Dissertation - Evangeline Hannah by IA_UNSW

From Collections to Connections: The Transformation of Public Libraries, from Classical Antiquity to the 21st Century Evangeline Hannah z5165440

Bachelor of Interior Architecture (Hons.) Third Year Dissertation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; INTA2411

UNSW Built Environment University of New South Wales, Australia 2019

THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Built Environment

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Hannah

Evangeline

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Abstract Public libraries today have a lot more to offer than books. Inside, one will find themselves immersed in an open, light, expansive interior that supports a multitude of activities. Libraries have felt the push to catch up with ever-emerging new technologies and creative uses. Music rooms, maker spaces and media centers are just some of the additions changing the way public library interiors are being designed. This dissertation seeks to explore the progression of public libraries throughout history and to analyze how public libraries are redefining their purpose in the 21 st century by redesigning their interior and increasing the services they offer to accommodate the changing interests of people today. A historical overview will determine the initial purpose and design of public libraries from their inception. A contemporary overview will examine the changing functions of libraries and the resulting evolution of library interior architecture throughout the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Lastly, examples of 21st century public library designs and their new functions will be explored. These will all be explored through the analysis of academic journals, books and newspaper articles focusing on the history of public library design and function as well as the recent establishment of 21st century public libraries. Secondary sources written by architectural critics and professors will be used and accessed from the University of New South Wales library and online database to ensure the use of reputable academic sources. This dissertation aims to show that the physical changes public libraries are undergoing in the 21st century are, thus far, relevant and successful in supporting the changing needs and wants of people today.

Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Sing Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Arcy for being my supervisor and for sharing his wisdom, guidance and eloquent critique throughout the process of this dissertation. And to my parents for their constant encouragement and support.

Table of Contents

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5 Chapter One……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7 Classical Antiquity (8th Century B.C – 6th Century A.D)…………………………………………………..………..7 Middle Ages (5th Century A.D – 15th Century A.D) …………………………………….………………………….11 The Renaissance (14th Century A.D – 17th Century A.D) ……….………………………………………………15 Chapter Two…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………18 Subscription and Circulating Libraries…………………………………………………………………………………..18 The Industrial Revolution………………………………………………………………………………………………………21 Compulsory Education………………………………………………………………………………………………………….21 Reading Rooms in the 19th Century………………………………………………………………………………………25 20th Century Progression………………………………………………………………………………………………………27 Chapter Three………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………30 Current Issues Threatening Public Libraries………………………………………………………………………….30 21st Century Public Libraries across the Globe………………………………………………………………………32 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….44 Image List & References……………………………………………………………………………………………………….46

Introduction Public libraries have experienced a drastic transformation in their purpose, how they function and the interior design experience they offer to their users, in the 21 st century. No longer do libraries serve as the quiet, tranquil escape from society - libraries in the 21st century are prioritizing connections over collections. After attending the 2019 Green Square Library opening in Sydney, Australia, I was fascinated by the creative design and array of new services and spaces that I had not seen included in a public library before. This prompted me to explore the public library typology from its inception to now. The main aim of this dissertation will be to explore the progression of public libraries throughout history and to analyze how public libraries are redefining their purpose in the 21st century by redesigning their interior and increasing the services they offer to accommodate the changing interests of people today. Firstly, through a historical overview, this dissertation will analyze the earliest examples of libraries, the preliminary methods of writing and emerging library processes in Classical Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. This dissertation will outline the progression of the typologyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s purpose and interior design throughout the 18 th, 19th and 20th centuries in relation to The Industrial Revolution and the introduction of compulsory education. Finally, this dissertation will address the current issues threatening public libraries in the 21 st century. This will be followed by a series of 21st century public library examples that have combatted these issues by providing new opportunities and unique interior designs. There will be an example from Oceania, Asia, North America, South America, Africa and Europe to emphasize that this transformation is a global movement. Secondary sources will only be used due to the limitation of the scope to complete this dissertation in 10 weeks and due to the limited accessible primary sources from each era.

The first chapter will discuss the origins of the public library typology through a historical overview of libraries seen in Classical Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Methods of recording written word will be outlined and emerging library technologies will be discussed. Classical antiquity will outline the emergence of tablets, scrolls and archiving systems within the earliest known libraries. The Middle Ages and Renaissance will discuss the importance of monastery and university libraries as pre-cursors to the public library typology as well as the introduction of manuscripts.

The second chapter will discuss the progression of the public library typology throughout the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries in relation to the societal influences of The Age of Enlightenment, urbanization from The Industrial Revolution and the introduction of compulsory education in the 18th and 19th centuries. This will be outlined through a contemporary overview, starting with an outline of subscription and circulating libraries as pre-cursors to the modern tax funded public library. This will be followed by the introduction of reading rooms as a result of compulsory education. Examples of 19th and 20th century public libraries across England, the US and France will be discussed as these countries were strongly impacted by The Age of Enlightenment, The Industrial Revolution and compulsory education.

Finally, the third chapter will outline the current issues threatening the survival of libraries in the 21st century including the rise in smart phone usage and decline in reading. The third chapter will then discuss a series of 21st century library examples that depict the typologyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s transformation as a community hub and the subsequent new spaces and experiences being integrated and offered within library interiors. There will be an example from Oceania, Asia, North America, South America, Africa and Europe to acknowledge that the 21st century library transformation is a global movement. These examples include The Green Square Library in Sydney, Australia, The Tianjin Binhai Library in Tianjin, China, The South Central Regional Library in Kentucky, US, The Biblioteca Sur in Lima, Peru, The Dandaji Library in Dandaji, Niger and The LocHal Library in Tilburg, The Netherlands.

Chapter One

In order to understand the library typology’s transformation from its inception, it is important to gain a preliminary understanding of the history of public libraries. A historical overview will outline significant libraries throughout Classical Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance that demonstrate pivotal change, achievements and progression within the typology surrounding library function and interior architecture. These three eras have been chosen because when studied together, chronologically, they provide an overview of library development in western tradition from the 5th century in Classical Antiquity, which is the time of the establishment of the first known library, to the 16th century, The Renaissance, which saw the introduction of interior architecture styles that would become the precedent for library designs for the next few centuries.

Libraries and library processes established in Classical Antiquity and their relevance on spatial development of the typology (8th Century B.C – 6th Century A.D)

To give context to the establishment of libraries in Classical Antiquity, it is important to first understand when writing was invented because from this point onwards the notation of records and information grew and thus, physical spaces to store these records were needed (Casson 2001: 2). From approximately 3000 B.C onwards, cuneiform, preliminary writing in the form of simple shapes and lines carved into soft clay tablets, were devised by the Sumerian scribes of southern Mesopotamia to record administrative information (Casson 2001: 2). Examples of these early texts were first discovered in Syria. One of the earliest kingdoms in Syria was that of Elba and Ebla’s Royal Palace, southwest of Aleppo, is thought to be home to the first library in history. In 1980 archaeologists discovered Ebla’s Main Room of Archives, which dates back to before 2300 B.C (Casson 2001: 3). Italian Ancient Near East professor Mario Liverani believed the interior architecture of the palace archive room included tablets stored on wooden shelves along two walls, carried in woven baskets and placed on trays, depicted in drawing reconstructions in Figure 1.01 (2014: 128). It is assumed this was a secluded room with no windows to ensure the safety of the texts. The room was approximately 3.5 meters by 4 meters which allowed for circulation within the space where multiple scribes could occupy the room at once (Casson 2001: 3). It is important to note that no individual could 7

be conclusively attributed to the establishment of a library until the discovery of Assyrian King Ashurbanipal’s (668 – 627 B.C) library in Nineveh, Assyria which is located on the outskirts of modern-day Mosul, Iraq.

Figure 1.01 – An artist’s impression of Ebla’s Main Room of Archives, which stored the written clay tablets of the palace on wooden shelves before 2300 B.C.

Archaeologist and professor, Lionel Casson argued that Ashurbanipal’s library ‘has every right to be called the first systematically collected library in the ancient Near East’ (2001: 9). Ashurbanipal himself was a literate king who achieved ‘the highest level in the scribal art’ meaning he could read and write, a skill that had previously only been attributed to scribes. Ashurbanipal built himself a library within his royal palace, larger than any library before his time. The library’s purpose was for ‘royal contemplation’ housing approximately 1500 tablets (Casson 2001: 11). Access to the library’s collections were granted to Ashurbanipal’s personal secretaries and the loaning of certain collections was allowed. According to American library historian and academic Wayne Wiegand and American professor of Library Information

Science, Donald Davis ‘texts were systematically collected, collated, transcribed and organized’ (1994: 114). To keep track of the collections an early form of cataloguing was devised at Nineveh by recording the writer’s name then the writer’s paternal family names and the length of the text (Wiegand and Davis 1994: 107). The loaning of texts risked theft or not being returned which Ashurbanipal solved by introducing the recording of borrowed items, a process still relevant today (Casson 2001: 13). However, contrasting to Ashurbanipal, it was not until Ancient Egypt that a library was opened by a ruler for shared communal use.

The first known intentional public library, The Library of Alexandria in Egypt, was founded around 300 B.C by Macedonian Greek born pharaoh and historian Ptolemy I (305 – 282 B.C) and continued by his son pharaoh Ptolemy II (282 – 246 B.C) and grandson Ptolemy III (246 – 222 B.C) over the course of their reigns. The library was described by Casson to be ‘comprehensive, embracing books of all sorts from everywhere, and it was public, open to anyone with fitting scholarly or literary qualifications’ (2001: 31). By Ptolemy III’s reign, there was a main library and a smaller library at Alexandria. The architectural detail of either building is not clear, but Casson stated ‘the main library very likely consisted of a colonnade with a lineup of rooms behind, a feature common in contemporary palaces; the rooms would serve for shelving the holdings and the colonnade provided space for readers’ (2001: 34), pictured in Figure 1.02. In the main library, there were 490,00 scrolls and in the daughter library there were 42,800. It is believed that the daughter library held a smaller collection of basic classics which would appeal more to the general public. The first library director of Alexandria, Zenodotus (330 B.C – 260 B.C), operated the library very similarly to libraries today. His role was to organize the texts by category such as verse or prose, literary or scientific and title the works. Zenodotus then assigned them to rooms based on their content and category and would organize the works on wooden shelves by author in alphabetical order, depicted in Figure 1.03. This was the first example of alphabetical organization, a fundamental system still used and relied on in public libraries today (Casson 2001: 37). Significant and progressive changes to the library typology were not seen again until the rise of Christianity in Europe in the 6th century.

Figure 1.02 – A digital artist’s impression of the Library of Alexandria in Egypt around 300 B.C which depicts scribes writing at desks with a colonnade and shelves of manuscripts in the background.

Figure 1.03 – An artist’s impression of a manuscript room within the Library of Alexandria in Egypt, depicting wooden shelves and a library director sorting through them.

The progression of the library typology in the Middle Ages (5 th Century A.D – 15th Century A.D)

At the wake of the Middle Ages, the rise of Christianity was spreading through the Western world. As a cause of this, Christian churches, monasteries and schools were being erected and the teaching and sharing of religious texts were spreading throughout society. Monasteries built libraries to house their increasing amount of religious texts but these buildings were not for public use. The typology did not change as people in society did not need to frequent a library to access religious knowledge because churches and schools provided people with religious education (Wiegand and Davis 1994: 63).

In their encyclopedia, Wiegand and Davis discussed the Benedictine Library Rules set up by St Benedict (480 – 547 A.D) at his monastery, established in 529 A.D in Monte Cassino, Italy. St Benedict made daily sacred reading a compulsory duty for all monks. The monks were also responsible for producing the religious works the monastic community needed and this was carried out in the scriptorium – a room for the writing and copying of manuscripts in monasteries (1994: 64). The monks had access to all books kept by the monastery which were stored in the armarium - which when a collection was modest, was a niche in a wall and as collections grew, became a closed off room with shelving (Vais 2012: 51). Author of ‘The House of Books – The Metamorphosis of the Library Space’, Gheorghe Vais described the armarium at the Cistercian monastery, L’Escale-Dieu in Southern France to have had an ever-increasing collection, meaning multiple niches were added to the single existing one, seen in Figure 1.04 (2012: 51). These initial monastery libraries separated book storage from reading, however, the marrying of two came soon after at the Benedictine Abbey of Saint-Gall in Switzerland.

According to Vais, in 820 A.D, plans were being drafted to expand the Benedictine Abbey in Switzerland. The building was to be two story with a scriptorium on the ground level and the monastery library upstairs. The aim of this was to minimize theft and unauthorized personnel accessing the texts. The library was designed to have an abundance of natural light, larger rooms for book storage and spaces for reading (Vais 2012: 53). However, after some four to five hundred centuries, university libraries were starting to emerge with their interior architecture inspired by monastery examples.

Figure 1.04 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The entrance to the armarium at the Cistercian monastery, Lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Escale-Dieu in Southern France dating back to the 6th Century.

By the 12th and 13th centuries, secularized education was becoming more apparent throughout Europe which meant university libraries were starting to emerge (Vais 2012: 54). Vais noted that, in England, monastery libraries were used as a precedent for the design of university libraries as they were the only existing examples. The Queens College Library at Cambridge University in England, built in 1448 A.D, followed the lectern design which can be seen in Figure 1.05 (Vais 2012: 54). However, according to architect Kristian Fabbri and professor of architecture Marco Pretelli, the first public library designed with furniture fit for purpose which was open to anyone was the Malatestiana Library in Cesena, Italy. This library was built between 1450 A.D and 1504 A.D by the Lord of Cesena, Malatesta Novello (2011: 16). The interior of this library seen in Figure 1.06, does not compare to those of England or France as the use of marble for the eleven columns throughout the space created a lighter, more open interior. The openness was further emphasized through the white limestone vault ceiling as well as the natural light that entered the space through 44 Venetian style windows on both sides of the building (Vais 2012: 56). Rows of 58 wooden plutei â&#x20AC;&#x201C; desk or backbench furniture to store and read manuscripts, provided an abundance of seating, which emphasized the 12

importance and opportunity this library held and provided to the community of Cesena (Fabbri and Pretelli 2011: 16). However, this was not the only example of a library at this time that was focused on serving the wider community.

Figure 1.05 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The interior of The Queens College Library at Cambridge University, England showing the lectern library design with rows of wooden book shelves and single desks positioned next to windows.

The Notre Dame Cathedral Library in Noyon, France is an example of a library from 1507 A.D that still exists today which had a strong focus on the public, ensuring books were accessible. The two-story building hosts the library on the top floor, sitting at 21.9 meters by 5.2 meters in size (Vais 2012: 54). It is noted in Figure 1.07; the current interior layout was the result of major changes in the 18th century. However unchanged features include the exposed wooden beams on the ceiling which guide the visitor through the body of the long interior. Nine modestly sized windows on the eastern wall provide minimal natural light creating a dark interior. Vais believed the Notre Dame Cathedral Library would have had one row of seating as it was common practice in the 1500s to associate a carrel â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a small cubicle with a desk, with a window (2012: 54). It can be deduced from similar libraries of this time, such as the Hereford Cathedral Library in Hereford, England, that the original layout would have been similar to the lectern library design, pictured in Figure 1.08. This type of layout revealed the values of the

time within libraries. These buildings were places of solitude and quiet reflection which capitalized on natural light to optimize the user experience. However, further architectural progression would occur to the public library typology during the Renaissance, focusing on designs to accommodate growing collections of Greek and Roman texts.

Figure 1.06 – The interior of the Malatestiana Library in Cesena, Italy built between 1450 A.D and 1504 A.D which features marble columns, white limestone vault ceilings and wooden plutei – desks or backbench seating.

Figure 1.07 – The interior of the Notre Dame Cathedral Library in Noyon, France built in 1507 A.D. This current layout was a result of changes made in the 18th century, however the ceiling and windows were not changed. The original furniture layout would have featured carrels in a lectern library design, similar to Figure 1.09.

Figure 1.08 – The interior of the Hereford Cathedral Library in Hereford, England which features the lectern library design where bookshelves divide the interior into small private sections with attached desks.

The continued development of the library typology during the Renaissance (14 th Century A.D – 17th Century A.D)

Unlike the Middle Ages which focused on the rise of Christianity, during the Renaissance there was a strong societal interest in Classical Greece and Rome which was reflected through the design intent of Renaissance libraries and the texts these libraries collected. The Vatican Library in the Vatican City, experienced several architectural expansions during the 14 th century. According to Wiegand and Davis, it was considered, in 1455 A.D, to be one of the largest libraries of the time as it had approximately 400 Greek and 800 Latin manuscripts. In 1475 A.D, new quarters were designed by architects Domenico Ghirlandaio and Melozzo da Forli which included a public Greek library and a public Latin library (1994: 548). However, the Vatican Library was not the only library designed to accommodate growing Classical collections.

Wiegand and Davis argued one of the greatest libraries in the world was the Laurentian Library in Florence, Italy by Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (1475 A.D – 1564 A.D) (1994: 547). Michelangelo was involved with this library’s design and construction from 1524 A.D to 15

1533 A.D at the Monastery of Florence in Italy (Cooper 2011: 53). The library commissioned by Pope Clement VII (1478 A.D – 1534 A.D) was purpose built to house a large collection of predominantly Greek manuscripts that had been collected by Italian banker and politician Cosimo de’ Medici (1389 A.D – 1464 A.D) and his grandson Italian statesman Lorenzo de’ Medici (1449 A.D – 1492 A.D) throughout the late 14th century (Wiegand and Davis 1994: 547). The library was designed in three sections, an unbuilt book room, the ricetto – the entrance staircase, and the reading room. The ricetto – foyer, needed to include a staircase as the reading room was to be positioned on top of the existing monks’ quarters. The expansive entrance room is almost square in size at 9.51 meters by 10.31 meters and is the same width as the reading room (Cooper 2011: 70). According to author James Cooper, Michelangelo felt it was very important to ensure the users of this library felt a comfort and continuity as they moved through the ricetto to the reading room. Stucco was used on the wall paneling in both interiors to assist with this continuity, seen in Figure 1.09 and Figure 1.10. At the base of the entry staircase the only visible element of the reading room is the wooden walnut ceiling, pictured in Figure 1.10. The width of the ovoid forms used in the ceiling match the width of the ovoid steps in the ricetto. The intent for this staircase was for it to be made from walnut wood, adding another layer of connection with the rows of wooden reading room desks, however this design choice did not go ahead (2011: 79). The thought and consideration put into this public library set a precedent for future architects to put the user experience at the forefront of their design process. The public library typology was now, undeniably, being designed for the people.

The development of public libraries throughout Classical Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance was expansive and diverse. Many design choices and library processes still used today were devised at this time and would have long lasting effects on the progression of public library designs for centuries to come. This development continues in the 18 th, 19th and 20th centuries dues to compulsory education and the outcomes of the Industrial Revolution.

Figure 1.09 – The ricetto – the entrance staircase, to the Laurentian Library at the Monastery of Florence in Italy designed by Michelangelo between 1524 A.D and 1533 A.D. The perspective from the base of staircase allows direct sight to the library’s ceiling, allowing a connection between the two spaces.

Figure 1.10 – The interior of the reading room at the Laurentian Library in Florence, Italy which features stucco walls and a walnut wooden ceiling and reading desks.

Chapter Two Chapter two of this dissertation will focus on the significant societal events during the 18 th, 19th and 20th centuries and the effect these had on public libraries. Firstly, subscription and circulating libraries will be explained as precursors to the public library as they provide context for processes and design choices adopted by public libraries later on. The Age of Enlightenment, The Industrial Revolution and the establishment of compulsory education will be outlined briefly to provide societal context for the changes seen in libraries established during these times. Libraries of these times that reacted to the societal changes also provide evidence to prove that for hundreds of years, libraries have been responding to current events to provide their users with relevant well-designed spaces for opportunity.

The precursor to the tax-funded public library: subscription and circulating libraries

In the previous chapter libraries were at a point of development where their interiors were grand and formal with books separated from the reading room – texts offered were typically from Classical Greece and Rome only. Subscription libraries, also known as social libraries, started to arise during the late 18th and early 19th centuries for the wealthy white elite who could pay the fee required to be a member (Robertson 2015: 2). It is important to note that during the 18th century the intellectual and philosophical movement, The Age of Enlightenment, was extremely prevalent across Europe which was prompting people to reconsider their thoughts and beliefs on the world. People were encouraged to be skeptical and view life with individual thought instead of through a traditional religious lens (Robertson 2015: 2). The Age of Enlightenment saw a focus on science and philosophy and the further expansion and exploration of knowledge in these fields. Author, Jessica Bowd commented on this ‘culture of specialization and expertise’, revealing subscription libraries were focused on housing books of fact rather than fiction. Bowd proposed that ‘subscription libraries provided useful knowledge or technical information to increasingly professionalized groups like medical practitioners, bankers, overseas traders and manufacturers’ (2013: 183). Subscription libraries were formed by avid and well-off readers who joined together in library societies to run institutions by selling shares and upholding regular fees (Wiegand and Davis 2015: 142).

Literate, professional and educated white men who could afford the fees of a subscription library were able to make use of the collections. According to Wiegand and Davis, Scottish author, historian and biographer, Thomas Carlyle ‘experienced constant frustration at the absence of a scholarly lending library in the capital’ (2015: 634). Hence, the most notable subscription library in England was established in 1841: The London Library, which still exists today (Wiegand and Davis 2015: 634). A year after it was established, the library collection reached 13,000 volumes. Figure 2.01 depicts an early photograph of The London Library taken in the late 19th century. This reading room featured wooden floor to ceiling shelves on every wall which maximized book storage and emphasized the expansive ceilings. Ladders on tracts allowed a subscriber to access books on higher shelves. Various tables and chairs provided formal places to sit and read as well as places to socialize and discuss texts with friends. However, subscription libraries were not the only example of pre-public libraries; circulating libraries also provided books to people, with a more diverse subject range.

Figure 2.01 – A photograph of The London Library reading room taken in the 19th Century featuring wooden floor to ceiling book shelves with ladders on wall tracts for accessibility.

Circulating libraries also thrived in the 19 th century and were designed to profit from the lending of books to the public in exchange for a fee (Wiegand and Davis 2015: 608). Some circulating libraries were opened and used for leisure at no cost to the user such as the New

York Free Circulating Library established in 1879. Figure 2.02 depicts children in 1899 spending their afternoon at the library perusing the shelves and reading books in the company of other children. According to Wiegand and Davis, in contrast to the exclusive subscription library, the circulating library was known to ‘allow women and children to join, circulated popular books, provided access to newspapers, periodicals, ephemeral pamphlets, maintained extended hours and provided on-site reading rooms’ (2015: 643). After an intense rise in their demand throughout the 19th century, the circulating library’s popularity started to decline in the 20 th century as people started to purchase books due to their reduced cost.

Figure 2.02 – A photograph taken in 1899 of children spending their afternoon at the New York Free Circulating Library.

Changes to city populations and family lifestyles due to The Industrial Revolution 1760 - 1850

In order to understand the development of the library typology throughout the 18 th and 19th centuries, it is important to first gain a general understanding of the societal changes as a result of The Industrial Revolution. According to English historian Pat Hudson, The Industrial Revolution occurred approximately between the years of 1760 to 1850 where the change in society was ‘sudden and violent’ (1992: 11). Over these ninety years, the establishment of mechanical processes and large-scale manufacturing pushed workers and their families to move to big cities for work (Hudson 1992: 27). A graph from R.S Schofield’s 1981 book The Population History of England 1541 – 1871: A Reconstruction, indicates that in England during The Industrial Revolution, the population jumped from approximately six million in 1760 to twenty million by 1860 (Hudson 1992: 134). The rapid urbanization of cities saw London’s population rise to 959 000 people by 1801. By 1850 and onwards, 70% of Europe’s urban growth was occurring in England, making England but more specifically London, the epicenter for growth and change during this time (Hudson 1992: 150). Hudson referenced H. Perkin in his 1969 book Origins of Modern English Society 1780 – 1880, where Perkin identified the three broad societal classes that emerged as a result of The Industrial Revolution: the landed aristocracy who made money from rents, the bourgeoisie who made money from profits and the mass of the working population who relied on a wage (1992: 33). The emergence of free time as a result of shift work amongst the working class as well as the ‘secularization of social life’ due to the weakening force of the Church created what Hudson referred to as ‘plebian culture’, people found they had spare time to be social and hence the emergence of buildings providing entertainment and activities arose (1992: 205). However, the establishment of compulsory education was equally an important factor in the progression of public libraries.

The introduction of compulsory education in the 19th Century and its effects on the public library progression

According to American heterodox economist, historian and political theorist Murray Rothbard, in countries such as England, the USA and Australia, general public education became compulsory in the second half of the 19th century (1979: 32). For England, it was the Education Act of 1870 which made it compulsory for children between the ages of five and thirteen to 21

attend school. By 1876, 84 percent of children living in English cities were attending school (Rothbard 1979: 32). In the USA, Massachusetts and Connecticut were the first states to enforce school attendance in the late 18th and early 19th centuries (Rothbard 1979: 40). According to Rothbard, ‘…in 1852 Massachusetts established the first comprehensive, statewide, modern system of compulsory schooling in the United States…’ (1979: 40). By 1900, almost every state had established compulsory education (1979: 41). According to UNESCO, Australia followed the example set by England through the Education Act of 1870 by implementing centralized systems under State Departments between 1870 and 1900 (1951: 21). Compulsory education in Australia did not come in to full effect until the beginning of the 20th century. Initially, children were expected to attend school from the age of six to fourteen which was later raised to fifteen (UNESCO 1951: 23). Due to compulsory education, worldwide literacy rates increased and hence library audiences expanded, setting in motion the next changes to the library typology.

By 1850, the public library system as it is known today had been officially inaugurated (Black 2006: 21). Information Science professor, Alistair Black discussed the importance and effect public libraries would have on society,

‘Public libraries have consistently positioned themselves as sources of both useful knowledge and rational recreation. Books, newspapers, periodicals and reference sources, as well as extension and outreach activities in the form of lectures, classes and links with museum and art provision, have been provided to support both serious study and leisure. Public libraries have sought to meet the educational and technical needs of an increasingly commercial and politically informed society. However, they have also made available the imaginative literature required to help counteract the social stress, alienation and dehumanization associated with an industrialized, urban and ‘rushed’ society’ (2006: 22).

German-British art and architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner, stated that The Boston Public Library, established in 1854 ‘is now one of the great libraries of America’ (1987: 105). The interior design of this library reveals the societal push in the 1850s to provide places of leisure and recreation for those living in cities due to the library’s beautiful architectural design and 22

expansive scale (Wiegand and Davis 2015: 86). Harvard historian, George Ticknor and his colleague Edward Everett are accredited to the public library movement that occurred in America through their Report of the Trustees in 1852 (Wiegand and Davis 2015: 85). According to Wiegand and Davis, this document spoke of ‘the radical notion of free admission to all, circulation of books for home use, and a range of resources from scholarly to popular…’ (2015: 85). The library’s architect Charles Follen McKim of McKim, Mead and White was told to design a ‘Palace for the People’ and so McKim designed a grand library (Wiegand and Davis 2015: 86). The interior and exterior of the building was designed in the Cinquecento Style - 16th century period of Italian art, architecture, literature with a reversion to classical (Pevsner 1987: 105). This is evident in the Renaissance interiors and frequent use of marble, seen in Figure 2.03 and the Florentine courtyard pictured in Figure 2.04. The main architectural feature of The Boston Public Library is the expansive, curved ceiling reading room. The inscriptions ‘Built by the People and Dedicated to the Advancement of Learning’ and ‘Free to All’ seen in Figure 2.05, are included on murals and engraved into the building’s exterior, further reinforcing the library’s intent to serve all people (Wiegand and Davis 2015: 86). According to university librarian, editor and publisher Bob Duckett, in the middle to late 19 th century reading rooms were introduced to libraries ‘whereby the best literature was collected and made available for consultation’ (2006: 56). This included newspapers, journals and periodicals that were kept on shelves within the reading room. Rows of empty desks with reading lights also provided opportunities for researchers to reserve a table to study or users to read high use material (Duckett, 2006: 56). The Boston Library may be known as ‘the greatest library built in America’ but one must not forget its influential equivalents in England and France.

Figure 2.03 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; An interior photograph of the Renaissance style reading room featuring a curved marble ceiling at The Boston Library established in 1854.

Figure 2.04 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; An exterior photograph of the Florentine style courtyard at The Boston Library established in 1854.

Figure 2.05 – An inscription above the entrance to The Boston Library established in 1854 stating ‘free to all’.

The introduction of reading rooms to public libraries in the 19 th century

The reading rooms of the British Museum in London and the Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris both feature vast and open spaces for public use. The British Museum was founded in 1753, however according to Wiegand and Davis, ‘the great circular Reading Room, surrounded by iron book stacks’ was not opened until 1857 (2015: 89). The ceiling features a glazed dome and the 364 seats in this space are positioned radially, a layout not seen before this building (Pevsner 1987: 108). Iron columns and floors create a multi-leveled mezzanine around the circumference of the reading room interior. Books are stored on shelves on each level but do not protrude into the space, seen in Figure 2.06. This could indicate the changing ideals of the time; books were present and visible in the reading room but they did not infringe upon the multi-functional interior. Similarly, the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, designed by architect Henri Labrouste (1801 – 1875) also featured iron columns in the reading room which were constructed between 1865-68. Pevsner stated, ‘sixteen columns supported nine glass domes which created a lighter and more elegant interior, however less conducive to concentration’ (1987: 108). Figure 2.07 depicts the columns and domes in the interior. The columns needed to support the ceiling, interrupt the expansive nature of the space and the rows of desks force users to face each other whereas in The British Museum Library, users are spread out and separated by wooden screens on each desk. Again, depicted in Figure 2.07, shelves of books 25

line the walls but do not clutter the central part of the interior allowing this space to be kept open for varying personal use.

Figure 2.06 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A photograph of the reading room at the British Museum in London which was opened in 1857 featuring a glazed dome ceiling, 364 seats and iron columns supporting shelves of books around the interior perimeter.

Figure 2.07 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A photograph of the reading room at the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, France constructed between 1865-68 featuring sixteen columns supporting the nine domes forming the ceiling.

The continued development of public libraries in the 20 th Century

The late 19th and early 20th century saw a continuation of Classical revival designs in library interiors, however Modernism took over in the 1930s, changing the aesthetics and atmosphere of public libraries. There were no more columns, pillars, arches or ornaments; instead the interiors were simpler and less grand in scale (Pevsner 1987: 110). In America by the 1920s, there was no state without a public library and by 1936 there were 6,235 libraries serving 63 percent of Americans country-wide (Wiegand and Davis 2015: 521). According to Wiegand and Davis, public libraries started to serve children by introducing children’s rooms, developing story hours and expanding children’s collections. Libraries also extended their hours and opened urban branches to reach the broader community (2015: 648). In England in the 1930s, the vision for public libraries shifted to cultural centers which offered lounges, meeting rooms and lecture theatres (Muddiman 2006: 86). Author Dave Muddiman stated that, the Librarian of the London Borough of Leyton, Edward Sydney, opened the Leytonstone Library at Church Lane in East London in 1934 to provide the working-class community with ‘a library service and meeting place for local cultural and educational activities’ (2006: 86). Muddiman further explained that, The Leytonstone Library pictured in Figure 2.08 included ‘a lecture hall, two other meeting rooms, was equipped with the latest state of the art film, audio-visual and exhibition equipment’ (2006: 86). This library and cultural center model quickly became very popular as The Leytonstone Library transformed into a hub for discussion groups, lectures, drama, concerts, film screenings and exhibitions, instantly drawing the attention of a wider audience (Muddiman 2006: 86). This proved that libraries have the ability to be multifunctional, which is still relevant today.

Figure 2.08 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; An exterior view of Leytonstone Library at Church Lane in East London built for the working-class community as a library and cultural center by librarian Edward Sydney in 1934.

From the late 1940s and onwards, modular libraries became popularized by stack manufacturer Angus Snead Macdonald. This design divided an interior library space into bays separated by structural columns, removing the necessity of walls (Wiegand and Davis 2015: 355). This open and flexible design allowed for multi-functional use of all areas within libraries, however reading rooms were typically still included (Wiegand and Davis 2015: 355). According to Wiegand and Davis, modular libraries were built to be â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;severely unadorned, starkly simple, and almost brutally uncompromisingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (2015: 356) as seen in the National Library of Australia in Canberra, Australia opened in 1961, pictured in Figure 2.09. However, by the 1960s there was a push for libraries to retain some of their prior detail and elegance as well as new designs that moved away from the harsh lines and angles of modular libraries (Wiegand and Davis 2015: 356). This led to round, high-rise and low grade libraries with facades featuring materials such as glass and aluminum. In the interior, carpeted floors and small group study rooms were introduced as well as more advanced lighting systems and ergonomic furnishings (Wiegand

and Davis 2015: 356). Public libraries at the close of the 20th century had transformed into multi-functional and diverse spaces for the sharing and broadening of knowledge.

Figure 2.09 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; An interior view of The National Library of Australia in Canberra, Australia built in 1961 featuring a bold, angular open-plan interior.

In conclusion, this chapter has outlined the societal changes occurring in the world during the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries such as The Age of Enlightenment, The Industrial Revolution and the introduction of compulsory education how these effected the progression of the public library typology. These world events influenced the technology, purpose and design of public libraries. Understanding the world context when these libraries were established will assist in evaluating and identifying changes that have since occurred to the typology in the 21 st century. With this knowledge, it will be easier to understand how societal events occurring in the 21st century such as the explosion of smart technology are threatening to affect the development of public libraries just as societal events influenced libraries throughout the past three centuries.

Chapter Three

At the conclusion of the last chapter the resurgence of the popularity of public libraries in the 20th century led to increasing numbers of public libraries throughout cities where they transformed into open plan spaces with various multifunctional zones within the interior. Reading rooms, children’s spaces and the inclusion of computers all continued to rise as the importance of early childhood education and the need to be technologically aware were rising values at this time. This chapter will outline the shifting societal values of the 21st century which were deemed threats to the typology’s existence such as the expansion of smart phones and the subsequent decline in reading. Once these issues are made clear, the drastic shift in library purpose, function and interior design will be better justified. The prevailing transformation of the public library typology into advanced, multi-functional community hubs seen worldwide will be explored through a series of precedents. The spatial design of these 21st century library examples are all unique with multi and split level interiors, walls replaced with curtains and stairs frequently doubling as seating. These examples will be taken from every continent to highlight that this push for libraries to redefine their purpose is a global movement.

Issues threatening the death of the public library in the 21 st century

Before the 21st century public library transformation is addressed, it is first important to understand the reasons why the public library was feared to become obsolete. This knowledge will highlight the specific issues public libraries have had to overcome to remain relevant, which in turn, will justify the drastic shift in their purpose, function and interior design. According to Scottish author Karen Latimer, at the turn of the century it was believed that the public library typology in its physical form would soon be taken over entirely by the virtual library (2018: 203). This has not happened but the virtual library did play a part in the feared extinction of physical libraries. Library and Information Technology author, Shayna Pekala noted that during the 2000s, public libraries took advantage of emerging technologies and ‘provided a suite of online tools for cross-collection searching and access to a wide range of materials’ (2017: 49). Unbeknown to public library staff and users at the time, the digitization of catalogs and information would threaten the longevity and relevance of libraries in the 21 st century (Pekala

2017: 49). British author and newspaper columnist, Simon Jenkins also commented on this issue through the words of American historian Matthew Battles admitting that digitization has changed everything. Jenkins stated ‘the public library is no longer a church sacred to knowledge, its walls have been blasted open, its uniqueness gone’ (2016). Two issues raised by American author Mark Smith include the decline in reading and the decline of attention spans. Smith noted that the National Endowment for the Arts, a U.S federal agency that aims to diversify all Americans exposure to the arts, conducted a survey on U.S adults in 2017 which revealed that only 52.7 percent of the adult population read books, which was a declining statistic (2019: 245). In a 2015 study, 77 percent of American youth aged between 18 to 24 said they would pick up their smart phone when they were bored, eliminating the experience of free thinking (Smith 2019: 245). This constant and instant gratification is believed to have threatened public libraries which according to Smith, have traditionally provided the opportunity for thoughtful reflection, close reading and slow thinking (Smith 2019: 245).

To contrast, American author Mark Schatz stated that the more time people spend in isolation at their computers or on their devices, the more they hunger for civic engagement. Schatz continued stating ‘libraries always have had a role in bringing communities together. As the pace of change in modern life accelerates, library design is changing too’ (2010: 68). Smith reiterated that public libraries have successfully transformed themselves into community anchors for formal and informal learning, technology access and community engagement (2019: 241). Jenkins proposed that the threats to the typology did not cause public libraries to become obsolete however they would need to regain their importance and redefine their purpose in 21st century society,

‘The library must rediscover its specialness. This must lie in exploiting the strength of the post-digital age, the “age of live”. This strength lies not in books as such, but in its readers, in their desire to congregate, share with each other, hear writers and experiences books in the context of their community. Beyond the realm of the digital oligarchs, the big money now is in love. It is in plays, concerts, comedy, lectures, debates, gigs, quizzes, performance of any sort. The local library needs to become that place of congregations. It should combine coffee shop, book exchange, playgroup, art gallery, museum and performance’ (2019). 31

Similarly, Latimer highlighted that a good 21st century library created a relaxed atmosphere conducive to interaction and innovation (2019: 203). Latimer continued ‘the new building type is all about flexibility and choice with a wide variety of areas from busy social spaces to quiet areas for scholarly study and with a range of seating from the causal and comfy to group seating and individual spaces’ (2019: 203). The by-line of Jenkins’ article summarized the position public libraries are determined to take: ‘the internet stole the monopoly on knowledge but it can’t recreate a sense of place. Revival is possible’ (2016). Now that the causes for change within 21st century public libraries have been made clear, it will be easier to break-down various global, contemporary public library examples and analyze their transformed function, purpose and interior design.

The continental breakdown of 21st century public libraries, their newfound purpose and subsequent interior designs

An Australian example of a 21st century public library which was designed to serve the broader community in a multitude of ways is the Green Square Library in Sydney, Australia. It was completed in 2018 and designed by Stewart Hollenstein in association with Stewart Architecture. This community hub won the Architectural Review Library Award in 2018 because according to Architectural Review judge Demetri Porphyrios it ‘unites contemporary library uses with diverse community activities in a thoughtful, elegant and generous manner’ (Cheng 2018). In the opinion of Charles Rice, the public library is mostly buried underground with some elements rising into the sky while others appear as sunken voids, seen in Figure 3.01 (2019: 34). Amongst these voids and towers, Green Square Library provides all the activities and opportunities desired by a modern-day community. The triangular entry hosts a café on the ground level which then leads visitors down to the subterranean main library space. Here, skylights flood the interior with natural light as well as the glass encompassed sunken garden which connects the above plaza to the underground interior seen in Figure 3.02. This ground level hosts an open children’s book section with frequent children’s programs, pictured in Figure 3.03, private and small group meeting rooms along the perimeter walls, an exterior amphitheater and rows of books on shelves along the curved walls. According to Linda Cheng, the six-story square tower houses a double-heighted reading room, pictured in Figure 3.04, a 32

computer lab with a 3d printer, a black-box theatre, a music room with a grand piano and recording equipment and a bookable community space. Cheng commented ‘this collection of spaces is stacked together to provide a functional separation form the other library facilities’ (2018). Architect Hollenstein was quoted by Cheng explaining the intent behind the project, he wanted to ‘create a fluid space that was conducive to a community space and would allow different groups and spaces to mix together, rather than a formalist approach, which would create clear distinctions between different zones’ (2018). Through Green Square Library’s interior design, the public library has reinvented its purpose within the community. The feared decline of public library engagement has been combatted by providing a diverse range of opportunities to its users.

Figure 3.01 – An aerial shot of Green Square Library at night depicting the alternating towering volumes and sunken voids across the site.

Figure 3.02 – Green Square Library’s sunken garden encompassed in glass connecting the subterranean interior and exterior as well as the above plaza.

Figure 3.03 – Green Square Library’s children’s zone with accessible books, carpeted floor and nooks in the wall for seating.

Figure 3.04 – Green Square Library’s double heighted rainbow reading room located in the tower.

An Asian public library completed in 2017 in Tianjin, China is the Tianjin Binhai Library by MVRDV. This 21st century public library was built as the centerpiece of a larger urban development amongst four other cultural buildings in Tianjin. According to Italian architect Riccardo Bianchini, the interior architecture and immense scale of the public library itself, pictured in Figure 3.05, reinforced to the community that their needs for a place to congregate, connect and study have been at the forethought of the city’s redevelopment. Bianchini explained, the terraced space is the library’s main reading room and book storage area which encompasses a large spherical auditorium containing 82 seats with a LED-panel-covered-skin which provides a large multimedia façade (2019). With book shelving in the main reading room, there is the illusion that even after a user can no longer reach the higher shelves, the rows of books continue to the ceiling, pictured in Figure 3.06. The Tianjin Binhai Library also provides users with secondary spaces such as smaller reading rooms, educational facilities, archives,

meeting rooms, offices and a media center which branch off of the main reading room, seen in Figure 3.07 (Bianchini 2019). The intense size of the Tianjin Binhai Library interior and the estimated 1.2 million volumes it holds, reinforces again, the position public libraries have reclaimed within modern day society. This public library exemplifies that, worldwide, the typology is becoming the new epicenter for communities through its newfound purpose and design.

Figure 3.05 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The view entering the Tianjin Binhai Library in China with the reading room shelves on either side of the multimedia auditorium in the center.

Figure 3.06 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A photograph of the perforated metal shelves in the Tianjin Binhai Library in China which have pretend books printed on them to give the illusion of the shelves holding books to the ceiling.

Figure 3.07 – A photograph of a secondary study room off of the main reading room in the Tianjin Binhai Library in China.

In North and South America, two 21st-century public libraries depict simple interiors which have been designed to be adaptable and reworked, post completion. In North America, The South Central Regional Library of Kentucky, U.S was designed by MSR Design in 2019 and in South America, the Biblioteca Sur of Lima, Peru was designed by Gonzalez Moix Arquitectura in 2017. The geometric shells of both public libraries encompass open, paired-back interior zones which can be adapted and reworked depending on the needs of the community (McKnight 2019). Architectural journalist Jenna McKnight commented on The South Central Regional Library stating ‘the library is dominated by a vast, open space with no columns and limited walls - spatial approach that allows for adaptability. This flexibility will allow the library to meet the community’s needs well into the future’, pictured in Figure 3.08 (2019). Similarly, architectural journalist James Brillion described the layout of the Biblioteca Sur stating ‘an open-plan reading room occupies one end of the plan, across from smaller rooms for children’s activities and private study on the other’, pictured in Figure 3.09 (2018). It is important to note that throughout the planning process, community consultations occurred in Lima to determine the needs of the future users (Brillion 2018). Both libraries provide multifunctional zones such as a flexible-seating auditorium, offices for meetings and group work, an area for teenagers, a community room, a flex studio for hands-on activities and a maker space, which according to

McKnight provided endless opportunities for innovation and connection (McKnight 2019). These two libraries also exemplify the important role nature plays within community spaces. At the South Central Regional Library, large windows and glass walls appear throughout all the spaces connecting users to the woodland that surrounds the site, pictured in Figure 3.10 and Figure 3.11 (McKnight 2019). Similarly, the Biblioteca Sur’s entrance on its long side faces a park which can be seen within the interior and a public plaza along the shorter end provides a space to read outside, seen in Figure 3.12 (Brillion 2018). These two libraries fulfil the need for a multifunctional community hub within their interiors as they allow users the option of creating their own spaces.

Figure 3.08 – A photograph of The South Central Regional Library interior in Kentucky, U.S which features an open plan design with no columns or walls separating the various zones.

Figure 3.09 – A photograph of The Biblioteca Sur in Lima, Peru featuring the quiet study end of the library interior.

Figures 3.10 and 3.11 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; These photographs depict the same room in The South Central Regional Library in Kentucky, U.S being used for different purposes with the large vast windows allowing views to nature.

Figure 3.12 – A photograph of the plaza located at one end of The Biblioteca Sur in Lima, Peru which provides an exterior place to read and connect with nature.

The final two public libraries contrast drastically from each other in their final designs and scale however both are exceptional examples of 21st century public libraries situated within existing, revitalized structures. The African exemplar, the Niger Mosque now library and the European exemplar, converted locomotive shed now LocHal Library in Tilburg, The Netherlands are two examples of sustainable design and urban renewal. The library and community center in Niger was converted in 2018 by Atelier Masomi and Studio Chahar in the rural village of Dandaji (de Klee 2019). Founder of Aterlier Masomi, Mariam Kamara stated ‘we really wanted to bring (the mosque) back to where it had been. Essentially the building was melting. It hadn’t been maintained in more than 20 years’ (de Klee 2019). At the request of the community, the mosque was converted into a library and community center, pictured in Figure 3.13. The 40

shelves along with all structural additions to the new public library are removable and can be reoriented. According to Katie de Klee, ‘the bookshelves create dividers for private and group study spaces and a wood and metal mezzanine floor was added to create extra space, seen in Figure 3.14. Additional classrooms have been added to allow for community meeting spaces and adult literacy classes’ (2019). The vast interior of the LocHal Library also values the importance of sustainable design whilst serving the community with an array of opportunities. Seen in Figure 3.15, according to architectural journalist Ali Morris, black steel, concrete, glass and oak were combined to create a series of movable giant textile screens that can create temporary zones within the building (2019). The public library offers large public reading tables that double as podia, an exhibition area, coffee kiosk and separate children’s library. Smaller spaces throughout the interior known as labs provide spaces for users to learn new skills such as the Food Lab, Word Lab, DigiLab and Heritage Lab (Morris 2019). The heart of the building are the broad steps that connect the ground floor to the second and third floors where one thousand spectators can be seated for events, seen in Figure 3.16. The original metal framework and historic glass walls have been preserved and can be seen one the upper levels where the book shelves and quiet reading areas are located (Morris 2019). Both the Niger Mosque Library and the LocHal Library reveal designs which preserve the history of their sites in a sustainable way whilst also providing their communities with the services and opportunities they desire. Their contrasting locations yet similar project intents reveal that the rejuvenation of the public library typology in the 21 st century is a global success.

Figure 3.13 – An interior photograph of the converted mosque to library in Dandaji, Niger featuring rows of adaptable shelves hosting and array of books within the original mosque shell.

Figure 3.14 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A photograph of the wood and metal mezzanine added to the public library in Dandaji, Niger to provide additional space for users.

Figure 3.15 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A photograph of the LocHal Library in Tilburg, the Netherlands featuring huge textiles screens which are designed to aid in the versatility of the interior functions.

Figure 3.16 – A photograph of the broad stairs within the LocHal Library interior in Tilburg, the Netherlands which can seat one thousand people for events.

This chapter has outlined the causes for the feared ‘death of the library’ at the turn of the century which include the expansion of technology across society and the subsequent decline of reading and individual’s attention spans. The digitization of library materials, catalogs and information also threatened their extinction. Being aware of these proposed issues allowed for an informed view of the typology as it started to transform in the 21 st century. If public libraries did not address these issues and recreate themselves, their extinction may have occurred. The rejuvenation and transformation of public libraries into futuristic, community hubs are a global movement which has been proven through exemplars in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, South America and Oceania. From collections to connections, 21 st century public libraries are providing communities with an epicenter for innovation and congregation. This newfound purpose is valued worldwide, no matter where a community is located.

Conclusion The aim of this dissertation has been to explore the public library typology’s function and subsequent interior architecture throughout history to inform the exploration of the 21 st century public library and its changing position within society. It is understood that the earliest libraries served a single purpose to house written records and store documents. These libraries served a very small demographic of literate, male scribes in Classical Antiquity. However, from here after, the continued establishment of written word pushed libraries to grow, expanding not only their collections but their physical walls. The changing demographics of users over time due to societal changes further saw the typology transform. These points have been explored through both a historical and contemporary overview which led to the study of six worldwide 21st century library examples which all aim to provide people with a new array of opportunities through their design and function.

This dissertation has explored the function and interior design of libraries throughout Classical Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance as these eras, historically, saw the most progression and change to the typology. Chapter 1 has established a preliminary foundation of historical knowledge on libraries that has also assisted in understanding later changes to the typology. However due to limited time and scope, this dissertation has not covered every era of development since the typology’s inception nor has it covered the history of libraries on every continent. This dissertation’s historical overview of libraries extended to the middle of the 16th century as thereafter, there were no significant changes to the typology for several hundred years.

The outline of The Industrial Revolution and its effects on cities as well as the introduction of compulsory education throughout the Western World during the 18th and 19th centuries have been addressed as the major societal impacts behind the continued changes to public libraries during these eras. Through the contemporary overview the library typology’s progression has been discussed up until the year 2000. Chapter 2 focused on the establishment of reading rooms within libraries as this was a direct outcome of these societal changes as well as select examples of other types of libraries established at the time. Chapter 2 has not addressed all

public libraries effected or established as a cause of a social change or world event due to limited time and scope for this dissertation.

Finally, this dissertation concludes with the issues threatening the longevity and survival of the public library in the 21st century which were overwritten through six examples of public libraries, one from each continent that have reinvented their purpose and updated their interior design to accommodate the changing needs and interests of people today. This dissertation has only addressed the proposed intent and outlined the design of these 21 st century libraries. Due to the short time frame, from the establishment of these libraries and the writing of this dissertation, this dissertation has not been able to determine the true success of these 21st century library examples in fulfilling their intent of providing multi-use social hubs for their communities. One must question the success of the public libraries new transformation in engaging people enough to keep their doors open. One is prompted to keep in mind that the maker spaces and current technologies being incorporated into public libraries today will soon, too, become outdated and irrelevant, thus one must realize that in order for public libraries to stay relevant for the foreseeable future, they must not ever stop updating and reinventing themselves throughout the remainder of the 21st-century and the centuries to come.

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Figure 2.01 The London Library, 2019, Inside the Library, The London Library, accessed 30 October 2019, <https://www.londonlibrary.co.uk/about-us/historyofthelondonlibrary>. Figure 2.02 Snellings, M 2013, New York Free Circulating Library Bond Street Branch at 36 Bond Street, untapped new york, accessed 30 October 2019, <https://untappedcities.com/2013/08/23/east-village-historic-libraries-tourmulberry-branch-bond-branch-ottendorfer-branch-original-astor-library/>. Figure 2.03 Braxenthaler, M 2007, Boston Public Library, BostonUSA, accessed 30 October 2019, <https://www.bostonusa.com/listings/boston-public-library/11527/>. Figure 2.04 Press Release Desk, 2018, Boston Public Library Free Courtyard Concerts: What to Know, Patch, accessed 30 October 2019, <https://patch.com/massachusetts/boston/boston-public-library-free-courtyardconcerts-what-know>. Figure 2.05 Darnton, R 2015, Boston Public Library Free to All inscription, Tim McCormick, accessed 30 October 2019, <http://tjm.org/2013/01/25/open-access-revolutionarydisagreement-and-the-global-librar/boston-public-library_free-to-all-inscription/>. Figure 2.06 Macbeth, D 2017, The Round Reading Room at the British Museum, The British Museum, accessed 30 October 2019, <https://blog.britishmuseum.org/the-roundreading-room-at-the-british-museum/>. Figure 2.07 Fessy, G 2013, Henri Labrouste: Structure Brought to Light, The New York Times, accessed 30 October 2019, <https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/14/arts/design/henri-labrouste-at-the-museumof-modern-art.html>. Figure 2.08 Davis, B 2015, Leytonstone Library in High Road, Guardian, accessed 30 October 2019, <https://www.guardian-series.co.uk/news/13720391.free-tour-to-pass-homes-ofderek-jacobi-and-john-drinkwater/>.

Figure 2.09 Dupain, M 2018, Walter Bunningâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s National Library of Australia marks golden jubilee, ArchitectureAU, accessed 10 November 2019, <https://architectureau.com/articles/walter-bunnings-national-library-of-australiamarks-golden-jubilee/>. Figure 3.01 Gross, R 2019, Creating a village square: Green Square Library, Indesignlive, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.indesignlive.com/the-work/green-square-libraryinde-2019>. Figure 3.02 City of Sydney News, 2019, 10 reasons to visit the new Green Square Library, City of Sydney, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://news.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/articles/10-reasons-to-visit-the-new-greensquare-library>. Figure 3.03 McDonald, A 2019, Green Square Library and Plaza, from Stewart Hollenstein and Stewart Architecture, Indesignlive, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.indesignlive.com/dissections/green-square-library-stewartdissections>. Figure 3.04 Roe, T 2019, Plop Round Ottoman, Stylecraft, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.stylecraft.com.au/product/plop-round-ottoman>. Figure 3.05 MVRDV, 2017, MVDRV â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Tianjin Binhai Library, MVRDV, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.mvrdv.nl/projects/246/tianjin-binhai-library>. Figure 3.06 Van Duivenbode, O 2019, Tianjin Binhai Library by MVRDV, Is this the library of the future?, inexhibit, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.inexhibit.com/casestudies/tianjin-binhai-library-by-mvrdv-is-this-the-library-of-the-future/>.

Figure 3.07 Van Duivenbode, O 2017, Photos of new futuristic library in China with 1.2 million books, PetaPixel, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://petapixel.com/2017/11/14/photos-new-futuristic-library-china-1-2-millionbooks/>. Figure 3.08 The Chicago Athenaeum, 2017, Louisville South Central Library, The Chicago Athenaeum Museum of Architecture and Design, accessed 17 November 2019,

<https://www.chi-athenaeum.org/the-2018-awards/2018/06/13/louisville-southcentral-regional-library-louisville,-kentucky-2017/>. Figure 3.09 Del Carpio, R 2018, Community Library in La Molina, ArchDaily, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.archdaily.com/902453/community-library-in-lamolina-gonzalez-moix-arquitectura>. Figure 3.10 Lee, B 2019, MSR Design and JRA Architects tucks Kentucky library in a grove of trees, dezeen, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.dezeen.com/2019/06/05/louisville-free-public-library-msr-design-jraarchitects/>. Figure 3.11 Lee, B 2019, MSR Design and JRA Architects tucks Kentucky library in a grove of trees, dezeen, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.dezeen.com/2019/06/05/louisville-free-public-library-msr-design-jraarchitects/>. Figure 3.12 Del Carpio, R 2018, Gonzalez Moix designs Biblioteca Sur community library in Lima, dezeen, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.dezeen.com/2018/10/13/gonzalez-moix-arquitectura-biblioteca-surcommunity-library-la-molina-lima/>. Figure 3.13 Wang, J 2019, Atelier Masomi and Studio Chahar transform derelict Niger mosque into library, dezeen, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.dezeen.com/2019/01/12/atelier-masomi-dandaji-mosque-niger/>. Figure 3.14 Wang, J 2019, Atelier Masomi and Studio Chahar transform derelict Niger mosque into library, dezeen, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.dezeen.com/2019/01/12/atelier-masomi-dandaji-mosque-niger/>. Figure 3.15 Bollaert, S 2019, Civic Architects creates public library in vast locomotive shed, dezeen, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.dezeen.com/2019/02/27/lochal-publiclibrary-civic-architects/>. Figure 3.16 Bollaert, S 2019, Civic Architects creates public library in vast locomotive shed, dezeen, accessed 17 November 2019, <https://www.dezeen.com/2019/02/27/lochal-publiclibrary-civic-architects/>.

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