“Folkhemmet” in the 21st Century: How the Democratic Ideology of “Home” in Sweden in the 1930’s has Impacted the Design of Contemporary Scandinavian Public Interiors
Ellinor McNamara
Bachelor of Interior Architecture (Hons.) Final Year Dissertation
University of New South Wales, Australia 2019
Abstract Since its inception, architecture has had the potential to embody and promote social meaning which can influence the way people behave and think. Since Vitruvius in the 1st BC, architects "have maintained that buildings are more than utilitarian; they are instruments by which emotions, ideas, and beliefs are expressed" (Levine 2018: 5). The lasting effects of the functionalist movement which dominated Swedish interiors can still be seen today in the design of contemporary Scandinavian public interiors. This dissertation examines the role of interior architecture as a promotional tool to facilitate social and political ideologies, outlining the cultural and political climate of Sweden in the early 20th century and examining the rise of modernism in Europe. Above anything the interiors and design of Scandinavia today can be characterised by their democratic spirit, which can be linked directly to the Stockholm Exhibition in 1930 spearheaded by Gregor Paulsson. The link between the interior architecture techniques implemented and developed throughout the second half of the 20th century have rarely been compared directly to the interior architecture of the 21st century. This dissertation aims to fill that gap, through the analysis of critical works by significant proponents of functionalism, Gunnar Asplund and Alvar Aalto, illuminating their desire to combine the rural traditions of craftmanship and an environmental connection. Followed by the spatial analysis of 2 contemporary examples of interior architecture to demonstrate the direct link between the community-centric design philosophy of Folkhemmet and the affinity between the individual and the community felt in contemporary Scandinavian interior architecture.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr Laurence Kimmel for her guidance and support throughout this process, her mentorship and expertise provided me with the necessary assistance needed to complete this dissertation.
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List of Illustrations Figure 1.01: Ferdinand Boberg, exterior Waldemarsudde house, on Djurgården in Stockholm, erected 1904, photograph, Nättidningen Svensk Historia, accessed 23 October 2019, <https://svenskhistoria.se/waldemarsudde-blir-sjalvstandigt-fran-nationalmuseum/> Figure 1.02: Mickelsson, H Interior view of an early 20th century home in Sweden, photograph, Hälsinglands Museum, accessed 23 October 2019, <https://digitaltmuseum.se/021017686386/hmm71416> Figure 1.03: Gunnar Asplund, grand entrance to the Stockholm Exhibition, 1930, photograph of painting, Utzon photos, accessed 23 October 2019, <http://www.utzonphotos.com/aboututzon/curriculum-vitae-and-biography/biography/world-exhibition-in-stockholm/> Figure 1.04: Rosenberg, C.G, 1930 Gunnar Asplund’s Paradise Restaurant at the Stockholm Exhibition, photograph, Hälsinglands Museum, accessed 23 October 2019, <https://digitaltmuseum.se/011014982719/stockholmsutstallningen-1930-exteriorhuvudrestaurang-paradiset> Figure 1.05: East to west sectional perspective of Asplund’s Paradise Restaurant, 1930, photograph of sketched drawing, Treaty Cafe, accessed 23 October 2019 <http://treatycafe.blogspot.com/> Figure 1.06: Sven Markelius, Living room of Apartment 7, Hall 36, 1930, photograph, The Swedish Rug Blog, accessed 23 October 2019, <https://theswedishrugblog.wordpress.com/2016/09/14/model-housing-stockholm-1930/> Figure 2.01: Gunnar Asplund, Snellman House, 1918, photograph, Centro Vasco de Arquitectura, accessed 01 November 2019, < http://intranet.pogmacva.com/es/obras/53043> Figure 2.02: Gunnar Asplund, Villa Callin, 1915, photograph, Centro Vasco de Arquitectura, accessed 01 November 2019, < http://intranet.pogmacva.com/es/obras/54184> Figure 2.03: Gunnar Asplund, 1928, grand entry staircase to Stockholm public library, Desplans, 01 November 2019, <https://desplans.com/the-work-of-erik-gunnar-asplund/>
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Figure 2.04: Gunnar Asplund, 1920, central lending hall Stockholm public library, Alamy, accessed 01 November 2019, <https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-sweden-stockholm-stockholmcity-library-architect-gunnar-asplund-1928-12773570.html> Figure 2.05: Seier+Seier 2006, Gunnar Asplund Gothenburg Law Courts central staircase, Flickr, accessed 01 November 2019, <https://www.flickr.com/photos/seier/518540448> Figure 2.06: Gardener, G 2010, Gunnar Asplund Gothenburg Law Courts supplementary staircase, Gareth Gardener, accessed 01 November 2019, <http://garethgardnertest.blogspot.com/2010/10/portrait-of-tim-ronalds-and-images-of.html> Figure 2.07: Malmberg, J 2015, Courtyard in Alvar Aalto’s 1948 Sänynätsalo Town Hall, Finland, Docomomo, accessed 01 November 2019, < https://en.docomomo.fi/projects/saynatsalotown-hall/> Figure 2.08: North south section of Alvar Aalto’s Sänynätsalo Town Hall, Finland, ArchDaily, accessed 01 November 2019 < https://www.archdaily.com/783392/ad-classics-saynatsalotown-hall-alvar-aalto> Figure 2.09: inside Alvar Aalto Sänynätsalo Town Hall’s council chambers, Divisare, accessed 01 November 2019, < https://divisare.com/projects/317793-alvar-aalto-nico-saieh-saynatsalotown-hall-1951> Figure 2.10: walkway inside Alvar Aalto Sänynätsalo Town Hall, Archipicture, accessed 01 November 2019, <http://www.archipicture.eu/Architekten/Finnland/Aalto%20Alvar/Alvar%20Aalto%20%20Saynatsalo%20Town%20Hall%2030.html> Figure 2.11: public meeting room inside Alvar Aalto Sänynätsalo Town Hall, Keskisuomalainen, accessed 01 November 2019, https://www.ksml.fi/kulttuuri/S%C3%A4yn%C3%A4tsalonkunnantalossa-yleis%C3%B6tapahtuma-lauantaina/1203089
Figure 3.01: Ground floor of Sven Markelius’ 1935 co housing unit, accessed 27 November 2019, <https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:578172/FULLTEXT01.pdf> Figure 3.02: First floor of Sven Markelius’ 1935 co housing unit, accessed 27 November 2019,
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<https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:578172/FULLTEXT01.pdf> Figure 3.03: Arial shot of BIG’s 79&Park, 2018, accessed 27 November 2019, <https://www.dezeen.com/2018/11/09/big-76-park-stockholm-modular-timber-apartmentsarchitecture/> Figure 3.04: Ground floor plan of BIG’s 79&Park, accessed 27 November 2019, <https://www.archdaily.com/905534/79-and-park-big/5be491eb08a5e5f7ac000b74-79-andpark-big-ground-floor-plan?next_project=no> Figure 3.05: Interior view of BIG’s 79&Park, 2018, accessed 27 November 2019, <https://nordicdesign.ca/beautiful-interior-inspiration-from-swedish-residential-project79park/> Figure 3.06: kitchen/dining room of BIG’s 79&Park, 2018, accessed 27 November 2019, <https://nordicdesign.ca/beautiful-interior-inspiration-from-swedish-residential-project79park/> Figure 3.07: 79&Park lounge area of BIG’s 79&Park, 2018, accessed 27 November 2019, <https://nordicdesign.ca/beautiful-interior-inspiration-from-swedish-residential-project79park/> Figure 3.08: Sven Markelius, Living room of Apartment 7, Hall 36, 1930, photograph, The Swedish Rug Blog, accessed 23 October 2019, <https://theswedishrugblog.wordpress.com/2016/09/14/model-housing-stockholm-1930/> Figure 3.09: Exterior of Tham & Videgård’s school of architecture, 2015, accessed 27 November 2019, < https://www.archdaily.com/778460/school-of-architecture-at-the-royal-institute-oftechnology-tham-and-videgard-arkitekter?ad_medium=gallery> Figure 3.10: curved interior, timber clad walls of Tham & Videgård’s school of architecture, 2015, accessed 27 November 2019, < https://www.archdaily.com/778460/school-of-architecture-atthe-royal-institute-of-technology-tham-and-videgard-arkitekter?ad_medium=gallery
Figure 3.11: internal courtyard of Tham & Videgård’s school of architecture, 2015, accessed 27
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November 2019, < https://www.archdaily.com/778460/school-of-architecture-at-the-royalinstitute-of-technology-tham-and-videgard-arkitekter?ad_medium=gallery> Figure 3.12: studio in Tham & VidegĂĽrdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s school of architecture, 2015, accessed 27 November 2019, < https://www.archdaily.com/778460/school-of-architecture-at-the-royal-institute-oftechnology-tham-and-videgard-arkitekter?ad_medium=gallery>
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Table of Contents
Abstract
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Acknowledgments
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List of Illustrations
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Introduction
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Chapter One: New Designs for Everyday
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Chapter Two: The Humanistic influence of Asplund and Aalto
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Chapter Three: Contemporary applications of Folkhemmet
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Conclusion
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References
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Introduction â&#x20AC;&#x153;Building converts the communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cosmological view of the world into physical reality. Simultaneously, the temporal order is linked with the mythical order. In the end there is complete affinity between the individual and the community, between thinking and placeâ&#x20AC;? (Pallasmaa 2005: 73)
Since its inception, architecture has had the potential to embody and promote social meaning which can influence the way people live, behave and think. Since Vitruvius in the 1st BC, architects "have maintained that buildings are more than utilitarian; they are instruments by which emotions, ideas, and beliefs are expressed" (Levine 2018: 5). The lasting effects of the functionalist movement which dominated interiors, throughout Sweden and the rest of Scandinavia can still be seen today in the design of contemporary Scandinavian public interiors. This dissertation examines the role of interior architecture as a promotional tool to facilitate social and political ideologies by analysing Sweden's response to the cultural and political climate at the time. Beginning by outlining the cultural and political climate of Sweden in the early 20th century, this dissertation will examine the rise of modernism in Europe and the particular brand of modernism adopted by Sweden, which they coined functionalism.
In 1932, the Social Democratic Party, whose main agenda was to solve the housing crisis facing the nation, announced their slogan Folkhemmet, a term combining the words folk (people) and hemmet (home), to brand their modern society of the future (Levine 2018). The Social Democratic Party recognised the power modern architecture had to promote ideas and serve as a visual manifestation of progressive thought. The Party adopted the architectural style of functionalism as the driving force for their political regime (Marklund & Stadius 2010). Functionalism was a variety of modernism, founded in Scandinavia, with the same attraction to simplicity as modernism, but with a core focus on function and finding rational solutions. Folkhemmet promised citizens a prosperous, good life, through the construction of practical, pleasurable homes (Woollen 2012).
Above anything the interiors and design of Scandinavia today can be characterised by their democratic spirit, which can be linked directly to the Stockholm Exhibition in 1930 spearheaded by Gregor Paulsson. Presenting solutions to the interior conditions at the time, Paulsson exhibited model homes catering to every income level and grand public architecture to introducing visitors to functionalism
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(Ashby 2007). The exhibition, along with Paulsson's manifesto Acceptera â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Swedish for accept â&#x20AC;&#x201C; released at the same time was aimed at showcasing a new way of life and encouraging Swedes to adopt the modernist style into their homes (Ashby 2007). Chapter 1 will discuss the cultural climate leading up to the exhibition and the exhibition itself, identifying the primary interior techniques presented.
This dissertation seeks to address the effects of the democratic ideology of Folkhemmet in contemporary Scandinavian architecture. The current academic discourse surrounding this topic acknowledges the significance of Folkhemmet in shaping the publics design taste at the time, laying the roots for the universal success and infamy of Scandinavian design today. However, the link between the interior architecture techniques implemented and developed throughout the second half of the 20th century have rarely been compared directly to the interior architecture of the 21st century. This dissertation aims to fill that gap, through the analysis of critical works by significant proponents of functionalism, Gunnar Asplund and Alvar Aalto. To Illuminate their desire to combine the rural traditions of craftmanship and an environmental connection, with the new refined modernist vernacular. The works of Asplund and Aalto provide insight into the community-focused social reform they promoted, and the interior techniques used to drive them. With an emphasis on community and shared space, the architects demonstrate public interiors which express the same principles promoted in the housing exhibition of 1930.
Analysing the modernist paradigm, chapter 3 will bridge the gap between the interior architecture of the 20th century by Asplund and Aalto, and contemporary 21st-century examples seen today. First looking at the progression of the collective house from 1935 to now, led by Sven Markelius in his efforts to promote a community-based style of living which combined domestic functions such as cooking, cleaning and lounging amongst residents. The implementation of communal kitchens, laundries and living spaces, alleviated the domestic pressure women faced and established a robust tribal mentality in the alienating, newly industrialised way of life (Vestbro 2008). The influence of Markelius' efforts can be seen in the dozens of collective houses functioning around Sweden today. Asplund and Aalto's particular brand of humanist modernism which employed the rationale of functionalism, but with a sensitive nuance towards the individual and response to the unique environmental surroundings, can be seen in contemporary examples. Such as 79&Park, studio BIGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 2018 modular apartment block in
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Stockholm, exemplifing the same spatial strategies used by Aalto to afford the community a worthy and accessible space connected to nature.
Similarly, Stockholm based studio Tham & VidegĂĽrd were commissioned to design a new architecture and technology school on the existing KTH campus. They were tasked with configuring the academic needs of the school within the circulation role of the site as a campus thoroughfare. Employing central courtyards, curved surfaces and plenty of windows, Tham & VidegĂĽrd designed interiors which facilitated the needs of the community functionally and beautifully. They did so by adopting the same principles of scale and light as Aalto and Asplund, imbuing the spaces with a sense of intimacy and warmth within the academic context. The spatial analysis of these contemporary interiors combined with the historical context and examples provided demonstrate the direct link between the communitycentric design philosophy of Folkhemmet and the affinity between the individual and the community felt in contemporary Scandinavian interior architecture.
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Chapter 1: New Designs for Everyday This chapter will establish the framework needed to discuss the concept of Folkhemmet, and provide a historical overview of the cultural and political climate in Sweden leading up to, and during, the 1930s. Followed by, introducing the key figures responsible for the introduction of functionalism into Swedish interiors, their involvement in the 1930 Stockholm Exhibition, and the lasting effects and success of the Exhibition. Folkhemmet – a home for everyone – was a slogan crafted by the Social Democratic Party to target the welfare issue of housing. It aimed to create a more inclusive society with greater opportunities for practical and safe homes for every Swede. After the Exhibition, functionalism became the architectural tool used to implement Folkhemmet as a way of visually exemplifying the possibilities of modernity (Woollen 2012: 133).
The Interwar period (1918 – 1939) brought with it immense social and cultural change throughout the Nordic countries (Ashby 2017: 133). Sweden, in comparison to surrounding nations, was relatively free from the financial and social strains of warfare due to Swedish Neutrality – Sweden's foreign policy of nonparticipation in armed combat (Agius 2012: 6) – which favourably positioned the country within the rise of modernity (Woollen 2012: 132). Historically neo-classical and national romanticism styles dominated interior architecture throughout Sweden. The Swedish national identity was very closely linked to these traditional styles, and the craftsmanship, skill and history they represented (Ashby 2017). Examples of this can be seen in figure 1.01 portraying the exterior of Waldemarsudde house, Stockholm (1904), and figure 1.02, a residential interior layout where the kitchen and beds shared a room which was very popular at the time.
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Figure 1.01: Ferdinand Boberg, exterior Waldemarsudde house, on Djurgürden in Stockholm, erected 1904 representing the traditional Swedish façade architecture of the early 20 th century
Figure 1.02: Interior view of an early 20th century home in Sweden, depicting the spatial arrangement typical to the time when bedrooms and kitchens shared spaces (Ashby 2007)
The Industrial Revolution during the second half of the 19th century brought with it new needs for industrial cities. People flocked from rural areas to cities at a rate of growth they could not keep up
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with. This influx of residents resulted in a national housing crisis, which saw industrial workers and their families living in extraordinarily overpriced and poor living conditions (Marklund & Stadius 2010: 612). Meanwhile, ideas concerning equitable design for the general public had become facilitated by the invention of mass production. The elitist mentality, reserving good design for the bourgeois, began to shift and functionalism became the phrase used in Sweden to designate modern architecture available to everyone, design inherently linked to function, and aesthetic purity enabled by automation (Ashby 2017). The welfare issue of public housing was the main agenda item for the Social Democratic Party, in power at the time. The Party saw Folkhemmet as a political and social system. It described the Swedish people as one national family together under the roof of social equality and welfare solidarity, promising all Swedes improved living conditions (Levine 2018).
"The connection between the ideology and the accommodation was clear; the dwelling was considered to have a central role in an individual's health, morals and work - and thus for society in general. The perception of what was good housing was clear and it was also formulated in rules and regulations, which controlled and had a strong impact on the design of our housings." (Räder 2016: 6)
The diplomatic, inclusive attitude throughout interwar Sweden was the driving force behind Gregor Paulsson's desire to ensure the products of architects and artists were available to the entire population, rather than reserved for the esoteric elite, inspiring him to organise the 1930 Stockholm Exhibition (Creagh 2008). Art historian and head of The Svenska Slöjdföreningen – The Swedish Arts and Craft Society - Gregor Paulsson (1889-1977) spearheaded the Stockholm Exhibition of 1930 after he visited the Paris World Fair in 1925, leaving displeased with the elitist message of modernism put forth. Paulsson's adopted the modernist trends he had seen overseas and crusaded for advancement in the quality of mass-produced goods, aimed at distancing Sweden from the arts and crafts, neoclassic style of the 1920s (Marklund & Stadius 2010: 612). Paulsson advocated for the democratic welfare ideology of the state, wanting to guide public taste and burgeon "individual culture through collective influence" (Creagh, L 2008: 135). Paulsson partnered Gunnar Asplund (1885-1940) an established Swedish Architect who was well respected and known already for his neoclassical style which littered the streets of Stockholm and assembled a team of distinguished Swedish architects; Uno Åhrén (1897-1977) and Sven Markelius (1889-1972). The purpose of the Exhibition was to express a new Architectural style
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on an unparalleled scale, promoting a new direction for Sweden, shifting away from ornamental historical references and towards a united, better society with modern goals and a functionalist rationale (Creagh 2008: 130).
Bearing witness to the success of the Swedish division at the Paris 1925 exhibition and other exhibitions throughout Europe, Paulsson was aware of the power exhibitions had to shape public taste and promote specific ways of thinking. With Swedish politicians keen to allege positions of progression and economic development and architects across Europe designing solutions to address the issues of this new era, the timing was perfect for Paulsson to act (Blundell Jones 2002: 129). Paulsson and Asplund worked to promote a new way of life to the general public by appealing to the minutia of the everyday. Designing and showcasing functionalist housing and commonplace objects such as lamps, plates and letterboxes they were promoting their political message of a strengthened, advanced state on terms accessible by all (Woollen 2012). Social Science authors Kaplan and Ross advocate for the political nature of everyday life "Everyday life harbours the texture of social change; to perceive it at all is to recognise the necessity of its conscious transformation" (1987: 4).
The Exhibition meant for the first-time functionalism could be presented to the public in one dedicated uniform space. Essential to the success of the Exhibition was getting the public on board with a new modern way of living, advancing beyond the rural, ornamental traditions of the past. Paulsson and Asplund did so by arguing that functionalism was in-fact inherently Swedish. Acknowledging the leaps in wealth and prosperity Sweden had achieved in the past 60 years, and linking the aesthetic minimalism presented with their rural culture and closeness to nature, taking on a new form yet still representing their values in quality craftsmanship and rational function (Woollen 2012: 617). Although rural vernacular had little to do with modern urban life, it was relevant in that it reflected the life of ordinary people, an essential theme of Socialist doctrine. It also revealed an honest relationship between function, climate and economy. By giving these rhetorical arguments visual form, the exhibition organisers attempted to resolve the awkward coexistence between traditional culture and the machine and offer a new understanding of the possibilities of everyday life. (Woollen 2012: 132).
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Figure 1.03: Gunnar Asplund, grand entrance to the Stockholm Exhibition, 1930, striking clean modernist lines evoke excitement and feelings of anticipation as visitors are introduced to a new way of living
The grand vibrant entry to the Exhibition seen in figure 1.03, showcases sweeping white walls, use of concrete and plywood, paired with exposed structural steel and walls of glass were a significant leap from the architectural vernacular of previous exhibitions. The neon lights and bold graphic signage illuminated the walls of glass and geometric forms, making a grand modernist statement (Ashby 2017). Totally united in its functionalist statement, with no structure allowed to deviate from the central ideology Asplund's modernist pavilions "exploited transparency and asymmetry to the full, while still creating a place of great variety, humanity, and charm" (Marklund & Stadius 2010: 616).
It is important to note that the Exhibition was met with a fair amount of opposition from other board members of The Svenska Slรถjdfรถreningen displaying widespread suspicion of machine automation and concern for the future of handmade craft and their Lutheran values of thrift (Woollen 2012: 620). It is vital to consider them when discussing the cultural climate. However, this dissertation will not address them further.
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This dissertation will take a closer look at the Paradise Restaurant designed by Asplund, followed by the housing project designed by Sven Markelius to represent the public and private sectors of the Exhibition. The Paradise Restaurant featured an awe-inspiring glazed semicircular drum of glass, pictured in figure 1.04. The scale and curvature of the glass was a radical modernist take on a Classical façade. The restaurant's central location within the Exhibition and proximity to the water created a social focal point in harmony with the geometric principles expressed throughout the Exhibition (Ashby 2017: 137).
Figure 1.04: Gunnar Asplundâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Paradise Restaurant at the Stockholm Exhibition, 1930, the restaurant is a perfect example of the geometric principles and modernist aesthetics represented through the entire exhibition
Figure 1.05 depicts an east to west sectional perspective highlighting the stacked levels and massive triple height ceilings framing the wall of glass. The circulation from the first floor up to the third is guided by a stairwell on an asymmetrical, angled axis proceeding on to supplementary stairwells with seamlessly positioned points of arrival to capitalise on the view of the festival square. This spatial sequence with running staircases displays Asplund's departure from the straight axial promenades of his Neo-classical works (Blundell Jones 2002: 134). The dramatic, stadium-like viewing experience in the restaurant ensued a thrilling spectacle for the visitors. To produce this, Asplund liberated the front
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portion from any visual barriers capitalising on the triple-height ceiling and framed the view of the water and exhibitions space below with enormous windows (Blundell Jones 2002). Towards the rear, the mezzanines and stairwells were significantly reduced in ceiling height, juxtaposed against the grandeur of the restaurant. Highlighting the magnificence and reiterating the principle of balance employed throughout the entire showcase (Blundell Jones 2002: 134). The lightness, functionality and grandeur of The Paradise restaurant fostered a sense of hope for the future inextricably linked to the unity and innovation presented by Asplund and Paulsson (Tyrrell 2018: 55).
Figure 1.05: East to west sectional perspective of Asplundâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Paradise Restaurant highlighting the stacked levels and circulation staircase at the rear of the building emphasising the vast openness of the restaurant gallery
The housing exhibits made up the second portion of the Exhibition, displaying an assortment of model homes in both a freestanding and apartment-style, concerned with maximising space and pleasure within small homes. Deliberately placed after the public sectors of the Exhibition, the homes were intended to be experienced after the visitor had enjoyed and been charmed by architectural wonders of the festival (Ashby 2017: 138). Promoting community was a central value within the Exhibition, Paulsson and Asplund envisaged a society where public spaces were prioritised and successfully shared by all members of the community to compensate for the reduced living spaces. This ideal was to be implemented on the macro down to the micro â&#x20AC;&#x201C; within individual homes, social housing projects and entire neighbourhoods. This idea was reinforced as visitors experienced the marvels of the grand restaurants and parks before viewing the space-saving living solutions (Marklund & Stadius 2010).
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The main issues residents faced with the current housing situation was the need for different functions to be accommodated within the home, desire for space and light and the need to adapt to different income levels. High rent and low income meant architects such as Sven Markelius were tasked with cultivating optimal living conditions in the smallest space possible (Ashby 2017: 138). Figure 1.06 depicts Markelius' solution to the challenges, through an example of a typical apartment, the living room of apartment 7 in hall 36, proposing a new domestic environment to accommodate a workingclass family of four to six people on an annual income of 4,500-7,000 SEK ($680 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; AUD 1000).
Figure 1.06: Sven Markelius, Living room of Apartment 7, Hall 36, a proposed new living environment prioritising light and openness
Light and openness are prioritised, employing the same principals as Asplund's Paradise Restaurant. A glass wall illuminates the main living area and the mezzanine floor which housed two bedrooms and a bathroom offsets the space. The low ceilings were reserved for the rear of the apartment in the study, kitchenette, and dining area to save space, this balance afforded contrast to the usual dark, cramped
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apartments (Ashby 2017: 138). It is important to note that this allocation of space reflects the maledominated hierarchy of space coming at the expense of the women on the household. Female domestic duties were relegated to the cramped rear rooms without natural light. This patriarchal ideology was disseminated throughout Europe throughout this modernist regime, however, was swiftly corrected in Sweden throughout the proceeding decades as the patriarchal power balanced out (Ashby 2017). Alongside a new spatial planning rationale, a new home aesthetic was presented, the previous brightly painted wooden furniture had been replaced with strikingly modern use of tubular steel, smooth white walls with no cornices or mouldings. The furniture was all designed to be light and movable, to accommodate flexibility of space and easy cleaning within the limited space (Ashby 2017: 140). Adjustability and moveability were central to the new way of living and catered to the induvial needs of citizens.
Among the four million visitors to the Exhibition was Finnish architect and friend of Asplund, Alvar Aalto who would later go on to be mentored by Asplund and expand the ideas and style of functionalism throughout Scandinavia and back to his home in Finland. After visiting the Exhibition, Aalto wrote:
One can understand the Exhibition has even aroused fierce criticism, being a surgical incision into the deep-rooted tendency to associate the concept of art with a genteel classy lifestyle and its exclusive artefacts. What this Exhibition speaks for is a cheerful, uninhibited daily existence. It makes coherent propaganda for a healthy, unassuming way of living, based on economic realities (Woollen 2012: 157).
The success of the Exhibition in showcasing a new civilisation lay in the uniting Sweden's past, present and future launching modernity into the lives of everyday Swedes and providing solutions to their everyday concerns. The aesthetic style of modernism comprised of stark white, walls of glass and openplan layouts was utterly foreign to the people of Sweden, however, the central values of function, truthfulness and community provided common ground, allowing the Swedish to accept the new style (Woollen 2012).
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Chapter 2: The Humanistic influence of Asplund and Aalto This chapter will look at key works from architects Gunnar Asplund and Alvar Aalto. Catalysts in the modernist movement throughout Scandinavia, their works demonstrate the interior architecture qualities and techniques that cater to the human experience of an individual and apply them to the masses within their public architecture. It is vital to acknowledge how the architectural style of modernism was a tool used by architects such as Asplund and Aalto to improve the everyday lives of as many people as they could through rationality and a scientific approach to human behaviour (Levine 2018: 13). However, the efforts of Asplund and Aalto went beyond the universal requirements associated with functionalism. Asplund and Aalto acted as architects focusing on the notions of place, memory and experience within modernism (Miller 1990: 12). Shortly after the Stockholm Exhibition in 1930, Asplund together with Paulsson, Markelius and Åhrén released their manifesto titled Acceptera – Swedish for accept – pushing their egalitarian agenda and pleading with the public to embrace this new architectural style and bring it into their homes. Acceptera focused on social transformation through the idea of home and transforming the standard of living for the public (Levine 2018). It was the Stockholm Exhibition which launched this connection between architecture and ideology, as functionalism was propelled into the mainstream. The political initiative of Folkhemmet attached itself to the style, using it as a technique to solve the welfare issue of housing (Levine 2018: 13).
Before the Stockholm Exhibition, Gunnar Asplund was a central figure in the Nordic Neo-Classical architectural style which dominated Scandinavian Architecture between 1910 and 1930 (Blundell Jones 2002: 41). This distinctive period can be seen as bridging between the ornate classicism of the 19th century and the functionalist modernism which dominated from the mid 20th century onwards. The façade of Asplund's 1918 Snellman House in Djursholm, Stockholm (Figure 2.01) provides evidence of his new interest in simplicity and restraint with the precise disposition of fenestration. Especially when viewed in conjunction with Asplund's Villa Callin (Figure 2.02) completed only three years prior in 1915, featuring a much more ornate traditional façade. The façades indicate the first change as Asplund moves towards modernism, this chapter will analyse the effects of this change on the interiors of Asplund's Stockholm Public Library, completed in 1928.
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Figure 2.01: Gunnar Asplund, Snellman House 1918, Sweden, illustrating Asplundâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s departure from the ornate classical facades of his earlier neo-classical style
Figure 2.02: Gunnar Asplund, Villa Callin 1915, Sweden showcasing the traditional style through the embellished façade and curved lines
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The political and social climate addressed in the first chapter, provide the necessary foundation to understand how interior devices were developed and used to galvanise the social aims of Asplund in his desire to construct an egalitarian Sweden. Analysing the public library gives shape to the process Asplund undertook as he transitioned from Neo-Classical architecture toward more humanistic modernism. Asplund saw the role of public buildings as having an immense obligation to celebrate their communities and perform its purpose successfully (Blundell Jones 2002: 125). Due to its programme, the library presented a remarkable opportunity to give the people of Stockholm a worthy public building Offering for the first time to the general public the chance to take books off the shelves and borrow them, providing education to the modernising Swede. Due to public involvement in the process of lending the space needed to be designed in a way as not to alienate those who had never taken part in such an activity (Bergstrรถm 2009).
Scale and the organisation of space will be addressed first, followed by the use of light and its reaction with materiality. The principal notion for the spatial arrangement was that upon entry through the grand ascending staircase (figure 2.03) the library would open up into a vast circular lending hall with books stacked in three tiers around the periphery (figure 2.04), the tiers ensuring ease of retrieval without a ladder. In the centre of the hall was a control point for librarians which gave them total visual authority, inspired by principles from Jeremy Bentham's 18th-century Panopticon (Blundell Jones 2002: 113). In figures 2.05 and 2.06 depicting the ground and first floor plans the central hall is seen encased by the side wings which housed quiet reading rooms, the children's library, storage, and the librarian's offices. In order to check out a book, visitors would need to ascend a central flight of stairs to reach the control point. The axial staircase bisected every level, grand architectural staircases such as this, would become synonymous with Asplund's style in the years to follow (Blundell Jones 2002). Asplund developed a spatial narrative using counterpoint; the axial entry ascends away from the main entry stair through a tall, exciting shaft of space which gently curves around the central drum (Wilson 1988: 90). The linear direction works in unity with the circular form, passing through vestibules and a series of thresholds before finally arriving at the magnificent beauty of the central drum once again "signifying initiation into a new world of knowledge" (Blundell Jones 2002: 113). The same focus on central stairwells and maximisation of natural light is evident in Asplund's later regeneration of the Gothenburg Law Courts seen in figure 2.07 illustrating the central connection point from the ground floor and figure 2.08 which shows an overall shot of the foyer.
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Figure 2.03: Gunnar Asplund, 1928, grand entry staircase to the Stockholm public library opening up to the vast circular interior faรงade
Figure 2.04: Gunnar Asplund, 1928, interior lending hall of Stockholm public library, displaying books on tiered levels and dappled plaster texture reflecting natural light to create a sense of the ceiling as sky (Adams 2014: 112)
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Figure 2.07: Gunnar Asplund Gothenburg Law Courts central staircase depicting the Asplundâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s signature central staircase and propensity for clean sleek lines
Figure 2.08: Gunnar Asplund Gothenburg Law Courts supplementary staircase and view of the foyer showcasing the developments of Asplundâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s modernist style and utilisation of natural light
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A key proponent of the functionalist movement was the use of natural light and the way it yielded a sense of spatiality. Based on studies done on the conditions of daylight in varying building conditions, there was a scientific methodology applied to the shaping and positioning of windows to let light in (Levine 2018: 14). Asplund's consideration of the temperamental Swedish sky and understanding of Nordic light qualities saw him opt for a flat cylindrical drum ceiling (seen in figure 2.04), in favour of the initially proposed glazed dome (Schwartz 2015: 1). The white plaster clad walls of the drum provided significantly more surface to diffuse the light which was better suited to the low angle sun. The vertical arrangement of the windows on the exterior cylinder walls allowed for direct bright light to enter the library, yet the verticality of the windows ensured they were far enough away as not to affect the books and patrons with direct sunlight (Schwartz 2015: 1). The cylindrical form created a complete lack of shadows on the ceiling, combined with the mottled texture of the plaster gave the effect of infinite space above the library. The vast white space diffused light below and the ridges in the plaster give the effect of little clouds. Architectural author Nicole Adams invokes the notion of the "ceiling-as-sky" (2014: 112). The library is an internationally renowned symbol of Swedish neoclassical and modernist beauty which combines environmental sensibility with the instruments of Asplund's classical technique, demonstrating the progression of Asplund's style into the modernist era.
The relationship between Asplund and Aalto progressed form friend, to mentor to a colleague as they both adopted their versions of functionalism, developing a comparable examination into a sophisticated modern vernacular (Ray 2005: 18). Asplund embraced modernist principles with great tenacity, choosing to apply a layer of environmental specificity and human predisposition to his spaces. Similarly, Aalto implemented a specific response to the landscape and a deep humanistic sensitivity, in opposition to the dogma of functionalism. Aalto's 1948 Sänynätsalo Town Hall in Finland was constructed with the topography it was to sit upon at the forefront of the design. The result, a refined and tasteful gathering place for the small town of 3000, constructed from conventional local materials. Aalto was able to embody the community and celebrate its values and ideas (Nerdinger 1999:15). The building consists of civic functions such as council offices, meeting rooms and a council chamber as well as public functions such as the library, sauna, boiler room and a central raised courtyard. The grass clad courtyard pictured in Figure 2.07 makes use of the sloped topography sitting a full story-higher than street level with a slightly rotated axis relative to true north to achieve optimal sun orientation (Ray 1999:107). Surrounding the courtyard is the library, reading rooms and administration laid out to form
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a hub of cultural activity for the citizens whom host social events and partake in leisure activities establishing the heart of the town hall (Nerdinger 1999:25). Figure 2.08 illustrates a North-South section through the offices, store and raised courtyard. The imposing mass of the council chamber is seen in elevation. The projected stair wrapping around the chamber is an ode to the wrapped staircase Asplund used in the Public Library, which Aalto saw under construction while on a visit to Sweden in 1926 (Ray 1999). The council chamber is raised one story above the courtyard and other spaces, literally elevating the function of the space, signifying the salience of the symbol of government. Further exaggerated through the inwardly sloping low pitched roofs throughout the rest of the building (seen in figure 2.07), sloping towards the council chamber, respecting its importance while ensuring maximum penetration of shallow-angled sunlight (Ray 1999:108).
Figure 2.07: Alvar Aalto 1948 Sänynätsalo Town Hall, Finland, showcasing the glass clad central courtyard and pool, the greenery is juxtaposed against the deep red of the brick
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Figure 2.08: North south section of Alvar Aaltoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Sänynätsalo Town Hall cutting through the officer, courtyard, and store; showcasing the scale of the council chambers and the inward slope of rooms in the direction of the council chambers signifying the salience of the chambers
The spatial qualities of the hall are considered down to the minutia as part of Aalto's detail-oriented design approach. Examples of this include the custom-designed stair balustrades, and the brickwork laid purposefully misaligned to subvert mechanical perfectness in favour of a more natural-looking surface (Nerdinger 1999:26). Aalto undertook an iterative process of refining the interior details to determine the most suitable sequence of spaces, as well as designing furniture following the forms and curves of nature. All things he understood as separate from the architecture, "but rather as an act of protecting the people who would spend their time in them" (Nerdinger 1999: 26). The complex implementation of natural light, sunlight and ventilation was considered by Aalto and supplemented with specially designed light fittings and window placement. Evident in the Council Chambers whereby the primary source of natural light is the large north-facing gridded and timber-louvred window pictured in figure 2.10 supplemented by the clerestory windows (figure 2.11) and skylights in the public gallery (seen in figure 2.10) (Hawkes 2001:79). Artificial lighting designed by Aalto is utilised with restraint, installed on the ceiling. Eight ceiling lamps arranged to ascend towards the chairman's seat, reinforce the direction of the gaze and compliment the slope of the roof (Hawkes 2001:79). The dark brickwork casing every wall surface absorbs almost all light and renders the room mysteriously dim, an unusual decision for a symbol of government. Pallasmaa writes in Hawkes, (2008:80) "the dark womb of the council chamber recreates a mystical and mythological sense of community; darkness strengthens the power of the spoken word". In contrast with the brilliant radiance omnipresent throughout the rest of the building, e.g. the interior passageway (figure 2.12) and public meeting room (figure 2.13), there is
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a deliberate lack of external nature in the council chambers subsequently emphasising the execution of local democracy (Hawkes 2001:80).
Figure: 2.09: council chambers in Alvar Aalto’s
Figure: 2.10: thoroughfare in Alvar Aalto’s Sänynätsalo Town
Sänynätsalo Town Hall highlighting the large north
Hall, the light filled hallway is a stark contrast to the dark
facing window and skylights in public gallery as the
ambience of the council chamber
two major natural light sources
Figure: 2.11: meeting room in Alvar Aalto’s Sänynätsalo Town Hall, the large windows flood the room with natural light and provide a connection between the outdoors and indoors, drawing nature in, emphasised by the earthy hue of materials
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Aaltoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s elaborate surface details, considered layouts and intrinsic links to nature craft spaces which are grounded in a sensory realism imbuing intimacy and warmth to reconcile the needs of the people with the buildings he erects. The version of modernism spearheaded by Aalto and Asplund balanced functionalism tenets with regional traditions in an attempt to bring modern concepts into a local context. When propelling functionalism throughout Sweden, Asplund championed a focus on universal technique by using regional norms of expression and craft, which worked to solve the housing crisis and transport Scandinavia into the realm of modernity (Miller 1990: 4). Subverting of the "form follows function" dogma synonymous with functionalism, Aalto focused on reasserting the critical principal of place, both physically and culturally. Employing a sensitive version of modernism which was tailored more to the inhabitants of the space and responded to the land on which it sat (Miller 1990). Author Winfred Nerdinger says about Aalto "The humane quality of Aalto's Modernism lies in the fact that the fulfilment of human functions is not subject to formal, economic or construction constraints" (1999:15).
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Chapter 3: Contemporary Applications of Folkhemmet Chapter 3 will outline the influence of Asplund and Aalto on contemporary public spaces in Scandinavian interior architecture, beginning by tracing the journey of Folkhemmet to the co-living movement in the early 1930s spearheaded by Sven Markelius (Vestbro 2008). Followed by how the democratic ideology of home impacted the design of two contemporary case studies. Sweden is built upon a socio-political foundation concerned with the wellbeing of its people and an understanding of the importance of adequate housing for everyone. Widespread improved living circumstances for all members of the public resulted in a distinct lack of social class disputes creating a favourable climate for the perpetuation of Folkhemmet (Czarny 2018: 199). As a proponent of the Folkhemmet movement functionalist architect Sven Markelius wanted to construct housing that could affect people's way of life and create more fulfilled citizens (Vestbro 2008). Markelius' 1935 co-living apartment block, John Ericsonsgatan 6, was the first modernist co-living space, whose effects can be seen in co-living spaces today. Following his involvement in the Stockholm exhibition, Sven Markelius went on to apply functionalist principles to his social housing projects (Lindvall 1992:73). Concerned with rationally organising society, and maximising productivity Markelius erected the first modernist collective house in 1935, a mode of living based on the Swedish model of Kollectivhus – housing with common spaces and shared facilities (Vestbro, 2010) – together with social scientist Alva Myrdal (Vestbro 2008). In the book Acceptera, it was forecasted that the future of housing would see, large percentages of household duties organised collectively. As stated by Myrdal in the 1932 magazine Tiden,
"Urban housing, where twenty families each in their own apartment cook their own meatballs, where a lot of young children are shut in, each in his or her own little room – doesn't this cry for an overall planning, for a collective solution?"
The utopian vision of Markelius and Myrdal saw residents of the collective house improving their mental and physical health with increased socialisation and participation in sports, study circles and political meetings. The size of private apartments would be minimised in favour of larger common and outdoor areas (Vestbro 2008). A further catalyst for the collective house was to divide and simplify housekeeping, freeing women from the duties of home, allowing them to contribute to the business and public sectors (Blomberg & Kärnekull 2019).
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John Ericsonsgatan 6, Stockholm contains 57 apartments ranging from one bedroom to four all equipped with a kitchenette to prepare smaller meals. The larger, central kitchen located at the heart of the building on the ground floor. Figure 3.01 depicts the ground floor, the communal kitchen, dining areas, living spaces, daycare, laundry and milk bar. Figure 3.02 shows the first floor, a mixture of studio and one-bedroom apartments. Markelius himself lived at John Ericsonsgatan 6 for several years after its completion, fine-tuning the services and layouts which would go on to inspire other architects, developers and government officials to build another fifteen collective houses in Sweden from 1935 to 1956 (Blomberg & Kärnekull 2019). Further iterations of the collective home were conceived throughout the country over the decades, with some focusing on the utilisation of paid services such as cooking and cleaning, and others adopting a more collaborative division of labour between residents (Vestbro 2008). Today, the common thread amongst collective houses is the sense of community and network of support these types of living situations can offer tenants who want to "take responsibility for their lives in cooperation with their neighbours, based on mutual support, self-governance and active participation" (Blomberg & Kärnekull). Contemporary Examples of co-living are K9, Stockholm and the cohousing project in Uppsala Rudbeckia opening in 2022 both creating affordability through shared economies.
Figure 3.01: Ground floorplan of Sven Markelius’ Figure 3.02: first floorplan of Sven Markelius’ 1935 co 1935 co housing unit, the communal kitchen, dining, housing unit, configuration of 1 bedroom and studio lounge and cleaning facilities
apartments with kitchenette and small bathroom
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The adapted version of modernism that Asplund and Aalto developed together towards the end of the 1930s saw the functionalist, principles of modernity realised following a deep-seated Scandinavian affinity for social values and a time-honoured practise of craftsmanship. This afforded their projects a humanistic sensitivity and attention to detail that was previously lacking from some modern interiors (Carter 1993:54). Bjarke Ingels' Stockholm architecture studio BIG completed 79&Park, a modular set of 140 apartments located on the edge of Gärdet national park in Stockholm in 2018. Arranged around a central communal courtyard the scheme is constructed of square prefabricated modules, clad in cedar arranged in a stepped design reaching 35 meters at the highest point (BIG Studio). Constructed to blend with the surrounding landscape seamlessly, the local materials and overall geometry of the residential housing block appears like a human-made verdant hillside (Dezeen 2018). They created interiors of peace and tranquillity with a strong sense of community (Dezeen 2018). The importance of community is emphasised as each apartment has a wood and glass panelled roof terrace, creating lines of sight between apartments and interaction amongst neighbours (Figure 3.03). Strategically the orientation of the windows affords internal privacy. Furthermore, the porosity of the structure activates the shared courtyard as three public passageways bisect the building (Figure 3.04). The courtyard is the social core of the community; all the terraces contain windows facing on to it, creating visual connection and inclusion. Figure 3.05 depicts the ground floor plan, showing the commercial spaces opening onto the courtyard, and the public passageways, creating an ideal setting for a dynamic community hub. The first floor in figure 3.06 shows the arrangement of the residential units situated to maximise sunlight exposure and views of the park.
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Figure 3.03: Arial shot of BIGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 79&Park, 2018, exhibiting the sloped geometry of the building and roof terraces
Figure 3.04: Ground floor plan of BIGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 79&Park, 2018 highlighting the public passageways intersecting the communal courtyard
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The interior materials palette utilises a mixture of concrete, local wood and glass, working in unity with the composition, form, proportion and light. The internal experience of the apartments is tranquil and spacious; examples of this is seen in figures 3.05 and 3.06. The installation of floor to ceiling windows, use of transparency and porosity throughout the building ensures natural sunlight to be drawn deep into each space, exposing residents to available light and heat — a technique utilised by Markelius at the Stockholm Exhibition. In fact, his model apartment strikes a remarkable resemblance to the interior of 79&Park (Figure 3.07 & 3.08). However, in this contemporary context, the kitchen has been moved from the back of the apartment to the front — a sign of the evolution of gender roles and female liberation (Vestbro 2008). The use of natural light modulates the rooms through shadow extending the language of modernism and imbuing it with considerations of place and history. 79&Park houses Aalto's practical concerns of sensitively responding to the local site, providing tailored spatial arrangements, and utilising natural textured materials in combination with dappled ambient daylight (Tyrrell 2018). 79&Park responds expertly to its topography, creating a seamless edge between building and nature with the low profile of the southwest point closest to Gärdet national park (Dezeen 2018). Furthermore, the pillar of community living is an undeniable example of Swedish humanistic functionalism.
Figure 3.05: Interior view of BIG’s 79&Park, the living
Figure 3.06: Kitchen/dining BIG’s 79&Park displaying
room is flooded with natural light reflected softly on the
the positioning of the kitchen directly next to a natural
materials
light source
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Figure 3.07 & 3.08: comparison of 79&Park lounge area (left) and Sven Markelius 1930 model apartment (right)
Stockholm based architecture office Tham & VidegĂĽrd were commissioned to design the Stockholm School of Architecture at the Royal Institute of Technology in 2015. The driving concept for the building was to encourage and facilitate circulation throughout and around the site. The school was to function as an anchor point, integrating the building within the site (Tham & VidegĂĽrd). With an emphasis on visual symmetry over linear orientation the curved walls of the exterior and interior delineate programme and circulation paths. The refinement of design intention also informs the surface finishes, as the deep red Corten steel (figure 3.09) is informed by the dark red brick of the surrounding buildings, and juxtaposed against the soft hue of timber-clad interior walls (figure 3.10). Once inside the building, the legibility of the programme is realised immediately, through the use of organic insertions with window cut-outs (Figure 3.10). Users can identify the activities taking place, animating the space and giving a sense of purpose and activity. Within the rooms smooth curved walls with no cornices or mouldings can be found, the response to function addressed with light-weight movable furniture and adjustable lights. Creating a sense of openness and flexibility, catering to the changing needs and processes of design students. The truthfulness regarding structure and materials, and championing of simplicity can be related to the design ideology presented by Asplund, Markelius, and Aalto (Ashby 2017:140).
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The internal courtyard on the ground floor seen in figure 3.11 is a semiotic device, orienting users within site and providing a visual connection from within the studio to the outdoors. The ideology of functionalism was grounded in two fundamental concepts; understanding of the function of a space to inform dimensions and layout, and the optimal efficiency in the production process of materials and construction (Marklund & Stadius 2010: 624). Tham & VidegĂĽrd's building is clad entirely in steel and utilises unfinished concrete surfaces together with tiling and wood panelling on the interior, which made for efficient construction as well as long term durability. Furthermore, the adaptability of the threemeter high studio spaces on levels two, three and four are robust and flexible. An open play layout and 360-degree views make subdivision of space efficiently implemented if necessary (ArchDaily 2015). The layering of space throughout the building employs dual height ceilings and internal windows to create a refined combination of exposure, privacy and connection between levels. Furthermore, the large external windows framed by extended sheets of Corten permit floods of light to wash over the interior significantly influencing the atmosphere and defining visual axes that help delineate the hierarchy of space (Leydecker 2013:220). The influence of Aalto's humanistic sensitivity is seen in the elegant surface details and considered layout imbuing intimacy and warmth into space (Nerdinger 1999), while the use of natural light as a way of yielding a sense of spatiality, is a recurring theme seen in Asplund's body of work.
Figure 3.09: curved Corten steel exterior, in relation to the red brick neighbouring buildings
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Figure 3.10: curved interior, timber clad walls with window cut-outs for wayfinding and light permeation
Figure 3.11: internal courtyard of Tham & VidegĂĽrdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s school of architecture, 2015, highlighting the connection between interior and exterior and circulation function of the courtyard
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Figure 3.12: level 2 studio of Tham & VidegĂĽrdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s school of architecture, 2015, demonstrating the busting vibrant work environment enabled by the flexibility and scale of the space
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Conclusion
The interior architecture techniques of flexibility, axiality, daylight and measured spatial planning characterise the interiors of Folkhemmet. The lasting effects of Paulsson, Asplund, Aalto and the Social Democratic Party can be felt in the interiors throughout Scandinavia today. The success of integrating functionalism into the fabric of Sweden’s national identity stems from Paulsson’s ability to connect Swedish values of prosperity and community to the streamlined forms of modernism.
“A contemporary image of the Swedish folkhemmet is a result of consistently implemented principles adapted in the early decades of the 20th century, later modified and enhanced by both expert and public consultations” (Czarny 2018: 201)
The well-developed public sector, low social inequality and lowest poverty rate in the world - 6.3% (Czarny 2018: 201) are a testament to the social reforms implemented by the Swedish government and citizens. Folkhemmet is an example of this, demonstrating how attending to the needs of citizens, ensuring they have stable enjoyable interiors can propel a society towards a high level of social development (Czarny 2018: 201). The notorious works of Asplund and Aalto exemplify the Scandinavian ethos of community. Responding appropriately to the landscape, they provide their communities with astounding interiors. Their works are still studied and marvelled at today, and influence of their craft is seen throughout the whole of Scandinavia. Contemporary examples such as 79&Park and the KTH school of architecture are a testament to the techniques and values embedded in Scandinavian history. Interiors which promote productivity, connection to nature and a sense of community provide the people of Scandinavia with the appropriate foundation to act as considerate, democratic citizens.
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