not recognized by Western World, the authority believed these heavy industries were the key to lay the foundation of the state's development, including the ability to build its defense system. It resulted in scattering of heavy industrial footprint within the Socialist Harbin. - 24 -
On above: Learn from Lei Feng, the role model of Socialist China On the right: Cooling tower adjoining the housing blocks
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Harbin- City of Developed Socialism
In the spatial composition of the city, the relationship between production and dwelling are the key to lay the city. Workers of the same enterprise are staying in the same neighbourhood, where kindergarten and canteen are situated. This follows very closely the principle of the ideological socialist city. On the one hand, it secured the basic living conditions to the workers; On the other hand, it formulated an efficient collective management of labour, which facilitated the production growth. Chimneys around the residential blocks and city centre became the featuring characteristic of Harbin. - 26 -
On Above and right: Residential microdistrict with the chinmneys in background is the featuring characteristic of Harbin
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Harbin- City of Developed Socialism
Even after the withdrawal of Soviet assistants in the 1960s, the housing development between the 60s-80s Harbin mostly created a yard community that was similar to Soviet micro-districts. The yard community in Harbin owes some distinctive characteristics. First, the building blocks, namely Unit Building “單元樓” ,are just simple concrete construction. They are three to six storey high with no lift provision. There is no excessive decoration and even external tiles, which could be considered as Chinese version of Khrushchevka, though panel mass construction was not employed due to technological backwardness. Second, unlike contemporary private property development in China, the yard community is not a closed community, the yards were considered a public entity. With increasing car ownership, however, the yards are transformed to car parks, garages built by simple structure are filling the yard without coordination, which somehow degrades to spatial quality of the housing settlements, like what is also happening in any micro-districts of post Soviet republics. All in all, despite the Chinese regime denying the Soviet developed socialism as an appropriate way to Communism, the Harbin urban development did share much of the latter similarity. - 28 -
On Above: The yard, constructed with garage as car ownership become a norm On the Right: Underpass to the yard of Unit Building
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Harbin- City of Developed Socialism
Modern day Harbin The modern day Harbin generally discontinued the Spatial practice of developed Socialism. Like other parts of China, infrastructure and construction are considered to be demand generators that consume the surplus steel production, which formulate a loop of continuous economic growth at a rate. Staritecture, by their expensive steel structure and form, are the answer to digest the inventories. Different from the Worker’s Palace in the developed socialist urbanism which intended to formulate the collective entertainment, the Staritectures are frequently closed. For example, the Harbin theatre which sits on a district-large plot did host only a few shows monthly. Rather, these staritectures are a way to visualize the authority's ability to construct something beyond market rationale, and therefore reflect the state agenda of Socialism with market characteristics. Meanwhile, new towns are developed which are completely detached from production. The towns are formulated by tower blocks which are privately developed. With a low occupation rate, these developments are considered to be speculative commodities, and also a way to activate the demand and supply circulation loop. Yet, being so established before China's reform in the 1980s, Harbin is challenged by its inertia to go further. The contributing state enterprises, along with its associated infrastructures, have transformed to the burdens of the city. - 30 -
On Above: Site of Detachment Unit 731, the contemporary memorial complex to Japanese invasion of China On the Right: Harbin Grand Theatre and local hawker Next spread: Concrete residential buildings with exposed surface
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Harbin- City of Developed Socialism
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Harbin- City of Developed Socialism
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Harbin- City of Developed Socialism
Previous: Coal burning electricity Generation Plant at the heart of the Harbin City - 36 -
On above: Customized enclosure of Balcony with the chimney background, typical Eastern bloc Landscape - 37 -
Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Harbin- City of Developed Socialism
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On above: Harbin Airport International Terminal, few of the transport infrastructure in China built with functionalist form - 39 -
Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Daqing- The model Socialist City
Daqing-
The model Socialist City In one of the lectures of my master class at HKU, the documentary movie “The Land of many Palaces” by Adam Smith and Ting Song was screened. The movie discussed how the ghost city Ordos in Inner Mongolia was activated. The weirdest impression gained from the movie was about a museum being built in the city even before there was an occupant. After all, a museum is an indispensable component in a standard city. These cities built from the vast context were very much comparable to the Soviet monogorods, where the cities were erected entirely based on one enterprise. The first impression upon my arrival to Daqing was also similar to which I gained from the movie. The city was founded along the Kitaisko-Vostochnaya Railway due to the discovery of the first oil field in China in the 1950s. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the First and Second Five Year Plans of Communist China have heavily emphasized the construction of heavy industrial infrastructure. The discovery of the First crude oil field in the nation was considered as top national pride. From that point, a city named Daqing, literally meaning “Big celebration” was erected from Tabula Rasa to support the further oil extraction in the region.
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Daqing- The model Socialist City
Similar to Ordos and Soviet monogorods, the city is equipped with gigantic cultural facilities that are underused. Various museums with big public plaze are built, but all are commemorating the oil industry of the city- some are about the state owned oil enterprise, some are about the site of the early oil field, and some are about figures who discovered the oil field. They all attempted to brand the city a hero city to the history of New China. In fact, a slogan- “Learn Industry from Daqing� was promoted nationwide during the 50s and 60s, and the city founding is still mentioned in history textbooks today. It is a model city to Mao Zedong socialism. However, the flood of museums does not bring many tourists to the city. As the museums are distant from the residential quarters, their overscale form in front of empty plazas are quite alienating- which resulted in the image of ghost cities like Ordos. - 42 -
Previous: The city found of industryOil Rig and the Chinese Commual Apartment On above: Monumental square and the human scale
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Daqing- The model Socialist City
The largest museum, The Iron Man Memorial museum, was perhaps more populated than other museums in the city- At least there were some group tours organized by the Party members. Yet, the shopping arcade next to it was almost out of business condition. In other smaller museums, I was almost considered as a stranger to enter into it alone as there were no other visitors coming on the summer Thursday. Certainly, these museums are fulfilling the requirement from the planner view, which help to justify Daqing as a model Socialist city.
On Above and right: Inside the Iron man museum , quotation and abstract installation
After visiting these museums, I wandered back to the Railway Station a few hours before my train arrived. Across the railway bridge, it is an older district found as early as Daqing wasa erected, whereas Daqing expressed itself as another city, a wilder form of shop houses with vehicles parking randomly outside- It is the sense of urban life in my conventional sense.
Further next: Bas-relief inside Iron man museum. Overall the installation quality in the museum are dramatic
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Next spread: The square of Iron man Museum, an organized tour by Chinese Communist Party
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Daqing- The model Socialist City
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Daqing- The model Socialist City
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Daqing- The model Socialist City
On Above: An older museum to Daqing Oil field, closed for maintenance Next spread: Another musuem for the Oil state entreprise, displaying oil extraction technology which is as generic as a textbook
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Daqing- The model Socialist City
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Daqing- The model Socialist City
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Daqing- The model Socialist City
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Previous Left: Monument dedicated to production instead of historical figures, a skeleton specified only in monogorod. Previous Right: Oil rigs still everywhere in Daqing On the left: Another Daqing across the rail bridge, the sense of city in common sense
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Hailar- Alternative Ethical policy in socialist China
Hailar-
Alternative Ethical policy in socialist China Hailar is the administrative centre of Hulunbuir Prairie in Inner Mongolia. Composed of a significant Mongolian population, Hailar is a minor ethical city in China, which it branded itself with ethical features in many ways. Before describing how the image of Hailar is formed, a recapped to the Soviet ethical policy and urbanism shall be reviewed. In the Soviet Union, the construction of cities in ethical republics were mostly colonized by modernism with defined non functional regional characteristics. “Socialist in content, national in form� was the best description of how these ethical cities were created. For example, traditional patterns were extracted and applied to building facades in the mass produced housing block in the Soviet Kazakh. Of which, the plans and construction technologies of these housing blocks were across the Union. Meanwhile, ethnic historical figures were carefully narrated by the authority to create them an image which complied with the Socialist spirit. As a result, the socialist way of living were imposed to ethical minority in a way that could justify the authority was seemingly respect to the ethical tradition. In contrast, the modern Chinese authority takes an alternative approach to handle the identity problem for Mongolian in Hailar, the traditional way of living is rather expanded. - 58 -
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Hailar- Alternative Ethical policy in socialist China
The most obvious difference between Soviet Ethical cities and Chinese Hailar is the adoption of bilingual policy in the city. Right off the train from Hailar station, you can see the signages around the station are written in both Chinese and Mogolian despite the usage of Mongolian is low in the city. On the other hand, the monuments of Mongolian historical figures such as Genghis Khan are placed in squares and parks of the cities. Around the city, it is the Prairie where Mogolian yurts and livestocks grazing are taking place. To Chinese authorities, they considered these bilingual and cultural policies as evidence to justify ethical harmony, and prove themselves not assimilating the ethical tradition. This theoretically contrasts with how Soviet applied their influence in the Mongolia People’s Republic. While Chinese preserves a way of Mogolian living which seemingly extends the tradition, the latter replaced the Mogolian writing in cyrillic alphabet and planting socialist monuments in the administrative centre Ulanbattar, which has a lasting effect to shape the Mogolian fundamentally. - 60 -
Previous: City Centre of Hailar, application of ornaments in utilities On Above: Visualizing the Mongolian historical figures by modern authority On the right: Ovoo, the Mongolian Temple and the Mogolian Yurt
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Hailar- Alternative Ethical policy in socialist China
Some nationalist criticize the Chinese ethical policy that would result in risk of the revival of minor ethics which shrink the national security and stability. But after all, it is not nonsense to sustain the ethic tradition as it is. The authority has legitimized itself in avoiding aggression since the founding of PRC as the founding power was relatively fragile. Demonstration of ethical harmonic coexistence could help itself gaining international recognition particularly in the Third World. As the economy was open in later stages, the minorities were willing to attach to the Central policies actively to enjoy the benefits from economic growth, such as exploiting its culture as tourism. Compared to Soviet aims of exploiting resources in remote regions by the help of minorities, assimilation is rather not necessary in the Chinese light industrial context. Nevertheless, there are still some common socialist city’s feature in Hailar. Situated as a fortress during the Second World War, it held the last major warfare between the Soviet Red Army and Kwantung Army. The fortress was preserved as anti-facist monument in the region which is particularly similar to the war monuments in Soviet Union, with T-34 tanks as well as other Soviet armaments displayed in the site- formulating another Soviet traces along the Kitaysko-Vostochnaya Railway. - 62 -
On Above: The Hailar fortress, Soviet T-34 was displayed. On the right: Underground defense system by Kwantung Army Next spread Upper: Contemporary city of Hailar, property development which is homogenous across China Next spread Lower: Mogolian yurt hotel, branding tradition for tourism developments Further next: Livestock grazing continued
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Hailar- Alternative Ethical policy in socialist China
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Hailar- Alternative Ethical policy in socialist China
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Manzhouli- Russian Impression which does not existed in Russia
Manzhouli-
Russian Impression which does not existed in Russia Towards the Western end of Kitaysko-Vostochnaya Railway, Manzhouli is considerably the most important land port between China and Russia as of today. The land port handles more than 60 percent of national export volume to former Soviet countries. By the prestiges of the city, Manzhouli is one of the travel destinations on the excursion route of Hulunbuir Prairie. Yet, the excursion route does not go further to the national border as the immigration procedures between modern China and Russia is not simple, and the distance to the closest major Russian city, Chita is relatively far. This results in a question to the port city government- how to brand the port as a tourist destination. To the blueprint of Chinese renascence over the last century, modernisation is about the urgency of overpassing the West. As the Soviet Russia was the leader of the International Communist movement, learning Russian culture was an ideal hobby to the first generation citizens of New China. Not until Sino Soviet Hostility in the 1960s, Russian was ranked as the most popular second language to Chinese. Likewise, Soviet music like Katyusha and Moscow Night have been translated to Chinese and they were popular among the generation. When the first generation of new Chinese working class retired and travelled to this ChineseRussian border city, they were not expected to find the imaginative Russia in Manzhouli. - 68 -
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Manzhouli- Russian Impression which does not existed in Russia
In this regard, the imagination resulted in the weirdest image of the city in Manzhouli. First, almost every building along the major avenues is decorated with the neoclassical stone facade. Inserted with dramatic lighting projecting the decorative elements, the city appeared in a cohesive and grand impression. Obviously, such architectural imposition is attempted to build the imaginative European, which allowed the Chinese tourists to situated themselves in a foreign place even without passing through the border (despite everywhere are signboards in Chinese characters) . Second, there are many stores in the city selling Russian’s consumer goods with their proclaimed tax free price. Though it is noted that a common bottle of vodka is ten times more expensive in these Chinese shops, which comply with the market characteristics of the Chinese system. Adjoining the national custom border, there is an attraction which may be weird to Russian- Matryoshka Park- Not only you can find Disney style theme park architecture, but also a Five Star hotel tower in the form of Matryoshka. With 227 standard rooms forming a 72m tower, a gigantic Matryoshka could be observed from a distance along the highway to the custom. - 70 -
Previous: Constructing orthodox cathedral in the Chinese context, but obviously it will not be functioned as church Above and right: Manzhouli by night, neoclassical facade lighted up, apperantly an urban design control by the city authority to make sure every buildings look foreign
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Manzhouli- Russian Impression which does not existed in Russia
Sadly the tower does not capture to the essence of a Matryoshka- the layering from a big Matryoshka (the tower) to the smaller ones, which are supposed to be the hotel room or bathroom. It is just a very common circular plan, with a ten floor high atrium in the centre and hotel room on the periphery. If the hotel Sanxing (three Chinese god Fu, Lu and Shou) was considered as the most ugly architecture in China by netizens, the Matryoshka hotel could also catch up the ranking. Nevertheless, it is observed that many Chinese tourists checked in the hotel- both checked in the rooms and checked in the social media. It seems that the hotel is successful in its business model. - 72 -
On above: Myagkov Vodka, selling at RMB 280, meanwhile you can get one for RUB 280 in Russia On the Right: Matryoshka hotel at 72 meter high
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Manzhouli- Russian Impression which does not existed in Russia
But after all, it is questioned whether constructing an foreign impression is a right way to exploit the tourism potential of a port city. In most cases, the border tourism is built for the tourists of the adjoining nation. As such, tourists from adjoining nations could immediately experience something truly foreign once they are stepping out their home country. Alternatively, the utilization of the difference in price index between two nations could also attract travelers to enjoy an affordable vacation. But since the movement of visitors is imbalanced between Manzhouli and the adjoining Russia, it is imperative to attract tourists to Manzhouli from their home county. Moreover, the sense of catch up is dominated in the modern Chinese social discourses. A copy of “foreign city” in China is a solid evidence of a successful “catch up” , and also creating the so-called “foreign living condition” within their home country. What they missed out is that the removal of the neo-classical facade to the buildings in Manzhouli would even result in a more comparable Russian city- city with Khrushchevka slab blocks.
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On above: Matryoshka hotel and the circus, weird yet accepted by domestic tourist
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Kitaysko-Vostochnaya shortcut Manzhouli- Russian Impression which does not existed in Russia
In other words, Manzhouli in the cover of “imaginative Russian” facade is actually the most “Chinese” and oriental city. It defined the architectural discourse of Socialism with Chinese characteristics. If Robert Venturi learnt the theoretical discourses in post modern architecture from Las Vegas, Manzhouli may be a best place for Chinese architects to learn what kind of architecture fit most to modern China, and comply to the aesthetic tastes of the general mass.
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On above: Russian impression with Chinese characters, which is not found in real Russia
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Printed and Published on August 2020 First Edition Published in Hong Kong SAR,China Photographed and edited by Fu Yat Him, Horta Email: hortayhfu@connect.hku.hk 80 pages All rights reserved
TRANSSIB TO MOSKVA
CHITA
BLAGOVESHCHENSK 滿洲里 Manzhouli Маньчжурия
海拉尔 Hailar Хайлар
KHABAROVSK
大庆 Daqing Дацин USSURIYSK 哈尔滨 HARBIN Харбин VLADIVOSTOK
BEIJING