InternationalJournalofLinguisticsand Literature(IJLL)
ISSN(P):2319–3956;ISSN(E):2319–3964 Vol.11,Issue2,Dec2022;1–14 ©IASET
USEOFTHEFIGUREOFAL-ḤUSAYNINCONTEMPORARYARABICPOETRY
HussainHamzah ArabAcademicCollegeofEducation,Haifa,IsraelABSTRACT
ContemporaryArabpoetshaveusedthefigureofal-Ḥusaynasasymbolofinjustice,sacrifice,solitudeandalienation. Theusagesofthisfigureintoday’sArabicpoetryarequitesimilartothoseofthefigureofChrist,forexamplethetragic endwhichbothsuffered,al-Ḥusayn ’smartyrdomandChrist’scrucifixion,orthestrugglebetweentruthandfalsehood. Thepresentpaperexaminestheuseofal-ḤusayntheworksofaselectionofrepresentativeArabpoetsandshowsthis usageatthreelevels:thehumanlevelingeneral,thenationallevelandtheleveloftheindividual.
KEYWORDS:Al-Ḥusayn,ContemporaryArabicPoetry,Karbalāʾ,Martyrdom,PalestinianPoetry
ArticleHistory
Received:12Sep2022|Revised:22Sep2022|Accepted:28Sep2022
INTRODUCTION
Al-Ḥusaynb.ʿAlīisaprominenthistoricalsymbolinmodernArabicpoetry.Hisplaceinhistoryhasmadehisfiguretaken onmeaningswhichcontemporaryArabpoetshaveusedinordertoexpresstheirownexperiences,thecomplexrealityin whichtheylive,andideasthatarecommontothepastandthepresent.Al-Ḥusayn’sfigurehadbothapoliticalandan ethicaldimension,bothaimedagainsttherampantcorruptioninUmayyadsociety.Asaresult,poetsviedwitheachother indescribinghimasachampionofanoble,humanecause,whorefusedtoacceptthesituationandstoodaloneonthe battleground,afterhisadherentshadfailedtochampionhimanddefendhisprinciples(Aḥmad,2004).
WeneedtobrieflyreviewthehistoricalbackgroundoftheeventsatKarbalāʾ.Onthetenthdayofthemonthof Muḥarramintheyear61AH(10October680CE)abattletookplaceatKarbalāʾbetweenal-Ḥusaynb.ʿAlīb.AbīṬālib, supportedbyagroupofadherentsoftheProphet’sfamilynumberingnomorethanninety,andanUmayyadforce commandedbyʿUmarb.Saʿd(d.686).
Historybookstellusthatintheyear41/661thepostofcaliphcameintothehandsofMuʿāwiyab.AbīSufyān, afteral-Ḥasanb.AbīṬālibwaivedhisrighttotheposition.Al-Ḥasan,hisbrotheral-Ḥusaynandtheirfollowerspledged allegiancetoMuʿāwiya,inordertopreventbloodshedandbringunity.Al-Ḥasan’sstepwashighlypraisedandtheyearin whichhestroveforpeacewascalledʿāmal-jamāʿa“theyearofcommunity”
TheMuslimcommunitywassurprisedwhenMuʿāwiyadecidedtohavehissonYazīdsucceedhimascaliph.He begantodemandanoathofallegiancetohissonduringhisownlifetimeinvariousregionsoftheIslamicstate,sometimes peacefullyandsometimesbyforce.Nooneopposedhim,exceptthepeopleofal-Ḥijāz.Thepartyopposedtothenew
caliphwasheadedbyal-Ḥusaynb.ʿAlī,ʿAbdullāhb.ʿUmarandʿAbdullāhb.al-Zubayr.
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Muʿāwiyadiedin60/679andwassucceededbyhissonYazīd.HesenthisgovernorinMedinatoreceiveanoath ofallegiancefromal-Ḥusayn,whorefused,justashehadrefusedtorecognizehimasregentduringthereignofhisfather Muʿāwiya.HeleftMedinaclandestinelyforMecca,wherehesoughtshelterandawaiteddevelopments.
TheShīʿīsofal-Kūfaconsideredthemomentopportuneforal-Ḥusaynb.ʿAlītobecomecaliph.Theirleaders wroteanumberofletterstohim,inwhichtheyurgedhimtocometothemandreceivetheiroathofallegiance.
Eventuallyal-ḤusayngaveintotheKūfans’repeatedentreatiesandpromisesofsupportandsenthiscousin Muslimb.ʿUqaylb.AbīṬālib(d.680)toKūfa,toassessthesincerityofthepeople’spromises.Thelatterwasimpressed bythehugenumberofpeoplewhodeclaredtheirallegiancetoal-Ḥusayn,andwrotetohimthatallwaswellandthathe shouldcome.
WhenYazīdb.Muʿāwiyaheardwhathadhappenedinal-Kūfa,hedismissedthecity’sgovernoral-Nuʿmānb. Bashīral-AnṣārībecauseofhislackofactionagainstwhatMuslimwasdoingandreplacedhimwithʿUbaydAllāhb. Ziyād(d.686),whoarrivedimmediatelyandinstitutedareignofterrorinal-Kūfa.Heboughttheloyaltyofsomewith money.ThethousandsofpeoplearoundMuslimdispersed,leavinghimtohisfate.ʿUbaydAllāhcaughthimandhadhim thrownfromthetopofthegovernmentpalace.Hedied,andwasthencrucified.Hebecamethefirstcasualtywhosebody wascrucifiedbytheBanūHāshim.
Al-ḤusaynleftMeccaforal-Kūfa.1WhennewsreachedhimofMuslim’sdeathandhowthepeoplehad abandonedhim,hedecidedtoreturntoMecca.However,Muslim’sbrothersinsistedoncontinuingthejourney,inorderto extractrevenge.Al-Ḥusaynwasforcedtodotheirbidding.HecontinuedhisjourneyuntilhereachedKarbalāʾ,atownnot veryfarfromal-Kūfa.Therehewasconfrontedbyalargearmy,ledbyʿUmarb.Saʿdb.AbīWaqqāṣ,whilemostofhis supportershadabandonedhim,leavinghimwithamereninetymen,membersofahlal-bayt(theProphet’sfamily)anda fewotherswhoremainedwithhim.Thebattlebetweenthetwounequalsides,inwhichal-Ḥusaynwaskilled,2tookplace onthe10thdayofMuḥarramintheyear61/680.
ThisbattlethusgaverisetoafrightfultragedythatbroketheheartsofMuslimsandengenderedgreatsympathy towardstheProphet’sfamily.Initswake,numerousrebellionsbrokeoutagainsttheUmayyads,untiltheyfellandthe Abbasidstatearosefromitsruins.Karbalāʾitselfbecameaholysite,ofimportanceinIslamicthoughtingeneral, especiallyamongtheShīʿa.Italsofiguredprominentlyinelegiescomposedinal-Ḥusayn’smemory,fromthetimeofhis deathtothisday(evenamongChristianpoets).3
Thebattleitself,thevariousdetailsassociatedwithitanditsoutcome,havecometopossessgreatspiritualvalue amongShīʿīs,whoconsideredtheBattleofKarbalāʾtohavebeenapoliticaluprisingagainstevil,whileal-Ḥusayn’sburial placeinKarbalāʾhasbecomeaShīʿīpilgrimagedestination,visitstowhichbythebelieversareaccompaniedbyspecial invocations.
1Onthe8thdayofDhūl-ḥijja,intheyear60AH.
2Formoreonal-Ḥusayn'sdeath,seeal-ʿAqqād,al-Ḥusaynabūal-shuhadāʾ,ed.Ibrāhīmal-Ṣābir,Dāral-taqwā,Cairo, 2016;MurtaḍāFaraj,KhalfiyyātwāqiʿatKarbalāʾwa-shahādatal-imāmal-Ḥusaynb.ʿAlī,Muʾssasatal-intishāral-ʿarabī, 2011,pp.488-490surveysthedirectandindirectcausesofal-Ḥusayn'smartyrdom;Ibnal-Athīr,al-Kāmilfīl-tārīkh,ed. ʿUmarʿAbdal-SalāmTudmurī,Dāral-kitābal-ʿarabī,Beirut,2004,vol.III,pp.157–194.
3SaʿīdZamzam,al-Ḥusaynb.ʿAlīfīl-shiʿral-masīḥī,Dāral-jawādīn,2012.
ImpactFactor(JCC):7.4987
NAASRating2.67
TheBattleofKarbalāʾ(alsocalledtheBattleofal-Ṭaff)hasthusbecomeoneofthemostcontroversialeventsin Islamichistory.Thebattle’scourseanditsoutcomehadpolitical,psychologicalandideologicalconsequencesthatarestill indisputetothisday.Itremainsthemostsignificantamongtheseriesofclashesthathavedefinedthenatureofthe relationsbetweenSunnaandShīʿathroughouthistory.Thebattleandtheeventsassociatedwithithavetakenona symbolicvalueforShīʿīs,forwhomtheyremainveryimportantculturalcornerstones.
THEUSEOFTHEFIGUREOFAL-ḤUSAYNINMODERNARABICPOETRY
Al-Ḥusayn’smartyrdominKarbalāʾcreatedshockwavesthroughouttheArabworld.Asaresult,Arabpoetshave mentioneditthroughouthistory,fromthetimeoftheoriginaleventtothepresentday.Theconceptofshahāda (martyrdom)isofgreatsignificanceinIslam,andmodernworksofpoetryfrequentlyspeakofitandevoketheimageof theshahīd(martyr)asalivingsymbolofprowess,thesoil,water,trees,freedomandmemory,andwhatconnectsthese withtheIslamicfaithandtheIslamicnationinitshistoricalevolutiontowardsitsgoalsoffreedom,justiceandhonor(alKarakī,1998,p.39).
AsMuḥammadJawādMughniyasaysofthesymbolofal-Ḥusayn,“IfwegobacktotheArabheritage,tothe partyofahlal-bayt,wefindthatitreflectsaloudprotestagainstoppressionandoppressorsineverytimeandplace,a violentrebellionfromtheeastoftheearthtothewest.Shīʿīwritersuseal-Ḥusayn’snametorefertothisrebellion,tothis protest,becauseal-Ḥusaynisthehighestandsincerestexampleofit”(Shabbar,1969,p.8).Shabbaraddsthat“history fromthefirsthumanbeingtothisdayhasnotknownamanspokenofinbothpoetryandproseasmuchasal-Ḥusaynb. ʿAlīb.AbīṬālib.Everyperiodmournedhim,everygeneration,ineverylanguage,atalltimes”(ibid.,p.21).Wethussee thatpoetsinthemodernageusedhistoricalfactsaboutal-Ḥusayn,turninghimintoasymbolthatextendsbeyondhisown ageandconnectsthepresentwiththepast.
Accordingtoal-Karakī,thefigureofal-Ḥusaynasmartyrhascometooccupyauniqueposition,bothhistorically andartistically(al-Karakī,1989,p.183).ThiscanbeclearlyseeninShīʿīliterature,inwhichal-Ḥusaynsymbolizes sacrifice“andreflectsaloudprotestagainstoppressionandoppressorsineverytimeandplace,aviolentrebellionfromthe eastoftheearthtothewest.Shīʿīwritersuseal-Ḥusayn’snametorefertothisrebellion,tothisprotest,becauseal-Ḥusayn isthehighestandsincerestexampleofit”(Shabbar,1969,p.8).Itisforthisreasonthattothisdayversesarecomposed abouthimthroughouttheArabworld.For,asalreadynoted,“historicaleventsandfiguresarenotmerelytransient universalphenomenathatendwhentheirpresenceintheworldends,buthaveacontinuation,togetherwiththeirsurviving overallmeaning,whichcanberenewedinthecourseofhistoryinotherforms”(Zāyid,1997,p.120).
AL-ḤUSAYNASMASK
MasksareamongthenewerpoeticdevicesadoptedbymodernArabicpoetry:“Themaskisatechniqueusedbyimportant poetsintheworld,Bates,EzraPound,Eliot.Apoet,inusingamask,strivestoexpresshisviewoftheworldononehand, andtopreventhispoemfromfallingunderthedominationofhisdirectfeelingsandspontaneousemotionsontheother. Themaskthusbecomesacourageousattemptbythepoettodistancehimselffromhisownselfandtogivehisversesan impersonalcharacter,ortoexpressapoeticthemeobjectively,withnopersonalovertones.Thiscanbeachievedbecause themaskprovidesthereaderwithanestheticdistancebymeansofwhichhecanviewapoeticworkwithoutaffectiveor personalpressureappliedbythepoetonthereader.Themaskinaliteraryorpoeticworkisthefirstnarrativepersonality AstheuseofmasksevolvedinmodernArabicpoetry,poetsbecamecapableofcreatingtheirownpurelypersonalmasks,
orofborrowingapersonalityfromthepast,throughwhomtheycouldexpressthemselves,usingitasamask(al-ʿAllāq, 2002,p.105).
AccordingtoʿAbdal-RaḥmānBasīsū,thepossibilitywhichmasksprovidefortheconstructionofpoemsmakes themtheprimaryentranceforrealizingapoem’sobjectivity.Throughthem,poemscanbetransformedintosymbols,with anexistencethatisindependentofthepoet,becausethevoicewhichspeaksinthepoem,ouronlyentranceintoit,isin turnnominatedbythepoettoserveasamask,oritcanbethemask’svoice,inaconcealedmanner,whichreflectsthe poet’svoice,towhichitgivesanobjective,nearlyneutraltone,sothatitremainsatadistancefromthedirectoutburstof theself,whethersaidmaskisanactualhumanfigure,oronethatishistorical,mythicalorliterary.Chronologicaldistance givessuchafigureamoreobjectivecharacter,onethatisdeeperthemorethegreatertherolewhichthecharactergivento themaskplayedinhumanhistory,civilizationandculture(Basīsū,1999,p.220).AsJābirʿUṣfūrnotes,amaskconstitutes twodistinctvoicesoftwodistinctindividualsworkingintandem.Inthepoemeachofthesevoicessupportstheother,so thatthemaskinfactisthesumoftheinteractionbetweenthetwovoices(ʿUṣfūr,1983,p.124).
WhoeverfollowsmodernArabicpoetrywillidentifythreetypesofusageofthefigureofal-Ḥusayn:Asa memberofthehumanrace,asamemberofanation,andasanindividual.
SYMBOLIZINGMANKIND
Poetsusetheimageofal-Ḥusayntoconveymeaningshavingtodowiththehumansituationingeneral,inasimilarwayto theuseoftheimageofChrist,whorepresentshumansuffering.Inthistypeofusage,al-Ḥusaynservesasasymbolandhis deathrepresentsatragiceventinhumanhistory.Thedetailsoftheeventssurroundinghisdeathsymbolizethestruggle betweentruthandfalsehood,astrugglewhichpoetsoptimisticallypredictwillendwiththevictoryoftruth.
Inthistypeofusagetherearepointsofsimilaritybetweenal-ḤusaynandChrist,althoughthelatterappearsmuch morefrequentlyincontemporaryArabicpoetry.Infact,Christisoneofthemostoften-usedfigures.Thereareanumberof similaritiesbetweenthetwo:sacrifice;atragicdeath;al-ḤusayndiedofthirstandChrist,too,diedofthirstonthecross; andbothwereabandonedbytheirsupporters.Thesesimilaritiesledsomepoetstojointhetwofiguresintheirverses.
Thus,ShawqīBazīʿ(b.1951)inhis“Qaṣīdatal-ṣulbānal-mahjūra”(“PoemoftheAbandonedCrosses”),makesusofboth figuresinthegeneralhumantypeofusage:
Yourarmsfellbehindashoutthatsaidthat
Christhascometoanend
Wewillbeginwithnocrucifixion
Thecrosswasanancientslogan
ThatheboreuntilChristcametoanend
Andwereturnedtosearchforhisfaceinlife
AfacelargeastheJazīra,extendingbetweenal-Ḥusayn
Andal-Ḥusayn’shead,whoseairisthecolorofChrist
Atimeofbirthwillcome
Aseparationbetweenthecaliphateandthewhip
Somethingthatwillreturnsomegodtothemillions
ImpactFactor(JCC):7.4987
NAASRating2.67
Thatwillcastfireinthechest
Andal-Ḥusayn’sheadandal-Ḥusayn’sbodywillbothreturn
ToDamascus.Youwillcomeasavirginatdawn
Resurrectionwillsneakintoyou
Andallthewhoreswillbecomevirgins (Bazīʿ,2005,pp.76–77).
ThepoetclearlyusesthefiguresofChristandal-Ḥusayntoexpressthesamemeanings,ofresurrectionand rebirth.Resurrectioninthepoemappliestoeveryone,sothatal-Ḥusayn’spersonalexperiencebecomesacollectiveone. Thepoet’shopethatal-Ḥusayn’sheadandbodywillreturnwholeexpressesthereturnoflife,“asymbolwhichisthe oppositeofeverythingthatisprevailinganddefeated”(al-Karakī,1989,p.185).Thepoetalsopresentsanequivalent imageofthestateofresurrection,basedontheprincipleoftransformation:Throughal-Ḥussayn’sreturnallthewhores becomevirgins,asymboliccallforbothpurificationofoneselfandpurificationofreality,orseparatingauthorityfromthe whip,asthepoetsays.Arabs’desiretoliveinademocraticclimateisacollectivewishthathasyettoberealized,a situationhighlightedbythepoet’suseofal-Ḥusayntospeakofthebeginningofanewlife:“Wewillbeginwithno crucifixion”.Herethefiguresofal-ḤusaynandChristarecombined,emphasizingthesimilaritiesbetweenwhateach symbolizes.Bazīʿisapparentlytheonlypoettohavedonethis.
Adonis(b.1930)inhisdealingwithal-Ḥusayn’sexperience,maybeconceivedasthepoetwhomadethe profoundestusetheArabheritage.Inhispoem“Mirʾātal-raʾs”(“MirroroftheHead”)hepresentsadialoguebetweena manandhiswifeintheyear680CE,theyearofal-Ḥusayn’sdeath,ashetellsherofthemoneyhewillreceiveforalḤusayn’shead:
MirroroftheHead
-Ifollowedit,observedit
Penetratedintoitseyeliks
Iawakenedallmygreed,Ichargedandcutintoit
Andcame
MywifeNawār
Openedthehousedoor:
Imissedyou.Youweregoneforsolong.How?
-Ihavegoodtidings
Ibroughteternity,themoneyofeternity
Hishead
Al-Ḥusayn?
WoeuntoyouontheDayofResurrection
Woeuntoyou,neverwillapath,adreamorsleepjoinme
Toyou,aftertoday…
SoNawārleft. (Adonis,1988,p.84).
Inthispoem,Adonispresents,asnotedbyal-Karakī,“theheroassymbolwiththemeaningsofhispsychological worth.Al-Ḥusaynhereis‘heroofatragedy’andnotmerelytheactual‘historicalhero’.Thehistoricalfactshavebeen transformedintoamyth,whichhecombinedwithhisownpointofviewtocreateanewstateforthishero,anintuitive, emotionalstate,sothatal-Ḥusayn’sdeathbecameasignalofhiscontinuedpresence”(al-Karakī,1989,p.194).
Nature,too,istransformedintoessenceswhichwalkinal-Ḥusayn’sfuneralprocession,“rock,flower,river”,the riversymbolizingrenewalandcontinuedlife:
Whenthespearssettledinal-Ḥusayn’slastbreath
Anddecoratedthemselveswithal-Ḥusayn’sbody
Andthehorsestrampledeverypart
Ofal-Ḥusayn’sbody
Andal-Ḥusayn’sclotheswereplunderedanddivided
Isaweveryrockleantowardsal-Ḥusayn
Isaweveryflowerbyal-Ḥusayn’sshoulder
Isaweveryriver
Marchatal-Ḥusayn’sfuneral. (Adonis,1988,p.85).
Inhispoem“ʿAwdatfibrāyir”(“ReturnofFebruary”),poetAḥmadʿAbdal-MuʿṭīḤijāzī(b.1935)describesalḤusayn’sweeping,thirstandlonelinessonthebattlefieldindetail.TothisheaddstheroleoftheUmayyads,the impotenceandinjusticewhichdominatedDamascus,theUmayyadcapital.Hethusdoesnotfocusonlyonwhatal-Ḥusayn experienced,asdidotherpoems,butalsodescribesthekillerdirectly.However,Ḥijāzī’sdepictionsmaintainadistance betweenthepoeticselfandthehistoricaleventthathedescribes,throughtheuseofcomparison(“asifI”)andthe demonstrativeadjective(“thisḤusayn”),bothdevicesthatpreventthepoet’sselffromamalgamatingwiththeevents.The fundamentalthemeinthepoemissolitude,whichdictatesthebasicpositionhetakeswithrespecttoiniquity:
AsifIheardasoundlikeweeping
ThisḤusaynaloneinKarbalāʾ
Stillfightsalone
Hisfacecoveredwithdust,yearningforacupofwater
TheUmayyadsareonthenearbyriver
AsifIseeDamascusafteranightofabsence
Itshousesdark,itshighprisonaspaceofnight,notthenight
Andbarrennessinthecupofjuice.
(Ḥijāzī,1983,p.360).
SYMBOLIZINGARABS
Inthisusagetypeal-Ḥusayn’stragicmartyrdomistransformedintoanobjectivecorrelativeofthesufferingsoftheArab peoplesingeneral,andthePalestinianpeopleinparticular.Readingoftheabsenttextbecomesalsoareadingofpresent reality.
ImpactFactor(JCC):7.4987
NAASRating2.67
EgyptianpoetAmalDunqul(1940–1983)inhispoem“MinawrāqAbūNuwās,al-waraqaal-sābiʿa”(“Fromthe PagesofAbūNuwās,theSeventhPage”)dealsinaclearlyironicmannerwithwhathappenedtoal-Ḥusayn,focusingon oneofthethemesassociatedwithhisdeath,thefactthathesufferedfromthirstwhenhedied.Thepoetfindstheidea unbearable,andgivesanarrativedescriptionofthesceneinsidehispoem.HegoestoKarbalāʾ,wherehemeetsasheikh whotellshimofal-Ḥusayn’sthirstanddeath.Thepoetasksnumerousquestionswhicharousehorroratwhathappened andraisetheissueofoppressionatthesymboliclevel.However,attheleveloftheeventitself,thepoeticpersonainthe textfleesfromrealitybydrinkingwine,soastoforgettheblood.Thisflightenableshimtodelayhavingtofacerealityat thesymboliclevel.ItisatthislevelthatthepoemreferstothesadsituationoftheArabsineverydomain,sothat detachmentfromrealityistheonlysolution.Thepoetisthuspessimistic,unlikeShawqīBazʿī,whooptimistically expectedachangeinthesituation:
IwasinKarbalāʾ
Thesheikhtoldmethatal-Ḥusayn
Diedforthesakeofamouthfulofwater!
Iaskedmyself
Howdidtheswordsseizethesonsofthemostvenerableones
Theonewhomtheheavensinformedreplied:
Itisthegoldthatglittersineveryeye
Ifal-Ḥusayn’swords
Andal-Ḥusayn’sswords
Andal-Ḥusayn’smajesty
Fellwithoutrescuingtruthfromtheprinces’gold, Cantheyrescuetruthfromtheprattleofpoets?
WhentheEuphratesisatongueofbloodthatcannotfindthebanks? ***
Hediedforthesakeofamouthfulofwater!
Givemetodrink,oyouth…morningandevening
Givemetodrink,oyouth…morningandevening
Givemedrink,youth
Exaltmewithwine
SoIwillforgettheblood! (Dunqul,nodate,pp.384-385).
ThepoetQāsimḤaddād(b.1948)inhispoem“Khurūjraʾsal-Ḥusaynminal-mudunal-khāʾina”(“TheExitofalḤusayn’sHeadfromtheTraitorousCities”)usesthefigureofal-Ḥusaynasamask.Heistheonlypoetdiscussedinthis studywhomovedfromsymboltomask,throughthetellingofthestoryofal-Ḥusayn’sdeathinthefirstperson.Thusthe poetandthefigureinthepoemareoneindistinguishablevoice,especiallysincethepoemdoesnotnarratetheeventsas theyoccurredinfact,butusesthemasinspirationandaddstheelementofwillthroughphrasessuchas“Idared” , “I
canceledallappointedtimesofmykilling” , “Ienteredthebookoftheprophetsforcibly”,asifhewasmasterofhisfate, justlikeChrist,whowenttothecrossofhisownwill.Thepoet’sself,searchingforitsfreedom,“blockedthecaliph’s swordinitsscabbard”.Inotherwords,thevictimisstrongerthanitskiller.Thisisthedeepmeaningtowhichthepoet alludes,incontrasttothetextualcontextandthehostilereality,asexpressedin“thecity’swaterwaspoisonandtar”.The poetendsthisdepiction,ofthestrugglebetweenthefreeegoandtheunjustother,betweentheoppressedcitizenandthe oppressingruler,withhisdeath,whichbecamea“joke”:“Whenthemomentofdeatharrived,Iwaslifelessonthe pavement,thetargetoffoolishjokesandemptylaughter”ononehand,andavictimwhosurpassedhiskillerontheother, becauseasasymbolhewillneverdie,whiletherulerswillsurelybedefeatedandbecomerustylikeasword,nomatter howoppressivetheyare.Thisistheinvertedimagedrawnbythepoet:“Buttheyrushedatmewiththecaliph’ssword. Rustatetheswordinitsscabbard.Itwasnotmybody.Itwasakilledsword”.Theinstrumentofkillingwasitselfkilled anddefeatedattheendoftheday:
Idared
Icanceledallappointedtimesofmykilling
Itookrefugeinthebreastofchildhood
Ienteredthebookoftheprophetsforcibly” , […]
Idared
Buttheyremovedtheswordfromitsscabbard,horsesbesiegedme (Andhenthemomentofdeatharrived,Iwaslifelessonthepavement, Thetargetoffoolishjokesandemptylaughter)
Idared,andchosethehourofmydeath
Buttheyrushedatmewiththecaliph’ssword (Rust
Atetheswordinitsscabbard)
Itwasnotmybody.Itwasakilledsword. (Ḥaddād,1972,pp.135–137).
Inanothersceneofthispoem,thepoetspeaksinthefirstpersonplural,“we”,anduniversalizestheideaofthe victiminanironicmanner,kickinghistoryrespectfully.ThepoetdescribesthesituationoftheArabsfromanexternal perspective,incontrasttothepreviousscene,inwhichheadoptedthefigureofal-Ḥusaynasamaskandusedthefirst personsingulartoexpresstheArabs’situation.Hereturnstothethemeofwinedrinking,asAmalDunquldid,inorderto escaperealityononehand,andontheotherhand,todescribethesufferingsoftheArabsintwodomains,thepolitical, representedbyoppressionandtheabsenceoffreedom,andtheeconomic,representedbyfamine.Thepoetherealludesto thepoem“Unshūdatal-maṭar”(“RainHymn”)byBadrShākiral-Sayyāb(1926–1964),fromwhichhetooktheverse“Not ayearpassedinwhichtherewasnofamineinIraq”,whichhegeneralizedandappliedtotheGulfregion:“Notayear passedinwhichtherewasnofamineintheGulf”.ThefactthatḤaddādborrowedfromthepoetryofBadrShākiralSayyāb,apioneerofmodernArabicpoetry,knownalsoas“thepoetofpain”,indicatesthepoeminitscomprehensive senseisalsoacallforliberationfromoppressionandenslavement,justasal-Sayyābsucceededinrebellingagainstthe qaṣīdacoupletform,whichdominatedArabicpoetryuntilthemid-twentiethcentury.ItalsotestifiestoḤaddād’sown rebellion,whobycomposingprosepoetrytookanother,rebelliousstepagainstfreeversepoetry,thusaddingyetanother
ImpactFactor(JCC):7.4987
NAASRating2.67
pathtochallengingoppression.Thesceneendsonanoptimisticnote,astheentryofal-Ḥusayn’sheadintoeverycity marksbirthandanewlife:“Letal-Ḥusayn’sheadenter…Thecountrybecomesabridewithathousandchildrenanda thousandlovers”.Inotherwords,theheadofal-Ḥusayn,whowasleftaloneonthebattlefieldandwhodiedalone,willbe transformedintoaseedthatwillenterthelandandmakeitfertile,disseminatingandreproducinghismessageofjustice,as expressedinthephrase“athousandchildren,athousandlovers”.AccordingtoKhālidal-Karakī,“QāsimḤaddād’s evocationofal-Ḥusaynmakeshimabannerforthosewhointhepoet’stimesmarchtowardsamoresublimedestination” (al-Karakī,1989,p.187):
Wemarch.Werollalongourhistoryandkickitinveneration
Wedonottakethesoilwiththesword.Wewereasandgrouse
Ourinkwellswerebloodandhewhowasaboveus
Urinatedonus.Wesaid:Giveustodrink
Andwedrink.Webecomedrunksothatwepassthenights
Andsowebelievethatsilenceispeace
Wemarch.Weknowhowtopartthedustandtosowcreaturesinit
Howtocutheadsandsowthemacrossallgenerations
Forweareal-Ḥusayn,thetravelerfromKarbalāʾ
Andal-Ḥusayn’shead,tornbetweenDamascusandtheGulf
Wecarryit,happywiththeChapteroftheMummy
[…]
(NotayearpassedinwhichthewasnofamineintheGulf)
Faminereceivesal-Ḥusayn’sheadandopensthegateoffire
Letal-Ḥusayn’sheadenter…
Letthecountrybecomeabridewithathousandchildrenandathousandlovers. (Ḥaddād,1972,p.169).
InthePalestiniancontext,poetMuʿīnBasīsū(1928–1984)inhis“al-Qamardhūl-wujūhal-sabʿa”(“TheMoon withSevenFaces”)associatesthefigureofal-Ḥusaynthevictimwiththehypocriteswhowentwithal-Ḥusaynbutthen abandonedhim.InthispoemhealludestothosewhosupportthePalestinianpeoplebutthenabandonittoitsfate.This themeofabandonmentoccursfrequentlyinPalestinianpoetry,andisexpressedbymeansofvariousmasks,suchasJoseph andChrist:
Itdiesonceinautumn
Andtwiceinspring
Winterawakensinitsbranches
Andeatsthehands
IsawhiminKarbalāʾ
Underal-Ḥusayn’sbanner
Theneighingofhisswordwithal-Ḥusayn
Andabovehisswardanengravedpoem
Praisingal-Ḥusayn’skiller.
(Basīsū,1988,p.195)
Asimilarsentimentisexpressedinthepoem“Wa-ttakaʾaʿalāramḥihi”(“AndHeLeanedonHisSpear”)by MamdūḥʿAdwān(1941–2004):“Theirheartsthrobforyou,buttheirswordscomedrawnagainstyou”.Intheselineshe expresseshypocrisy,betrayal,alienationandsolitude,butintheparalleltexthemakesal-Ḥusayntheobjectivecorrelative ofCheGuevara,anon-Arab,thusturningal-Ḥusaynintoasymbolofeveryoppressedperson,whateverhisorigin:
Whenthecallreachedyou:
Ifyoudesireasipofwater
Placethisswordonthesands
Noneofthecompanionshasremained.
Youstood,surroundedbysolitude
Inthemiddleofthesummerfurnace
Whenthemendroppedawayfromyoulikeautumnleaves
[…]
Theirheartsthrobforyou
Buttheirswordscomedrawnagainstyou.
(ʿAdwān,1986,pp.31–32).
AḥmadDaḥbūr(1946–2017)evokeddetailsofal-Ḥusayn’sdeathinhispoem“al-ʿAwdailāKarbalāʾ”(“Returnto Karbalāʾ”),inwhichhemadehimrepresentthesufferingsofthePalestinianpeople.LikeBasīsū,heusedthisfigureto expressthethemeofabandonmentandbetrayal,implicitlycriticizingtheArabworld,that“weredinarsofdatepalms”
However,heexplicitlyassociatesKarbalāʾwiththerefugeecamps,andal-Ḥusayn’sdemise,thirstandalienationwiththe similarexperiencesofthePalestinianpeople.However,hispoemissuffusedwithakindofoptimism,connectedtothe Palestinianthemeofreturn.Thepoetusesthefigureofal-Ḥusaynasamask,bymeansofwhichthereaderisurgedto comparethetwoexperiences.Thefirstpersonsingularexpressesoptimism,despitethedifficultiesencounteredinthepast: “Iamcoming,precededbymypassion,Iamcoming,precededbymyhands”:
Iamcoming,precededbymypassion
Iamcoming,precededbymyhands.Iamcomingwithmythirst,withmyprovisions,fruitofthedatepalm
Letthehiddenwatercomeouttome,letitbetheguide
OKarbalāʾ,touchmyfacewithyourwater,laybarethekilledman’sthirst
Andseeontheforehead’swoundtheintegritythatdictatesmysteps
Seemysteps
Ithasbeensaid:Thesoilisshut
Ithasbeensaid[…]
Isawthem,therefugeecamp’sspringdoesnotoverflow.Theywere
Amerchant
Agambler
Andamaskedman
Theyweredinarsofdatepalms
Ienteredmydeathalone,convertedinto
ImpactFactor(JCC):7.4987
NAASRating2.67
Ahomeland,amassacre,exile
Ihavecome,precededbymyhands
OKarbalāʾ,itfleesfromthefire
Irememberhowthefacesturned
Theyknewtherivalandseizedhim
(Itissaid:Hetrottedonmyfleshanddrankmyblood).
Daḥbūr,1983,pp.257–259).
Samīḥal-Qāsim(1939–2014),ontheotherhand,drawsadirectlinebetweenKarbalāʾandPalestineinhispoem “Shuhadāʾal-ḥubb”(“MartyrsofLove”).Forhim,whathappenedinIraqissimilartowhathappenedinPalestine:
WhyKarbalāʾ!AndinBaghdadthebloodofmypeopleflowsfromtimetotime
[…]
Andthedayonwhichthefaceofdeathjostlesmymemory,doIcryovermyIraqorovermyPalestine?
(Al-Qāsim,1991,p.394).
NizārQabbānī(1923–1998)focusesontheconceptofvictimhoodassociatedwithal-Ḥusayn,whosesituationhe comparestothatoftheArabnations.Thisheexpressedaspartofhisdefinitionofhiscollectiveidentity(Wearecitizens), andintheelementsthatdefinetheleviesofthesenations,inhisopinion,whicharerepresentedbythetwobasicsymbols “coffeeandwheat”,whichheimpresseswiththesealofKarbalāʾ.Inotherwords,thepoetseesnodifferencebetweenthe experienceofthehistoricalfigureofal-ḤusaynandthesufferingsoftheArabs.Heexpressesthisironicallyinthepoem “Li-MādhāyasquṭuMutʿabb.Taʿbānfīmtiḥānḥuqūqal-insān”(“WhyDoesMutʿabb.TaʿbānFailtheTestofHuman Rights”):
Wearecitizensinthecitiesofweeping
OurcoffeemadeofthebloodofKarbalāʾ
OurwheatkneadedfromthebloodofKarbalāʾ
Ourfood,ourdrink
Ourcustoms,ourflags
Ourfasts,ourprayers
Ourflowers,ourgraves
OurskinsarestampedwiththesealofKarbalāʾ.
(Qabbānī,1993,p.103).
HethencorrelatesthepoliticalsituationinsouthernLebanonwiththefigureofal-Ḥusayninthepoem“alSimfūniyyaal-khāmisa”(“TheFifthSymphony”),inwhichheexpresseshishopeforliberation,throughtheuseofthe vocative.HeaddressessouthernLebanonasbothageographicalandademographicunit,andcomparesittothesymbolof al-Ḥusayn:
Icalledyou“theSouth”
Owearerofal-Ḥusayn’scloak
AndthesunofKarbalāʾ
Orosetreethatpracticessacrifice
Orebellionofthesoil,encounteredtherebellionoftheheavens
Obodythatrisesfromitssoil
Wheat…andprophets.
(Qabbānī,1993,p.60).
SYMBOLIZINGTHEINDIVIDUAL
Thistypeofusagemakesofal-Ḥusayn’smartyrdom,solitudeandalienationamirrorthatreflectsthepoethimselfashe standsfortruthandagainstoppression.ThisdifferentusageisalsofoundinworksbyNizārQabbānī,Samīḥal-Qāsimand AḥmadMaṭar.
Qabbānīcompareshisownexperienceswiththoseofal-Ḥusaynin“Ifādafīmaḥkamatal-shiʿr”(“Depositionin theCourtofPoetry”).Hecomparesal-Ḥusayn’sinjurieswithhisown,ahyperbolewhoseaimistounderlinehowtoday’s Arabpoetssufferwhentheyattempttorebelagainstsocialtaboos,especiallyinmattersconcerningsexandwomen’s liberation.Qabbānīdescribeshisowntravailsafterhemadewomenafundamentalthemeinhispoeticworks:
Al-Ḥusayn’sinjuries…aresomeofmyown InmybreastliessomeofthegriefofKarbalāʾ
Adepositioninthecourtofpoetry.
(Qabbānī,1993,p.394).
Samīḥal-Qāsim,too,madeapersonalsymbolofal-Ḥusayn,whomheevokesinordertodefinehimselfasa sincerepoet,notahypocrite,inanallusiontothewell-knownḥadīthabouttheProphet:“Iamofal-Ḥusayn” . 4
Fromthepoem“Kūlāj4(d):
TheProphetdoesnotsay
Theutterance:Thecommanders
ArefromQuraysh.
Hedoesnotsay
Herespectssincerepoets
Withoutsinorfrivolity
Hedoesnotacceptsomethinginbetween
Heexchangesloveforlovewithme,intruthandsincerity
Andknowsmewell
IamnotofQuraysh
ButofḤusayn.
(Al-Qāsim,2014,p.115).
Inhis“al-Ikhtiyār”(“TheChoice”),poetAḥmadMaṭar(b.1954)makesofthestoryofal-Ḥusaynacriterionby whichtodistinguishbetweentruthandfalsehood,betweenYazīddandal-Ḥusayn,betweensincerityandhypocrisy. Betweenthesepairsofchoices,thepoetpreferstoprayhungrybehindal-Ḥusaynratherthanenjoywealthandluxury underYazīd.Inthiscontext,al-Ḥusaynservesasacriterionfordeterminingthetwosidesoftheequationforwhoever wantsfreedomasanindividual,farremovedfromanypartisanframework.Bythishemeansthefreeintellectual,who
4"ḤusaynisofmeandIamofhim.GodloveswhoeverlovesḤusayn.Al-Ḥasanandal-Ḥusaynareofthetribes": https://www.dorar.net/hadith/sharh/78727
ImpactFactor(JCC):7.4987
NAASRating2.67
choosestherightandjustsideofhistory,representedbythefigureofal-Ḥusayn,despitetheattendantsuffering,difficulty andhungeritinvolves:
Ibelongtonopartyorgroup
Iamnotasloganforamovement
Ormerchandiseforashop
[…]
Rather,I,inthetimeofmustering
Unitewithvictory
SowereItobegiventhechoicebetweentwo:
ToenjoywealthandluxuryunderYazīd
Ortoprayfamishedbehindal-Ḥusayn
Iwillprayfamishedbehindal-Ḥusayn!
(Maṭar,2001,pp.188–190).
Thefigureofal-Ḥusayn,likethatofChrist,conveysmeaningsofsacrifice,solitude,alienation,fightingfalsehood andgivingone’slifeforamatterofprinciple.Poetshavebeenattractedtothisfigurebecausetheaforementioned meaningsareeternalhumanvirtuesfoundineverysociety,everywhereandatalltimes.Arabpoetshaveusedthefigureof al-Ḥusayninanumberofforms,whichcanbesortedintothreetypes,thehuman,thenationalandtheindividual.These threetypes,webelieve,reflecttheuseofthisfigureinmostofcontemporaryArabicpoetry.
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ImpactFactor(JCC):7.4987
NAASRating2.67