THE BERLIN WALLED CITY Development and Preservation of Memories, Street Art and Urban Identity
IN BERLIN
HOWELL TSANG M. Arch Architecture / M. Arch History and Theory: Year 1 Assessed Component 2016 - 2017 HT08: Art, Architecture & the City
H I S T O R Y
C O N T E N T S
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Contents
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Quote
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0. Abstract 08 - 11
1. The Rise and Fall of Berlin Wall 12 - 17
2. Berlin Wall and Street Art 18 - 22
3. Urban Memory Preservation 23 - 25
4. Provoking Memories 26 - 27
I. Note
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II. Figure Citation 32 - 35
III. Bibliography
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“Berlin is a city condemned always to become, never to be.� -- Karl Scheffler [1]
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A b s t r a c t
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Abstract The likelihood of having a hot war stayed low in the period after World War II. With the erection of a wall dividing Berlin in August 1961, the Cold War started. This does not mean people did not live with fear; they did, in a world divided into two forces. The wish for the wall’s demise did not come true until 9 November 1989. On this day, Berliners celebrated with joy: for the end of a dark era, for the removal of the border between the East and the West, for the foreseeable unification of Germany. But the fall of the wall also meant the demise of the wall’s street art which had become iconic in its own right. Rising from the early 1980s with the ‘help’ of the wall, street art has been provocative, leading to certain social impacts at that time, and even more so from then on. In this essay, by looking into specific stories and impact of street art on the Wall, strategies of city redevelopment and national past preservation in Berlin, meanings of street art towards the history of Berlin and the urban identity of the city are questioned.
A b s t r a c t
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Th e R ise and Fal l of B erl in Wal l
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The Rise and Fall of Berlin Wall Berlin / Germany / The Cold War
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‘Berlin still tended to appear as the flashpoint in scenarios for a European war over the succeeding years.’ [2] Germany has often been at the centre, if not the cause, of European conflicts for the first half of the 20th century. Germany’s impact on Europe is huge, and this stems from its history, size and location. With the end of World War II in 1945 and in order not to spread further instability over Europe, without hindering its function, Germany was divided into four sectors – American, British, French and Soviet. Later these were consolidated into two sections after the three Western sectors amalgamated to form the new Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), while the Soviet sector turned into the German Democratic Republic (GDR) (figure 1 & 2). To begin with most of the other European countries felt quite comfortable with the changes in division, as this made Europe as a whole more stable. A divided Germany was less of a threat to its neighbours and initially may have even been welcomed by them. Yet, as borders were set up the political fronts between East and West started to polarize. The division of Berlin through the building of the wall became iconic for this shifting of threats, turning the former capital of Germany into an island of the free world surrounded by Communism [3] .
Figure 1 Four Power Agreement
Figure 2 West Berlin and East Berlin
Th e R ise and Fal l of B erl in Wal l
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Figure 3 Construction of Berlin Wall by East German in 1961
The Soviets finally agreed to close the border, which the East Germans had requested for eight years, in order to stop the exodus of their population into West Germany. On 13 August 1961, cross-border traffic was halted and the boundary was made physical with barbed wire fencing and masonry blocks (figure 3 & 4). While today we understand this as the defining moment of the creation of the Berlin Wall [5],the reaction of the West to this heightening of tension was acquiescent [6]. It is questionable whether the Allies had ever believed they had obligations to the East Berliner. Throughout the two months between the rise of the wall and the confrontation at Checkpoint Charlie, escapees from the East were found either dead or injured from trying to cross into the West. West Berliners were barred from entering East Berlin. For the following twenty-eight years, the wall continued in existence and inspired terror inside every Berliner’s heart. The reality was not challenged for almost three decades because the Allies were satisfied with this ‘stability’ within the post-war constraint: a no-war world. It is inevitable to admit a dreadful mark had been made on the European landscape as well as history, especially for Germany.
Figure 4 East Germany workers near the Brandenburg Gate reinforce the wall dividing the city
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By 1960, a large number of people were migrated from the East Germany to the West seeking a better life. While at first East Germany considered this a chance to let go of troublemakers within their new political setup, eventually the risk of losing a large number of professionals outweighed the benefits of such possibilities. More importantly keeping the movement of German peoples, both from East and West in flux and particularly in Berlin allowed for a showcase of the Westerns lifestyle in the heart of communist territory. This was deemed completely unacceptable from the perspective of the Soviet Union as well as the East German puppet government [4]. The exodus provided a major trigger point for the rise of the Berlin Wall and the on-going crisis within the country and Europe.
T H E O R Y
Figure 6 Berliner celebrating the demise of the wall
The End of The War / Wall
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The Berlin Wall came down overnight, as suddenly as it was raised, on 9 November 1989. It was not any result of initiatives from the West but the terminal decline in the communist system, in the competition between the liberal and the illiberal, and in terms of freedom and prosperity [7] (figure 6 & 7). The demise of the wall guided Germany in the direction of reunification, which was made official one year later. The fall of the Berlin Wall brought the end of the Cold War, a competition between two ideological systems across the world. For more than a quarter century, the wall had shaped the history of an era and continued to influence politics after its demise.
Figure 5 Divided by the wall, the two Berlin were within sight but out reach of each other
Figure 7 The fall of Berlin War at former Checkpoint Charlie
Th e R ise and Fal l of B erl in Wal l
H I S T O R Y
Berlin Wall and Street Art
Figure 8 Berlin Wall in 1986 12
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Berlin Wall and Art – The Place to Give Birth to Art of Different Kinds Curiously during its existence, the concrete structure that was laid as a ring around West Berlin, became a site for art. It acted as a large canvas for people to express their opinions and discontent. The wall as an icon of division and threat of death offered artists a dark subject matter and inspiration that while present in every Berliner’s daily reality, was blanked out by the diversion of a safe, consumerist world of the post-war democracies [8]. It was this tension within the confines of the island ‘freedom’ of West Berlin in stark contrast with East Berlin’s lack of real autonomy, that inspired an era of innovative artistry on the wall’s Western face. Street art developed at this boundary as a provocative message board to the world.
While graffiti has been part of the urban environment since the ancient world its manifestation as a cultural manifestation came to attention in 1920s and 1930s New York, drawn by gangs on both sides of subway trains. The infancy of street art took place in 1960s as part of the counter-culture movement, when slogans of protest and political commentary were painted onto public walls in New York City (formerly Philadelphia). But it was not until the early 1980s that street art really arrived in Europe, spreading from there as an outburst of artistic activity and cultural criticism into the world [9]. In West Berlin the wall offered a gigantic canvas open to everyone, there were no restrictions on the content and artworks of any kind could be found anywhere covering the West side of the wall (figure 8).
Berl in Wal l and Street Art
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Two Sides of the Wall
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While sections of the West side of the Berlin Wall were filled with street art, the East side was always kept blank. The wall was the final real boundary to the West as a visible barrier to the ‘death strip’, which was formed by two parallel fences one hundred metres away from each other (figure 9 & 10). Belonging to the East German territory, the death strip was covered with raked sand for the sake of easy detection of escapees. Under the control of the communist system, with the aid of repressive apparatus, people in East Berlin were not allowed to get close enough to the east side of the wall to paint anything. And so the contrast between the two sides of the wall signified to many not so much the absence of vandalism, but the oppression of art and freedom of expression. Both sides of the wall actually belonged to East Berlin as the real border was not the wall but five metres beyond the wall on the western side [10]. Soldiers were technically allowed to jump over the wall and arrest whoever was painting on the wall. Even if any works had already been completed, the officials could have removed them. The reason they remained in place became a mystery. Sending civilian street cleaners who were not soldiers might cause confusion between the two divisions or the whole situation could have become embarrassing if these people had used the opportunity to flee into the West. These five meters became a kind of “nowhere-land”. Belonging to the East it allowed for a void of Western law and order.
Figure 9 The Berlin Wall Structure
Figure 10 East Berlin ‘death strip’
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“If you paint on the street you are immediately political, because you change the life of people.” Thierry Noir [11]
His most recognised work (figure 12) was finished in a different style developed almost around the same time. Named as Fast Form Manifesto (figure 13), the technique that it allowed Noir to paint fast in a dangerous environment and under constant threat of interruption. Noir’s paintings have their political meanings as their subject matter. But the style itself was a significant way of expressing the political nature of the Berlin Wall – the art made apparent that it was not built forever and could be changed [13] .
Figure 12 Most recognised of Thierry Noir
Figure 15 Thierry Noir painting on the east side of the wall after the demise
During his five years of non-stop painting and using the wall as his canvas from 1984 to 1989, Noir never saw anybody escaping from the East or the border police shooting at anyone. Nothing actually happened in the ‘death strip’. While on the West side, people threw things over the wall while shouting the slogan “fuck the GDR” (figure 14), Noir never joined this type of “protest” but expressing his critique in his painting instead. Often, the soldiers would come close and order him to stop and step back into West Berlin. They would even try to catch him[14]. Things were in peace and not in peace at the same time. As Noir experienced the wall, the political nature was not about causing injury or loss of human life, but about imposing horror. While people were taking different sporadic actions to oppose that, he used the Wall itself and his works to fight against this cold war. His work lasts until now as a reference and memorial to the Berlin Wall. The culture of street art that happened around the wall should also be archived, as a performance against horror. It should not be just exhibited in official venues like museums or galleries. Berl in Wal l and Street Art
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As a forerunner of modern street art and influenced by Pablo Picasso, Thierry Noir is considered the first artist, to express his criticism right on the symbol of communist repression. One of his very first and most influential works was the elephant painted in April 1984 (figure 11). With the key symbolising that the key to success is doing heavy work, Noir emphasized the importance of getting inspiration outside. “I started painting outside because I wanted to say that it’s good to put art in the street and not solely in museums and galleries” [12].
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Figure 11 Elephant Key
Figure 14 GDR [East Germany] pioneer cleaning squad clearing away waste from West Berlin
Figure 13 Fast Form Manifesto - two ideas and three colours
Berl in Wal l and Street Art
H I S T O R Y
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Berl in Wal l and Street Art
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Cultural Impact of Street Art “The future of art is not artistic, but urban.” – Henri Lefebvre [15]
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Since the 1990s, street art has gained significance in visual culture and society. The walls became established materials for street artists to work with. The location of the street is an integral part of its meaning [16]. As unsanctioned activity the works are usually rejected as vandalism, perhaps because the work itself also attracts attention to what remains suppressed. It questions the order of public space. Thus the choice of environment is vital to the meaning of the artwork. The city is full of tangible infrastructures showing information, e.g. billboards and advertising signs. Messages are conveyed all around us, forming a space filled by echoes of advertising. “Street art is thus always an assertion, a competition, for visibility; urban public space is always a competition for power by managing the power of visibility” [17]. With its mark of presence on the physical surface of the city, street art is competing with official political and commercial communication systems for the most direct engagement with the public.
Potential Decline Increasingly city governments are adopting culturally hybrid strategies in order to boost the commercial value of city centers and to suppress ‘improper’ information flow. Thus urban zones are turned into semiprivate theme parks as protected spaces of commerce where the areas are controlled by the landowners by private security staff. Usage of space is mainly dedicated to advertising. Transition of street art into the mainstream art world and making use of an artistic crossover risks commodifying its intrinsically subversive meaning – enrolling it into agenda to boost advertising, consumerism and tourism. The officially sanctioned creation and preservation of street art is difficult if it is to remain distinct from general commercial advertising. Berl in Wal l and Street Art
H I S T O R Y
Urban Memory Preservation Reconstruction and Reunification of Berlin “Tourists flocking to the city see that the Berlin Wall has become part of not only the city’s history but also its mythology, transformed almost completely from a physical barrier to an image and concept.” [18]
For years Berlin existed within the imposed limbo of the Cold War. As most of the western journalists and scholars have described, “Berlin before and after 1990 is like a sleep and awakening” [19] . Questions about reconstruction and redevelopment have been tricky as ultimate goals are both similar yet also different. Interpretations of reconstructing the city included reviewing Berlin’s recent history and restoring what had been lost during the static period in physical construction. Redevelopment still involves the pursuit of prosperity and the “golden age” of the city. The debates lead to the interaction of old and new, the historic and modern, which create challenges to administrators, architects and planners.
Figure 16 Berlin Wall Marker
“Berlin’s post-1990 development was less the “reconstruction” of a more “authentic” version of the city or of the city as it “might have been” were it not for the division imposed by the east” [20] . Berlin suffered economic hardship in the years following unification. From the western point of view, rebuilding the city in their way would have been an easier way to get Berlin back on the right track economically, architecturally and politically. Evidence of this one sided approach can be found on the former path of outer Berlin Wall. Markers of “Berlin Wall” planted in the cobblestones embedded along the path sporadically can only be seen from the western side of the path (figure 16 & 17). Architecture and urban planning, as the primary and most direct media and surface to express what Berlin was to be about, began to transform into systems of image and concept display in Berlin, while emphasising tourism and economy.
Figure 17 Berlin Wall Memorial site
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Figure 18 Memory District’s Plan
Memor y District - Centralizing Memories Take the Memory District as an example. It is “intersection of tourism, government, and business district” [21]. Located in the center of Berlin and right next to Checkpoint Charlie (figure 18), this Topography of Terror attracts tourists to visit the last remaining fragments of the Berlin Wall or to acquire more information of the history during National Socialism. Not far away from center, stands the Holocaust Memorial. The same distance on the other side is situated the Jewish Museum, one of the Germany’s most visited museums. The presence of these museums and memorials indicate the use of spatial logic and quality to perform history with the use of architecture. As a unique city that had gone through so much over the 20th century, “the historic, or royal, Berlin is given material form through urban design, architecture, aesthetics, and advertising images” [22]. By centralizing these particular national memories, Berlin became the first city to publicly acknowledges national guilt and pay homage to its victims. As a site of perpetrator, Memory District created a new centralized public culture of commemoration, but also of fascination of human horror which quickly attracted the tourists’ attention.
Ur ban Memory Preservation
H I S T O R Y
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Figure 19 Potsdamer Platz Wall Installation
Figure 20 Wall Remains outside Topography of Terror as a n installation
T H E O R Y
3 Figure 21 Aerial view of the center
Figure 22 Site Plan of Topography of Terror in relation to the remaining wall
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“In capital cities, tourism landscapes are material and symbolic expressions of the nation in a phase of late consumer capitalism” [23]. For Germany’s government, this was a wise strategy to enroll the culture industry in its act of atonement for violent national crimes. With the help of famous architects, Memory District was soon at the top of tourists’ list of sites to see. Indeed locating such an exhibition within an already culturally exciting city may ironically distract tourists away from the authentic sites of violence and horror such as those of the concentration camps. Günter Morsch, director of the Sachsenhausen Memorial Museum, has worried that “the spectacular architectures find more attention among feuilletonists [art and cultural critics in the media] than we could have ever won for our [memorial museum] projects” [24]. The social function of history is under threat of loosing its impact outside of economy and tourism. The act of centralizing national memory may also have another vital problem specific to Berlin, with its still very recent history about war and violence. Throughout the years, there have been national networks of historic sites constructed in Berlin that are located in many different parts of the urban landscape. The centralization may destroy both the network and the urban meaning of those sites. As Stefanie Endlich, an expert juror for public art competitions, has mentioned, “when you declared that you want to create the central, the national monument, that means that – like a magnet in a magnetic field – you are in the center, and everything else that is already there has to adapt, to change direction” [25]. The same can also be applied to the wall and its surface of street art. In Potsdamer Platz, there is a memorial to the wall. (figure 19). This “wall” is assembled of concrete sections covered on both side with graffiti created after 1990. This re-creation of the wall does not show the real self of a security barrier but a vision of the Berlin Wall by most of the westerners. It loses its meanings in urban sense as well as in time. The siting is critical to understanding this object. The Berlin wall had its own historical and political meaning with regard to the nature of the surrounding landscape, specific to the long division of the country. The street art of the Berlin Wall had its own meaning as a critique of the cold war. Covering the “new wall” with new drawings undermines the meaning of what it has meant to paint on the wall. “The installation is not a memorial to the wall as a structure but to the wall as a symbol and image” [26] instead. Still, undoubtedly, the installation attracts scores of tourists that come there to take pictures of it and themselves. The growth of tourism has been a successful way to save Berlin from economic hardships, but it has also blurred the meaning and intention behind urban preservation. The urban identity of Berlin is becoming increasingly hard to identify.
Ur ban Memory Preservation
Figure 23 A segment of Berlin Wall in New York City
Ur ban Memory Preservation
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The History of Germany and Berlin provokes memories of violence and crime. Internationally the German government has made and continues to make a public apology for the nation’s past and to project a vision of peace for the future, through remaking a new but not-entirely-authentic historic urban landscape. However, we must understand that historic sites are understood in a very personal way, especially sites of suppression and terror. Authentic sites are material evidence of the past, consisting of last footprints and lives. They are an open wound for those that had once been connected with the atrocious past, connections between the dead and the alive. Thus it is important to construct such locations as places for deep and emotional personal connection and identification, so that these tragedies will never be repeated. They should be sites of warning.
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Re-writing / Re-walking the wall
T H E O R Y
Ur ban Memory Preservation
Provoking Memories “Pedestrian movements form one of these ‘real systems whose existence in fact makes up the city’.“ [27]
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Street art on walls could become the optimum medium in conveying the message in the case of Berlin through the meaning of the paintings and the urban dynamics of the Wall. Michel de Certeau compared pedestrian movement with speech act in order to prove that walking is not just graphical representations in theory but actual contribution to the urban system. “The acting of walking is to the urban system what the speech act is to language or to the statements uttered.”[28] Thus the relations of pedestrians in different positions is an execution of space. In a similar sense, the acting out of space can be inverse as the process of finishing a painting on the canvas, or a wall. Thus, pedestrian movement and preservation of street art are equally important in the making of the Berlin. Instead of reassembling fragments of the original Wall in specific central locations, placing the original fragments no matter how fallen-apart they look, in their authentic site would be a more appropriate way to address their historic and urban meaning. Firstly, positioning the wall in authentic sites helps decentralize the Memory District and define the real scope of history within the urban landscape. It is inevitable that the advance of tourism dims the real impact of the history of terror. The intention is not to deny the significance of the Memory District but to achieve a better balance between old and new, real and clone. As Jean-Jacques Rousseau has mentioned in The Social Contact, “The real meaning of this word [city] has been almost wholly lost in modern times; …They do not know that houses make a town, but citizens make a city.”[29] The constructed tourist route of new sites would be overlaid with a more subtle trace of the city’s histories. This expanded detour for citizens and tourists alike would reveal more of the true identity of Berlin. At the same time, the scattering of remaining fragments also prepares a better showcase and landscape for the exhibition of street art, which can be explained by the application of “synecdoche” and “asyndeton” in urban space. “Synecdoche replaces totalities by fragments while asyndeton disconnects them by eliminating the conjunctive or the consecutive”[30]. Imagine retracing the history of Berlin by mapping the Wall fragments and reading the scars of the pavement markers reminding us of the existence of the Wall, the image of the severed landscape of the past clashing into the here and now, standing out in a sharper way. This fragmented order of arrangement
would transform the whole scenery in Berlin. The city would no longer be presented only as symbol and image but as motion and footfall. The meaning of the street art, concepts of specific periodic paintings would be expressed in the clearest way. By virtue of their very existence, as unsanctioned expressions central to this form of art and culture, such a route would create chances for interaction. “It puts into focus the urgency of the here-and-now existence of the individual in a particular space, and makes it necessary to take a stand in relation to the work people are confronted with. In other words, it holds the potential for serendipitous encounters and profound aesthetic experiences”[31]. Through the co-existence of the Memory District and dispersed remains of the Wall, an optimum balance of the inherited and rebuilt identity could be obtained. Some argue that the “re-erecting” of the wallfragments would be wrong. Even Keith Haring once wrote in his journal: “If it is not regarded as ‘sacred’ and ‘valuable’, … it is temporary and its permanency is unimportant. Its existence is already established. It can be made permanent by the camera.” Invariably, Thierry Noir stressed that the wall ‘was not an art project’ but ‘a deadly border’ [32] that had to be gone. Yet, ruins of wall fragments no longer mean boundaries and borders, but flow of memories and information. In an interview Noir, he expressed hope that any existing preservation system could make the young ones, especially those born after 1989, understand the meaning behind each fragment of the wall. Out of all the concerns, he wanted to express what it meant to be free, through street art, history, fragments of the wall and the preservation of thoughts. These disjointed freestanding of fragments with covered in their street art would serve as an accessible memorial, as well as an elementary guide for the youngsters about the past of Berlin and the Wall. Following reunification, Berlin became a location of hip and young counterculture and still is this today. It is this audience that we cannot forget. They may not forget.
Concl usion
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Conclusion Every city has its own memories to preserve. For Berlin, its daunting history mainly involves political conflicts, but the urban landscape also includes contemporary arts. This complex and stimulating mixture makes Berlin what is now – a city of design (appointed by UNESCO) and filled with memorials. It may have achieved to “be” one of the World’s most cultural cities and to “be” the city that admits its faults. However, it still has not “become” a city with a clear urban identity connecting its now with the past and may never accomplish this. Identity contains the public’s memories and imaginations. The way of preservation determines the effectiveness of these re-visions.
H I S T O R Y
Note 1. Pugh, 2014, p. 339 2. Gearson and Schake, 2002, p. 1 3. Gearson and Schake, 2002, p. 2 4. Gearson and Schake, 2002, p. 5 5. Gearson and Schake, 2002, p. 100 6. Buckley, 2004, p. 2 7. Gearson and Schake, 2002, p. 9 8. Jones, 2014 9. Heywood and Sandywell, 2012, p. 245 10. S. Jones, 2014 11. Wyatt, 2014 12. the guardian, 2014 13. the guardian, 2014 14. the guardian, 2014 15. Lefebvre, 1996, p.173 16. Riggle 2010, p.246 17. Brighenti, 2007, 2009a 18. Pugh, 2014, p. 337 19. Pugh, 2014, p. 329
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20. Pugh, 2014, p. 329 21. Till, 2005, p. 196 22. Till, 2005, p. 194 23. Graml, 2003 24. Till, 2005, p.196 25. Till, 2005, p.205 26. Pugh, 2014, p. 338 27. Bridge and Watson, 2010, p. 114 28. Bridge and Watson, 2010, p. 114 29. Zhang, 2013, p. 147 30. Bridge and Watson, 2010, p. 117 31. Bengtsen, 2013, pp. 76-7 32. Wyatt, 2014
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Figure Citation Figure 1 The Four Sectors of Berlin. (2007). [image] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner#/media/File:Berlin_Blockade-map.svg [Accessed 8 Jan. 2016]. Figure 2 Position and course of the Berlin Wall and its border control checkpoints. (2005). [image] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Wall#/media/File:Karte_berliner_mauer_en.jpg [Accessed 8 Jan. 2016]. Figure 3 East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, 20 November 1961. (2005). [image] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Wall#/media/File:Berlin_Wall_1961-11-20.jpg [Accessed 5 Nov. 2016]. Figure 4 East German Workers Near The Brandenburg Gate Reinforce The Wall Dividing The City, 10/1961. (2014). [image] Available at:
https://worldbookblog.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/306-bn-104-1.jpg [Accessed 5 Nov. 2016].
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Figure 5 Controversial Berlin Wall. (2015). [image] Available at:
http://www.berlin-wall.org/controversial-berlin-wall [Accessed 5 Nov. 2016].
Figure 6 Divided by the wall, the two Berlin were within sight but out reach of each other. (2007). [image] Available at: http://www.dw.com/en/tracing-west-berlins-70s-and-80s-subculture/a-16615845# [Accessed 7 Jan. 2016]. Figure 7 The Fall of the Berlin Wall, 1989. The photo shows a part of a public photo documentation wall at Former Check Point Charlie, Berlin. (2011). [image] Available at: http://www.historytoday.com/frederick-taylor/berlin-wall-secret-history [Accessed 4 Jan. 2016]. Figure 8 Berlinmauer. (2005). [image] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Wall#/media/File:Berlinermauer.jpg [Accessed 8 Dec. 2015].
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II Figure 9 The Four Sectors of Berlin. (2007). [image] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner#/media/File:Berlin_Blockade-map.svg [Accessed 8 Jan. 2016]. Figure 10 East Berlin “death strip� of the Berlin Wall, as seen from the Axel Springer AG Building, 1984. (2009). [image] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Wall#/media/File:East_Berlin_Death_Strip_seen_from_ Axel_Springer_Building_1984.jpg [Accessed 8 Dec. 2015].
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Figure 11 Image7. (2014). [image] Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2014/apr/03/thierry-noir-graffiti-berlin-wall#img-7 [Accessed 29 Oct. 2016]. Figure 12 Image12. (2014). [image] Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2014/apr/03/thierry-noir-graffiti-berlin-wall#img-12 [Accessed 8 Jan. 2016]. Figure 13 Image2. (2014). [image] Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2014/apr/03/thierry-noir-graffiti-berlin-wall#img-2 [Accessed 29 Oct. 2016]. Figure 14 The Four Sectors of Berlin. (2007). [image] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ich_bin_ein_Berliner#/media/File:Berlin_Blockade-map.svg [Accessed 8 Jan. 2016]. Figure 15 Image5. (2014). [image] Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2014/apr/03/thierry-noir-graffiti-berlin-wall#img-5 [Accessed 29 Oct. 2016].
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II Figure 16 The Berlin Wall Memorial and the Berlin Wall marker. (2016). [image] Available at: http://67.media.tumblr.com/d5e0722ce8eadcd61c035bf07b3cd84b/tumblr_inline_ oawh91Ecv81tv7fug_1280.jpg [Accessed 5 Nov. 2016]. Figure 17 Berlin Wall Memorial site with the Chapel of Reconciliation to the upper left and the preserved border strip to the right. (2014). [image] Available at: http://walled-in-berlin.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/P1000415.jpg [Accessed 5 Nov. 2016]. Figure 18 Karen E. Till. ‘Memory in the New Berlin’. The New Berlin: Memory, Politics, Place. University of Minnesota Press, 2005. P.198 Figure 19 Berlin Wall Potsdamer Platz 2. (/). [image] Available at:
https://travelingmaceks.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/berlin-wall-potsdamer-platz-2. jpg Figure 20 7 Top Attractions In Berlin For Those Who Love History. (/). [image] Available at:
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-s9pc43ksERQ/U9inHu21vSI/AAAAAAAAEII/DwNSBfo5dk4/s1600/IMG_1282.JPG [Accessed 5 Nov. 2016].
Figure 21 Heinle, Wischer, Und Partner - Topography of Terror - 4. (2010). [image] Available at: https://divisare.com/projects/145382-heinle-wischer-und-partner-stefan-muller-topographyof-terror [Accessed 5 Nov. 2016]. Figure 22 Heinle, Wischer, Und Partner - Topography of Terror - 6. (2010). [image] Available at: https://divisare.com/projects/145382-heinle-wischer-und-partner-stefan-muller-topographyof-terror [Accessed 5 Nov. 2016].
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[Accessed 5 Nov. 2016].
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Figure 23 A segment of the Berlin Wall in Battery Park City between Gateway Plaza and the North Cove Marina, near the Winter Garden Atrium in the World Financial Center. (2009). [image] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Berlin_Wall_segments#/media/File:Segment_of_Berlin_wall_in_New_York_City.jpg [Accessed 7 Dec. 2015].
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