InternationalJournalofHumanities andSocialSciences(IJHSS)
ISSN(P):2319–393X;ISSN(E):2319–3948
Vol.11,Issue2,Jul–Dec2022;117–128 ©IASET
TEACHINGINFORMATIONLITERACYTOUNDERGRADUATESTUDENTS:TOOLS, WORKSHOP,ANDACTIVITYIDEAS
Dr.YollaAhmedYassin ResearchScholar,PoliticalScienceDepartment,CollegeofManagement&Technology,ArabAcademyforScience, TechnologyandMaritimeTransport,EgyptABSTRACT
Thepresentpaperprovidesinsightsintoapproachesthatcanbeusedwhendeliveringteachingaboutcertaintypesof “informationdisorder”suchasdisinformation,malinformation,andmisinformation.Thefindingsthatarepresentedhere arebasedonactualexperienceinteachingsubjectssuchas“MediaEthics”,and“IntroductiontoMassMedia”to undergraduatestudents.Hence,theframeworkthatisgoingtobeofferedinitisbasedontheknowledgethathasbeen acquiredthroughtheconsultationofacertainnumberoftextbooksthatwereusedtodesignthemodules’contentthathas beengiventothestudents.Furthermore,settinganddesigningthiscontenthadtoobeytothesixdimensionsofthe cognitiveprocess,andtheseareremembering,understanding,applying,analyzing,evaluating,andcreating.
Theframeworkpresentedinthispaperhasatitscorethenecessitytopursuethecommonelementsagreedupon bydifferentmediaoutletsthroughansweringthefiveW’s(Who?what?When?Where?Why?),inadditionto“how?”as anessentialsteptoavoidthetrapsofanytypesofthe“informationdisorder”.Theapproachofferedinthispaperendorses aswellthenecessitytounderstandthedifferentfunctionsthatcanbeservedbythesamemediatext,notablythoseof information,andinterpretation.Moreover,itprovidesamethodforinvestigatingthemediacontentthatisofferedtothe targetaudiencethroughstepsthatleadtodiscoveringthevaluesreflectedthroughit,thecreativetechniquesusedinit, andsoon,inadditiontoassessingitsethicalimplications.
Finally,theoriginalityofthispaperemanatesfromthefactthatitistheproductofactualteachingexperience thatledtosinglingouttheideaspresentedinitasasuitableframeworkforprovidingteachingaboutthe“disinformation disorder”basedonthestudentsinquiries,performance,andlearningdifficulties..
KEYWORDS:InformationDisorder,Disinformation,Misinformation,Malinformation,InformationLiteracy,Media Text,andCriticalThinking
ArticleHistory
Received:24Aug2022|Revised:02Sep2022|Accepted:05Sep2022
INTRODUCTION
Teachingasubjectinvolvesusuallyspeaking,aframeworkthatisdistinguishedbythecontentthatisbeingtaught,andthe approachadoptedindeliveringinformationaboutit.Thisremarkappliestoallsubjectsgenerallyspeaking,butthe questionarisesaspertoknowinginwhichwayteaching,andlearningaboutmisinformation,anddisinformationisdistinct, andwhetherornotteachingsuchasubjectrequiresthedesignofaspecificpanoplyoftools,workshops,andpractical activitiesthatreflectitsnature?
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Asaresponsetothisquestion,thepresentresearchpaperwillofferpractice-basedevidenceinvolvinga frameworkthatensurestheengagementofundergraduatestudentswhendealingwithmediacontent,intermsofbecoming criticalconsumersofthelatter,whoareabletoavoidthetrapsofdisinformation,misinformation,andmalinformation.
Beforeproceedingthoughwithanelaborationonhowtodesignsuchasframework,theneedarisestoposeclear definitionssettingthelimitsbetweenthethreeconceptsmentionedearlier.
Asastart,disinformation,misinformation,andmalinformationcanallbeconsideredtobepartofwhathasbeen calledthe"informationdisorder".Thethreeofthemcanbeseparatedfromeachotherbytheexistence,ornon-existenceof theintentiontocauseharm.Inmatteroffact,bothdisinformation,andmalinformationcanbethoughtofaspremeditated actstomisleadand/ordeceive.Thedifferencebetweenbothofthemthoughliesinthefactthatdisinformationisbuiltupon relayingfakeorinaccurateinformation,whereasmalinformationisassociatedwiththesameend-result(misleadingand/or deception)butonthebasisofgenuineinformation.Bycontrast,misinformationoccurswithoutthesenderofthemessage, oritssource,beingawarethatheorsheisspreadingfalsecontent(Shuetal.,2020,p.2).
Thisdefinitionentailsthefollowingwhenitcomestoteachingaboutdisinformation,misinformation,and malinformation:1)Whatkindoftoolscanthetargetaudience,orthegeneralpublicbeequippedwithinordertodecide whethertheinformationisfalse,orgenuine?2)Howcanthecriticalsenseofthereceiverofthemessagebeenhancedin ordertorecognizetheimplicitcodedmeaningsbehindthecontentthatheorsheisreceiving?Thosetwoquestionsactually implythattheimplicationsofdisinformation/malinformationdonotstopattheface-valueofwhethertheinformationis accurate,andgenuine,ornot,butencompasstheabilityofthemessage'sreceivertorecognizeanyunderlyingattemptsfor persuasion,or"manipulation"throughexplicitorimplicitcuesthatareembeddedintotheinformation,whethertheyare textualorvisual.Furthermore,theethicalconsiderationspertainingtothismatterwillenterintoplay,asthereceiverofthe messagemightbeengagedinquestionsrelatedtowhetherornottheinitiatorofthecommunicationhasbreachedany professionalcodesofethics,ornot,inadditiontodecidingifthepropagationofthemessagecontradictsanyethical expectationsthatthereceiverofthemessagemightbeholding,inconformitywithhisorherculturalupbringing,ornot.
Thenextstagesthatwillbedevelopedinthisresearchpaperwillreflecttheseconsiderationsbasedonactual experienceofteachingthesubjectsof:MediaEthics,Media&InformationLiteracy,IntroductiontoMassMedia,and IntroductiontoJournalism.
TEACHINGINFORMATIONLITERACY:METHODOLOGICALCONSIDERATIONS
Teachingaboutareasrelatedtothe"disinformationdisorder"mightneedtoconveythecognitiveprocessdimensionsof remembering,understanding,applying,analyzing,evaluating,andcreating(Andersonetal.,2001,p.31).Henceeachunit inanysyllabusprovidingteachingaboutdisinformation,misinformation,andmalinformationneedstoreflectthecomplete cognitiveprocessthroughaseriesofkeyconcepts,andactivitiesreflectingthesedimensions.
Whendeliveringteachingabouttheareasmentionedearlier,theinstructorwouldbedealingwithconcepts,and theoriesthatareavailableacrossawiderangeofcollege-leveltextbooksoracademicbooks.Someofthemwillhavetheir ownsetofpracticalactivities,andexercisesi.Consideringthenumberofbooksthatcanbeusedtoprovideteachingabout theareasmentionedearlier,itisinevitablethataninstructorfindshimselforherselfundertheneedtoselectthemost essentialtopicstohandlebasedonthedurationofthemodulethatheisgoingtoteach,andthetargetaudience(thegeneral
public,collegestudentswhoaretakingthecourseaspartoftheirfieldofspecialization,collegestudentswhoareenrolled totakethecourseasanelectiveonealthoughitisnotpartoftheirmajoretc.).
Thisiswhytheselectionofthetopicstobecoveredduringthemodulewilllargelydependonthediscretionofthe instructorbasedonthecourse'sdescriptionrequirementsifthemoduleisprovidedtocollegestudents.Sincethelearning processwillberelyingonallormostofthedimensionsthatarepartofthecognitiveprocessasdelineatedearlier,the instructorcouldstartwiththebasicquestionsthatwillappealtothestudents'criticalsenseasconsumersofmediacontent. Conveyingthesixdimensionsofthecognitiveprocess,canpresentitselfasastrategicgoaltobepursuedbytheteacher,at eachmilestonesetforthemoduleinquestion.
Inordertoteachstudentshowtoidentifyeitherdisinformation,misinformation,ormalinformation,theyneedto recognizeasastart,thedifferencebetweennews,andinterpretation,andunderstandhowthesamemediatextcanserve morethanonefunction.
DEFININGNEWS
Answeringthequestion"Whatisnews?"reflectsanepistemologicalpursuanceofthefoundationsofrecognizing disinformation,malinformation,andmisinformation.Thismeansthatitisattheheartofthesuggestedattemptinthispaper topresentaframeworkforprovidinglearningaboutthe"informationdisorder".
Newsisdefinedbytwocriteria:Accuracy,andbeinginteresting(Spencer,2009).However,construingthe meaningofaccuracywillrevealitselfasbeingaproblematicendeavourasitwillleadtoraisingthefollowingquestions:
Onwhoseshouldersfallsthetaskofpursuingtheaccuracyofinformation?Shallitbethenewspropagator,orthenews consumer?Wouldthe"newsconsumer"be"safe"ifheorsheonlylimitedhimselforherselftoreceivinginformationfrom traditionalmediaoutletsthatareexpectedtodeliveraccurateinformationduetotheprofessionalmakeshiftofthe personnelemployedinthemediainstitutioninquestion?Wouldmisinformationbecurtailedifanyothersourcesof"news" weretobeexcludednotablythosethatusesocialmediaasavehicletopropagateinformation,whetheritisgenuineor inaccurate?
Determiningtheaccuracyofinformationmightpresentitselfastoilforthegeneralpublicifitistobetakeninto considerationfirsthowmediaprofessionalsareexpectedtoproceedinordertodeterminetheaccuracyoftheinformation. Thegeneralpublic,andcontrarytomediaprofessionals,donot,generallyspeaking,haveaccesstonewsmakers,and spokespeople.Thereceiversofmediacontentarenot"trained"toevaluatethereliabilityofasource,throughaseriesof "analytical"toolsthatcanbetranslatedintoquestions.Thesecompriseforexample:Howdoesthepersonknowwhatheor sheissaying?Hashisorherreliabilitybeenquestionedbefore?(Harrower,2010,p.141).
Mediaprofessionalsserveasgatekeepersensuringthattherawinformationthatwillbetranslatedintonews,will respondtotherequirementofaccuracy.However,theirroleshouldnotsolelyrestupontheirgoodwillortheir"subjective" willingnesstoabidebyprofessionalconsiderationsalone,asthereneedstobeotherpartiesservingasa"SixthEstate" ensuringthatmediaprofessionalsarefaithfultotheirprofessionalduties,andthattheinterestofthegeneralpublicwillbe servedatalltimes.
Thegeneralpubliccannotplaytheroleofbothbeingtheconsumerofmediacontent,andthemediaprofessional. However,andunfortunately,theinterventionofpartiesconcernedwiththeinterestofthegeneralpubliccannotbe apprehendedasifitwereaprocessthatwillneveroccurwithoutanyflaws.Thisiswhyitisstillofgreatimportancethat theso-called"laymen"acquiretheskillsthatenablethemtobecomemedialiterate,andthereforetobepartofthe"Sixth Estate".
Thepathtowarddevelopingsuchaliteracy,andthereforeavoidingthetrapsofmisinformation,disinformation, andmalinformationstartswithanunderstandingofthedifferenttypesofcontentthataredisseminatedbythemedia outlets,andanunderstandingofthecriteriathatleadtoselectingspecificnewsitemsasconstituentsofthemainheadlines, andthebasisonwhichthehierarchizationofnewsoccurswithinthesameunitofdisplay,beitapage,orawebpage.As theanswerstothefiveW’sii,and"how"(Harrower,2010,p.38)guidethestudentsofjournalism,andmediaprofessionals instructuringthecontentthatisgoingtobeofferedtothepublic,theyalsoneedtoserveasbenchmarksagainstwhichthe accuracy,andvalidityofallinformationpertainingtothesameevent,willbetested.IftheanswerstothefiveW’s,and howaresimilaracrossdifferentmediaoutlets,itissafetoassumethattheconsumersofmediacontenthavebeenableto avoidbeingthevictimsofmisinformation.
Theawarenessofthisparticular"reality"fromthemediacontentconsumersmightbefollowedbyseveralstepsin ordertocriticallyconsumetheinformationthathasbeenagreedupon.However,andbeforegoingthroughthesetools,the differentfunctionsofamediatextneedtobeestablishedinordertoequipthetargetaudiencewiththehow-to-knowledge ofseparatingnews/informationfrominterpretation.
THEDIFFERENTFUNCTIONSOFAMEDIATEXT
Amediatextdoesnotsolelyservethefunctionofinformation.Considerthefollowingexamplewhichisanewsstory abouttheRepublicanSen.atthetime,TedCruz:
U.S.Sen.TedCruzhastoldaconservativeconferencethatPresidentBarackObamaislawless,providingthe rightwingrhetoricthatmakeshimsopopularinhishomestateiii
Intheparagraphabove,theleadofthenewsstory,theauthordeliveredtheinformationusing15words(thatstop at"islawless")thatansweredtwooutofthe5w's(Who?U.S.Sen.TedCruz;"What?"hastoldaconservativeparty).The remaining13wordswerededicatedtoansweringthequestion"Why?”However,ifthenatureoftheideaconveyedby these13wordsisexamined,itwouldbesafetosaythatatthisparticularpoint,thenewsstoryhasshiftedfromdelivering factstobuildingcontextthroughinterpretation,hencejustifyingthesignificanceofwritingaboutthispieceofnews. Discoveringthattheleadhasshiftedfrominformationtointerpretation,amountstoaskingatleastthreequestions:Did Sen.TedCruzdescribehisrhetoricasbeinga"rightwing"one?Hashepurposefullystatedthatheisdeliveringyetanother speechinhishomestatetoincreasehispopularity?Orisitthattheauthorofthenewsstoryisconveyinghowheis weighingthefactsthroughwhatheknowstobethebackgroundofSen.TedCruz?
Knowinghowtoisolate"facts"frominterpretation,andgenerallyspeakingfromthecontextthatconstitutethe bodyofamediatext,isafoundationalskillthatwillmakethereaderrecognizemisinformation,disinformation,and malinformation.
THEFIVETOOLSOFMEDIALITERACY
Thereareseveralanalyticaltoolsthatcanbeusedbythegeneralpublictodealwithnewsbasedonacriticalsense.The “fivetools”servesuchapurposeastheyleadtodealingwithinformation,commentaries,andgenerallyspeakingmedia messages,basedonthefollowingkeypoints(Turow,2014,pp.23-25):
1)Authorship;2)Evaluationoftheaudience;3)Determinationoftheinstitutionalpurpose;4)Analysisofthe content;5)Identificationofthecreativetechniquesusedinproducing,anddisseminatingthemediacontent.
Boththefourthandfifthstepscanbeenhancedbyincorporatingthestepsofcriticalthinking(Campbelletal., 2012,pp.30-31):
1)Description;2)Analysis;3)Interpretation;4)Evaluation;5)Engagement.
Frompreviousexperienceinteachingcourseswherebothmedia,andinformationliteracyskillswererequired,the studentswereledtodevelopingtheirabilitytounderstandtheconcepts,andanalyticaltoolsthatwereexplainedtothem throughaseriesofworkshops,formative,andsummativeassessmentsthatwerebuilteitheraroundthefivestagesofmedia literacy,andthefivestagesofcriticalthinkingeachalone,oracombinationofbothindifferentcontexts.Studentscouldbe instructed,withinthesameframework,toincorporatetheirunderstandingofhowmeaningisconveyedthroughvisual material,usingtheirabilitytorecognizethenewsvaluesconveyedinsuchamaterial,toenhancetheiranalyticalskills.
Thefivetoolsofmedialiteracyofferthemselvesasacomprehensiveframeworkthatissuitableforexploringthe intendedmeaningsbehindamediatext,beittheexplicitorimplicitones.Mattersrevolvingaroundauthorshipcanleadto raisingquestionsconcerningthereputabilityoftheauthor,andthemediaoutletthroughwhichthemediacontentisbeing disseminated.
Thesecondtoolofmedialiteracy,andthatisthe“targetaudience”,willbeusedtodiscoverhowthesame messagewillbeunderstoodbythetargetaudience,asnotallofthemmightunderstandthesamecontentinasimilarway. Thisremarkisapplicabletovisualcontent,nottextualonealone.ConsidertheexampleofTheFallingMan,whichwas takenbyAPphotographerRichardDrew,atthemomentofthecollapseofthenorthtower,oftheWorldTradeCenter,in September11,2001(TheeditorsofTime,2016,p.156).Thisphotowaspartofthematerialusedintheclassroomasan applicationontheusageoftheoriespertainingtoethicalthinking,toassessthedecision-makingprocessofmedia professionals,fromanethicalperspective.Studentswereledtoanswerseveralquestionsregardingthisphoto,inclass discussions.Forexample,theywereaskedifthephotocanpossessnon-intendedcodedmeaningsthatgobeyondthe immediate,andobviousmeaningofdocumentingatragedyduringthecollapseofthenorthtoweroftheWorldTrade Center.Oneofthesemeaningsrevolvesaroundechoingthetragedyofmenincurrenttimes,wheregreatcivilizational progresshasbeenachievedtothedetrimentofmen.Hence,thefallingmanwithhisunclearfeaturesmightbeperceivedas asymboloftheconditionofmeninmoderntimes:Atinyentityoflifedominatedbyabackgroundofstonerepresenting theenvironmentwelivein.CanthephotoofDrewbeperceivedinthisway?Doesitharboursuchconnotations?
Askingsuchquestionswillleadtodiscoveringhowthetargetaudiencemightbeperceivingthesamecontent similarly,ordifferently.Otherinstancesofpracticalactivitieswherestudents’questionsrevolvedaroundaperceived “informationdisorder”ofsomesort,includecommentariesaboutcontroversialimagerysuchasthephotothatFrank Fourniertookin1985of13-year-oldgirlOmayraSánchez,shortlybeforeherdeath,afterbeingtrappedintheruinsthat fellasaresultoftheeruptionofthevolcanoNevadadelRuiziv,orthescenecapturedin1993byKevinCarterasavulture
wasabouttoattackalittlegirlinfamine-ravagedSudan(Taylor,1998,p.135).Inthesetwoexamples,an“information disorder”ofsomesortmighthavebeenfeltbytheaudienceasdemonstratedbyacertainnumberofquestionsthatthe studentshaveposedinsideoftheclassroom:WastherenoonearoundOmayratorescueher?Wasshetheonlysurvivor? Whydidn’tthephotographerhelpher?Washealone,orpartofacrew?Similarquestionswereassociatedwiththeshot takenbyCarter:Isthechildinthephotographaboy,oragirl?Isheorsheanorphan?Wastherenoonearoundtohelp? Whydidn’tthephotographertrytohelphimorher?
Questionsthatareaddressedtothetargetaudience,orquestionsaskedbythetargetaudiencewillleadtofulfilling theaim,andobjectivesofusingthesecondtoolofmedialiteracy,andtorevealinganydisruptionsintheunderstandingof thereceiversduetomisconceptions,orinsufficientinformation.Inthecasesmentionedearlier(TheFallingMan,andthe photostakenbyFournier,andCarter),usingthesecondtoolofmedialiteracywillpreventanyformofmisinformationby elicitingtheresponsespertainingtoareasthatremainobscureforthereceiver.
Finally,questionsrelatedtothetoolsoftheinstitutionalpurpose,contentanalysis,andcreativetechniqueswill leadthereceiversofthecontenttodeepeningtheirunderstandingofanymeaningslyingbehindthemediacontent,beitthe explicit,orimplicitones.Thesetoolscanrevealthemselvestobeuseful,especiallywhendealingwithcontroversial contentasisthecaseforexampleofsomeoftheissuespublishedbytheFrenchperiodicalCharlieHebdo,asthesewere usedinsideoftheclassroom.
Theissueno.1207ofCharlieHebdoreleasedinSeptember9,2015,afterthedrowningoftheSyrian3-year-old child,AlanKurdiisoneofthecasesthatweregiventostudentsforanalysis,usingthefivestoolsofmedialiteracy.Using thesetoolswillleadtoprovidinganswerstoquestionsofcontroversialnatureobjectively,orascloseasitcomesto objectivity.Indeed,alltheprominentsignifiers,orsignsinCharlesPierce’sterminology,thatcouldbesingledoutinthis particularcase,leadtodifferentinterpretants.InPierce’sterminology,aninterpretantistheideaevokedinaperson’smind bythesign(Smithetal.,2005,pp.228-229).Responseselicitedfromstudentsregardingthisparticularcaserevolved mostlyaroundlabellingthecontentinquestionasbeing“provocative”tosaytheleast,andperhapseven“xenophobic”.
However,acloseexaminationofthesignifiersorsignsusedinthenarrativedesignedbyCocodoesnot necessarilycorroboratetheabove-mentionedinterpretation,oropinion(2015).Studentswereofferedthreesequencesto analyzefromtheCharlieHebdoissueinquestion,andtheyallrevolvearounddichotomies.Thefirstsequenceinthese showsawhiteman,epitomizingEuropeansasitseems,sittingonacouchchair,andusingthebackofamigranttoresthis feetupon,whileholdingacaninhishand.Thispictorialcontentrevealsindeedacontrastbetweenan“overpowering” native,andan“overpowered”migrantwhoiswearingtatteredjeans.However,doesthisdepictionreallyservethepurpose ofputtingnon-Europeansdown,andmoreprecisely,Syrianmigrants?
Actuallytheprominentsignifiersinthesequenceinquestionleadtosayingthatitservescultural,andmaybe political,satirebecausetheelementthatisrepresentingtheWesterncivilizationinit,isnotdepictedinaflatteringway. Hispotbelly,andthefactthatheissittingonacouchconsolidatethelatterremark,asiftoinsinuatethatheisalazy person.Thedepictioncanbeperceivedasvisuallyechoingtheexpression“couchpotato”;thisispracticallyanidleperson whodoesnotpracticeanykindofphysicalactivity,andspendshourswatchingTV.
Inthesamemanner,theanalysisoftheothersequencesthataretobefoundintheCharlieHebdoissuerevealsa balanceddichotomyexposingthenegativerealityonbothsidesofthestory,orsotospeak.Forexample,inoneofthe sequences,thefollowingsentencecanberead(Riss,2015a):“Siprèsdubut…Promo!2menusenfantpourleprixd’un”
(“Soclosefromthegoal…Promotion!2childmenuforthepriceofone”).Thissentencecanbeperceivedashavinga sarcasticundertonethatisminimizingthedreamsofSyrianmigrants,whofledtheircountrytornwithintestinewars,to seekabetterlife.However,theanalysisofthesamesequence,buildinguponelementssuchasitscompositionalstructure, andtheusageofcolourinit,willleadtoadifferentconclusion.Indeed,colourshavebeenonlyusedintheupperhalfof thesequence,whereasthesecondhalfthatoccupiesthebottomisrenderedinblack,andwhite,includingthewater,asifto signifyajoylessreality.
ColourshavebeenemployedtootodepictRonaldtheclown,theMacDonald’smascot(Riss,2015a).Atfirst sight,Ronaldseemstobepoppingoutofthebillboardinmockery,accentuatingthefeelingoftheinsensitivityprojected bythemediacontent,towardsatragedy:Achild’sdeath.However,andgiventheinterpretantsthatcanbeassociatedwith thisparticularcharacter,themascotmightbeseenasagrimsymbolofacruelreality.
Thisremarkcanbeweighedinlightofrecentdevelopmentsconcerningthefateofthischaracteraspertoits centralitytoMacDonald’simagebrandingstrategies.In2016,thegiantfast-foodchainhasofficiallysentitsmascotinto retirementafterseveralsightingsof“creepyclowns”intheUS,andtheUK,inwhathasbeencalled“theclowncraze”. Clownscanimpartasenseofdanger,andinsecurity,dependingontheculturalbackgroundofthetargetaudience,andthe memories,andinterpretantsthattheymightassociatewiththisfigure,especiallyinthelightoftheexperiencetheyhadof himorherthroughmediamessages,andpopularculture.CharacterssuchasBatman’snemesis,theJoker,orPennywise fromStephenKing’s1986horrornovelIt,andtheTVseriesbythesametitle,arepartofthelatter.Tothosecanbeadded images,memories,andideasrelatedtoclownkillers,suchasJohnWayneGacy,anAmericanserialkiller,andsex offenderfromthe1970s(Poole,2016).
Finally,thesequencedrawnbyRiss,andthatbringsintolightacomparisonbetweenChristians,andnonChristianscanbeanalyzedinthesameway(2015b).InoneofthecartoonspublishedbyCharlieHebdo,thefollowing messagecanberead:“Lapreuvequel’EuropeestChrétienne.LesChrétiensmarchentsurleseaux.Lesenfants Musulmanscoulent”(“TheproofthatEuropeisChristian.Christianswalkonwater.Muslimchildrensink”).This messagecanbeperceivedatfacevalue,asbeinghighlyprovocative,andharbouringsomeformofreligiousintolerance. However,itscompositionalstructure,andthecoloursusedinitmightleadtothinkingotherwise.Again,thepagehasbeen dividedintotwonon-equalhalves,theupperoneinblue,andthesecondoneinblackandwhite.Inthesecondhalfis drawnthelowerbodyofacharacter(Ateenager?Alan?)asifheispinneddowninshallowwaters,inamannermimicking sceneriesfromcomics,andanimatedcartoonswherethemainprotagonistisexpectedtocomebacksafewhateverthe dangersheorsheisfacingmightbe.However,whatisofinteresthereishowJesusisdrawninthissequenceashisclothes areclosertobeadjellabiathantotheseamlessrobeheissupposedtohavewornbeforecrucifixion.Theambiguousnatureof thesandalshewasdrawnwith(Arethesesandalswithheelstrap,orsandalswithnoheelstrapsuchastheonesthatarepartof thetraditionaloutfitofmeninsomeoftheMiddleEasternregions?),andthelongbeardthathasbeenattributedtohimmake itseemasifthecharacterinthecartoonisdrawnwithelementsrepresentingbothWestern,andnon-Westernculturesonthe assumptionthattherealaimfromitistoridiculethelogicbehindanyfanaticismwhateveritssourcemightbe.
Providingthiscaseasanexamplehighlightstheimportanceofusingthefivetoolsofmedialiteracytounderstand thecodedmeaningsimpartedtomediamessages,asthingsdonotalwaysseemthewaytheylook.Furthermore,itisone exampleshowingthatsometimesitisnecessarytoincorporatesemioticanalysisintotheteachingmethodsusedinsideofa
classroomtoanalysemediamessages,inanyformtheymightcomein,beitatext,oranimage,oraphotograph,ora video,orafilm.
THEFIVESTAGESOFCRITICALTHINKING
Usingthefivestagesofcriticalthinking,willleadtothesameoutcome,orcanbeconsideredasanotherformtoquestion thecodedmeaningsthatcanbefoundinmediamessages.Thefirststageofcriticalthinkingwillleadtoisolatingkey concepts,orprominentsignifiersinthemediamessagesthatarebeinganalyzed.Bythewayofthechainofthese signifiers,themessagethatisbeingconveyedthroughthecontentinquestioncanbeidentified,bythetargetaudience;this isthesecondstageintheprocessofcriticalthinking.
Itistobenotedherethattheinstructorcanincorporateteachingabouthowtoidentifythemeaningbehinda visualmessageusingknowledgeaboutnewsvaluesasabenchmark.Throughindicatorssuchastheparticipantsshownin thephotographsthatarebeinganalyzed,theemotionsthataredepicted,andconveyedthroughthem,serialization,and repetition,comparison,negativeelements,referencestotime,place,andindividuals,roleattributes,andaestheticelements, thenewsvaluesthattheyconveycanbeidentifiedv.Theseare:Timeliness,proximity,prominence,consonance,negativity, personalization,impact,superlativeness,noveltyandaesthetics(Caple,2013,p.26).
Asanexample,thephotoavailablethroughthelinkindicatedintheendnotesvi,canbeconstruedasemphasizingthe prominencenewsvaluethroughthedepictionoftheauthorNaguibMahfouzamidstbooks,andwithanewspaperinhishands.
Thethirdandfourthstages(interpretationandevaluation)canberemodelledinawaytoexploretheethical decision-makingprocessbehindtheproductionofthecontent,anditsfairness,towardstheprotagonistswhoaredepicted throughit.Duringthesestages,theinstructorcanleadthestudentsortheaudienceparticipatinginsessionsaimingat spreadingawarenessconcerningthe“informationdisorder”,towardansweringthefollowingquestions:Isthedecisionto publicizethecontentinquestionethicalornot?Canthepackaging,andpresentationoftheinformation,beconsideredfair towardtheprotagonistswhoarebeingdepictedinit?
Answeringthesequestions,necessarilyrevolvesaroundfollowingspecificmethodologicalstepsthatwillleadto anexaminationoftheethicalimplicationsassociatedwiththemediamessagesthatarebeingevaluated,throughknown theoriessuchastheGoldenMeanofAristotle,theCategoricalImperativeofImmanuelKant,theprincipleofutilityof JohnMills,andtheVeilofIgnoranceofJohnRawls(Hanson,2021,pp.375-378).Theseparticulartheorieswerechosen becauseacertainsufficiencywasestablishedthroughthemintermsofthediversityoftheanalyticaltoolsthatwereoffered tothestudentstoprovidetheirinputwhenitcametoanalyzingspecificmediamessages.
Oneoftheoutcomesthatcanbeachievedthroughtheusageoftheseparticulartheoriesisenablingthestudentsto findanacceptableresolutionforbrain-rackingsituations.Whatifaparticulardecisiontakenbyamediaestablishmentwas ethicalinthelightofonetheory,andunethicalfromtheperspectiveofanothertheory?
Thissituationcanoftenbeencounteredinworkshopswherespecificcasestudiesaregiventostudents.Let’s considerthecaseoftheSeung-HuiCho’smultimediadiskastheNBCNewschannelhadtakenthedecisiontobroadcast excerptsfromit,justifyingitsdecisionbythebenefitthatsuchanactwillfalluponsocietyintermsofknowingwhatgoes insidethemindofaserialkiller.Choeliminatedbygunshotthirty-twostudentsandfacultymembersfromVirginiaTech inApril2007(Hanson,2021,p.377).ThisjustificationisconsistentwiththefoundationsofthePrincipleofUtilityof MillsasanactwouldbeconsideredasbeingethicalusingtheframeworkderivedfromMill’sideasifitbenefitsthe
majority,eventhoughtherewouldbeaminoritythatisgoingtosufferfromacertainloss.HoweveriftheGoldenMeanof Aristotlewereusedtoassessthesituation,thenthestudentcaneasilydismissthecaseathandasbeingunethicalbecause noGoldenMeanhasbeenachieved,andtheactofthechannelcouldbelabelledasanexcessofsomesort.
Somestudentsfinditperplexingtoreachaconclusionaboutthestudycasewhentheactassociatedwithitcanbe consideredasbeingethicalaccordingtoonetheory,andunethicalbasedonanotherone.Thissituationmightrevealitself tobeuncomfortableforthemespeciallywhentheanalysisispartofanassessmentthatwilldeterminetheoutcomeofthe course,intermsofpassingorfailingit.Thisiswhy,studentscanbetoldinsuchparticularcasesthatthegradingwill dependlargelyonhowtheybuildtheircase,anddefenditthrougharguments.Thisiswhy,apre-requisiteforasuccessful analysisisrequiredsuchasintroducingthestudentstothedifferencebetweenfacts,andopinions,subjective,andobjective claims(BrookeNoelMooreandParker,2012,pp.5-7).
Thefourthstageinthoseofcriticalthinking,andbythatismeantevaluation,issimilarinitsessencetothatof interpretationasbothrequirethatthecasebebuiltonconclusionsderivedfromsolidly-formulatedpremises.However,at thisparticularstage,theaimofthelearnerwouldbetodecideiftheacttakenbymediaprofessionals,ortheproducersof mediacontent,isfairornot.Thisisastagethatposesitsownproblems,asacertainactcanbeethical,butunfair,or unethicalbutfairtowardsacertainprotagonist.Alldependsonthetheoryusedtoprovideadecisionaspertowhethera certainactisethical,ornot.
Lastly,forthefinalstageofcriticalthinking,thereneedstobeaproposalaspertoshowingone’sengagement whenitcomestoapproving,ordisapprovingtheproduction,andpackagingofcertaininformationforthegeneralpublicto beinformedof.Thisstageenticesthelearnerstoshowsomeformofcivicleadership,andinterestinmatterspertainingto howtheirCityisbeinggoverned(theCityisametaphoremployedtorepresentmodernstates,andsocieties).Sendingan emailtotheeditor-in-chief,ortheeditor(s)andauthor(s)responsibleofthecontentthatisbeinganalyzed,orthe photographer,orfilmmakerwhohaveproducedthemediamessagesinquestion,isaformofengagement.Startinga discussionthreadonforums,orviaapostonFacebook,orusinganyavailableplatformstovoiceone’sopinionsareother formsofengagement.
CONCLUSION
Theabove-mentionedstageisreallyrepresentativeoftheessenceofwhataSixthEstateneedstobe,anddo.Ofcourse, howthisSixthEstatecanbetransformedintoamoderndayagora,andhowcanthefreedomofexpressionberegulated withoutviolatingitsessence,andwiththeaimofpreventinganydisruptionsorviolationstootherpeople’srights,inthe formoflibel,slander,ordefamationgenerallyspeaking,oranyotherway,aretwodifferentmattersthatareworthyof analysisbythemselves.Thisremarkconsolidatestheimportanceofprovidingteachingaboutthe“informationdisorder,” forallages,andcategoriesofpeople,andencouragingthelattertobecomecriticalconsumersofmediacontent.This schemeentailsthenecessitytothinkofwaystomakethisprocessasproductiveasitcanbe,andinharmonywiththe society’sself-regulationmechanisms,asthefreedomtoexpressone’sthoughtscanlead,ifnotregulated,toacacophonyof voices,andopinions.Hence,thinkingabouthowtoenablepeopletobecomemedialiteratecannotbeseparatedfrom mattersrelatedtotheexerciseofcivicleadership.Withtheconstantevolutionofthemeansofinformation,and communication,thefieldofinformation,andmedialiteracyisexpectedtogainevenagreaterattentionfromthescholarly community,givenitsvitalitytoasociety’sharmony,andmodusoperandi.
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iSuchtextbooksincludebutarenotlimitedto:Hanson,R.E.(2014),4thedition.Masscommunication:Livinginamedia world,SagePublications,London;Baran,S.J.(2014),Introductiontomasscommunication,8thedition.McGraw-Hill,NY, NewYork.McQuail,D.(2010),6thedition,Masscommunicationtheory:Anintroduction,SagePublications,London. iiThefiveW’sare"Who”,“What","When","Where",and"Why"(Harrower,2010,p.38). iiiCBSNDallas-FT.Worth,2014.
ivThephotothatFourniertookinadditiontootherimagerydocumentingtheagonyofOmayraduringthethreedayswhen shewasparalyzedbythedebristhatfellaftertheeruptionofthevolcanoNevadadelRuizisavailablealongwithother photosindifferentonlineplatformssuchasthewebsiteofLaNacion(“OmayraSánchez,laniñaqueagonizó...”,2020).It istobenotedthatthephotoofFournierdoesnotshowthecompleterealityasOmayrawasnotalone,andtherewere attemptstorescueherbytheRedCross,andcivildefensetonoavail,asherlegsweretrapped,andtheonlywaytosave herwouldhavebeenbyamputatingthem.Atthetime,thedoctorsdecidedthatitwouldbemorehumanetoletherdieas therewerenomedicalequipmentthatcouldhavebeenusedtoensurethatshewouldhavereceivedthepropertreatment afterperformingtheoperationonher.
vForafurtherexplorationofhownewsvaluescanbeusedtoidentifythemeaningconveyedthroughphotographs,refer to:Caple,2013,pp.36-54.
viThephotoofNaguibMahfouzavailableat:https://amayei.nyc3.digitaloceanspaces.com/2018/09/naguib-mahfouz-1.jpg.