Hui Ling_NUS Architecture Thesis Report by Hui Ling K

C A S E F O R K A M P O N G S P I R I T : D A K O T A C R E S C E N T

by Kiu Hui Ling A0158005M

Architectural Design Research submitted to the Department of Architecture in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE at the NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE November 2020

I would like to sincerely thank my thesis supervisor, Mr Ho Weng Hin, for his guidance and insights during studio sessions. It was refreshing to learn about not just the academic side of things, but also the larger history of nation-building. I would like to thank Dr Ho Puay Peng, for his valuable inputs during Interim Crit, and for inviting me to the site visit. I am grateful for both tutors that I have worked with this semester, and their teachings have definitely expanded my interest on heritage buildings. Thank you my studio mates, Jonathan, Jia Wei and Ynez, for being so friendly and welcoming. I love that we take notes for each other and share information so selflessly with one another. I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to my favourite people - Nadia and Afiqah - for being the best company in this journey of architecture school. You guys are amazing and talented in everything that you do. Lastly, I want to thank my parents for always giving me their fullest support (even though all they see is a mess of artfriend materials and glue stains), my sister for being my bestfriend and hustle buddy, and Kai Feng for the best end to the toughest of weeks.

R E S E A R C H

A B S T R A C T

The public housing story in Singapore is an international case study of a country that went from rags (slums) to riches (the modern high-rise). To achieve this, mass resettlement from the late 1950s saw urban kampongs being replaced by the new HDB public housing. Together with social reforms and the taming of the landscape, the semi-autonomous kampong dwellers were transformed into ideal citizens of the post independent nation. Even in the contemporary era, the SERS scheme introduced in the 1990s has once again displaced many homes. To the rental flat tenants of Dakota Crescent, the 2014 relocation is but a reminder of the instability - consequences - of not owning a flat. Yet, the socialist architecture of the Singapore Improvement Trust (SIT) estate has contributed to a familiar ‘kampong spirit’ within the community. Kallang Airport Estate was built in 1958, where it straddled between two different political and cultural worlds. Through the common memories and struggles of a working class population, the significance of the estate has transcended beyond its physical merit. Kallang Airport Estate was reduced to Dakota Crescent during a series of uncontested demolitions in the 2000s. With the emergence of newer and taller housing developments, and the gentrification of the waterfront, the estate risks losing its contextual value. Dakota Crescent has become an embodiment of its inhabitants - a presence invisible and left behind by the progressive society. This thesis then explores the social phenomenon in creating this ‘kampung spirit’ through a hypothesis of its factors - the people, social infrastructure, and the place of living. Through partial adaptive reuse, this thesis envisions a future where the former and aged residents return to the renewed estate. Due to its conservation status, gentrification is an anticipated outcome. The proposed strategies will hence strive to revitalise the remaining continuities of the estate, and integrate with the new opportunities presented.

keywords: aging, rental housing, gentrification, heritage, kampong spirit

C O N T E N T S

01 | Context 1.1 Premise & Problems 1.2 Research Approach

04 | Strategy 10 12

02 | Na rra tiv e 2.1 Singapore the Colony 2.1.1 The First Reclamation 2.1.2 Kampongs

14 14

2.2 Coming to Power: PAP

2.3 A Promise to the People 2.3.1. The (High) Rise of HDB 2.3.2. The Second Reclamation

15 18

2.4 Making of a Civilised Nation 2.4.1. Modernisation 2.4.2. Critical Reforms

20 22

2.5 The Rhetoric of a Home-owning Nation

03 | S ite

3.1 The Last Parcel: Dakota Crescent

3.2 Place of Living: Socialist Architecture 3.2.1. Town Planning 3.2.2 Architecture

26 28

3.3 The New Block: Cassia Crescent

4.1 Site Study 4.1.1 Continuities: Social Infrastructure 4.1.2 The People 4.1.3. Thesis Statement

32 36 40

4.2 Design Objectives 4.2.1 Precedent Studies 4.2.2 Master Planning Strategies

42 46

4.3 Formulation of Master Plan 4.3.1 Study of Urban Density 4.3.2 Proposal Study for Conservation 4.3.3 Preliminary Master Plan 4.3.4 Programmatic Distribution

48 49 50 52

Image Index

Annotated Bibliography

Appendices

0 1

C O N T E X T

1.1 Pr em ise & P roble ms Situated on the fringes of the city center, Dakota Crescent has gone by largely unnoticed. It was only until the 2014 news of redevelopment that vistorship to the estate spiked (Lim, 2015). Despite its limbo status for years, there was a sense of urgency. The Save Dakota Crescent community was mobilised to build a case for this loss of heritage. A group of architects submitted a conservation report to the Ministry of National Development (MND). Under the support of a Member of Parliament (MP), the MND finally made the decision in 2017 to retain six blocks with the dove playground (Chua, 2017). While the group had originally hoped for twice the number of blocks to be preserved, the outcome marked a significant win for ground-up conservation. The government plan anticipates the construction of new public housing and student accomodation (Wong, 2019). In the face of progress, 400 households were served a letter of relocation. The rental tenants of the estate were given two years to move into another rental unit, or purchase a government-subsidised flat (Mokhtar, 2014). Meanwhile, a new block 400 meters away at Cassia Crescent was built as a renting option. The new Block 52 comprises a mixture of one- and two-room flats for rental, and three-room flats for purchase. The revamped environment offered modern comforts that the old estate of Dakota Crescent could not provide, such as lifts that serviced every floor. However, the move would entail the downsizing of flats for many, and the poor housing design meant that the ‘kampung spirit’ would be unsustainable. The displacement of a predominantly aging community sheds light on a deep-seated issue with the current rental housing model.

1.2 R esearch Approa c h This thesis hypothesizes that the ‘kampung spirit’ is made up of a combination of factors - the people united by a common memory, the social infrastructure which provides the conditions for interactions, and the place of living which creates shared experiences. Firstly, the memories of the former residents are retraced through a series of physical and social transformations from the 1950s. This narrative forms the historical context, as well as establishes the significance of the Kallang Airport Estate as a tandem to the development of an emerging national agenda. Secondly, the place of living is examined through the architecture planned by the SIT. The socialist principles involved form the basis of its architectural significance, as distinct from the contemporary models of public housing. Lastly, the existing social infrastructure will be explored. The remaining continuities will be identified and capitalised on during the design stage. By analysing these factors, this thesis attempts to figure out the ingredients in the formation of a ‘kampung spirit’. The project hopes to return the conditions for this spirit to take place, ultimately giving back to the displaced and increasingly marginalised community.

0 2

N A R R A T I V E

2.1 Singapore the Colony 2.1.1 The Firs t Recla matio n The memory of Kallang in this thesis begins with its aviation origins. In 1932, extensive reclamation works began at the Kallang River. The mangrove swamp on the eastern perimeter of the Kallang Basin was filled with earth to create a circular bund, producing land for the aerodrome. In the process, the Geylang River was carved out and straightened. In 1937, the Kallang Airport was officially opened. When the capacity of the airport could no longer cope with the increased air traffic, it ceased operations in 1955. Thereafter, the unoccupied land was met with proposals for new developments. From suggestions of a ‘vital industrial suburb’ to sport stadiums, these were the beginnings of what the Kallang Airport Estate was to come (The Singapore Free Press, 1958).

2.1.2 Kampongs 1955 was also a landmark election year. For the first time, left-wing parties such as the Labour Front (LF) and People’s Action Party (PAP) emerged as the big winners (Thum , 2020). Alongside this struggle for independence, friction between the colonial powers and the civilians were heightened. The rise of anti-colonial sentiments culminated especially in the area of housing. Kampongs of wooden dwellings populated the central regions and urban peripheries of Singapore. As part of the plan to rid these unsanitary ‘slums’ and to acquire more land to build housing, the Singapore Improvement Trust (SIT) was tasked to clear kampongs in the form of a demolition squad (Loh, 2009). The Kallang River was a host to many such urban kampongs that were eventually demolished. A majority of these clearances were from outbreaks of fire. In the late 1950s, these events of fire were noticeably similar in nature - it destroyed many houses, yet did not claim significant casualties. The responsibility of the blazes thus became a point of contention, and was quickly associated with the doings of the official planners. Leveraging on the public dissent, political parties used fire relief work as a platform to outreach and garner more support. Two of the largest fires during this period occurred at Kampong Koo Chye in 1958, and Kampong Tiong Bahru in 1959 (Loh, 2009). The homeless victims were immediately rehoused in various SIT estates, including the newly-built Kallang Estate in 1958.

2.2 Coming to Power: PAP The 1959 General Elections was the year that PAP won with a landslide victory, but not without what Loh (2009) termed as ‘fire-politicking’. A series of one-upmanship between the politicians saw accusations thrown about, primarily centered around the uncanny proximity of the Kampong Tiong Bahru fire event to the election period. On the ground, the shifting political scene was felt especially by these fire victims. In the days leading up to the elections, there was confusion over the location of polling centres since they were just newly relocated to Kallang Estate. On top of the loss of homes and personal possessions, the new urban residents had to struggle with being caught in the crossfires of a changing political and cultural world. These feelings of uncertainty and the memories of a previous kampung life eventually formed the very foundation of a new community in Kallang Airport Estate.

2.3 A Promise to the People 2.3.1 The (High) Rise of HDB Shortly after gaining the mandate, there was resolve in the new government to address the housing crisis. In 1960, the PAP established the Housing Development Board (HDB) as the legal housing authority to replace the SIT. At first, the difficulty in acquiring land produced housing figures that were reminiscent of its predecessor. This predicament was elevated by the opportunity presented in the infamous Bukit Ho Swee fire of 1961. Declaring a state of emergency, many victims were relocated to new estates such as Queenstown and Kallang. The grazed site was later acquired by HDB to build emergency housing, constructing a total of 904 one-room flats within the first four months. The largest fire in Singapore’s history provided a springboard for the vision of an ambitious national housing policy (Loh, 2009). By 1962, 45000 flats were already completed - far surpassing that of the SIT’s achievements. With an increasingly urbanised population, the government saw fit to introduce the Home Ownership Scheme (HOS) in 1964. The policy was essentially an act of social innovation that encouraged citizens to purchase a flat and own a stake in the nation (Seng, 2014). The scheme also allowed existing tenants to buy their rental units. In addition to becoming citizens of the modern high-rise state, the predominantly rental population was to be transformed into a ‘property-owning democracy’ (HDB Annual Report, 1964).

Kallang Airport Estate

The Resettlement of Kampongs at Kallang Basin 17

2.3.2 The S e c ond Recla mation In addition to resettlements, the landscape was modernising rapidly. Within 1960, the HDB began making plans to develop an industrial estate, selecting the site of Kallang Basin immediately. Land reclamation began in full force in 1963. The ownership of land was simultaneously consolidated from surrounding kampongs either through eviction, or acquiring land from fire sites such as the Kampong Pulau Minyak in 1964. Long established factories and industries that laid in the path of reclamation, such as sawmills and brick kilns, were moved to Woodlands (Gamer, 1972). These shifts indefinitely transformed the landscape of the 1960s. While the people were subjected to major livelihood changes, there was little consideration from the state in terms of social costs. There was a lack of records and attempts at following up on the displaced individuals in various housing estates. Moreover, the initial proposal submitted by the HDB only dealt with engineering and financial costs - none of which studied the extent of implications on those affected. Evidently, there was urgency in modernising a post-independent nation, one that was plagued with issues such as high unemployment. In order to establish legitimacy within the new ruling government, results achieved through efficiency were greatly favoured over the costs of livelihoods (Chua, 2002).

1958 Before the Kallang Basin Reclamation

1966 During the Reclamation

1969 The Final form of Kallang River 18

2.4 M akin g of a Civilis e d Natio n 2.4.1 Modernis a tion Two other marks of modernity were seen along the riverine landscape. Firstly, canalisation of rivers were carried out to mitigate the perpetual floods. Along the Geylang river, the low-lying Kallang Airport Estate was especially prone to flooding. The natural river banks were first lined with a concrete deck in 1960, before expansion works in 1963 constructed a new canal. As a wider control measure, the major flood in 1969 prompted the government to implement widespread evacuation, against the wishes of residents to remain in their kampong houses. The mastering of nature was seemingly a way of conferring citizenship in a modernising nation (Loh & Pante, 2015). Concretising the rivers was the first step. The unsightly industrial practices along the river did not fit into Singapore’s image as an emerging commercial hub (Chou, 1998). The official narrative of the 1977 clean-up operations was to restore the water quality of the polluted rivers. The activities and characteristics that defined both rivers - the smell of sawmills and logs submerged in Kallang River, and the black waters caused by the charcoal trade at Geylang River were to be relocated. Besides industries, the operation also targeted domestic discharge from street hawkers and squatters. By 1986, all squatters were cleared and existing street hawkers were licensed under food centres. The move to mandate licensing and centralise industries under state control served as a consolidation of powers. In addition to witnessing drastic changes within the landscape, the last vestiges of self-autonomy were completely eradicated.

1958 Geylang River before Canalisation

1967 Construction of a Canal

2014 Barricaded & Concretised

2.4.2. C r itic a l Reforms Social and educational reforms in the 1960s were used as tools of social engineering. When the PAP took over, unemployment was widespread and the country depended heavily on foreign imports. There was a pressing need to create a manufacturing industry to provide sufficient jobs for the young population. The introduction of the first flatted factories at Kallang Basin would serve this purpose. More unskilled workers were hence needed, prompting the reform of technical education to provide training for blue-collared jobs instead of white-collared jobs. The establishment of the Mountbatten Vocational Institute stood testament to this policy. The emphasis on education also ensured that young citizens became employable, quelling time that would otherwise be spent idle on streets and creating civic unrest (Varaprasad, 2016).

2.5 The Rhetoric of a Home-Own i n g Na ti o n With the success of the critical reforms, the nation achieved political stability and as a result, rapid economic growth in the 1980s. As the material wealth and living standards of its citizens improved, the extensive homeownership programme took off. The absence of alternative housing - other than private housing which accords a high price - has turned the majority into ‘clients of the state as providers’. By giving the masses the opportunity to acquire a flat as an asset, a strong ideological hegemony is generated between the PAP regime and the electorate (Chua, 2002). The increasing preference towards larger flats meant that demand for one- and two-room flats dwindled, and were later reserved only for renting from 1981. By 1982, rental flats were no longer built. The public housing sector was essentially split into two systems larger and newer flats for sale, and smaller flats for the lower-income to rent. This system entrenched the fact that housing allocation is based on purchasing power, rather than the extent of housing need (Ng, Howe, Ng, 2019). With the goal of achieving ‘100% homeownership’, the rhetoric of a home-owning nation begins to dominate the public housing narrative of Singapore (Ng & Neo, 2019).

An Overview of the History of Kallang River

0 3

S I T E

3 .1 T h e L a s t Pa r c e l: D a kot a Cr e s c e nt As examined in the last chapter, the HOS has facilitated tenants to move into purchased flats. As the rental blocks were vacated, the aging stock became difficult to maintain and living conditions soon deteriorated. In order to cope with the housing demand, older estates were selected under the Selective En-bloc Redevelopment Scheme (SERS) for upgrading and intensifying (Goh, 2001). The initial phase of the scheme began in 1993, which identified the Kallang Airport Estate among other mature precincts (Eng & Kong, 1997). The last SIT housing in the estate are the 15 blocks in Dakota Crescent and 2 blocks across the Old Airport Road. On top of the common experiences discussed earlier, grounds for a ‘kampong spirit’ have to be attached to a physical space that will encourage sustained connections. Through time, old memories are being reinforced over constant encounters and interactions in the neighbourhood. In the next section, the planning involved in producing these qualities will be examined.

3.2 Place of Liv ing: S oc ialist Ar c h i te c tu r e 3.2.1 Town P la nning Kallang Airport Estate was built as a showpiece for the SIT in the 1958 “Singapore Builds” architectural exhibition (Ng, Howe, Ng, 2019). The planning principles in the estate exhibited similarities to SIT’s previous projects, embodying the ideals of socialism and a humanistic approach to design (Seng, 2014). A characteristic of these towns was the open development principle. At Old Kallang Airport, the green spaces are usually occupied by common facilities such as badminton courts. Nestled in between housing blocks that faced each other, this creates a microclimate in a courtyard.

Besides fulfilling a social role, open spaces were originally employed as a modernising agent in the post-war years. The presence of vast spaces were seen as a luxury, especially against the overcrowdedness of slums and kampongs. At its core, they functioned as public places that were transparent to the municipal surveillance, becoming a tool in ‘the fight against Communism’ (Seng, 2014). Landscaping was also an integral part of design.

Plan of Existng Site

3.2.2 Arc hitecture Fondly remembered as ‘Red-bricked Houses’, the use of fair-faced bricks in Kallang Estate was common in post-war Britain. Locally, they represent the nation’s booming brick industry after the war, with various brick kilns located along Kallang River (Zaccheus, 2014). The original facade of Dakota has been painted over twice since the 2000s.

Although the LCC was a major reference for the SIT, the expatriate architects were essentially different from their British counterparts, in that they had to develop new solutions and building methods that work in the Tropics. As such, much of the SIT works were experimental (Seng, 2014). In the colonies, ‘tropicality’ began to dominate the post-war architectural discourse.

Through visits from British town-planners and international exhibitions, the SIT architects were greatly influenced by the housing designs of the London County Council (LCC). While the late-40s design bore the International Style as defined by the streamline moderne, the mid50s saw blocks being straightened into boxy forms. Play in architecture was achieved through formgiving elements such as the corridor and balcony.

In creating these climatically and socially responsive designs under limited circumstances, the resourcefulness and socialist inclinations of the SIT are reflected.

Hallfield Estate, London: owned by Westminister Council, built 1951 - 1958

Facade

Climatic Touches

Geometry

Courtyard Blocks: creating a microclimate

Geometric Facade: generated from vertical elements that break the linearity of the long corridors

Mild-steel Balustrades: allows for ventilation

Dakota Crescent, Singapore: built by the SIT 1958

Pattern: alternating balconies and walls that protrude as rectilinear boxes

Peforated Concrete Screen: strategically placed at the central staircase of the walk-up apartments

Wooden Foldable Doors & Glass louvred Metal Window: climatic strategies that allow for greated airflow into the units

3.3 The Ne w Block: Ca s s ia Cre s c e n t Over the years, the unit occupancy rate of Dakota Crescent was reduced to 60 percent by 2014. Two-thirds of these households have at least a member that is 60 years old and above (Mokhtar, 2014). For these longtime residents, the move to Cassia Crescent was daunting. From having to navigate bureaucratic hurdles to facing disruptions in daily routines, the new homes presented a different set of challenges.

The second level ‘void deck’: complicated & maze-like layout

Since the move, trips to the hubs of the estate, such as the Kallang Estate Market, takes twice as long

Cross-ventilation is prevented by the configuration of walls

While many of the residents had to down-size to one-room flats, these units do not come with a kitchen

At the end of the ‘void deck’ corridor: poorly maintained space scattered with litter

Double-loaded corridors: a huge contrast to the airy and bright open spaces of Dakota Crescent

From the perspective of policymakers, rental housing is seen as transitory shelters while homeownership is the permanent solution (Ng, Neo, 2019). This produced rental flats that were designed to be utilitarian, with little consideration for qualitative aspects. The poor design of these blocks elucidates the government’s attitude towards rental housing. The move to absorb rental tenants into a dominant landscape of purchased flats seemingly serves to propel the homeownership vision. The presence of rental housing now seems to find itself similar to kampongs of the past - problematised and regarded as an impediment to the nation’s progress.

The drop-off point of Blk 52: the elderly residents would rather gather here

A Studio Apartment

0 4

S T R A T E G Y

4 .1 S i te S tu d y 4.1.1 Continuitie s : S ocia l I n fr a s tr u c tu r e Social infrastructure is defined as the physical conditions for social capital to develop (Klinenberg, 2020). They can be broadly categorised into three types. Firstly, public institutions in the form of schools and playgrounds invite people into the public sphere. Secondly, community organisations such as community centres provide established physical spaces that enable people to gather. Lastly, commercial establishments such as cafes act as ‘third spaces’ where people are welcome to congregate and linger. These encourage recurrent and sustained interactions, fostering bonds and mutual support among neighbours. It is essentially the key to forming a ‘kampong spirit’. In the history of Kallang Airport Estate, two other forms of social infrastructure can be identified - informal spaces crafted by non-institutional actors such as street hawker pitches; and nature in the form of Geylang River, a common spot for activities before canalisation took place. Over the many phases of demolition, the value of existing social infrastructure has been eroded. In the new neighbourhoods, the providence of open spaces and playgrounds are greatly disproportionate to the increase in urban density. The remaining places that encompass a major social infrastructural role are the Kallang Estate Market and Old Airport Road Food Centre. They serve an important social function for communities to connect, especially since many of the businesses are first-generation. While the river still exists, the barricades are a constant reminder of man taming nature. Interactions are only limited to the Geylang Park Connector, where many nearby residents jog and exercise.

The original urban make-up of Kallang Airport Estate SIT blocks demolished: -

After the SERS Scheme introduced in 1993 SIT blocks demolished: 20 Total SIT blocks demolished: 24

Total SIT blocks demolished: -

After the ten-year long Clean-up Operations from 1977

Present-day new estates and Dakota Crescent SIT blocks demolished: 30

SIT blocks demolished: 4

Total SIT blocks demolished: 54

Total SIT blocks demolished: 4

Remaining: 17

4.1.2 The P eople Other than the physical forms of continuities that preserve the place identity, the ‘kampung spirit’ is kept alive by the existing communities. The majority of the displaced residents of Dakota - predominantly seniors and the low-income - have collectively moved into the same housing, retaining a sense of familiarity and connection. Using a sample data, a set of mappings are illustrated to show their daytime routines before and after the relocation.

This identifies the main activity nodes and patterns of the demographics. It is important to note the presence of third-party organisations such as the Tung Ling Centre (now closed) and the Cassia Resettlement Team (CRT), which have provided support to the former residents.

A less visible community is the businesses and trades located on the second floor of Old Airport Road Food Centre. Helmed as a bustling shopping destination in its heyday, these shops have faced a steep decline in clientele over the years (Wee, 2019). Specialising in tailoring services, the lock-up stalls are now mainly patronised by nearby and longtime residents. Acting as ‘third spaces’, the setting up of chairs outside the shopfront facilitates social exchanges. However, the central location of the only lift poses a challenge to elderly with poor mobility.

The presence of various youth and educational institutions around the estate make up the transient communities that might be integral in revitalising Dakota Crescent. Along with the trajectory of the government’s plans, the site anticipates new residents and young families. The demographics of the estate will be diversified.

4.1.3 The s is S tate ment Having analysed the hypothesis of factors that make up the ‘kampung spirit’, this thesis strives to consolidate and revitalise the remaining continuities: the river, architecture, trade and community. The thesis will envision the returning and integration of the displaced community into the renewed Dakota Crescent. The insertion of new demographics value adds to an otherwise marginalised and isolated group. As such, the project will be driven by programmes that aim at ameliorating the stigma of ageism and rental housing. To counter the effects of gentrification, the thesis proposes to rejuvenate the existing but dwindling trades and community businesses in order to retain the identity of the estate. A case will be made to conserve more blocks for adaptive reuse, in hopes of preserving the relational values of the SIT housing. Lastly, the river will be activated as an asset rather than a loss in connection to its history.

4 . 2 D e si gn O bj e c t ive s 4.2.1 P recede nt S tudies As discussed previously, the thesis is driven by the return of former residents into the new Dakota. The secondary focus is projected upon the presence of transient populations such as students, and the settling of new residents and families. In order to integrate the diverse communities, the precedent studies will explore themes of aging and intergenerational living. # 1 Kampong Admiralty, Singapore Kampong Admiralty is the first retirement village in Singapore. The development is designed to integrate medical and care facilities within a housing landscape of studio apartments for the elderly. The presence of a rich social infrastructure facilitates aging-in-place. The co-programming of the Active Aging Hub (AAH) and a childcare centre enables interactions across two generations, through activities such as storytelling sessions. Additionally, the AAH recruits senior volunteers to cook daily meals for dementia care patients. While such hubs usually charge a fee for membership, the AAH allows seniors to pay back from these volunteering hours. The success of Kampong Admiralty is a prototypical model for an aging population. # 2 Humanitas Deventer Residential Students Programme, The Netherlands The residential programme in the Humanitas Deventer long-term care facility allows university students to live rent free. The only form of payment is through spending at least 30 hours a month with the seniors. As part of this agreement, the activities include teaching the elderly new skills such as social media and graffiti art. For the residents, the students represent a connection to society. An environment that usually revolves around aging and ailments have been lifted by conversations and youthful experiences shared by the students. The intergenerational model effectively benefits both the students and elderly, exhibiting the possibilities of reciprocal care. Living together also allows a level of understanding to be reached, eliminating the stigma attached to institutionalisation.

# 3 Toyama Style Day Care, Japan The daycare industry in Toyama Prefecture is famously known as the Toyama style, providing day service to people regardless of age. The philosophy is to create a multi-functional facility for the elderly, disabled and young children under one roof. After the program took off, countless other facilities across Japan have adopted a similar policy (Kurian & Uchiyama, 2012). The success of the model is attributed to the normalisation of domestic life in a care setting. The elderly are engaged in meaningful activities such as taking care and teaching the children. Additionally, the interactions between children and seniors with dementia have produced synergistic effects that were otherwise not possible in traditional daycare services (Japan Conference, 2007). # 4 Sugamo Shopping Street, Japan In Japan, ‘shotengai’ are shopping streets that are long-established over history. Although business models have since modernised, the traditional Sugamo street is able to flourish due to its strong culture and demographics (To & Chong, 2017). Known as a shopping neighbourhood, both residents and storekeepers are elderly. The street features an array of traditional goods and services that target a recurrent consumer base of seniors and tourists. The business community operates on a self-organising system that maintains and regulates the street in collaboration with local authorities (To & Chong ,2017). This reflects the culture of a group-oriented character, which is effectively resilient towards an influx of external businesses. The model illustrates the success of retaining a neighbourhood’s identity against the global phenomenon of gentrification.

4.2.2 Maste r P lanning S tr a te g i e s The key directions for the Master Plan are organised on three levels that strive to capture the continuities. 1A | Place identity through tangibles Firstly, the identity of Dakota Crescent should be kept as intact as possible. In terms of the tangible environment, the Geylang River should be activated to allow better connectivity and added contextual value. Within this project, a study is done to explore the trade-offs of conserving more blocks than stipulated. The exercise revealed the possibility of retaining six more buildings and still achieve the general plot ratio of the precinct. 1B | Place identity through programs The master plan proposes a relocation of the old shops at Old Airport Road Food Centre into the site of Dakota. Taking reference from local gentrified neighbourhoods, the theme of ‘nostalgia’ is strongly presented and capitalised on in new businesses. The transplanting of an intact business community of old trades will emphasise this image of Dakota Crescent. Additionally, the niche specialisation in tailoring can be extended to provide workshops for others to learn such skills. A fashion and embroidery culture can serve as a connection to the younger population. 2 | Improving connectivity In anticipating a revitalisation of the estate, existing connections should be improved. The present Dakota Crescent is isolated from other neighbourhoods due to the river and the Old Airport Road. The busy main vehicular road can be an obstacle to visitorship, especially for elderly with poor mobility. 3 | Revitalisation through programs The primary programs in the site will promote intergenerational facilities and productive aging. The location of these programs will be distributed on the ground floor to allow easy access for transient communities and public visitorship. Residential living on the above apartment floors can be differentiated according to the user demographics, with a segment reserved for intergenerational living.

4 . 3 Fo rmul a t i o n of M a s te r Pl a n 4.3.1 S tudy of Urba n Dens i ty

4.3.2 Proposal Study for Conservation

I M A G E

I N D E X

A N N O T A T E D

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

Pg. 19

Dissertations

Sg Film Locations. (1958). Retrieved from https://sgfilmlocations.com/2014/12/31/satay-1958/

Quah, J. S. (1975). Administrative reform and development administration in Singapore: A comparative study of the Singapore Improvement Trust and the Housing and Development Board (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Florida State University.

National Archives of Singapore. (1967) Dakota Crescent flats with Geylang River in front. Retrieved from https://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/photographs/record-details/cb2596051161-11e3-83d5-0050568939ad Pg. 26

Quah’s dissertation delves into the fundamental differences between the SIT and the HDB pertaining to their administrative practices and systems. He identifies the failures of the SIT and seeks to find its reasons, juxtaposing against the successes of HDB in providing affordable public housing to the masses.

Right Move (2020). Brecon House, Hallfield Estate, Bayswater, London, W2. Retrieved from https://www.rightmove.co.uk/properties/84844792#/

Seng, E. M. (2014). Habitation and the Invention of a Nation, Singapore 1936-1979 (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Columbia University.

Right Move (2020). Hallfield Estate, London. Retrieved from https://www.rightmove.co.uk/ properties/96467186#/ Nelson, A. (2014). Connecting British Colonialism with Singapore’s Heartlands through Dakota Crescent. Retrieved from https://veryrealandrew.com/site-visits/2019/9/25

Seng’s dissertation traces the history of Singapore’s urban development from pre-war to post-independence. She focuses on the use of architecture and planning as instruments in the making of a country, both in the hands of the colonial SIT and the established-housing authority HDB. Through analysing the evolution of public housing projects, she evaluates the socialist principles exhibited in SIT architects as contrasting to the efficient works of the HDB.

Pg. 27

Journal Papers

Nelson, A. (2014). Connecting British Colonialism with Singapore’s Heartlands through Dakota Crescent. Retrieved from https://veryrealandrew.com/site-visits/2019/9/25

Chou, L. (1998). Cleaning of the Singapore River and Kallang Basin. Ocean & Coastal Management, 133-145. doi:10.4324/9780203076491-14

Little Shoes Photography. (2017). Remembering Dakota Crescent. Retrieved from https:// www.littleshoesphotography.sg/blog/2017/9/30/remembering-dakota-crescent

The paper focuses on the ten-year programme during the clean-up of the waterways from 1977. Chou dissects the success of the integrated management approach of the state, as well as the challenges faced through the implementation of policies. The action plan was evaluated through the achievements of the government such as the removal of pollution sources, and the costs of such an investment.

Such a Fatty. (2014). Tian Kee & Co. @ 12 Dakota Crescent. Retrieved from https://suchafatty. wordpress.com/2014/07/17/tian-kee-co-12-dakota-crescent/ Ips Commons. (2014). Dakota Crescent: Why we should keep this piece of living history alive. Retrieved from https://ipscommons.sg/dakota-crescent-why-we-should-keep-this-piece-of-living-history-alive/ Pg. 29 Our Better World - Welcome to Cassia Crescent. (2019). Retrieved from https://www.ourbetterworld.org/welcome-to-cassia-crescent

Eng, T. S., & Kong, L. (1997). Public Housing in Singapore: Interpreting ‘Quality’ in the 1990s. Urban Studies, 34(3), 441-452. doi:10.1080/0042098976069 The paper was written as a perspective into the public housing landscape after the 1990s, as much of the current literature leans towards the earlier years. It firstly documents the urban developments undertaken by the HDB in recent years (from the time of writing), such as the upgrading programmes. The authors conclude by arguing for what they termed as the ‘politics of quality’ in public housing, referencing the government’s intention in using housing to gain political legitimacy.

And author’s own.

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Goh, R. B. (2001). Ideologies of `Upgrading’ in Singapore Public Housing: Post-modern Style, Globalisation and Class Construction in the Built Environment. Urban Studies, 38(9), 15891604. doi:10.1080/00420980120076821

Ng, K., & Neo, Y. (2019). Housing Problems and Social Work Advocacy in a Home-Owning Society. Journal of Social Service Research, 46(5), 671-684. doi:10.1080/01488376.2019.16 22624

Goh’s paper contributes to the literature of Singapore’s public housing in the 1990s, specifically in the series of upgrading exercises such as SERS. His paper analyses the architectural styles of the modern HDB, and its evolution since its inception.

The article examines the system of a residualised rental housing sector in Singapore. Through a survey of 51 social workers, the study details the common issues and obstacles faced by their clients. The paper offers insights such as the role of a social worker being constrained by policies and the use of bureaucratic discretion.

Joshi, Y. K., Tortajada, C., & Biswas, A. K. (2012). Cleaning of the Singapore River and Kallang Basin in Singapore: Human and Environmental Dimensions. Ambio, 41(7), 777-781. doi:10.1007/s13280-012-0279-0 The paper explores the event of the 1977 river clean-up operations through its social, economics and environmental dimensions. It discusses the intentions behind the strategies as a tandem to the developing city-state. Framed around its chronological events, it details the relocation of pollutive activities such as squatters and animal farms. Kurian, R., & Uchiyama, C. (2012). Models of Elderly Care in Japan and The Netherlands: Social Quality Perspectives. International Journal of Social Quality, 2(1). doi:10.3167/ ijsq.2012.020106 The research paper consolidates precedent models of elderly care in Japan and The Netherlands. Through three case studies for each country, the paper highlights the importance of history and culture in determining effective care for the elderly. It identifies the actors and institutions for the success of these models, and demonstrates how care-givers and agents alike can work towards achieving these standards. Loh, K. S., & Pante, M. D. (2015). Controlling Nature, Disciplining Human Nature: Floods in Singapore and Metro Manila, 1945–1980s. Nature and Culture, 10(1), 36-56. doi:10.3167/ nc.2015.100103

Suzuki, K., Dollery, B. E., & Kortt, M. A. (2020). Addressing loneliness and social isolation amongst elderly people through local co‐production in Japan. Social Policy & Administration. doi:10.1111/spol.12650 The research paper discusses the co-production of elderly care through different local agents in Japan. It firstly identifies the common issues faced by the aging population, such as loneliness and social isolation. The authors then examine the impact of these problems on the seniors, before demonstrating two case studies that aim at tackling this issue through community groups. To, K., & Chong, K. H. (2017). The traditional shopping street in Tokyo as a culturally sustainable and ageing-friendly community. Journal of Urban Design, 22(5), 637-657. doi:10.1080/1 3574809.2017.1281734 The paper reviews the discourse on how community culture and capital play a crucial role in cultural sustainability. It makes a case that the elderly are resources and multipliers of culture, driving place-making initiatives. Using two traditional shopping streets in Japan, the authors articulate the longevity of these places and evaluate their success factors.

The paper focuses on the cities of Singapore and Metro Manila and their planning approaches towards urban floods. It critiques two areas of official response: one implemented by bureaucracy such as technical measures, and the second, taming of human nature deemed to contribute to flooding. The paper concludes with an argument on how the state needs to balance its authority and expertise other than its own. Loh, K. S. (2009). Kampong, fire, nation: Towards a social history of postwar Singapore. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 40(3), 613-643. doi:10.1017/s0022463409990099 Loh’s article explores the alternative dimensions of independence in Singapore, and the coming of power by the ruling party PAP. Set against the era of kampong fires, the paper discusses the tumultuous political and social climate in the nation’s last colonial years.

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Published Sources, Books Chua, B. (2002). Political Legitimacy and Housing Singapore’s Stakeholder Society. London: Taylor and Francis. Chua’s publication deals with the public housing story in Singapore, and its strong affinity with the political hegemony of its ruling party. Through chapters differentiating the systems of social housing in Singapore and other countries such as in the US, he draws out the success factors for other nations. He illustrates the ways in which the government has achieved modern urban development. Gamer, R. E. (1972). The politics of urban development in Singapore. Singapore: Oxford University Press. Gamer’s book delves into the untold narrative of urban development in Singapore. He documents the stages leading up to the development of the Kallang Basin Industrial Estate, reporting on the costs and implications of such a large-scale move. He evaluates the successes and failures of the project, casting light on the people and industries displaced by the state machinery. Klinenberg, E. (2020). Palaces for the people: How to build a more equal and united society. London: Vintage Books. Klinenberg’s book proposes the importance of social infrastructure for cities to thrive. As a sociologist, his publication seeks to illustrate, in a layman way, how social places lead to positive effects in community and livelihoods. Thorough examples of model cities and human stories, he tackles the science of social connections and a healthy society. Loh, K. S. (2013). Squatters into citizens: The 1961 Bukit Ho Swee fire and the making of modern Singapore. S.l.: Asian Studies Association of Australia. Loh’s book tackles the post-war climate in Singapore during the late 1950s and its last colonial years. In a combination of history, sociology and ethnography, the disaster of the infamous fire is told through first-hand accounts and oral histories from the kampong dwellers. He illustrates the steps taken by the government to control the situation, and how mass resettlement affected the lives of these people.

Varaprasad, N. (2016). 50 years of technical education in Singapore: How to build a world class TVET system. New Jersey: World Scientific. The book details how a young and newly independent nation managed to develop a worldclass education system in a short span of 50 years. It frames the reforms of education in parallel with the development of the economy, particularly in its manufacturing and industrial sector. Newspaper Articles Chua, A. (2017). Partial conservation of Dakota Crescent gives heritage enthusiasts hope. Todayonline. Retrieved from https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/partial-conservation-dakota-crescent-gives-heritage-enthusiasts-hope Lim, S. (2015). The obsession with Dakota Crescent. Todayonline. Retrieved from https://www. todayonline.com/lifestyle/obsession-dakota-crescent Wong, W. (2019). Part of redeveloped Dakota Crescent could be used for student housing. CNA. Retrieved from https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/part-of-redevelopeddakota-crescent-could-be-used-for-student-11447932 Wee, D. (2019). Booming trade for hawkers, but shopkeepers lament bygone era. The Straits Times. Retrieved from https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/booming-trade-for-hawkersbut-shopkeepers-lament-bygone-era Kallang will be vital industrial suburb. (1958). The Singapore Free Press. Retrieved from https:// eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/freepress19580723-1.2.27?ST=1&AT=search&k=kallang%20airport%20estate%20market&QT=kallang,airport,estate,market&oref=article. Zaccheus, M. (2014). Some see red over colourful facade for Bishan HDB blocks. The Straits Times. Retrieved from https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/housing/some-see-red-overcolourful-facade-for-bishan-hdb-blocks

Ng, K. H., Lim, J., Howe, R., & Ng, S. (2019). They told us to move: Dakota-Cassia. Singapore: Ethos Books. The book delves into the lives of former Dakota Crescent residents after receiving news of their relocation. The structure is told through three perspectives - from an interview with the resident, a reflection piece by a volunteer, and a commentary from an academic. Navigating through the stigma attached to rental housing, the book is framed around the inequalities and unjust system faced by the disadvantaged, and how society can help to ameliorate this.

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Official Publications and Pamphlets

A P P E N D I C E S

Timeline of Events: Kallang & Geylang River

Fraser, J. M. (1947). The Work of the Singapore Improvement Trust, 1927-1947. Singapore: SIT, 1947. Fraser, J. M. (1950). The Work of the Singapore Improvement Trust, 1950. Singapore: SIT, 1950. Fraser, J. M. (1958). The Work of the Singapore Improvement Trust, 1958. Singapore: SIT, 1958. Housing Development Board. (1964) HDB Annual Report 1964. Singapore: HDB. The Kallang Story: A Sports, Arts and Heritage Trail [Pamphlet]. (2012). Singapore: SportsHub Pte. Uniting the Generations: Japan Conference to Promote Intergenerational Programs and Practices. (2007). The Pennsylvania State University & japan Intergenerational Utility Association. Websites Mokhtar, F. (2014). Dakota Crescent set for redevelopment, residents to leave by end2016. Retrieved from http://sgre.com.sg/dakota-crescent-set-for-redevelopment-residents-to-leave-by-end-2016/ Thum, P. (2020). A Brief History of Elections in Singapore. Retrieved from https://newnaratif. com/research/a-brief-history-of-elections-in-singapore/