American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences by iasir journals

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734 ISSN (Online): 2328-3696 ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688

Issue 3, Volume 1 & 2 June-August, 2013

American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR) (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

STEM International Scientific Online Media and Publishing House Head Office: 148, Summit Drive, Byron, Georgia-31008, United States. Offices Overseas: India, Australia, Germany, Netherlands, Canada. Website: www.iasir.net, E-mail (s): iasir.journals@iasir.net, iasir.journals@gmail.com, aijrhass@gmail.com

PREFACE We are delighted to welcome you to the third issue of the American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS). In recent years, advances in science, engineering, formal, applied and natural sciences have radically expanded the data available to researchers and professionals in a wide variety of domains. This unique combination of theory with data has the potential to have broad impact on educational research and practice. AIJRHASS is publishing high-quality, peer-reviewed papers covering topics such as Business administration, Management, Marketing, Finance, Economics, Banking, Accounting, Human resources management, Entrepreneurship, Relationship management, Risk management, Retail management, Linguistics, International relations, Anthropology, Archaeology, Sociology, International business, Tourism and hospitality management, Law, Psychology, Corporate governance, Education, Ethics, Geography, History, Industrial relations, Information science, Library science, Media studies, Philosophy, Political science, Public administration, Sociology, Social welfare, Literature, Performing arts (music, theatre and dance), Religious studies, Women studies, Production and operations management, Organizational behavior and theory, Strategic management & policies, Statistics and Econometrics, Technology and innovation, Management information systems and other closely related field in the disciplines of arts, humanities and social sciences.

The editorial board of AIJRHASS is composed of members of the Teachers & Researchers community who are enthusiastically involved in the systematic investigation into existing or new knowledge to discover new paths for maintaining a strong presence in the arts, the humanities and the social sciences which can easily be coupled with the information and communication technologies. These fields respect objective and logical reasoning to optimize the impact of research in social, economic and cultural, quality of life to understand the advancements in humanities, arts and social sciences. These fields are the pillars of growth in our modern society and have a wider impact on our daily lives with infinite opportunities in a global marketplace. In order to best serve our community, this Journal is available online as well as in hard-copy form. Because of the rapid advances in underlying technologies and the interdisciplinary nature of the field, we believe it is important to provide quality research articles promptly and to the widest possible audience.

We are happy that this Journal has continued to grow and develop. We have made every effort to evaluate and process submissions for reviews, and address queries from authors and the general public promptly. The Journal has strived to reflect the most recent and finest

researchers in the fields of humanities, arts and social sciences. This Journal is completely refereed and indexed with major databases like: IndexCopernicus, Computer Science Directory,

GetCITED,

CRCnetBASE,

Google

DOAJ,

SSRN,

Scholar,

TGDScholar,

Microsoft

Academic

WorldWideScience, Search,

INSPEC,

CiteSeerX, ProQuest,

ArnetMiner, Base, ChemXSeer, citebase, OpenJ-Gate, eLibrary, SafetyLit, SSRN, VADLO, OpenGrey, EBSCO, ProQuest, UlrichWeb, ISSUU, SPIE Digital Library, arXiv, ERIC, EasyBib, Infotopia, WorldCat, .docstoc JURN, Mendeley, ResearchGate, cogprints, OCLC, iSEEK, Scribd, LOCKSS, CASSI, E-PrintNetwork, intute, and some other databases.

We are grateful to all of the individuals and agencies whose work and support made the Journal's success possible. We want to thank the executive board and core committee members of the AIJRHASS for entrusting us with the important job. We are thankful to the members of the AIJRHASS editorial board who have contributed energy and time to the Journal with their steadfast support, constructive advice, as well as reviews of submissions. We are deeply indebted to the numerous anonymous reviewers who have contributed expertly evaluations of the submissions to help maintain the quality of the Journal. For this third issue, we received 78 research papers and out of which only 45 research papers are published in two volumes as per the reviewersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; recommendations. We have highest respect to all the authors who have submitted articles to the Journal for their intellectual energy and creativity, and for their dedication to the field of humanities, arts and social sciences.

The issue of the AIJRHASS has attracted a large number of authors and researchers across worldwide and would provide an effective platform to all the intellectuals of different streams to put forth their suggestions and ideas which might prove beneficial for the accelerated pace of development of emerging technologies in formal, applied and natural sciences and may open new area for research and development. We hope you will enjoy this third issue of the American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences and are looking forward to hearing your feedback and receiving your contributions.

(Administrative Chief)

(Managing Director)

(Editorial Head)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS), ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 (June-August, 2013, Issue 3, Volume 1). ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BOARD MEMBERS

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EDITOR IN CHIEF Prof. (Dr.) Waressara Weerawat, Director of Logistics Innovation Center, Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Thailand. Prof. (Dr.) Yen-Chun Lin, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Jung Christian University, Kway Jen, Tainan, Taiwan. Divya Sethi, GM Conferencing & VSAT Solutions, Enterprise Services, Bharti Airtel, Gurgaon, India. CHIEF EDITOR (TECHNICAL) Prof. (Dr.) Atul K. Raturi, Head School of Engineering and Physics, Faculty of Science, Technology and Environment, The University of the South Pacific, Laucala campus, Suva, Fiji Islands. Prof. (Dr.) Hadi Suwastio, College of Applied Science, Department of Information Technology, The Sultanate of Oman and Director of IETI-Research Institute-Bandung, Indonesia. Dr. Nitin Jindal, Vice President, Max Coreth, North America Gas & Power Trading, New York, United States. CHIEF EDITOR (GENERAL) Prof. (Dr.) Thanakorn Naenna, Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Thailand. Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Huiyun Liu, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London. ADVISORY BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Kimberly A. Freeman, Professor & Director of Undergraduate Programs, Stetson School of Business and Economics, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Klaus G. Troitzsch, Professor, Institute for IS Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany. Prof. (Dr.) T. Anthony Choi, Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Fabrizio Gerli, Department of Management, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, Italy. Prof. (Dr.) Jen-Wei Hsieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Jose C. Martinez, Dept. Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Panayiotis Vafeas, Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Patras, Greece. Prof. (Dr.) Soib Taib, School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Vit Vozenilek, Department of Geoinformatics, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic. Prof. (Dr.) Sim Kwan Hua, School of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Rafael Ignacio Alvarez Sanchez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Praneel Chand, Ph.D., M.IEEEC/O School of Engineering & Physics Faculty of Science & Technology The University of the South Pacific (USP) Laucala Campus, Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji. Prof. (Dr.) Francisco Miguel Martinez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Antonio Zamora Gomez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Leandro Tortosa, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Samir Ananou, Department of Microbiology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain. Dr. Miguel Angel Bautista, Department de Matematica Aplicada y Analisis, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de Barcelona, Spain.

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Prof. (Dr.) Prof. Adam Baharum, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Universiti Sains, Malaysia, Malaysia. Dr. Cathryn J. Peoples, Faculty of Computing and Engineering, School of Computing and Information Engineering, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom. Prof. (Dr.) Pavel Lafata, Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, 166 27, Czech Republic. Prof. (Dr.) P. Bhanu Prasad, Vision Specialist, Matrix vision GmbH, Germany, Consultant, TIFACCORE for Machine Vision, Advisor, Kelenn Technology, France Advisor, Shubham Automation & Services, Ahmedabad, and Professor of C.S.E, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India. Prof. (Dr.) Anis Zarrad, Department of Computer Science and Information System, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammed Ali Hussain, Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India. Dr. Cristiano De Magalhaes Barros, Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil. Prof. (Dr.) Md. Rizwan Beg, Professor & Head, Dean, Faculty of Computer Applications, Deptt. of Computer Sc. & Engg. & Information Technology, Integral University Kursi Road, Dasauli, Lucknow, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vishnu Narayan Mishra, Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Ichchhanath Mahadev Road, Surat, Surat-395007, Gujarat, India. Dr. Jia Hu, Member Research Staff, Philips Research North America, New York Area, NY. Prof. Shashikant Shantilal Patil SVKM , MPSTME Shirpur Campus, NMIMS University Vile Parle Mumbai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bindhya Chal Yadav, Assistant Professor in Botany, Govt. Post Graduate College, Fatehabad, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. REVIEW BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Kimberly A. Freeman, Professor & Director of Undergraduate Programs, Stetson School of Business and Economics, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Klaus G. Troitzsch, Professor, Institute for IS Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany. Prof. (Dr.) T. Anthony Choi, Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Yen-Chun Lin, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Jung Christian University, Kway Jen, Tainan, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Jen-Wei Hsieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Jose C. Martinez, Dept. Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Joel Saltz, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Panayiotis Vafeas, Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Patras, Greece. Prof. (Dr.) Soib Taib, School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Sim Kwan Hua, School of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Rafael Ignacio Alvarez Sanchez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Francisco Miguel Martinez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Antonio Zamora Gomez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Leandro Tortosa, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Samir Ananou, Department of Microbiology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain. Dr. Miguel Angel Bautista, Department de Matematica Aplicada y Analisis, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de Barcelona, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Prof. Adam Baharum, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Universiti Sains, Malaysia, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Huiyun Liu, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London.

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Dr. Cristiano De Magalhaes Barros, Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil. Prof. (Dr.) Pravin G. Ingole, Senior Researcher, Greenhouse Gas Research Center, Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER), 152 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-343, KOREA. Prof. (Dr.) Dilum Bandara, Dept. Computer Science & Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka. Prof. (Dr.) Faudziah Ahmad, School of Computing, UUM College of Arts and Sciences, University Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman. Prof. (Dr.) G. Manoj Someswar, Principal, Dept. of CSE at Anwar-ul-uloom College of Engineering & Technology, Yennepally, Vikarabad, RR District., A.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Abdelghni Lakehal, Applied Mathematics, Rue 10 no 6 cite des fonctionnaires dokkarat 30010 Fes Marocco. Dr. Kamal Kulshreshtha, Associate Professor & Head, Deptt. of Computer Sc. & Applications, Modi Institute of Management & Technology, Kota-324 009, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Anukrati Sharma, Associate Professor, Faculty of Commerce and Management, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) S. Natarajan, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SSM College of Engineering, NH 47, Salem Main Road, Komarapalayam, Namakkal District, Tamilnadu 638183, India. Prof. (Dr.) J. Sadhik Basha, Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Prof. (Dr.) G. SAVITHRI, Department of Sericulture, S.P. Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati517502, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shweta jain, Tolani College of Commerce, Andheri, Mumbai. 400001, India. Prof. (Dr.) Abdullah M. Abdul-Jabbar, Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Salahaddin-Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Prof. (Dr.) ( Mrs.) P.Sujathamma, Department of Sericulture, S.P.Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati-517502, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India. Prof. (Dr.) Manjulatha, Dept of Biochemistry,School of Life Sciences,University of Hyderabad,Gachibowli, Hyderabad, India. Prof. (Dr.) Upasani Dhananjay Eknath Advisor & Chief Coordinator, ALUMNI Association, Sinhgad Institute of Technology & Science, Narhe, Pune -411 041, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sudhindra Bhat, Professor & Finance Area Chair, School of Business, Alliance University Bangalore-562106, India. Prof. Prasenjit Chatterjee , Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MCKV Institute of Engineering West Bengal, India. Prof. Rajesh Murukesan, Deptt. of Automobile Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering college, Chennai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Parmil Kumar, Department of Statistics, University of Jammu, Jammu, India Prof. (Dr.) M.N. Shesha Prakash, Vice Principal, Professor & Head of Civil Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Alanahally, Mysore-570 028 Prof. (Dr.) Piyush Singhal, Mechanical Engineering Deptt., GLA University, India. Prof. M. Mahbubur Rahman, School of Engineering & Information Technology, Murdoch University, Perth Western Australia 6150, Australia. Prof. Nawaraj Chaulagain, Department of Religion, Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington, IL. Prof. Hassan Jafari, Faculty of Maritime Economics & Management, Khoramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, khoramshahr, Khuzestan province, Iran Prof. (Dr.) Kantipudi MVV Prasad , Dept of EC, School of Engg., R.K.University, Kast urbhadham, Tramba, Rajkot-360020, India. Prof. (Mrs.) P.Sujathamma, Department of Sericulture, S.P.Mahila Visvavidyalayam, ( Women's University), Tirupati-517502, India. Prof. (Dr.) M A Rizvi, Dept. of Computer Engineering and Applications, National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Bhopal M.P. India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohsen Shafiei Nikabadi, Faculty of Economics and Management, Industrial Management Department, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran. Prof. P.R.SivaSankar, Head, Dept. of Commerce, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post Graduate Centre, KAVALI - 524201, A.P. India. Prof. (Dr.) Bhawna Dubey, Institute of Environmental Science( AIES), Amity University, Noida, India. Prof. Manoj Chouhan, Deptt. of Information Technology, SVITS Indore, India.

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Prof. Yupal S Shukla, V M Patel College of Management Studies, Ganpat University, KhervaMehsana. India. Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kohli, Head of the Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering, D.A.V.Institute of Engg. and Technology, Kabir Nagar, Jalandhar,Punjab (India). Prof. (Dr.) Kumar Irayya Maddani, and Head of the Department of Physics in SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dhavalagiri, Dharwad, State: Karnataka (INDIA). Prof. (Dr.) Shafi Phaniband, SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad, INDIA. Prof. M H Annaiah, Head, Department of Automobile Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Soladevana Halli, Bangalore -560107, India. Prof. (Dr.) Prof. R. R. Patil, Director School Of Earth Science, Solapur University, Solapur Prof. (Dr.) Manoj Khandelwal, Dept. of Mining Engg, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur, 313 001 (Rajasthan), India Prof. (Dr.) Kishor Chandra Satpathy, Librarian, National Institute of Technology, Silchar-788010, Assam, India Prof. (Dr.) Juhana Jaafar, Gas Engineering Department, Faculty of Petroleum and Renewable Energy Engineering (FPREE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia-81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor. Prof. (Dr.) Rita Khare, Assistant Professor in chemistry, Govt. Women’s College, Gardanibagh, Patna, Bihar. Prof. (Dr.) Raviraj Kusanur, Dept of Chemistry, R V College of Engineering, Bangalore-59, India. Prof. (Dr.) Hameem Shanavas .I, M.V.J College of Engineering, Bangalore Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay Kumar, JKL University, Ajmer Road, Jaipur Prof. (Dr.) Pushp Lata Faculty of English and Communication, Department of Humanities and Languages, Nucleus Member, Publications and Media Relations Unit Editor, BITScan, BITS, PilaniIndia. Prof. Arun Agarwal, Faculty of ECE Dept., ITER College, Siksha 'O' Anusandhan University Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Prof. (Dr.) Pratima Tripathi, Department of Biosciences, SSSIHL, Anantapur Campus Anantapur515001 (A.P.) India. Prof. (Dr.) Sudip Das, Department of Biotechnology, Haldia Institute of Technology, I.C.A.R.E. Complex, H.I.T. Campus, P.O. Hit, Haldia; Dist: Puba Medinipur, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India. Prof. (Dr.) R.K.Tiwari, Professor, S.O.S. in Physics, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, M.P.-474011. Prof. (Dr.) Deepak Paliwal, Faculty of Sociology, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani-Nainital Prof. (Dr.) Dr. Anil K Dwivedi, Faculty of Pollution & Environmental Assay Research Laboratory (PEARL), Department of Botany,DDU Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur-273009,India. Prof. R. Ravikumar, Department of Agricultural and Rural Management, TamilNadu Agricultural University,Coimbatore-641003,TamilNadu,India. Prof. (Dr.) R.Raman, Professor of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai university, Annamalai Nagar 608 002Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ahmed Khalafallah, Coordinator of the CM Degree Program, Department of Architectural and Manufacturing Sciences, Ogden College of Sciences and Engineering Western Kentucky University 1906 College Heights Blvd Bowling Green, KY 42103-1066. Prof. (Dr.) Asmita Das , Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Shahbad, Daulatpur, Delhi 110042, India. Prof. (Dr.)Aniruddha Bhattacharjya, Assistant Professor (Senior Grade), CSE Department, Amrita School of Engineering , Amrita Vishwa VidyaPeetham (University), Kasavanahalli, Carmelaram P.O., Bangalore 560035, Karnataka, India. Prof. (Dr.) S. Rama Krishna Pisipaty, Prof & Geoarchaeologist, Head of the Department of Sanskrit & Indian Culture, SCSVMV University, Enathur, Kanchipuram 631561, India Prof. (Dr.) Shubhasheesh Bhattacharya, Professor & HOD(HR), Symbiosis Institute of International Business (SIIB), Hinjewadi, Phase-I, Pune- 411 057, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vijay Kothari, Institute of Science, Nirma University, S-G Highway, Ahmedabad 382481, India. Prof. (Dr.) Raja Sekhar Mamillapalli, Department of Civil Engineering at Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur, India. Prof. (Dr.) B. M. Kunar, Department of Mining Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad 826004, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) Prabir Sarkar, Assistant Professor, School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Room 307, Academic Block, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar, Nangal Road, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India.

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Prof. (Dr.) K.Srinivasmoorthy, Associate Professor, Department of Earth Sciences, School of Physical,Chemical and Applied Sciences, Pondicherry university, R.Venkataraman Nagar, Kalapet, Puducherry 605014, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bhawna Dubey, Institute of Environmental Science (AIES), Amity University, Noida, India. Prof. (Dr.) P. Bhanu Prasad, Vision Specialist, Matrix vision GmbH, Germany, Consultant, TIFACCORE for Machine Vision, Advisor, Kelenn Technology, France Advisor, Shubham Automation & Services, Ahmedabad, and Professor of C.S.E, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India. Prof. (Dr.)P.Raviraj, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, Kalaignar Karunanidhi, Institute of Technology, Coimbatore 641402,Tamilnadu,India. Prof. (Dr.) Damodar Reddy Edla, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004, India. Prof. (Dr.) T.C. Manjunath, Principal in HKBK College of Engg., Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Prof. (Dr.) Pankaj Bhambri, I.T. Deptt., Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana 141006, Punjab, India. Prof. Shashikant Shantilal Patil SVKM , MPSTME Shirpur Campus, NMIMS University Vile Parle Mumbai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shambhu Nath Choudhary, Department of Physics, T.M. Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur 81200, Bihar, India. Prof. (Dr.) Venkateshwarlu Sonnati, Professor & Head of EEED, Department of EEE, Sreenidhi Institute of Science & Technology, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Saurabh Dalela, Department of Pure & Applied Physics, University of Kota, KOTA 324010, Rajasthan, India. Prof. S. Arman Hashemi Monfared, Department of Civil Eng, University of Sistan & Baluchestan, Daneshgah St.,Zahedan, IRAN, P.C. 98155-987 Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Chanda, Dept. of Jute & Fibre Tech., University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, West Bengal, India. Prof. V.S.VAKULA, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, JNTUK, University College of Eng.,Vizianagaram5 35003, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Nehal Gitesh Chitaliya, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology, Vasad 388 306, Gujarat, India. Prof. (Dr.) D.R. Prajapati, Department of Mechanical Engineering, PEC University of Technology,Chandigarh 160012, India. Dr. A. SENTHIL KUMAR, Postdoctoral Researcher, Centre for Energy and Electrical Power, Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0001, South Africa. Prof. (Dr.)Vijay Harishchandra Mankar, Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Mangalwari Bazar, Besa Road, Nagpur- 440027, India. Prof. Varun.G.Menon, Department Of C.S.E, S.C.M.S School of Engineering, Karukutty,Ernakulam, Kerala 683544, India. Prof. (Dr.) U C Srivastava, Department of Physics, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, U.P-203301.India. Prof. (Dr.) Surendra Yadav, Professor and Head (Computer Science & Engineering Department), Maharashi Arvind College of Engineering and Research Centre (MACERC), Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Kumar, H.O.D. Applied Sciences & Humanities Dehradun Institute of Technology, (D.I.T. School of Engineering), 48 A K.P-3 Gr. Noida (U.P.) 201308 Prof. Naveen Jain, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, College of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur-313 001, India. Prof. Veera Jyothi.B, CBIT, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. Aritra Ghosh, Global Institute of Management and Technology, Krishnagar, Nadia, W.B. India Prof. Anuj K. Gupta, Head, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RIMT Group of Institutions, Sirhind Mandi Gobindgarh, Punajb, India. Prof. (Dr.) Varala Ravi, Head, Department of Chemistry, IIIT Basar Campus, Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Mudhole, Adilabad, Andhra Pradesh- 504 107, India Prof. (Dr.) Ravikumar C Baratakke, faculty of Biology,Govt. College, Saundatti - 591 126, India. Prof. (Dr.) NALIN BHARTI, School of Humanities and Social Science, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shivanand S.Gornale , Head, Department of Studies in Computer Science, Government College (Autonomous), Mandya, Mandya-571 401-Karanataka, India.

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Prof. (Dr.) Naveen.P.Badiger, Dept.Of Chemistry, S.D.M.College of Engg. & Technology, Dharwad-580002, Karnataka State, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India. Prof. (Dr.) Tauqeer Ahmad Usmani, Faculty of IT, Salalah College of Technology, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman. Prof. (Dr.) Naresh Kr. Vats, Chairman, Department of Law, BGC Trust University Bangladesh Prof. (Dr.) Papita Das (Saha), Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India. Prof. (Dr.) Rekha Govindan , Dept of Biotechnology, Aarupadai Veedu Institute of technology , Vinayaka Missions University , Paiyanoor , Kanchipuram Dt, Tamilnadu , India. Prof. (Dr.) Lawrence Abraham Gojeh, Department of Information Science, Jimma University, P.o.Box 378, Jimma, Ethiopia. Prof. (Dr.) M.N. Kalasad, Department of Physics, SDM College of Engineering & Technology, Dharwad, Karnataka, India. Prof. Rab Nawaz Lodhi, Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology Sahiwal. Prof. (Dr.) Masoud Hajarian, Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, General Campus, Evin, Tehran 19839,Iran Prof. (Dr.) Chandra Kala Singh, Associate professor, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India Prof. (Dr.) J.Babu, Professor & Dean of research, St.Joseph's College of Engineering & Technology, Choondacherry, Palai,Kerala. Prof. (Dr.) Pradip Kumar Roy, Department of Applied Mechanics, Birla Institute of Technology (BIT) Mesra, Ranchi- 835215, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) P. Sanjeevi kumar, School of Electrical Engineering (SELECT), Vandalur Kelambakkam Road, VIT University, Chennai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Debasis Patnaik, BITS-Pilani, Goa Campus, India. Prof. (Dr.) SANDEEP BANSAL, Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, I.G.N. College, Haryana, India. Dr. Radhakrishnan S V S, Department of Pharmacognosy, Faser Hall, The University of Mississippi Oxford, MS- 38655, USA. Prof. (Dr.) Megha Mittal, Faculty of Chemistry, Manav Rachna College of Engineering, Faridabad (HR), 121001, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mihaela Simionescu (BRATU), BUCHAREST, District no. 6, Romania, member of the Romanian Society of Econometrics, Romanian Regional Science Association and General Association of Economists from Romania Prof. (Dr.) Atmani Hassan, Director Regional of Organization Entraide Nationale Prof. (Dr.) Deepshikha Gupta, Dept. of Chemistry, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences,Amity University, Sec.125, Noida, India. Prof. (Dr.) Muhammad Kamruzzaman, Deaprtment of Infectious Diseases, The University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW-2145. Prof. (Dr.) Meghshyam K. Patil , Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Chemistry,Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,Sub-Campus, Osmanabad- 413 501, Maharashtra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kr. Dargar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur (Raj.) Prof. (Dr.) Sudarson Jena, Dept. of Information Technology, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India Prof. (Dr.) Jai Prakash Jaiswal, Department of Mathematics, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal, India. Prof. (Dr.) S.Amutha, Dept. of Educational Technology, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli620 023, Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) R. HEMA KRISHNA, Environmental chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada. Prof. (Dr.) B.Swaminathan, Dept. of Agrl.Economics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India. Prof. (Dr.) K. Ramesh, Department of Chemistry, C.B.I.T, Gandipet, Hyderabad-500075. India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Kumar, H.O.D. Applied Sciences &Humanities, JIMS Technical campus,(I.P. University,New Delhi), 48/4 ,K.P.-3,Gr.Noida (U.P.) Prof. (Dr.) G.V.S.R.Anjaneyulu, CHAIRMAN - P.G. BOS in Statistics & Deputy Coordinator UGC DRS-I Project, Executive Member ISPS-2013, Department of Statistics, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar-522510, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India.

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Prof. (Dr.) Sribas Goswami, Department of Sociology, Serampore College, Serampore 712201, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunanda Sharma, Department of Veterinary Obstetrics Y Gynecology, College of Veterinary & Animal Science,Rajasthan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences,Bikaner334001, India. Prof. (Dr.) S.K. Tiwari, Department of Zoology, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur-273009 U.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Praveena Kuruva, Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore560012, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) Rajesh Kumar, Department Of Applied Physics, Bhilai Institute Of Technology, Durg (C.G.) 491001, India. Dr. K.C.Sivabalan, Field Enumerator and Data Analyst, Asian Vegetable Research Centre, The World Vegetable Centre, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kumar Mishra, Department of Environmntal Science and Energy Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel. Prof. (Dr.) Manisha N. Paliwal, Sinhgad Institute of Management, Vadgaon (Bk), Pune, India. Prof. (Dr.) M. S. HIREMATH, Principal, K.L.ESOCIETY’s SCHOOL, ATHANI Prof. Manoj Dhawan, Department of Information Technology, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Technology & Science, Indore, (M. P.), India. Prof. (Dr.) V.R.Naik, Professor & Head of Department, Mechancal Engineering, Textile & Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji (Dist. Kolhapur), Maharashatra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Jyotindra C. Prajapati,Head, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa Anand -388421, Gujarat, India Prof. (Dr.) Sarbjit Singh, Head, Department of Industrial & Production Engineering, Dr BR Ambedkar National Institute of Technology,Jalandhar,Punjab, India. Prof. (Dr.) Professor Braja Gopal Bag, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Technology , Vidyasagar University, West Midnapore Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kumar Chandra, Department of Management, Bhilai Institute of Technology, Bhilai House, Durg (C.G.) Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kumar, Assistant Professor, School of Chemistry, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) L. Suresh Kumar, Mechanical Department, Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India. Scientist Sheeraz Saleem Bhat, Lac Production Division, Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums, Namkum, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India. Prof. C.Divya , Centre for Information Technology and Engineering, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli - 627012, Tamilnadu , India. Prof. T.D.Subash, Infant Jesus College Of Engineering and Technology, Thoothukudi Tamilnadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vinay Nassa, Prof. E.C.E Deptt., Dronacharya.Engg. College, Gurgaon India. Prof. Sunny Narayan, university of Roma Tre, Italy. Prof. (Dr.) Sanjoy Deb, Dept. of ECE, BIT Sathy, Sathyamangalam, Tamilnadu-638401, India. Prof. (Dr.) Reena Gupta, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura, India. Prof. (Dr.) P.R.SivaSankar, Head Dept. of Commerce, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post Graduate Centre, KAVALI - 524201, A.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohsen Shafiei Nikabadi, Faculty of Economics and Management, Industrial Management Department, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran. Prof. (Dr.) Praveen Kumar Rai, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, U.P. India. Prof. (Dr.) Christine Jeyaseelan, Dept of Chemistry, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, India. Prof. (Dr.) M A Rizvi, Dept. of Computer Engineering and Applications , National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Bhopal M.P. India. Prof. (Dr.) K.V.N.R.Sai Krishna, H O D in Computer Science, S.V.R.M.College,(Autonomous), Nagaram, Guntur(DT), Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kr. Dargar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur (Raj.) Prof. (Dr.) Asim Kumar Sen, Principal , ST.Francis Institute of Technology (Engineering College) under University of Mumbai , MT. Poinsur, S.V.P Road, Borivali (W), Mumbai-400103, India. Prof. (Dr.) Rahmathulla Noufal.E, Civil Engineering Department, Govt.Engg.College-Kozhikode

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Prof. (Dr.) N.Rajesh, Department of Agronomy, TamilNadu Agricultural University -Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Har Mohan Rai , Professor, Electronics and Communication Engineering, N.I.T. Kurukshetra 136131,India Prof. (Dr.) Eng. Sutasn Thipprakmas from King Mongkut, University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand. Prof. (Dr.) Kantipudi MVV Prasad, EC Department, RK University, Rajkot. Prof. (Dr.) Jitendra Gupta,Faculty of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura. Prof. (Dr.) Swapnali Borah, HOD, Dept of Family Resource Management, College of Home Science, Central Agricultural University, Tura, Meghalaya, India. Prof. (Dr.) N.Nazar Khan, Professor in Chemistry, BTK Institute of Technology, Dwarahat-263653 (Almora), Uttarakhand-India. Prof. (Dr.) Rajiv Sharma, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai (TN) - 600 036,India. Prof. (Dr.) Aparna Sarkar,PH.D. Physiology, AIPT,Amity University , F 1 Block, LGF, Sector125,Noida-201303, UP ,India. Prof. (Dr.) Manpreet Singh, Professor and Head, Department of Computer Engineering, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Haryana, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sukumar Senthilkumar, Senior Researcher Advanced Education Center of Jeonbuk for Electronics and Information Technology, Chon Buk National University, Chon Buk, 561-756, SOUTH KOREA. . Prof. (Dr.) Hari Singh Dhillon, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar (Punjab), INDIA. . Prof. (Dr.) Poonkuzhali, G., Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Chennai, INDIA. . Prof. (Dr.) Bharath K N, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, GM Institute of Technology, PB Road, Davangere 577006, Karnataka, INDIA. . Prof. (Dr.) F.Alipanahi, Assistant Professor, Islamic Azad University,Zanjan Branch, Atemadeyeh, Moalem Street, Zanjan IRAN Prof. Yogesh Rathore, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RITEE, Raipur, India Prof. (Dr.) Ratneshwer, Department of Computer Science (MMV), Banaras Hindu University Varanasi-221005, India. Prof. Pramod Kumar Pandey, Assistant Professor, Department Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering, ITM University, Gwalior, M.P., India Prof. (Dr.)Sudarson Jena, Associate Professor, Dept.of IT, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India Prof. (Dr.) Binod Kumar,PhD(CS), M.Phil(CS),MIEEE,MIAENG, Dean & Professor( MCA), Jayawant Technical Campus(JSPM's), Pune, India Prof. (Dr.) Mohan Singh Mehata, (JSPS fellow), Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Physics, Delhi Technological University, Delhi Prof. Ajay Kumar Agarwal, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Mech. Engg., Royal Institute of Management & Technology, Sonipat (Haryana) Prof. (Dr.) Siddharth Sharma, University School of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Satish Chandra Dixit, Department of Chemistry, D.B.S.College ,Govind Nagar,Kanpur208006, India Prof. (Dr.) Ajay Solkhe, Department of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Neeraj Sharma, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Chemistry, GLA University, Mathura Prof. (Dr.) Basant Lal, Department of Chemistry, G.L.A. University, Mathura Prof. (Dr.) T Venkat Narayana Rao, C.S.E,Guru Nanak Engineering College, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Rajanarender Reddy Pingili, S.R. International Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) V.S.Vairale, Department of Computer Engineering, All India Shri Shivaji Memorial Society College of Engineering, Kennedy Road, Pune-411 001, Maharashtra, India Prof. (Dr.) Vasavi Bande, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Netaji Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Hardeep Anand, Department of Chemistry, Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra, Haryana, India. Prof. Aasheesh shukla, Asst Professor, Dept. of EC, GLA University, Mathura, India.

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Prof. S.P.Anandaraj., CSE Dept, SREC, Warangal, India. Satya Rishi Takyar , Senior ISO Consultant, New Delhi, India. Prof. Anuj K. Gupta, Head, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RIMT Group of Institutions, Mandi Gobindgarh, Punjab, India. Prof. (Dr.) Harish Kumar, Department of Sports Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammed Ali Hussain, Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Manish Gupta, Department of Mechanical Engineering, GJU, Haryana, India. Prof. Mridul Chawla, Department of Elect. and Comm. Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India. Prof. Seema Chawla, Department of Bio-medical Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India. Prof. (Dr.) Atul M. Gosai, Department of Computer Science, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ajit Kr. Bansal, Department of Management, Shoolini University, H.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Vasistha, Mody Institute of Tecnology and Science, Sikar, Rajasthan, India. Prof. Vivekta Singh, GNIT Girls Institute of Technology, Greater Noida, India. Prof. Ajay Loura, Assistant Professor at Thapar University, Patiala, India. Prof. Sushil Sharma, Department of Computer Science and Applications, Govt. P. G. College, Ambala Cantt., Haryana, India. Prof. Sube Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Narnaul, Haryana, India. Prof. Himanshu Arora, Delhi Institute of Technology and Management, New Delhi, India. Dr. Sabina Amporful, Bibb Family Practice Association, Macon, Georgia, USA. Dr. Pawan K. Monga, Jindal Institute of Medical Sciences, Hisar, Haryana, India. Dr. Sam Ampoful, Bibb Family Practice Association, Macon, Georgia, USA. Dr. Nagender Sangra, Director of Sangra Technologies, Chandigarh, India. Vipin Gujral, CPA, New Jersey, USA. Sarfo Baffour, University of Ghana, Ghana. Monique Vincon, Hype Softwaretechnik GmbH, Bonn, Germany. Natasha Sigmund, Atlanta, USA. Marta Trochimowicz, Rhein-Zeitung, Koblenz, Germany. Kamalesh Desai, Atlanta, USA. Vijay Attri, Software Developer Google, San Jose, California, USA. Neeraj Khillan, Wipro Technologies, Boston, USA. Ruchir Sachdeva, Software Engineer at Infosys, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Anadi Charan, Senior Software Consultant at Capgemini, Mumbai, Maharashtra. Pawan Monga, Senior Product Manager, LG Electronics India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India. Sunil Kumar, Senior Information Developer, Honeywell Technology Solutions, Inc., Bangalore, India. Bharat Gambhir, Technical Architect, Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Noida, India. Vinay Chopra, Team Leader, Access Infotech Pvt Ltd. Chandigarh, India. Sumit Sharma, Team Lead, American Express, New Delhi, India. Vivek Gautam, Senior Software Engineer, Wipro, Noida, India. Anirudh Trehan, Nagarro Software Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Manjot Singh, Senior Software Engineer, HCL Technologies Delhi, India. Rajat Adlakha, Senior Software Engineer, Tech Mahindra Ltd, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. Mohit Bhayana, Senior Software Engineer, Nagarro Software Pvt. Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Dheeraj Sardana, Tech. Head, Nagarro Software, Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Naresh Setia, Senior Software Engineer, Infogain, Noida, India. Raj Agarwal Megh, Idhasoft Limited, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Shrikant Bhardwaj, Senior Software Engineer, Mphasis an HP Company, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Vikas Chawla, Technical Lead, Xavient Software Solutions, Noida, India. Kapoor Singh, Sr. Executive at IBM, Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Ashwani Rohilla, Senior SAP Consultant at TCS, Mumbai, India. Anuj Chhabra, Sr. Software Engineer, McKinsey & Company, Faridabad, Haryana, India. Jaspreet Singh, Business Analyst at HCL Technologies, Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

TOPICS OF INTEREST Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:  Business administration  Marketing & Management  Finance  Economics  Banking  Accounting  Human resources management  Entrepreneurship,  Education and its applications  Business ethics  Relationship & Risk management  Retail management and communication  Linguistics  International relations  Anthropology & Archaeology  Sociology  International business  Tourism and hospitality management  Law  Psychology  Corporate governance  Demography  Education  Ethics  Geography  History  Industrial relations  Information science  Library science  Media studies  Philosophy,  Political science  Public administration  Sociology  Social welfare  Literature  Paralegal  Performing arts (music, theatre and dance)  Religious studies  Visual arts  Women studies  Production and operations management  Organizational behavior and theory  Strategic management Policy  Statistics and Econometrics  Personnel and industrial relations  Gender studies & Cross cultural studies  Management information systems  Information technology

TABLE OF CONTENTS (June-August, 2013, Issue 3, Volume 1)

Issue 3 Volume 1

Paper Code

Paper Title

Page No.

AIJRHASS 13-201

MULTIVARIATE COMPARISON OF CEPHALOMETRIC TRAITS IN IRANIAN AZERIS AND PERSIANS Vahid Rashidvash

01-07

AIJRHASS 13-202

Human and Physical Environmental Factors Affecting Studentsďż˝ Utilization of Library and Information Services in Colleges of Education Libraries in Nigeria Lawrence Abraham Gojeh, Lami Ishaya Dutse, Hannatu Daudu

08-16

AIJRHASS 13-204

Strategic 360 Degree Performance Appraisal Model as a Synergy for Strategic Education Planning in Premier HTIs in India Raghunadhan T, Dr. A H Sequeira

17-22

AIJRHASS 13-205

Preserving cultural identity through tribal self governance: The case of Lachenpa and Lachungpa tribes of Sikkim Himalaya (India) Dr. Durga Prasad Chhetri

23-28

AIJRHASS 13-207

STUDY OF WEB 2.0 TECHNOLOGY FOR AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION MANAGEMENT JAYADE, K. G., GAIKWAD, C. J., KHOT, P. G., NIKOSE, S. M.

29-34

AIJRHASS 13-208

A NOTE ON SOME LARGER CLASSES OF OPERATORS Dr.A.RADHARAMANI

35-42

AIJRHASS 13-209

Problems of Literary-Artistic Translation Diler Singh, Dr. Dipali Sharma Bhandari

43-45

AIJRHASS 13-211

ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF ELDERLY IN SELECTED PAID AND DESTITUTE HOMES IN CHENNAI, INDIA G. Vani Bhushanam, K. Sreedevi and Janaki Kameshwaran

46-49

AIJRHASS 13-212

UNOFFICIAL DIPLOMACY AT WORK: A SAARC PERSPECTIVE Prof. Rajender Gupta, NeelamChoudhary

50-65

AIJRHASS 13-213

Status of Jews at the dawn of the French Revolution Vanishree Radhakrishna

66-70

AIJRHASS 13-214

The Significance of Civil rights movement in America Vanishree Radhakrishna

71-75

AIJRHASS 13-216

Re-engineering of Personality through Language- A study of MBA students in a BSchool in Pune Dr. DipaliBiswas, Aditi Kale

76-81

AIJRHASS 13-217

Reach and Academic Use of Various Applications of Social Media: A Survey among the University Students of Tamil Nadu Dr. R.Subramani, D.V.Nithyanandan

82-86

AIJRHASS 13-218

Learning through Mass media is a flawless process in Distance Education system G. PONMENI

87-91

AIJRHASS 13-219

Persian Paradisal Theme on the Wall of Mughal Tombs Rohita Sharma and Dr. Ila Gupta

92-96

AIJRHASS 13-220

Re-engineering Recruitment Strategies with RPO Model for Recruitment Challenges in IT and ITES Industry Ms. Sunita Tank

97-101

AIJRHASS 13-221

Career Development in the Context of Globalization, Privatization and Liberalzation Prof. T.K.Gill

102116

AIJRHASS 13-222

Employees Ethical value is the key to the competency of the organization Utpalendu Mondal

117119

AIJRHASS 13-223

Causes of Dropout Rate in Government High Schools (Male) Rani Gul, Gulshan, Arshad Ali

120125

AIJRHASS 13-225

RESERVATION POLICY AND INDIAN CONSTITUTION IN INDIA DR.SUNIL KUMAR JANGIR

126128

Issue 3 Volume 2:-

Paper Code

Paper Title

Page No.

AIJRHASS 13226

THE DARK SIDE OF HR: EMPLOYEE HARASSMENT Avnish Sharma, Aneesya Sharma

129-133

AIJRHASS 13228

Special Library: A Gigantic Information Centre for Specials Mr. Prakash Bhairu Bilawar

134-140

AIJRHASS 13229

Resource Control and Revenue Allocation Problems in Nigeria: Implication for National Peace Adeleke Adegbami

141-148

AIJRHASS 13230

Literacy Level of Beggars in Aligarh District: A Regional Analysis Dr. Jabir Hasan Khan, Dr. Menka

149-155

AIJRHASS 13232

ALIENATION AND INCLUSION POLICY: A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY OF BARARA VILLAGE OF AGRA DISTRICT Prof. Poornima Jain

156-161

AIJRHASS 13236

Information Common and Emerging Cloud Library Technologies Sangeeta Dhamdhere, Ramdas Lihitkar and Shalini R Lihitkar

162-167

AIJRHASS 13238

Analysis on Literature review on competency mapping For nurses in healthcare Nalini Devi.S, Dr.N.Panchanathan

168-170

AIJRHASS 13241

Being to Becoming: A Journey in William Goldings Free Fall Bhargavi D, Rajeshwari C Patel

171-177

AIJRHASS 13242

Ailing Banks- Failing Economy Dr. A.M.Bhattacharya (Economist)

178-180

AIJRHASS 13243

Theurgism in the Fictional World of William Golding Dr. Prakash Bhadury

181-184

AIJRHASS 13244

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

MULTIVARIATE COMPARISON OF CEPHALOMETRIC TRAITS IN IRANIAN AZERIS AND PERSIANS Vahid Rashidvash Department of Iranian Studies, Yerevan State University, Yerevan, Armenia Abstract: Turkic-speaking Azaris and Iranian-speaking Persians living in Iran were compared by cephalomentric traits. Two multivariate statistical approaches, principal component and discriminant analyses, were applied. The populations are described by almost the same average values (p>0,05) of the first two principal component variables accounting in aggregate for 73.6% of total diversity of the initial traits. The average level of correct reclassification for the objects while using the analytical recognition method is about 52%, i.e. the probability of their attribution to any of the two groups is almost equal. In whole, the two samples do not differ significantly from each other according to multivariate characteristics analysed that witnesses to the same generalized cephalomentric peculiarities in the ethnic groups considered. Key words: Iranian people, Iranian Azaris, Persians, craniofacial traits, multivariate analysis I. Introduction The Middle Eastern region had a central role in human evolution. It has been a passageway for Homo sapiens between Africa and the rest of Asia and, in particular, the first region of the Asian continent occupied by modern humans [8]. This area was also one of the regions where agriculture began during the Neolithic period, in particular in the Fertile Crescent, from which it spread westwards and eastwards. Different pre-historic sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the sixth millennium BP, perhaps even some centuries earlier than the earliest civilizations in nearby Mesopotamia [2]. Proto-Iranian language first emerged following the separation of the Indo-Iranian branch from the IndoEuropean language family [4]. Proto-Iranians tribes from Central Asian steppes arrived in the Iranian plateau in the fifth and fourth millennium BP, settled as nomads and further separated in different groups. By the third millennium BP, Cimmerians, Sarmatians and Alans populated the steppes North of the Black Sea, while Medes, Persians, Bactrians and Parthians occupied the western part of the Iranian plateau. Other tribes began to settle on the eastern edge, as far East as on the mountainous frontier of north-western Indian subcontinent and into the area which is now Baluchistan. The nowadays Iranian territory had been occupied by Medes (Maad) in the central and north-western regions, Persians (Paars) in the south-western region and by Parthians (Parthav) in the north-eastern and eastern regions of the country. In the 6th century BC Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire (the first Persian Empire) which started in South Iran and spread from Libya to Anatolia and Macedonia, encompassing an extraordinary ethno-cultural diversity [1]. This widespread empire collapsed after two centuries (towards the end of the 4th century BC) on account of Alexander the Great. In the 2nd century BC, north-eastern Persia was invaded by the Parthians who founded an empire extending from the Euphrates to Afghanistan. Because of its location on the Silk Road, connecting the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty in China, it quickly became a centre of trade and commerce. The Parthians were succeeded by the Sassanid Empire, one of the most important and influential historical periods of Persia. Afterwards Iran was invaded by several populations such as the Arabs, Mongols and Ottoman Turks. The Muslim conquest of Persia in 637 AC led to the introduction of Islam, with the consequent decline of the Zoroastrian religion , which still survives in some communities in different part of Iran, especially in

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Tehran and Yazd . This continuous invasion of populations with different origin and culture created an interesting mix of different ethnic groups speaking a variety of Indo-Iranian, Semitic and Turkic languages and encompassing Arabs, Armenians, Assyrians, Azeris, Baluchs, Bandaris, Gilaks, Kurds, Lurs, Mazandarani, Persians, Qeshm people, Turkmens, Zoroastrians and a group of so-called Afro-Iranians, which might be the result of the slave trade with Zanzibar. The Iranian people are an Indo-European ethnic-linguistic group, consisting of the speakers of Iranian languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family, as such forming a branch of IndoEuropean-speaking people. Their historical areas of settlement were on the Iranian plateau mainly in Iran, certain areas of Central Asia such as Tajikestan, most of Afghanistan, parts of Iraq, Turkey, Pakistan and scattered parts of the Caucasus Mountains. Their current distribution is spread across the Iranian plateau, stretching from the Indus in the east to central Anatolia in the west, and from Central Asia and the Caucasus to the Persian Gulf - a region that is sometimes termed the Iranian cultural continent, or Greater Persia by scholars, representing the extent of the Iranian languages and influence of the Persian People, through the geopolitical reach of the Persian empire[17]-[18]. II. Iranian Ethnic groups: While a categorization of a Persian ethnic group persists in the West, Persians have generally been a pan-national group often comprising regional people who often refer to themselves as 'Persians' and have also often used the term Iranian in the ethnic-cultural sense. As a pan-national group defining Persians as an ethnic group, at least in terms used in the West, is not inclusive since the ethnonym Persian includes several Iranian people including the speakers of Modern Persian. Some scholars, classify the speakers of Persian language as a single ethnic unit the Persians and exclude those Iranians who speak dialects of Persian or other Iranian dialects closely related to Persian. however this approach to ethnicity in Iran is erroneous, since the designation Iranian (Irani) as an ethnic term has been used by all these ethnic group in Iran, including the Persians irrespective of their origin. - Arab-speakers in Iran are mainly scattered along the Persian Gulf coast. The main unifying feature of this group is a Semitic language, “the Arabic”, originated in the Arabian Desert from where it diffused among a variety of different peoples across most of South-West Asia and North Africa determining their acculturation and eventual denomination as Arabs. As in most cases, their presence in Iran is due to the process of Islamization of Persia started in the 7th century that led to the decline of the Zoroastrian religion. Although after the Arab invasion many Arab tribes settled in different parts of Iran, at present they are the main ethnic group of Khuzestan, where they have maintained their identity probably also for a continuous influx of Arab-speaking immigrants into the province from the 16th to the 19thcentury [17]. - Armenians are descendants of people with Armenian origin. Armenia historically corresponded to a region characterized by three lakes now divided among Turkey, Iraq and Iran countries, once part of the Hittite Empire. With the conquest of Alexander the Great, Armenia became part of the Macedonian Empire coming into contact with European civilization. Armenians arrived into Iran in 1600 as captives and the present-day community is a Christian minority of no more than 100,000 individuals who mostly live in Tehran and the Jolfa district of Isfahan [10]-[9]. - Baluchis live in Sistan and Baluchestan (a province of South-East Iran) but also in Afghanistan, Oman and Pakistan. They are Sunni Muslims, in contrast to the Sistani Persians who are adherents of Shia Islam. Although their origin is still unknown, it seems that this group is likely descendant of ancient Median and Persian tribes coming from the Caspian Sea and first settled in northern Persia [17]. - Gilaks and Mazandarani, also called Caspian people, are closely related. They live in North Iran although they are thought to have originated from the South Caucasus. Gilaks and Manzandarani are part of the northern branch of the western Iranian languages and are closely related, even if they share also many common words with Persian and Kurdish, belonging to different Iranian language branches [17]. - Kurds are considered an ethnic group since the medieval period. The prehistory of the Kurds is poorly known, but their ancestors seem to have inhabited the same inhospitable mountainous region for millennia remaining relatively unmixed with the invaders. The records of the early empires of Mesopotamia contain frequent references to mountain tribes with names resembling “Kurd”. They inhabit broad lands from the Azerbaijan to Khuzestan but in the 17th century a large number of Kurds were also present in Khorasan [16].

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- Lurs are one of the major Iranian ethnic groups inhabiting along the central and southern parts of the Zagros Mountains. Their origin might go back to the time before the migration of Indo-Europeans to Iran when other groups called Elamites and Kassites were living there. The Kassites are said to be the native people of Lorestan and their language was neither Semitic nor Indo-European and differed from the Elamite. The modern Lurs, like the Kurds, are a mixture of these aboriginal groups and invading Indo-Iranians from which it is thought they separated. Until the 20th century, the majority of Lurs were nomadic herders. Recently, the vast majority of Lurs have settled in urban areas although a number of nomadic Lur tribes still persist [7]. - Persian identity refers to the Indo-European Aryans who arrived in Iran about 4 thousand years ago (kya). Originally they were nomadic, pastoral people inhabiting the western Iranian plateau. From the province of Fars they spread their language and culture to the other parts of the Iranian plateau absorbing local Iranian and nonIranian groups. This process of assimilation continued also during the Greek, Mongol, Turkish and Arab invasions. Ancient Persian people were firstly characterized by the Zoroastrianism. After the Islamization, Shi'a became the main doctrine of all Iranian people [17]. - Turkmen came from the Altai Mountains in the 7th century AC, through the Siberian steppes. They now live in Golestan and are different from the other ethnic groups in appearance, language and culture. - Talysh of Iran are an Iranian people very limited and Sporadic living near Alborz Mountains in Iran especially in the south of Qazvin province. Talysh of Iran use the Tati language Iran is a group of northwestern Iranian dialects which are closely related to the Talysh language. Persian and Azeri are also spoken. Talysh of Iran are mainly Shia Muslims and about 300,000 population. - Iranian Pashtuns, There has been a long history of population movements between Afghan Pashtuns and Iranians. Iranian Pashtuns live in northeastern Iran primarily in South Khorasan Province to the east of Qaen near the Afghan border. Their native population not including refugees is 113,000 in Iran. A further number of Pashtuns also live among the Afghan refugees in Iran. - Zoroastrians are the oldest religious community in Iran; in fact the first followers have been the proto-IndoIranians. With the Islamic invasions they were persecuted and now exist as a minority in Iran [18]. III. Azeris people The Azarbaijanis are Turkic-speaking people living mainly in northwestern Iran and the Republic of Azerbaijan, as well as in the neighboring states, Georgia, Russia Dagestan and formerly Armenia. Also referred to as Azeris or Azaris (Azərilər) or Azerbaijani Turks Azərbaycan türkləri they also live in a wider area from the Caucasus to the Iranian plateau . The Azerbaijanis are predominantly Shi'a Muslimand have a mixed cultural heritage including Turkic, Iranic and Caucasian elements. Following the Russo-Persian Wars of 1813 and 1828, the territories of the Qajar Persian Empire in the Caucasus were ceded to the Russian Empire and the treaties of Gulistan in 1813 and Turkmenchay in 1828 finalized the borders between Czarist Russia and Qajar Iran. The formation of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918 established the territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan. Despite living on two sides of an international border the Azeris form a single ethnic group [11]. However, northerners and southerners differ due to nearly two centuries of separate social evolution in Iranian Azerbaijan and Russian Soviet-influenced Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijani language unifies Azerbaijanis, and is mutually intelligible with Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz and Anatolian Turkish including the dialects spoken by the Iraqi Turkmen all of which belong to the Oghuz, or Western, group of Turkic languages [12]. Azerbaijani any member of a Turkic living chiefly in the Republic of Azerbaijan and in the region of Azerbaijan in northwestern Iran [5]. At the turn of the 21st century there were some 7.5 million Azerbaijani in the republic and neighbouring areas and more than 15 million in Iran. They are mainly sedentary farmers and herders, although some of those in the republic have found employment in various industries. Most Azerbaijani are Shīite Muslims. They speak Azerbaijani, a language belonging to the southwestern branch of Turkic languages.The Azerbaijani are of mixed ethnic origin, the oldest element deriving from the indigenous population of eastern Transcaucasia and possibly from the Medians of northern Persia. This population was Persianized during the period of the Sāsānian dynasty of Iran (3rd–7th century ce). Turkicization of the population can be dated from the region‟s conquest by the Seljuq

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Turks in the 11th century and the continued influx of Turkic populations in subsequent centuries including those groups that migrated during the Mongol conquests in the 13th century. The greater portion of the tribes that formed the Mongol forces or were stimulated by the Mongol conquest to migrate were Turkic. Parts of the region later passed variously under the Kara Koyunlu and the Ak Koyunlu rival Turkic tribal confederations and at the beginning of the 16th century the turcophone Ṣ afavid dynasty [13]. The Azerbaijanis speak Azerbaijani sometimes called Azerbaijani Turkish or Azeri a Turkic language descended from the Western Oghuz Turkic language that became established in Azerbaijan in the 11th and 12th century CE. Early Oghuz was mainly an oral language and the later compiled epics and heroic stories of Dede Korkut probably derive from an oral tradition. The first accepted Oghuz Turkic text goes back to 15th century [14]. The first written classical Azeri literature arose after the Mongol invasion. Some of the earliest Azerbaijani writings trace back to the poet Nasimi (died 1417) and then decades later Fuzûlî (1483–1556). Ismail I, Shah of Safavid Persia wrote Azerbaijani poetry under the pen name Khatâ'i. Modern Azeri literature continued with a traditional emphasis upon humanism as conveyed in the writings of Samad Vurgun, Shahriar, and many others [19]. Azerbaijanis are generally bilingual often fluent in either Russian in Azerbaijan or Persian (in Iran. As of 1996, around 38% of Azerbaijan's roughly 8,000,000 population spoke Russian fluently [6]. An independent telephone survey in Iran in 2009 reported that 20% of respondents could understand Azeri, the most spoken minority language in Iran and all respondents could understand Persian. The Iranians display considerable genetic diversity consistent with patterns observed in populations of the Middle East overall, reinforcing the notion of Persia as a vital crossroad for human disseminations [15]. The geographic area is remarkable for its high level of ethnic and linguistic diversity, comprising the major language families (IndoEuropean, Altaic and Afro-Asiatic) currently spoken by more than seventy ethnically different populations. This demonstrates the role Iran played in population dispersal across the latitudinal belt spanning from Western Anatolia to the Indus Valley. However, there have been gaps in high-resolution genetic analyses for this region to uncover population history at a fine scale, for example for particular ethnic and linguistic groups. Among them the Turkicspeaking Iranian Azari population constitutes the largest ethno-linguistic group after Persian-speakers, accounting for 24 percent of Iran‟s population [3]. Some sources tend to designate them as the descendants of the Turkic ethnic groups who invaded the area from 11th century onward during several military campaigns. Still the majority of sources view the Azaris as having mixed ethnic origin going back to indigenous Caucasian populations and Iranians, who were influenced by Turkic languages throughout centuries of occupation under Turkic dynasties. The Iranian roots of Azaris, according to protagonists of this view can likely be traced back to ancient Iranian tribes, such as the Medes who lived on the territory of Azerbaijan (ancient Āturpatakān, roughly covering the modern Iranian provinces of Eastern Azerbaijan Western Azerbaijan, and Ardabil) and Scythian invaders, who arrived during the 8th century B.C. Some information is also available about the Caucasian Albanians as the main ethnic constituent of the inhabitants of the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan in the South Caucasus called Azerbaijanis by the name of the state [20]. Scholars see cultural similarities between modern Persians and Azeris as evidence of an ancient Iranian influence. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism was prominent throughout the Caucasus before Christianity and Islam and that the influence of various Persian Empires added to the Iranian character of the area. It has also been hypothesized that the population of Iranian Azerbaijan was predominantly Persian-speaking before the Oghuz arrived. This claim is supported by the many figures of Persian literature, such as Qatran Tabrizi, Shams Tabrizi, Nezami, and Khaghani, who wrote in Persian prior to and during the Oghuz migration, as well as by Strabo, Al-Istakhri, and Al-Masudi, who all describe the language of the region as Persian. The claim is mentioned by other medieval historians, such as Al-Muqaddasi. Other common Perso-Azeribaijani features include Iranian place names such as Tabriz and the name Azerbaijan itself. The Iranian origins of the Azeris likely derive from ancient Iranic tribes, such as the Medes in Iranian

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Azerbaijan, and Scythian invaders who arrived during the eighth century BCE. It is believed that the Medes mixed with an indigenous population, the Caucasian Mannai, a Northeast Caucasian group related to the Urartians. However, whether originally Caucasian or Iranian, it is fairly definite and largely supported by historical accounts that Azeris are not descendants of Turkic tribes, although they have certainly been affected by them. We compared the Turkic-speaking Azeris (n=400) and the Iranian-speaking Persians (n=115) living in Iran using eight cephalomentric traits. The data were collected in different, predominantly rural, populations in the province of IranianAzerbaijan.Two multivariate statistical approaches, the principal component analysis and the discriminant analysis, were applied using SPSS software package. On the basis of the first method the integrated features, principal components (PC1 and PC2), accounting together for 73.6% of total diversity of the initial cephalomentric traits were separated. The mean values of these features did not significantly differ between the Azeris and Persians (p>0.05). The spatial relationship between the populations considered is presented on two-dimensional plot of principal component variables.

Figure 1. Spatial distribution of the objects in 2D-principal components plot (numbers in brackets represent percentage of total variation explained by each axis). The next statistical approach, the discriminant analysis, allowed checking the rate of multivariate analytical recognition of the objects, i.e. the probability of their belonging to the corresponding sample. It was revealed that the average level of correct reclassification for the pooled sample is about 52%, which means that the likelihood of the attribution of the objects to any of the groups is almost equal. In whole, the results show that Iranian Azeris and Persians do not differ significantly from each other according to multivariate morphological characteristics thus witnessing to the same generalized pattern of cephalomentric peculiarities in the ethnic groups considered. These results are in good agreement with recently published data on close genetic affinity between Iranian Azeris and Persians established on the basis of Y-chromosomal markers. Moreover, using multivariate genetic classification methods, it was shown that Iranian Azeris and their close neighbors (Persians, Kurds and Armenians) form a rather distinct cluster of the Middle East origin. Relying on cephalomentric and genetic data we can suggest that Iranian Azeris might be considered as an indigenous population of the Middle East. Their language might be imposed by the limited number of Turkic-speaking invaders from Central Asia through â&#x20AC;&#x17E;elite dominanceâ&#x20AC;&#x; model and the newcomers did not leave any noticeable traces on the anthropological appearance and gene pool of the local populations of the Middle East.

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To further test the hypothesis of Central Asian and Caucasian origin of Azaris we used special software designed for admixture analysis, Admix v2.0, which enables the evaluation of the relative genetic contribution of any source population in the origin of the given group (http://web.unife.it/progetti/genetica/Isabelle/admix2_0.html). The genetic contribution of Turkmens and Adyghes is much less (4-5 times) while compared with the contribution of Persian-speakers (living, for instance, in Fars). Concluding, the results obtained indicate that genetic distance between the populations considered depends in the first instance on the geographic proximity than on the common linguistic background.The Azaris, being situated between the Republic of Azerbaijan and Eastern Turkey, had more possibilities of genetic contacts with the closest neighbours, while gene flow between the populations of the same Republic and Eastern Turkey could have been rather limited. Relying on the results, we can make rather strong inferences about the genetic relatedness between the populations under consideration. The principal one is that the Azaris have much weaker genetic affinity with Turkmens and Adyghes than with their immediate neigh bours― Persians, Kurds, Azerbaijanis, and Armenians. We have all grounds to suggest that language replacement might have taken place through “elite dominance” phenomenon rather than “demic diffusion” model. In addition, the modal genetic variant of Turkmens (most frequently encountered in the given population), which could be considered as a signature of this group is virtually absent in Azaris, thus confirming our findings about the mode of the language change. IV. Conclusion The Iranians display considerable genetic diversity consistent with patterns observed in populations of the Middle East overall, reinforcing the notion of Persia as a vital crossroad for human disseminations. The geographic area is remarkable for its high level of ethnic and linguistic diversity, comprising the major language families (IndoEuropean, Altaic, and Afro-Asiatic) currently spoken by more than seventy ethnically different populations. This demonstrates the role Iran played in population dispersal across the latitudinal belt spanning from Western Anatolia to the Indus Valley. However, there have been gaps in high-resolution genetic analyses for this region to uncover population history at a fine scale, for example, for particular ethnic and linguistic groups. Among them, the Turkicspeaking Iranian Azari population constitutes the largest ethno-linguistic group after Persian-speakers, accounting for 24 percent of Iran‟s population. Some sources tend to designate them as the descendants of the Turkic ethnic groups who invaded the area from 11th century onward during several military campaigns. Still, the majority of sources view the Azaris as having mixed ethnic origin going back to indigenous Caucasian populations and Iranians, who were influenced by Turkic languages throughout centuries of occupation under Turkic dynasties. The Iranian roots of Azaris, according to protagonists of this view, can likely be traced back to ancient Iranian tribes, such as the Medes, who lived on the territory of Azerbaijan (ancient Āturpatakān, roughly covering the modern Iranian provinces of Eastern Azerbaijan, Western Azerbaijan, and Ardabil), and Scythian invaders, who arrived during the 8th century B.C. Some information is also available about the Caucasian Albanians as the main ethnic constituent of the inhabitants of the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan in the South Caucasus, called Azerbaijanis by the name of the state. REFERENCES: [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

Bosworth, CE.,The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D.1000-1217). In: Boyle JA(ed) The Cambridge History of Iran,Vol.5.The Saljuq and Mongol Periods:Cambridge University Press, 1968. Cavalli-Sforza LL, Menozzi P, Piazza A, The history and geography of human genes, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ,1994. CIA, Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook (https://www. cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook), 2010. Diakonoff, Igor M ,Language Contacts in the Caucasu and in the Near East, T.Markey, J. Greppin, When World Collide: Indo- Europeans and Pre- Indo- Europeans, Karoma Publ,1990. Darvish zadeh, A, Geology of Iran. first edit, Tabriz: Niya pub, 2002. Henning, WB, The Ancient Language of Azerbaijan. Transaction of the Philological Society, London, 1954. Izadpanah. H, Lorestan History. first edit, Tehran, Cultural Works & Luminries Socirety, 1998. Minorsky ,V, Studies in Caucasian history, Cambridge University Press, 1953.

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Margaryan A, Andonian L., Harutyunyan A, Patrilineal genetic legacy of Persians, Azeris and Armenians living in Iran in the Middle East context, Biological Journal of Armenia, 62, Suppl.1, 55-58. 2010. Pasdermajiyan, H, Armenia History, Yerevan, Yerevan University publication, 1998. Rashidvash, V, The Qajar Dynasty in Iran: The Most Important Occurence Evented in the Qajars Monarchy. International Journal of Business and Social Science- United States of America, Vol. 3, No. 12, 181-187. 2012 . Rashidvash, V, Qajar Rule in Iran: The Qajar Government Events That Changed the Fate of Iran, The Journal of History and Social Sciences- Pakistan, Vol.2, No.2, 1- 29. 2011. Raies niya, R ,Azerbaijan in the History of Iran, 1st edit, Tabriz, Nima publishment, 211-215. 2007. Rashidvash, V ,The Iranian and Azari languages, Research on Humanities and Social Sciences United States of America, Vol.2, No.5, 28- 36, 2012. Regueiro, M.; Cadenas, A. M.; Gayden, T.; Underhill, P. A.; Herrera, R. J. Iran: Tricontinental Nexus for Y-Chromosome Driven Migration, Human Heredity, Vol. 61: 132-143, 2006. Safizadeh, S, History of Kurd and Kurdestan, first edit, Tehran, Atiyeh publ, 1999. Saidiyan, A, A, people of Iran. 1st edit. Tehran: sience and life publishment, 2004. Saidiyan, A, Peoples of the World, 4th edit. Tehran: Science and life publ, 1991. Yarshater, E. Azerbaijan vii, The Iranian Language of Azerbaijan. In: Encyclopedia Iranica, Vol. III/2, http:// www.iranica. Com/articles/Azerbaijan-vii, 1987. Zadok R, The ethno-linguistic character of northwestern Iran and Kurdistan in the Neo Assyrian period. Tel Aviv: Archaeological Center Publications, 2002.

Azeri population inhabited regions

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Human and Physical Environmental Factors Affecting Students’ Utilization of Library and Information Services in Colleges of Education Libraries in Nigeria Lawrence Abraham Gojeh1 , Lami Ishaya Dutse2 , Hannatu Daudu3 Department of Information Science, Jimma University, P.O.Box 378, Jimma, ETHIOPIA 2 National Commission for Colleges of Education, Academic Programmes Department, P.M.B. 0394, Garki, Abuja, NIGERIA 3 Institute of Education, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, NIGERIA 1

Abstract: A cross-sectional survey on human and physical environmental factors affecting students’ utilization of library and information services in colleges of education libraries in Nigeria was conducted and reported in this paper. 648 students and 16 colleges of Education librarians were sampled, using a multistage simple random and purposive sampling technique. Structured questionnaires for students and college librarians’ responses were used for data collection and interpretation for identification of problems. Results showed that students face human and physical environmental factors. Human factors were categorized as: students’ lack of attendance at library user education, improper organization of library materials, shelf guidance and arrangement, insufficient and unfriendly staff attitude, users’ attitude, insecurity of students’ properties, unfavoruable rules and regulations for readers, crowded students timetable and lack of students’ encouragement by lecturers. While physical factors were categorized as: inadequate books loaned out, inadequate facilities and equipment, students’ preference of hostel use than library, poor maintenance of facilities and untidy environment. The study concluded with recommendations that students and colleges’ librarians were different on most of the environmental factors that affect students’ utilization of library and information services in colleges of education libraries in Nigeria. Keywords: Students; colleges librarians; human; physical; environment factors; utilization; library and information service; Colleges of Education; National Commission for Colleges of Education and Nigeria. I. Introduction Colleges of Education (COEs) in Nigeria are one of the three arms of tertiary educational institutions in Nigeria. These are: Colleges of education, Polytechnics and Universities. Colleges of Education were established as a result of the Nigerian Government White Paper published in 1961, which recommended the training of professional teachers for the award of Nigerian Certificate of Education (NCE). The NCE teacher education is offered in COEs with some Polytechnics and Universities. They are recognized as sure key that opens the door to national development and teachers are the rightful persons to turn that key. To increase the quality of the NCE programme and for the purpose of harmonization and standardisation, the Federal Government of Nigeria by virtue of Decree No. 3 of 1989 established the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) as the highest supervisory agency for all NCE programmes in Nigeria. There are over 68 Colleges of Education in Nigeria. Of the 68 colleges, 21 are directly financed by the federal Government of Nigeria; 41 by the state governments; 1 by the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja and 4 by the private proprietors in Nigeria. Colleges of Education world over, have as their objectives of serving as training institutions for students and staff with opportunity to continue their own education; whether in subjects taken at school or in others not hither to taken by them. They also provide a professional training for them as prospective teachers. This aspect of their function include: study, research, teaching and practice of education. In Nigeria for instance, COEs have as their other functions; the production of professional teachers for the primary and the Junior Secondary Schools. The goals of Teacher Education as to produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all levels of our educational system; encourage and further the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers; help teachers to fit into the social life of the community and society at large and to enhance their commitment to national goals; provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate for their assignment and to make them adaptable to any changing situation (not only in the life of their country, but in the wider world); and enhance teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession. To achieve these goals and objectives of the COEs in the country; the Colleges of Education libraries (COELs), as reservoir of information in form of print and non-print media, have become an inevitable adjunct for general academic

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pursuits for both lecturers and students in the colleges. Lecturers and students need the information for study, research and vocational improvement. Whenever they are not satisfied with the information provided to them by the college libraries, their personal objectives, and those of the institution will not be achieved. As a mark of adherence to the above objectives of the college libraries, each COEL is expected to provide a motivated and satisfactory library and information services (LIS) to meet the information needs of its users. Library and information services are of central importance in COE because they enhance knowledge acquisition and improve the competences of teachers thereby making learning more meaningful for the students. It equally reduces educational costs, because it assists in the development and promotion of innovative materials by staff and students. It also assists in the development, assessment and improvement of educational programmes. These library and information services could be defined as those tangible and intangible activities that contribute to users’ drive that stem from the conscious or unconscious goal of satisfying their information needs. Both staff and students are inevitably heavily dependent upon the institutional library and information services in order to achieve their academic objectives and so justify the huge investment financially on the institutional libraries. However, for any meaningful and effective utilization of library and information services by students in tertiary institutions, the environment which could be human or physical should be favourable or conducive to the users. Reference [1] defines environment as “any of every influence with which an individual comes into contact after the hereditary pattern has been received through the germ plasma”. The behavior of human beings can be presumed to be the influence of what is called ‘nature’ and ‘nurture’. The nature is what one has inherited from his or her parents while the nurture is the environment in which the individual lives. Some of the environmental factors in the library situation include human factors, such as: gender or marital status of the users; who could be male or female, married or single. Other aspects include library opening hours; lending policy where in some cases libraries vary in the loan of materials to their users and the duration. There is also the library staff cooperation or attitude, which could be favourable or unfavourable to the users. Users in this paper, refers to terms such as: clients, patrons, readers, customers, inquirers or library members. The person who does not use the library is known as a non-user. The term also is used to mean students in the colleges of education who use the college libraries. The two terms, that is “users” and “students” shall be used interchangeably in this paper. The physical factors on the other hand could include light; reading space relative to acoustics or sources of noise and in relation to the students’ residence whether on-campus or off- campus. II. Literature Review Of the many that have looked at the relationship between use and library facilities in tertiary institutions, none is known to produce a definite answer to the Question “Do environment affect students utilization of library and information services in colleges of education libraries?” Reference [2] found evidence to suggest that the library and its resources should be built to support the school curriculum and lessons in the use of books and libraries. Reference [3] and [4] when discussing on school libraries and their services in support of the educational programmes of schools; stated that such libraries should have a well-stocked, adequately balanced and wellorganized collection of books and non-books media that are easily accessible for teachers and students use. However, reference [5] and [6] were much particular on the location of the school library; where they indicated that it should be located in a quiet area away from games fields, canteens and should be centrally located in the school for easy accessibility from students’ hostels and departments. According to reference [7] the library is certainly of no use to its community, even if it achieves the highest level of self-analysis by mathematics techniques and through operations research, if it is unable to deliver within reasonable time the reading materials requested. The library staff that should be thoroughly acquainted with major library functions; should also, have sound training and experience in library service. Reference [8] supporting this idea of trained personnel of a University library, stated that after library materials have been received and duly processed, they are sent to the cataloguing department where they are identified and organized for effective use of the library’s clientele. He went further to indicate that the basic test of the quality of any University library is its ability to get into the hands of the reader the book he wants and when he wants it. Staff behaviour according to reference [9] is most important in influencing users. Poor performance can only serve to accentuate an already poor image. The opening hours of library’s early stages of establishment are likely to be very short in a day, but as its stock and its potentialities grow, so will the demand for a more sustained service. Reference [2] supporting this view stated that the staff of the library will be needed to work extra hours to satisfy students quest for information in the library. Talking on the planning, accommodation and user facilities in the library, reference [10] observed that individual needs of students, where he indicated that while individuals needs vary, and the basic requirements of the students in higher institutions include: comfortable and adequate study facilities; long hours of opening; a substantial well-chosen book stock, augmented by periodicals; basic reference and information services; a flexible issue system, backed by speedy inter-library loans, reservation and request systems and instruction in library use, linked with a high quality personnel services at the enquiry desk and a supply of carefully prepared library publications.

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Reference [11] went further to state that all the ingredients which constitute the library space, the fabrics and furnishings, the heating and lighting, the structural layout must be designed so that a clear relationship exists between them-for they are all complementing to one another and essential for proper planned homogenous accommodation. However, reference [12] in their study on use of library by 60 academic staff of two colleges in Nigeria revealed that the colleges libraries were not well utilized for research and recreational reading due to lack of books and periodicals. Also, the libraries do not provide conducive atmosphere for academic work. Although, reference [13] observed that the majority of the Administrative Training Institute (ATI) in India faculty members give first priority to the physical ‘environment’ and services aspect of the library service quality. Their findings could not include students of the institutes. Library statistics in tertiary institutions suggest that there is low students utilization of library services, especially at COELs recorded during accreditation exercises and attended by the researchers. The low utilization of services, seem to suggest that the efforts of the lecturers whose main objectives is to direct the students’ mind towards finding out detailed and comprehensive facts on what has been taught is not supplemented. This has been an issue of concern to librarians and the management of Colleges of Education Libraries in Nigeria. This phenomenon may have militated against the students passing their prescribed examinations with ease since they are exposed to circumscribed knowledge of their subject disciplines. It was therefore pertinent to investigate how the environmental factors influence the students’ use or not use the library and information services provided in the Colleges of Education Libraries in Nigeria. This paper is poised to finding answers to the following research questions. (i) What are the human and physical environmental factors as perceived by students and college librarians affect students’ use of Library and information services provided in colleges of education libraries in Nigeria? (ii) Is there any difference in the perception made by the students and college librarians on the environmental factors affecting the use of library and information services by the students in the college libraries? The paper is important because it will assist/help the National Commission for Colleges of Education, the administrators and proprietors of both old and newly established Colleges of Education (federal, states and private) and other tertiary institutions in the country and elsewhere to have an in-depth understanding of the human and physical environmental factors affecting students’ use of the library and information services in the colleges of education libraries in Nigeria. The identification of the factors and the suggestions will go a long way to improving the existing library and information services’ use and services. III. Methodology A cross-sectional survey research was employed for this study; where two category response options’ questionnaires of four and three sections on each for students and Colleges librarians were used to elicit responses on the human and physical environmental factors affecting students utilization of library and information services in colleges of education libraries in Nigeria. Adequate guidelines on how to complete the questionnaire by both students and college librarians were provided for the respondents. The ethical issues in terms of respondents consent and what the information shall be used was provided inform of letter for the respondents, who was at liberty to choosing to be involved in the study. A face validation of the instrument was done by experts drawn from the National Commission for Colleges of Education and Department of Library and information Science, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The items were modified in line with the experts’ comments, observations and recommendations before the instruments were administered to respondents in a pilot study. The pilot study was carried out at Federal College of Education, Zaria and College of education, Gidan-waya Kafanchan. Sixty (60) respondents of thirty (30) students each from the two colleges were randomly selected with stratification for gender, were involved in the pilot study. NCE I and pre-NCE students were not on campus. Only NCE II and NCE III students and regular not Sandwich programme were involved in the pilot study. The college librarians from the two colleges were also used for the study. The results of the Pilot study indicated that factors relating to services and facilities were perceived by the college librarians to constitute problems for students’ utilization of library and information services. While the students themselves perceived services, facilities, distance of students residence and transportation problems as issues faced. It was found that the factors that include: year of library establishment, students’ enrolment, departmental libraries or library site as perceived by college librarians as factors that were not critical to students’ effective utilization of Library and information services. But it was found that use of library before coming to institution and use of library at present institution were critical factors in determining students’ perception of the problems confronting them in the utilization of library and information services in colleges of education. However, gender, marital status, course of study, occupation before coming to institution, level of study or place of residence were not found to be critical factors in the student utilization of library services. The reliability of the instrument was obtained by using a split-half method of inter-correlation and a reliability coefficient of 0.71. Students and colleges librarians in colleges of Education in Nigeria formed the target population of the study. Sixteen (16) out of the sixty-eight (68) colleges of education were sampled. The colleges were sampled

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based on geographical spread, proprietorship, type of programme (i.e general, special and technical) and researcher’s convenience in terms of financial resources and mobility to the colleges of education that were sparsely located in the country. The colleges comprised of 11 Federal, 4 States and 1 Private. The study was limited to only students who were in the Pre-NCE, NCE.I, NCE.II and NCE. III programmes; as well as colleges’ librarians that were heading the college libraries involved in the study. The NCE programme is designed to last for three academic years for students that fulfilled the basic admission requirement but students without the basic admission requirement were first admitted to do a one year preliminary qualifying courses and pass the required examination for the NCE regular admission. The one year programme is called Pre-NCE (i.e. Preliminary-National Certificate of Education). The data collection for the study was done through the administration of the instruments to the college librarians’ by the researcher personally at the sample institutions. While the instruments for the students were given to the college Librarians with simple instructions on the administration procedures. Respondents were randomly selected with stratification for gender. All respondents were enjoined to respond to items on the questionnaire as honestly as possible. Names were not asked to be written on the questionnaire to ensure unbiased responses. More so, an expected fear of being identified as a respondent will be eliminated. However, table 1 is the list of colleges of education libraries involved in the study, number of students and college librarians respondents in each of the colleges, proprietorship, geographical spread and type of programmes of colleges involves in the study. Table 1: Colleges of Education Libraries (COELs) involved in the study according to respondents, proprietorship, geographical spread and type of programmes in the colleges s/n

Colleges libraries involved in study

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

FCE, Katsina FCE, Zaria FCE, Yola FCE, Omoku FCE, Okene FCE, Akoka FCE, , EhaAmufu FCE,(T) Pankshin, FCE,(T),Umu nze FCE,(S), Oyo FCE,(T) Gombe COE, Kumbotso COE,Kafanch an COE, Gindiri COE, Ankpa Project Time,COE Akoka Lagos Total

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Respondents Stu Colle den ge ts libra rians 31 1 43 1 48 1 28 1 48 1 10 1 46 1

Proprietorship Federal State Private s

Geopolitical North West Eas t

Type of programme Genera Speci Tech l -al nical

X X X X X X X

X X X X -

X -

x x

x x x x x

48 49

1 1

X X

X -

x -

X X

50 45 46

1 1 1

X X -

X -

x -

x x x

648

Key COE = College of Education FCE = Federal College of Education FCE (T) = Federal College of Education (Technical) FCE (S) = Federal College of Education (Special) IV. Results The response rate for the study was 664(100%) for both respondents (students and colleges librarians). However, 648(100%) was made by students and 16(100%) was colleges librarians response rate respectively. The SPSS version 10, computer programme was used to analyze the data collected on the human and physical environmental factors affecting students’ utilization of library and information services in colleges of education libraries. The items were measured on a five point scale, using an equal interval of 0.80, thus the guideline below was used for interpreting the attitude scores of respondents on environmental factors that affect students use of library and information services in the colleges of education libraries. A mean score was considered strongly disagreed (SD), if it falls within the range of 1.00 - 1.80; a mean score within the range 1.80 - 2.60 was

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taken as Disagreed (D); a mean within the range 2.60 - 3.40 was considered undecided (UD), while a mean score within the range 3.40 - 4.20 was taken as Agreed (A); and a mean score within the range 4.20 - 5.00 was considered strongly Agreed (SA) for positive items. Analyses were carried out on the two sets of questionnaires to determine how the students and college librarians responded to the items through the use of a t-test to compare students and colleges librarians’ differences in responses to the items. A. Environmental Factors Affecting Students’ Use of Library and Information Services Table 2 depicts the items description of human and physical environmental factors in the colleges of education libraries as perceived by students (SDS) and colleges librarians’ (CLS) respondents. The table also reflects the decisions taken on the Mean and standard deviation comparison of students and college librarians’ perception on each of the items 1 – 19 as perceived by both SDS and CLS respectively. Table 2: Decision on Environmental Factors Affecting Use by Students of Library and Information Services in Colleges of Education Libraries as Perceived by Students and Colleges Librarians’ Respondents S/NO 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Item description Inadequate library books in disciplines taught Lack of current library books Inadequate books loaned out Inadequate period of books loaned Domestic work for married women Living off-campus

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Distance of hostel from library Availability of departmental libraries Transportation difficulties Library sitting in a noisy area Inadequate opening hours Library not opened daily Poor lighting in library Inadequate seating facilities Harsh loan penalty for defaulters Unfriendly attitude of library staff Unhelpful attitude of library staff Attendance at library use education Lack of students’ attendance at library use education

Groups SDS CLS. SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS

Respondents 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16

Ẋ 2.72 2.94 3.17 2.25 3.49 2.44 2.98 1.63 2.14 2.06 2.87 2.88 2.92 1.63 2.66 1.50 2.64 1.81 2.31 1.50 2.67 1.88 2.17 1.81 2.38 1.50 3.08 2.25 2.80 1.50 2.28 1.50 1.03 1.38 1.21 1.07

SD 1.46 1.73 1.47 1.65 1.41 1.63 1.55 1.20 1.52 1.73 1.71 1.89 1.62 1.26 1.65 1.15 2.69 1.38 1.53 1.21 1.58 1.20 1.37 1.33 1.55 1.21 1.57 1.61 1.44 1.03 1.33 1.03 1.25 1.02 0.58 0.50

Decision UD UD UD D A D UD SD D D UD UD UD SD UD SD UD D D SD UD D D D SD D UD SD UD SD D SD D SD SD SD

SDS CLS

646 16

3.47 3.50

1.72 2.07

A A

KEY X = Mean SD = Standard Deviation UD = Undecided D = Disagreed A = Agreed SD = Strongly Disagreed From the analysis on table 2 above, students perceived two (2) environmental factors that affect their use of library and information services in COELs. These factors were: “Inadequate books loaned out to students (item: 3)” and “Lack of students attendance at library use education (item: 19)”. These factors can be categorized as inadequate services and lack of library use education. However, one may derive from the students responses that the factors: (1) inadequate books on students disciplines; (2) Lack of current books; (4) inadequate loaned period; (6) living off-campus; (7) library location from students residence; (8) use of departmental libraries by

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students; (9) students transportation problems; (11) inadequate library opening hours; (14) inadequate seating facilities and (15) harsh loan penalty in which the respondents were undecided could affect students use of library and information services. These factors could be categorized under the headings: facilities, transportation problems, residential location and loan penalty. The table also shows that the colleges’ librarians’ respondents perceived only one issue as an environmental factor affecting the use of library and information services in the colleges’ libraries. The factor was “Lack of students’ attendance at library use education (item: 19). In this case, one may also derive from the responses that the factors: (1) inadequate books on students’ disciplines and (6) living off-campus in which the respondents were undecided could affect students’ effective use of library and information services. These factors can be categorized as inadequate library and information services, collections and distance of student residential location. A cursory look at the table, shows that both students and colleges’ Librarians responses were in agreement on students lack of attendance at library use education (item: 19) and they were both undecided on inadequate books on students discipline (item: 1) and living off-campus (item: 6) respectively. But surprisingly, most colleges’ Librarians respondents strongly disagreed on most of the items on the table that were observed by the students’ respondents who were undecided on most of the items. However, it can be deduced from the table that students perceived more factors than the colleges’ librarians. Also, that the intensity of the identified factors differ from students to colleges librarians as portrayed by their means and standard deviation statistics. The respondents’ questionnaires for both students and colleges’ librarians, there were closed and openedended responses. After the students and colleges’ librarians had indicated their degree of agreement on the closed-ended questions in the questionnaires, the students and colleges’ librarians were also requested in the opened-ended question; to indicate as many environmental factors not included in the list that hinders students’ library and information services utilization. Their responses were coded and presented as environmental factors/problems affecting students’ utilization of library and information services in colleges of education libraries as follows: inadequate facilities such as chairs, tables, toilets, air conditioners and fans; improper organization of library materials; lack of shelf guides and shelf arrangement of books; insufficient library staff to attend to readers; readers’ attitude in the library such as theft, mutilation, noise making, miss-shelving of books; laziness on part staff to help users; lack of funds to transport users to library; lack of binding, photocopying and computer facilities for internet service; untidy environment in terms of poor maintenance of library facilities and building; strict library rules and regulations (for example, the demand at all times of students I.D. Card); poor security of readers properties (like their bags); students having crowded timetable without provision for library use; lack of encouragement by lecturers, who do not give assignments to students that would involve the use of library; and students preferring to seat in their hostel rooms to read or discuss topics with friends or mates. The above listed factors, which are both human and physical and obtained from the item analysis of the open-ended question of both respondents (students and colleges librarians); could be categorized as: inadequate facilities and equipment, improper organization of library materials, shelf guidance and arrangement, insufficient staff, unfavourable attitude of users, unfriendly staff attitude, insecurity of library reading/users properties, unfavoruable rules and regulations for readers, crowded students timetable, lack of students encouragement by lecturers, students preference of hostel use than library, poor maintenance of facilities and untidy environment. These factors that are also inclusive of the closed-ended responses of both students and colleges’ librarians are regarded as providing the answer to the research question one of this study. The closed ended identified factors were inadequate books loaned out to students and lack of students’ attendance at library use education. B. Perception of Students and Colleges’ Librarians on the Environmental Factors The perception of students and colleges’ librarians on the environmental factors affecting the use of library and information services in the colleges of education libraries was analyzed in table 3, using the t-test statistics (i.e. the “t-cal” and “t-cri”), it shows the item description of the environmental factors, groups of students (SDS) and colleges’ librarians (CLS) respondents and the remarks on whether the statistics is significant (S) or not significant (NS). Table 3: T-Test Comparison of Students and College Librarians’ Perception on Environmental Factors Affecting Students’ Utilization of Library and Information Services in Colleges of Education Libraries in Nigeria. S/N 1. 2. 3. 4.

Item Description Inadequate library books in disciplines taught Lack of current library books Inadequate books loaned out Inadequate period of books loaned

Groups SDS CLS. SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS

Respondents 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16

t-cal

t-cri

0.509

1.645

2.194

1.645

2.563

1.645

3.105

1.645

Remarks NS “ S “ S “ S “

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5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Domestic work for married women Living off-campus Distance of hostel from library Availability of departmental libraries Transportation difficulties Library sitting in a noisy area Inadequate opening hours Library not opened daily Poor lighting in library Inadequate seating facilities Harsh loan penalty for defaulters Unfriendly attitude of library staff Unhelpful attitude of library staff Lack of conducting library use education Lack of students’ attendance at library use education

SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS SDS CLS

646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16 646 16

0.176

1.645

0.020

1.646

4.043

1.645

3.918

1.645

2.272

1.645

2.645

1.645

2.587

1.645

1.078

1.645

2.842

1.645

2.044

1.645

4.902

1.645

2.974

1.645

2.520

1.645

1.030

1.645

0.054

1.645

NS “ NS “ S “ S “ S “ S “ S “ NS “ S “ “ ” “ ” “ “ “ ” NS ” “ ”

From table 3 above, which refers to the differences on students and colleges’ Librarians responses, was hypnotized as: Students and colleges’ Librarians respondents will not differ significantly in their perception of the factors affecting students utilization of library and information services in Colleges of Education libraries”. From table 3 above, which the researchers considered to answer the second research question on the differences and not using the open-ended responses; found that the t-test comparison of the students and college Librarians perception were “significantly” different on thirteen (13) and “not significant” on only six of the items. Hence, we could conclude that students and colleges’ librarians were different on most of the human and physical environmental factors that affect students’ utilization of library and information services in colleges of education libraries in Nigeria. V. Discussion The main objective of the paper was to examine students and colleges of education librarians’ perception on the human and physical environmental factors affecting students’ utilization of library and information services provided by COELs in Nigeria. The study found out that both human and physical environmental factors affected students’ use of library and information services in the colleges’ libraries. The categorized human factors included: lack of students attendance at library use education, improper organization of library materials, shelf guidance and arrangement, insufficient staff, users’ attitudes, unfriendly staff attitude, insecurity of library users properties, unfavoruable rules and regulations for readers, crowded students timetable and lack of students encouragement by lecturers. While physical factors were categorized as: inadequate books loaned out to students, inadequate facilities and equipment, students’ preference of hostel use than library, poor maintenance of facilities and untidy environment. This finding corroborated with that of reference [14] in their study of the Administrative Training Institute (ATI) Libraries in India. They observed that the physical and human environments that were categorized as infrastructure, services and staff play a major role in library services. A. Human Environmental Factors 1) User education User education was found to be a problem, which have long been the role of colleges libraries in helping their users to acquire skills, often under the title “user education”, which according to [15] is a term that reveals a somewhat objectivist and teacher-centred view of learning. It is essential because it helps to publicize library and information services and improves the image of the library. User education is considered a marketing and welcoming activity and usually forms part of the libraries’ orientation programme for first year students. Reference [16] outlined the objectives of user education as: to introduce students to facilities and resources in the library; to develop library skills; to make students independent users and learners in the library; to develop capabilities as self-sufficient users; to establish the library as the centre of academic activity; to provide basic understanding of the library so that users can make efficient use of library material and services; and to educate users about information sources and resources and how to exploit such resources effectively and efficiently. 2) Services

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The study found improper organization of library materials, shelf guidance and self arrangement, which are considered as services. Though, reference [14] considered service to include: document lending, reference service, referral service, current awareness service, newspaper clippings. The users expect that the record of holdings of libraries accurate, properly organized with self guides for easy access. The guidance in the library should be for better use of library resources, which should be part of library staff job, which should be self explanatory boards, labels, display of new documents added and personal help to-would-be users to locate the documents and facilitate utilization of available resources. Such guidance should also include: proper signage, help, display of rules, location map, and help menu for OPAC, user orientation programmes, information literacy are such factors that have to be overcome. The catalogue should be up-to-date. It should be a reliable source of holdings of the library. 3) Staff The study also found insufficient staff, unfriendly staff attitude, and insecurity of library users’ properties as well unfavoruable rules and regulations for readers, which are considered as staff human factors. Staff/employees are the most important factor affecting the service quality of a library. The attitude, behaviour, etiquettes, decorum and dress code of the staff is also important. While Staff plays important role in service delivery in their welcoming, positive and helping staff is prerequisite for quality service delivery. Continuous training enhances positive attitude and how rules and regulations could be managed for users’ adherence, knowledge about library collection, users’ properties and skill to tackle problems effectively. 4) Users It was found that users’ attitude, crowded students timetable, students’ preference of hostel use than library and lack of students’ encouragement by lecturers to use the library constitute factors. Although, reference [17] asserted in their study of academic libraries that the users, especially students do not perceive academic libraries as a useful source of digital images and used search engines when searching for visual resources. But this study seem to oppose this opinion because the study revealed students’ preference of hostel use than library, this preference may be for freely accessing or using the internet for whatever information materials that may be needed by them. They also could be discussing with colleagues and friends on their academic issues. The biggest change in today’s users from those in the past is their intense reliance on technology, cell phones, photocopiers and computers; they will very much require both desk tops and laptops for traditional library performance measures, which are for purposes of inputs and outputs to achieve outcomes. Outcomes are measures of the impact or effect that using library collections and services has on users [18]. The finding also showed that students stay off campus with transportation problems, in this case, accessing the library remotely will be their priority. Students may be anxious if encouraged by their lecturers in selecting databases, accessing and evaluating information from the World Wide Web [19] will go a long way to helping them use their time wisely. B. Physical Environmental Factor The findings of the study on physical environmental factors were categorized as: inadequate books loaned out to students, inadequate facilities and equipment, poor maintenance of facilities and untidy environment. The physical environmental factor as observed in reference [14] included tangible elements of service quality like availability of computers, OPAC terminals, cleanliness, adequate light, proper ventilation, functional furniture, suitable library hours, library software and place for reading. Infrastructure which includes exclusive calm, quiet and well furnished study area, display of periodicals, internet browsing facility, comfortable seating arrangement, proper lighting and ventilation and studious atmosphere will encourage students’ use of library and information services in the colleges of education libraries. VI. Conclusion The study basically based its self on the perception of students and colleges librarians on human and physical environmental factors that affect students’ utilization of library and information services in colleges of education libraries in Nigeria. It went further to find out through comparison; the significant difference in the students and colleges librarians perception on the environmental factors. Data were collected and analyzed with the result that there were human and physical environmental factors affecting students of Colleges of Education in Nigeria to use library and information services from their colleges’ libraries. Also, students and colleges librarians differ significantly in their perception of the problems, which seem to show that students perceived more of the problems, which were also human and physical. VII. Recommendations Based on the findings and conclusion of this study, the following recommendations are therefore made. 1. Provision of quality and quantity library staff, library facilities and materials such as reading tables, chairs, books, periodicals, fans, air conditioners; toilets, photocopying services, longer opening hours for readers without closing library on weekends and public holidays; etc. 2. Lecturers to provide assignments that would allow students use library and information services. 3. Transport to be provided for students living off-campus or enough accommodation to be provided on-campus. 4. Proper shelving, shelf reading, and self arrangement (guides) of library materials.

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5. Students-staff relationship to be cordial. 6. Library lending policy to students to be enforced irrespective of quantity of library materials. Colleges’ authorities and National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) in Nigeria should monitor the colleges’ libraries for adherence. This is to enhance students’ flair for independent search for information and the love for books and reading culture. 7. A standby generating plant to be provided for library use at time of power failure 8. An award for the best library user to be instituted like other academic excellence established at end of session. 9. Installation of bindery and photocopying services to be made compulsory in colleges. 10. All titles of new books or periodicals to be displayed for users’ attention as they are being processed. 11. Students lack of attendance at library use education constitute a major problem because it could affect independent search for information on their courses/programmes, independent reading and encourage examination malpractices, occultism and heavy dependence on lecturers’ handouts. It is necessary that library orientation be made compulsory not only to fresh students. 12. The compulsory course that is titled: “Introduction to library studies” (Code and no. GSE 108) should be pursued vigorously by COEs and monitored by NCCE for compliance. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]

[15] [16] [17] [18] [19]

R.O. Ani, “The school environment” In: Fundamentals, Innovations and Issues in Education. Enugu: Institute of Ecumenical Education, 1987, pp. 84-90. F.A. Ogunsheye, Syllabus for effective use of books and libraries for primary schools, secondary and Teacher Training Colleges. Ibadan: Abadian Media Resource Centre, 1978. Sharma (1972) J. S. Sharma, Library Organisation. New Delhi: Vikas Publication, 1978. D. F. Elaturoti, Development a Schhool Library Media Centre. Ibadan: Onibonoje Press and Book Industries Nigeria Ltd., 1990. D. L. Smith, & Bater, E.G. Colleges Library Administration in Colleges if Technology, Art, Commerce and Further Education. London: OUP, 1965. D. S. Obi, A Manual for school Libraries on small Budgets, 1977. F.A. Ehikhamenor, “Collection development under constraints”. Nigerian Library and Information Science Review; (i) 1983, p. 42 M.A. Gelfand, University Libraries for Developing Countries Switzerland: UNESCO, 1968. D. Heathcode, “Public relations and Publicity” In: Libraries in Higher Education the user approach to services. Edited by John Cooley. London: Clive Bingley, 1975, pp. 39 – 64 J. Cooley, “The Polytechnic background”. In: Libraries In Hihger Education Edited by John Cooley, London: Chive Bingley, 1975, p. 20. J.A. Bland, “Planning, Accommendation and frurnishing,” In: Libraries in Colleges of Education: 2nd Edited by peter Plat. London: The Library Association, 1972. D. A. Garba & Okoro, R.U, “The use of library by the academic staff of the College of education and college of administration and management studies, Sokoto”. The FARFAEU Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Studies 4 (1 & 2), 1995, pp. 223 – 234 M. Kulkarni & N. J. Deshpande, “Empowering Library Users, Establishing Channel of Communication for Service Quality Expectations of Trainers from Government Administrative Training Institute (ATI) Libraries in India”, 2012. Retrieved from http://conference.ifla.org/ifla78 on13/7/2013 K. K. Matusiak, “Perceptions of usability and usefulness of digital libraries”. International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing. 6, 2012, 133-147 D. Troll, (2002). “How and Why Libraries are Changing: What we Know and What we Need to Know”. University Libraries Research. Paper 64. Retrieved from http://repository.cmu.edu/lib_science/64 on 30/7/2013 P. Brophy, The library in the twenty-first century: new services for the information age, London: Library Association Publishing, 2001, p. 219. B. T. Fidzani, “User education in academic libraries: A study of trends and developments in Southern Africa”, 1995. Available: http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla61/61-fidb.htm, retrieved on 30/7/2013 A. A. Bagudu,and H. Sadiq, “Students’ Perception of Digital Library Services: a Case Study of International Islamic University, Malaysia”, 2013. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal). Paper 894.Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/894 on 30/7/2013

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Strategic 360 Degree Performance Appraisal Model as a Synergy for Strategic Education Planning in Premier HTIs in India Raghunadhan T, Deputy Registrar National Institute of Technology, Calicut Kerala, India Dr. A H Sequeira, Professor, National Institute of Technology, Karnataka Surathkal, P O Srinivasanagar, Mangalore, India Abstract: Purpose: - The accountability and social responsiveness of the technical educational institutions especially public funded premier Higher Technical Institutions (HTIs) has become a thrust area for constant vigil and control. The HTIs should act as a role model with their strengths/achievements in terms of quality education, research and development and innovation to motivate other technical Institutions in the country. Design/methodology/approach: The paper will be predominantly conceptual, exploring the feasibility of Performance Appraisal System in Higher Technical Education in India based on the secondary data, which is supplemented with qualitative research tools such as structured questionnaires sent through electronic media. Major Findings An efficient strategic 360 degree feedback will be a continuous input to the strategic planning at the institutional level which in turn will reap more quality and accountability. Key Conclusions: In order to withstand the ever increasing universal competition in education sector, there is an imperative need for a regular performance appraisal system combined with the Strategy. Originality/Value: Identifying the weakness and removing the bottlenecks will pave the way for purified objective oriented workforce, which will be a stimulus to the effective strategic approach in a public funded Institutional set up. Key words: Higher Technical Institutions, Strategic Planning, Premier Institutions, Central Government Abbrevations: LPG = HTIs = NIT = IIT = IISc = IIIT = UNESCO=

Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation Higher Technical Institutions National Institute of Technology Indian Institute of Technology Indian Institute of Science Indian Institute of Information Technology United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

I. Introduction: The human capital plays a vital role in the economic growth and development of the country. Higher Technical Institutions (HTIs) are the most important source of educating skilled people, is an important way of forming rich human capital through providing high quality education [6]. Developed countries, in the current postmodern era, have in many cases already become “knowledge societies”, while developing countries are still struggling to cultivate the human potential needed for the growth of their ailing economies. It is generally accepted that the generation and dissemination of knowledge is an important facilitator of economic and social progress [8] „… We are living at a time when without good training and research at the higher level, no country can assure a degree of progress compatible with the needs and expectations of a society in which economic development is carried out with due consideration for the environment and is accompanied by the building of a „culture of peace‟ based on democracy, tolerance and mutual respect, in short – sustainable human development‟ [18][p13]

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Within the context of globalization and developments in technology, higher education is undergoing unprecedented changes. In addition to questions of access and equity, institutions of higher education are called upon to cut costs, improve quality and compete in an environment of cross-border educational provision. Academic administrators have to respond to these challenges and steer the course of their institutions to provide world class education and training to their students [19]. The focus of this paper lays on the issue as to how premier HTIs in India like IITs and NITs can implement a „Strategic 360 degree appraisal system‟ into the annual performance review to assess the performance standards of the academic and administrative staff. The institutional framework of Higher Technical Institutions in India consists of Universities established by an Act of Parliament (Central Institutions) or of a State Legislature (State Universities), Deemed Universities (institutions which have been accorded the status of a University with authority to award their own degrees through Central Government notification), Institutes of National Importance (prestigious institutions awarded the said status by Parliament) like IITs, IISc. and NITs, Institutions established under the State Legislative Act and colleges affiliated to the University (Government, Aided and Un-aided). All put together in India, as at present there are 1668 Institutions with the total annual intake of 6,53,290 students. Lauding India's technical education system, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton commented that the country is one of the best in this field, though it faces a challenge of providing adequate primary education to millions of children [12]. Some of India's higher education institutions are of world class quality. However, as per the UNESCO report, the majority of them suffer from problems of limited capacity, poor quality and relevance. Some of them also suffer from a lack of public funding. Similarly these Institutions face acute shortage of qualified teachers, and are unable to attract and retain qualified faculty. Ultimately this results in failure to create an impact in the Research & Development, technology percolation etc IITs are apex institutions for engineering education and research. These are governed by “The Indian Institutes of Technology Act, 1961” which has declared them as “institutions of national importance”, and lays down their powers, duties, framework for governance etc. The main objective of IITs is to impart world – class education in engineering and technology; to conduct research in the relevant fields, and to further the advancement of learning and dissemination of knowledge. These Institutes are also contributing significantly to education and research in basic sciences and humanities. On the recommendation of Engineering Personnel Committee (EPC) set up by the Planning Commission in 1955, eight Regional Engineering Colleges (RECs) (two in each regions - east, west, north & south) were set up in early sixties as joint and co-operative ventures of the Central and State Governments concerned with a view to providing the required technical manpower for the industrial projects being contemplated during the Second Five-Year Plan (1956-61). These institutes were registered as autonomous bodies under the Society Registration Act 1860 and affiliated to the State Universities in their respective regions. Gradually Seventeen Regional Engineering Colleges (RECs) were established in various States as a joint and co-operative enterprise of the Central and the State Governments concerned. Each REC was to function as an all-India institution admitting students and recruiting faculty from all parts of the country. The main aim of setting up these RECs was to create the required technical manpower by providing undergraduate education and training in different branches of engineering & technology. Further, the RECs were also envisaged to function as pace setters and to provide academic leadership to the technical institutions in their respective regions. In 2003, the Seventeen erstwhile Regional Engineering Colleges (RECs) were rechristened as National Institute of Technology (NITs) and taken over as fully funded institutes of the Central Government and granted deemed university status. In addition, Central Government has also taken over three other Institutes namely Bihar Engineering Colleges, Patna, Government Engineering College, Raipur and Tripura Engineering Colleges, Agartala, and converted them into National Institute of Technology (NITs) on 28th January 2004, 1st December, 2005 and 1st April, 2006 respectively. Thus the total number of NITs has gone up to 20. These institutes are expected to be at par with other national level technical institutes and be able to fulfill the demand of high quality undergraduate and postgraduate level of education in engineering and technology. An Act, namely the National Institute of Technology Act, 2007 has since been enacted by Parliament so as to provide a common statutory framework for all NIT. Ten new NITs are also proposed to be set up during XI Plan. As a part of the tenth Five year Plan (2002–2007), the Central Government of India outlined an expenditure of 65.6% of its total education budget of Rs. 438250 million, or (Rs. 287500 million) on elementary education; 9.9% (Rs. 43250 million) on secondary education; 2.9% (Rs. 12500 million) on adult education; 9.5% (Rs. 41765 million) on higher education; 10.7% (Rs. 47000 million) on technical education; and the remaining 1.4% (Rs. 6235 million) on miscellaneous education schemes[10]. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), India has the lowest public expenditure on higher education per student in the world [15]. Despite an expected 150 per cent increase in Central spending on higher education in 2007-08 (at Rs 6,354 crore over Rs 2,550.50 crore (Rs 25.51 billion this year), the fact remains that India will continue to lag behind, compared to its Asian counterparts. At the moment, public spending on higher education per student in India stands at $400 (Rs 18,000) and this is expected to improve to around $1,000 (Rs 45,000). Previously released United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization

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(UNESCO) data had showed that at $400, India had the lowest public expenditure on higher education per student among developing and developed countries in comparison, the United States spends $9,629, the United Kingdom $8502 and Japan $4830, on higher education per student. Even among the BRIC (Brazil , Russia, India and China) countries, India is at the bottom of the pyramid. While China, Russia and Brazil spend $2,728, $1,024 and $3,986 respectively on higher education per student, in the developing country Malayasia's expenditure under the same head is quite high at $11,790. „An increase in allocations will obviously translate into an increase in the public spending per student. But this may not benefit students. An increased spend could mean the government is hiring more teachers and faculty, but if these teachers do not turn up in colleges, then the entire effort goes wasted,‟ Bibek Debroy [1], an economist said. Thus it is evident that the country is making every effort to support higher education and technical education in particular. This is clearly visible as the considerable share of resources earmarked for education is pooled to the premier Institutions, which is the country consider it as prestigious Institutions. The IITs and NITs, even after completing fifty years of its existence, when the Government called for 54% increase in intake, these institutions were not able to take up this challenge and finally spread over to a period of three years with extra support. The non existence of long term goals and improper applications of the resources might be the main hurdles in the sustainable growth. In nutshell the Institutions should have proper strategic planning and periodic evaluations to assess and redefine the directions. Since 1990s, accountability in higher education has become a challenging issue for higher education [17]. The translation is highly demanding as stakeholders for a university which includes faculty, staff, administration, students, parent‟s, alumni employers and the community calls for accountability of these institutions where major chunk of public money is invested for its development. The concept of 360 degree appraisal envisages raising individual and team performance levels, but caution is needed to initiate, develop and implement a Strategic 360 Degree Performance Appraisal System. This tool encourages staff to develop at all levels and the argument put forth is that as the employees grow in skills and competencies, the organization will thus too and this will be its edge it has to outperform to the needs. Notwithstanding, the field of Human Resource Management has evolved and many empirical and theoretical studies have advocated the need to “people first” as valuable resources for business success, and can be the source of sustainable competitive advantage of the firm [13]. The discipline has added strategic to the human resource management subject implying by connecting Human Resource Management practices, with business strategy, a link is derived, where both disciplines support and derive satisfaction that furthers the essential driving force for achieving the overall success of the business [3]. II. Review on recent Literatures: The 360 degree appraisal gathers data from a variety of sources to accurately depict performance information and is a useful tool in identifying employee strengths and weaknesses [4]. If the 360 degree appraisal is undertaken with its proper ground work and in clear perspective it will work as a powerful tool for the performance management system. The 360 degree appraisal project team, using input from various sources has to evolve measures for evaluating results. The team should chose to measure factors that included the extent to which work output was complete, accurate, and punctual, and, when appropriate, the quantity of work outputs. Measures of results were specific to individuals' roles and responsibilities. 360-degree feedback, also known as multi-rater feedback, peer appraisal or 360 degree appraisal, is designed to get around this. You're rated on your performance by people who know something about you and your work. You complete your own self-assessment which is compared against feedback from your colleagues. Direct reports, peers, managers, customers or clients, in fact anybody whose opinion you respect and who is familiar with you and your work can be included in the feedback process. This multi-source approach can give real insight into how different groups see you as a person. Several studies (Hazucha et al., 1993[5]; London & Wohlers, 1991[7]; Walker & Smither, 1999[20]) indicate that the use of 360-degree feedback helps people improve performance. In a 5-year Walker and Smither (1999)[20] study, no improvement in overall ratings was found between the first and second year, but higher scores were noted between third, fourth and fifth years. A study by Reilly et al. (1996)[14] found that performance increased between the first and second administrations, and sustained this improvement two years later. Additional studies show that 360 feedback may be predictive of future performance (Maylett & Riboldi, 2007[9]). Some authors maintain that 360 processes are much too complex to make blanket generalizations about their effectiveness (Bracken, Timmreck, Fleenor, & Summers, 2001b[2]; Smither, London, & Reilly, 2005[16]). Smither et al. (2005) [16] suggest, „We therefore think that it is time for researchers and practitioners to ask, 'Under what conditions and for whom is multisource feedback likely to be beneficial?'(rather than asking 'Does multisource feedback work?')‟ (p. 60)

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Their meta-analysis of 24 longitudinal studies looks at individual and organizational moderators that point to many potential determinants of behavior change, including positive feedback orientation, positive reactions to feedback, goal setting, and taking action. III. Rationale for the study While we are accountable for the efficient allocation of funds, we may be hesitant to include such loftily mission or we can influence the outcomes. However, it is only through measurement that you are able to claim any real difference in the lives or circumstances of your constituents. Of course, we wonâ&#x20AC;&#x;t achieve our mission overnight, and in fact may see only periodic movement. This is precisely why the other perspectives of the 360 degree performance appraisal. Monitoring the performance and learning from the results in the customer, internal process, employee learning and growth, and financial perspectives will provide us necessary feedback within the short to medium term The globalization of business has finally embraced by the higher education sector, in which education is seen as a service that could be marketed worldwide. Universities and other institutions of higher education have to compete each other in order to attract high quality students and academic staff at an international level. Hence competition is no longer limited within national borders. As education and training become a global business sector, education marketing is developing its stands more akin to consumer goods marketing. In a market where students are considered customers, Universities have to increase their strategies to maintain and enhance their competitiveness. They need to develop a competitive advantage based on a set of unique characteristics. If managed strategically, the Institutions can develop its own competitive edge over competitors as well as to meet the futuristic demands. As a result a growing number of Universities have started developing and implementing Strategic Planning process for the growth and expansion. Strategic planning has to be accompanied by proper evaluation of the strategies implemented. Feedback and appraisals constitute weighing the effectiveness of the strategies being implemented so that refinement and redetermination of the directions can be made. A 360 degree multi rater feedback from faculty, students, parents, stakeholders etc. will surely throw light on the functional efficiency of the academic system. IV. Methodology The overall aim of the study was to devise and implement a strategic appraisal system to assess the efficiency, accountability, Human Resources strength and on social responsiveness. An explorative study on secondary data available in the public domain supplemented with qualitative research tools such as structured questionnaires sent through electronic media was made on the major perspective of an academic system in typical University set up, on following three major perspectives: (a) Organisational Development Perspective: Strength of courses, Research Programmes, Curriculum flexibility, Faculty strength, faculty turnover, staff development etc. (b) Stake Holder Perspective: Studentâ&#x20AC;&#x;s performance, quality on course delivery, attention on students from ethnic minorities, international students, widening participation etc. (c) Community Development Perspective: Community services, social developments, etc. A study was conducted in two IITs and two NITs with structured questionnaire on each of the three perspectives separately and circulated among the faculty, students, administrators, stakeholders etc. The questionnaires were administered electronically to a major spectrum of categories mentioned above and around 80 percentage responses were received. V. Findings and Analysis All the data obtained were codified, tabulated and analyzed in detail various Statistical analysis methods. On such analysis the following findings were observed: Around 80% of the students felt that the performance appraisals made were mainly on teaching effectiveness made by the sample institutions are not regularly updated scientifically. Almost all Administrative and Academic Staff (95%) described that they were assessed as a routine governmental measure. The outputs of these assessments were never codified and no corrective or improvement measures were made. The stakeholders such as students, parents and society in total, bestow greater expectation on these Institutions. While in academic front these institutions were able to cope up with the expectations, these institutions still lag in meeting the increased need of the society which is normally coupled with the ever increasing population. Another bottleneck being faced by these institutions is the lack of qualified, trained faculty members while the student strength is in an increasing trend. This has resulted in deterioration in the faculty student ratio standards in professional education. The minimum entry qualification for the faculty members in these institutions are Doctoral degree. These institutions are not able to attract faculty members with excellent caliber on account of the governmental control exercised on their pay packets that can be offered to them. Career development perspectives based on the feedback and performance are at a lower side compared to the quality demanded from them and beyond comparison with the industry.

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Tight academic schedule on faculty members leave lesser time for research and career development activities. Similarly faculty participation in community development activities is very low, which in turn cause this institution becoming non-sensitive to the issues of the societies. Many of the faculty members were entrusted with administrative functions which in turn will result on their concentration on course delivery. The administrative functions can be better handled by an experienced qualified administration team and the cost burden can be reduced to a maximum extent. Absence of experience in many instances made the faculty members as ineffective administrators which caused loss of morale in the work culture. Special attention is required for the categories of students who were admitted through reservation in these institutions as there may be variance in IQ level in the total class strength. Dedicated services of faculty members are exclusively required for such activities. Lack of Management education and awareness of latest management techniques among the administrators make the total system into a conventional model. Either the total educational administration should be entrusted to a qualified management team or the faculty members entrusted with administrative functions should be given specialized training on educational administration. These premier Institutions should give more emphasis on quality Under Graduates, Masters and Doctorates level programmes to lead the technological revolution. At present around 900-1000 Doctorates are produced in the country per annum in Engineering & Technology. With the minimum requirement of Doctoral degree for the faculty positions for quality education, based on the present intake the requirement of faculty is 1,87,660. More than this the number of Doctoral Degree holders from these Institutions pooled back to the faculty domain is also very low. This finally result a great vacuum on qualified faculty for technical institutions. Commercialization of the research findings in the industry or its application in the society is considerably low. This is mainly because of lack of Industry Institute tie ups on research activities and non concentration on the real problems of the Society. VI. Limitations: The results from 360-degree feedback are often used by the person receiving the feedback to plan their training and development. Results are also used by some organizations in making administrative decisions, such as pay or promotion. When this is the case, the 360 assessment is for evaluation purposes, and is sometimes called a "360-degree review." However, there is a great deal of controversy as to whether 360-degree feedback should be used exclusively for development purposes, or should be used for appraisal purposes as well (Waldman et al., 1998[21]). There is also controversy regarding whether 360-degree feedback improves employee performance, and it has even been suggested that it may decrease shareholder value (Pfau & Kay, 2002[11]). VII. Conclusion To conclude, the efficiency level, accountability and social responsiveness of Indian HTIs has to be augmented to a greater extent. Strategic Planning effectively implemented by a qualified, dedicated team of experts in the institutional administration set up is the need of the hour. An efficient implementation of Strategic 360 degree feedback will be a continuous input to the assessment of the institutional level performance and associated corrective measures. References [1] Bibek Debroy (2007), India spending least on higher education among BRIC Nations, International. Business Times”, February 8, [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

2007 Bracken, D.W., Timmreck, C.W., Fleenor, J.W., & Summers, L. (2001b). 360 degree feedback from another angle.Human Resource Management, 40 (1), 3–20. Donald Pak (2009); Implement strategic 360 Degree Appraisal for a University; Global Business and Management; Vol.1 No.2 pp 60-69 Gregurus, G.J, Robie, C., Born, M.P (2001), "Applying the social relations model to self and peer evaluations", Journal of Management Development, Vol. 20 pp.508-25 Hazucha, J. F., Hezlett, S. A., & Schneider, R. J. (1993). The impact of 360-degree feedback on management skills development. Human Resource Management, 32(2–3), 325–351. Karname Haghi, H. and Akbari, N. (2004), “Investigation of Social Demand for Higher Education in Iran” (in Persian), Economical Research in Iran Seasonal, No. 20, pp. 115-134. London, M., Wohlers, A.J. (1991), "Agreement between subordinate and self-ratings in upward feedback", Personnel Psychology, Vol. 44 pp.375-90. Magda Fourie & Kalie Strydom (2000); Higher Education Research, Policy and Practice in South Africa; Klawer Academic Publishers, Netherlands; Chapter 13 pp 181-191 Maylett, T. M., & Riboldi, J. (2007). Using 360° Feedback to Predict Performance. Training + Development, September, 48–52. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India (2009); India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), pp. 223 Pfau, B, Kay, I., Nowack, K.M. Ghorpade, J. 2002, „Does 360-Degree Feedback Negatively Effect Performance?‟ HR Magazine. Alexandria, Jun, Vol. 47, Iss. 6, p 54-60 Press Trust of India, Washington (2009);Hailary Lauds India‟s technical education; 19 August; pp.2 Randall S. Schuler and Ian C. MacMillan (1984); Gaining Competitive Advantage through Human Resource Management Practices; Humn Resource Management; John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, Vol.23, Number 3, pp 241-255 Reilly, R., Smither, J.W., & Vasilopoulos, N. (1996). A longitudinal study of upward feedback. Personnel Psychology, 49(3), 599–612.

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Shabana Hussain (2007) ; Higher education spending: India at the bottom of BRIC; Business Standard; February 05, 2007, pp 1 Smither, J.W., London, M., and Reilly, R.R. (2005). Does performance improve following multisource feedback? A theoretical model, meta-analysis and review of empirical findings. Personnel Psychology, 58, 33–66. Stewart Alice C. and Carpenter-Hubin (2001); The balanced scorecard beyond ... Higher Education, Planning for Higher Education Vo.29, No.2, pp 37-42 UNESCO (1995); Policy paper for change and development of Higher Education; Paris, UNESCO pp13 University Grants Commission (2006); UGC Annual Report 2005-06 Walker, A., & Smither, J.W. (1999). A five-year study of upward feedback: What managers do with their results matters. Personnel Psychology, 52(2), 393–423. Waldman, D. A., & Atwater, L.E. (1998). The power of 360-degree feedback: How to leverage performance evaluations for top productivity. Houston, TX: Gulf.

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Preserving cultural identity through tribal self governance: The case of Lachenpa and Lachungpa tribes of Sikkim Himalaya (India) Dr. Durga Prasad Chhetri Assistant Professor in Political Science Southfield College, Darjeeling, West Bengal (India) 734101 Abstract: India has the second largest concentration of tribal people in the world. Of India’s 84 million tribal, around 12 per cent live in northeast region of the country. They are unevenly distributed over the region and there is a wide diversity among them. In Sikkim, 20 per cent of the inhabitants are from the tribal communities. And Lachenpa and Lachungpa of North Sikkim are the very important tribes of this Himalayan state. They practice unique traditions, retain social, cultural, economic and political characteristics that are distinct from those of the dominant societies in the other parts of the state. To preserve their cultural identities, these tribes were allowed to have institution in accordance with their traditional customary law and practices. They have their own self-governing institution known as ‘Dzumsa’. It is a very old traditional tribal self government system unique to the Lachenpa and Lachungpa tribes of Sikkim. This traditional institution has helps in the preservation of the culture and customs and also in the maintenance of their separate identity. It is in this backdrop, this paper focuses on the role of Dzumsa in the protection or preservation of cultural identities of two tribe viz. Lachenpa and Lachungpa of Sikkim Himalaya. This apart, the paper attempts to examine the role of Dzumsa in the delivery of social justice and equity and in the rural development and management of local resources. Keywords: Tribes, Culture, Self-governance, Lachenpa, Lachungpa, Sikkim I. Introduction India, a second most populous country in the world, has also the second largest concentration of tribal population, perhaps next only to Africa. There are at present more than 700 tribal groups each with their distinct cultures, social practices, religions, dialects and occupations and are scattered in all states and Union Territories in India except for the states of Haryana, Punjab, Delhi, Chandigarh and Puducherry. The tribes are heavily concentrated in the north-eastern states. Northeast India comprising of eight states viz., Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura, is inhabited by 297 communities, of which 158 communities are recognised by the Constitution of India as „scheduled tribes‟. Hence north-east is the homeland of a large number of tribes which constitute around 12 per cent of the total tribal population of India and 25.81 per cent of the total population of North East India. In so far as the distribution of the tribes in North East India is concerned, it may be stated that some tribes are widely spread out while others are concentrated into relatively small territory [1]. The tribes in India represents one of the most economically impoverished and marginalized groups. II. Tribes in Sikkim Sikkim is a multi-ethnic state comprising of more than 20 different groups, most predominant being the Nepalese, Lepchas and Bhutias. According to state socio-economic Census of 2006, the Rai community with population of 78,671 is the largest one followed by the Bhutias with 76,070 persons [2]. The two important communities notified as Scheduled Tribes in Sikkim by the Sikkim Scheduled Tribe Order 1978 are Lepcha and Bhutia. The Bhutias includes Chumbipa, Dopthapa, Dukpa, Kagatey, Sherpa, Tibetan, Tromopa and Yolmo. Recently two major communities viz., Limboo and Tamang were included in the list of scheduled tribes. The population of Sikkim in 2001 Census has been 540,851. Of these 111,405 are Scheduled Tribes (STs), which constitute 20.6 per cent of the total state‟s population (Table 1). The state has registered 22.56 per cent decadal growth of ST population in 1991-2001 (Table 2). The Bhutia and Lepcha share 63.4 and 36.6 per cent respectively of the total ST population of the state. The highest concentration of Bhutias has been found in East district (48.3%), while the Lepcha are confined in North (33.4%). The Bhutia has 10.9 per cent urban population while Lepcha has only 4.5 per cent [3]. Thus, the tribal population is typically concentrated in the rural areas. In four district of Sikkim, the tribal population is highest in North district (85%) and lowest in South district

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(37%). The West and East district respectively has 51 and 41 per cent of tribal population (Table 3). Except in North district, where tribals live in compact areas, tribals in other districts are widely dispersed in habitation. Table 1 Population of STs 2001 Census Total Population Proportion to total ST Population (%) 111,405 100 40,563 36.6 70,308 63.4

Scheduled Tribes All Scheduled Tribes Lepcha Bhutia

Table 2 Total Population 1991 2001 406,457 540,851

Decadal Growth Rate Decadal Growth ST Population 33.06 1991 2001 90,901 111,405

Decadal Growth 22.56

Table 3 North 85

Per cent

District-wise Tribal Population Distribution District East West 41 51

South 37

III. Socio-cultural and demographic profile The present study centres on the two prominent groups of the Bhutia communities viz., the Lachenpas and Lachungpas of Lachen and Lachung valley of North Sikkim. Both the valleys are „reserved‟ only for Lachenpas and Lachungpas where the right to settle or own land is not allowed to outsiders, irrespective of their ethnic origin. These tribes have their own cultures-dialects, life styles, social structures, rituals, values, etc. which are distinct from even the Bhutia communities in other parts of Sikkim. Unlike the other tribal groups, these tribes have a special status with regard to land revenue, settlement pattern and local administration. The valleys of Lachen and Lachung is located in the southern slopes of western half of the eastern Himalayas across 27‟‟ and 28‟‟ N latitude and 88‟‟ and 89‟‟ E longitude. Lachen valley, meaning Big Pass, is located at 2,700 metres above main sea level on the right bank of the Lachen Chu. The valley with an area of 3,635.75 hectare is inhabited by 2,955 persons and has total of 1621 households. The valley is sparsely populated with the density of population of less than one person per hectare (Table 4). The valley has literacy rate of 62.62 per cent with 1109 illiterate and 1846 literate persons (Table 5). Lachen revenue block is connected to Mangan i.e. headquarters of north district by a 58 kilometre long metallic road. The Lachenpas are hard working people and many of them are engaged in multiple occupations. The main and marginal workers of Lachen account for 60.54 per cent and 7.44 per cent respectively, while the non-workers account for 32.01 per cent of the total population. The tribes of Lachen grow potatoes, turnips, radishes, cauliflowers and buckwheat. Multi-cropping and interculture of crops are practiced. The cultivation of barley, maize and buckwheat is restricted in Lachen up to 2,745 metres amsl. The cropping pattern is fairly intensive as could be seen from the variety of crops grown in the area. Table 4 Village Lachen Lachung

Household 1621 1476

Number of Household, Population and Sex ratio Household size Population Male Female 1.8 2177 778 1.9 2007 829

Sex Ratio Total 2955 2826

857 986

Source: Census 2001 Table 5 Village Lachen Lachung

T 1109 972

Distribution of illiterate and literate person Illiterate Literate M F T M F 510 599 1846 1667 199 435 537 1854 1572 282

Literacy rate 62.62 68.70

Source: Census 2001 Table 6 Village Lachen Lachung

Distribution of Main worker, Marginal worker and Non-Worker Main worker Marginal worker Non-worker T M F T M F T M 1789 1661 128 220 108 112 946 408 1955 1591 364 260 120 140 611 296

F 538 315

Source: Census 2001 The Lachung, meaning little pass, on the other hand, is situated at 2,745 metres on east bank of Lachungchu. It is connected to Mangan town, the headquarters of north district, by a 51 kilometre metalled road. The average altitude of the village is 2,600 m above mean sea level. The valley has an area of 2,815.52 hectare.

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inhabited by only 2,826 persons (Table 4). The density of population, like in Lachen, is only 1 person per hectare. The valley has literacy rate of 68.70 per cent with 972 illiterate and 1854 literate persons (Table 5). The Lachung revenue block is divided into three blocks Shertchu, Singring and Beechchu. In Lachung there are small fields and some apple orchards. The apple orchards in the valley are spread over 115.28 hectares. The main and marginal workers of Lachung account for 69.17 per cent and 9.20 per cent respectively, while the nonworkers account for 21.62 per cent of the total population. Both Lachenpas and Lachungpas are lives at a height of above 2,000 meters and lead a transhumant type of existence for which they travel from one ecological zone to another. Den-jong-ke which belongs to Tibeto-Burman family is the language spoken by Lachenpa and Lachungpa. It is a Tibetan dialect and is spoken in Ha valley of Bhutan. Language offers a bond of solidarity among the tribes and it provides a common cultural identity among those who share a common language. Nowadays, the tribes of Lachen and Lachung also speak Hindi, English and Nepali. Nepali language which belongs to Indo-Aryan group is the lingua franca of the state as well as Lachen and Lachung valley. IV. Traditional Institutions in India Along with formal local bodies (like Gram Panchayat), in many parts of the country, there still exist a customary or informal panchayat system and enjoy a substantial power when it comes to social and cultural issues. And in some case these customary/informal panchayats enjoys more power than the formal local bodies. But what is more important is that not much effort has been made to study the role played by these customary institutions after the creation of formal local bodies. The general assumption appears to be that customary panchayats are „traditional‟ and shrinking in the face of competition from elected local bodies [4]. In actual practice, the relevance of these traditional institutions is equal to that of formal institutions and hence is emerging as important variables in influencing the process of local governance. Interestingly, one of the reason for the continuance of customary panchayat in different part of the country even after the enactment of Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act 1992 is mainly because of the fact that the Act has no where calls for the dissolution of customary panchayats. As a result these institutions are functioning as a parallel body performing a range of useful, collective functions at the village level. Such traditional institutions exist in different states of India with different nomenclature. Moreover, there exist various customary panchayat with different names within a state also. The Kulam Panchayat in Orrisa, Koot in Tamilnadu, Durbars and Akhings in Meghalaya, Dzumsas in Sikkim, Meetin in Chattisgarh, Jati Panch in Rajasthan, Halli Panchayati and Nadu Panchayati in Karnataka are some of the examples of customary institutions prevalent in our country. All these institutions are the apex body with jurisdiction over the entire village. Unlike formal institutions, the customary panchayats have no set of clearly delineated responsibilities. They are rather better comprehended as a „pattern of dialectic, decision and action‟[5]. Customary panchayats like other formal institutions play a vital role in village governance as the maintenance of social order, ensuring community harmony and fostering village solidarity rest completely on them. These informal institutions were responsible for regulating and governing village society according to the socio-political norms of the times. Customary panchayats are long standing institutions that draw their legitimacy from traditions and customs and are quite distinct from the modern institutions. It was because of this the customary panchayat are still prevalent in most of rural India in some form or other. Krishna (2002), for example, in his study finds the functioning of customary panchayats in every one of the 69 villages of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh [6]. Likewise, Ananthpur (2004) finds such institutions in the 30 villages selected for the study in the three district of the Karnataka [7]. V. Tribal self governance in Sikkim: Recognition and Continuities Dzumsa is one of the very old traditional tribal self government systems unique to the Lachenpa and Lachungpa tribes. Unlike in other part of state, Lachen and Lachung the two typical villages situated in the present north district of Sikkim have their own system of village assembly known as „Dzumsas‟. All the heads of family of the villages are the members of Dzumsa. In the beginning only an adult male are qualified for the membership of Dzumsa. This restriction has been removed in an effort to make the system more democratic and participatory and at present both men and women are the member of Dzumsa. One of the striking features of this system is its absolute independence. Neither did the Namgyal dynasty whose rule lasted for 333 years interfere with the village, nor did the Britishers and the state today. The Sikkim Panchayat Act 1965 was enacted by the then Chogyal of Sikkim which created the formal local body -Block Panchayat- in the state. As a result many customary tribal panchayats (including Chhodu System of Dzongu) have been integrated to the pattern prevalent in the rest of the country. The customary tribal panchayat prevalent in Lachen and Lachung was however retained without any changes. Similarly, the British ruler though brought major reforms in the administrative system of Sikkim also allowed the functioning of this system in these two villages of north Sikkim. J.C. White, the first Political Officer in his visit to these villages observed: “the two villages of Lamteng in the Lachen and Lachung in the Lachung valley have an unusual and almost communistic government of their own. On every occasion the whole population meet at a “Panchayat”, or council, where they sit in a ring in consultation ………

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The consequence is everything is done deliberately and much time is wasted in useless discussion, but the system seems to suit the people and I allowed it to be continued with some modification‟ [8]. The Government of Sikkim after its merger to India in 1975 adopted various measures to revitalize the grassroots democracy in the state. Like elsewhere various Acts and notifications have been passed and issued by the government for the establishment of formal decentralized governance system in the state. Interestingly, neither of these Acts calls for the abolition of this system. The Sikkim Panchayat Act of 1993 which was passed in conformity with Constitutional (73rd Amendment) Act 1992 has also no any provision for the introduction of formal local bodies in these two villages of north Sikkim. The state government has rather recognized the customary tribal self governing institution by enacting the law in 2001. The Act of 2001 states that „the existing system of the traditional institutions of Dzumsa practiced in the two villages of the Lachen and Lachung in north district of the state shall continue to exist in accordance with the traditional and customary laws of the Dzumsas. Notwithstanding other provisions of the Sikkim Panchayat Act, the traditional institutions of the Dzumsas existing in the villages of Lachen and Lachung shall exercise the power and functions as provided under the Act in addition to the powers and functions exercised by them under the existing traditional and customary law‟[9]. It becomes clear from the above that the government wanted to retain the system in its present form. Recognition to the customary tribal self governing institution by the formal state is not a common phenomenon in the country. Many such panchayats in different parts of the country are not recognized by the state. The customary panchayats in Karnataka for instance „are almost totally informal, in the sense that their existence is in no way recognized by the state or in state law, and their authority is accepted by state agencies only in very specific contexts‟[7]. As in Sikkim, the customary panchayat in the name of „the traditional authorities‟ found in African countries, have a formal dimension in that they are (i) recognised by formal state institutions and (ii) have authority in some domains- such as land allocation, “traditional” courts and “customary justice” – which is recognized and supported by the formal state (Keulder 1998[10]; Scharf 2003[11]; Goodenough 2003[12]). Unlike in other part of the country and more generally in other part of the world, where there was a demand for the abolition of such customary institutions, the people and the government of Sikkim were not in favour of abolition of these century-old institutions. Rather, they allowed the institutions to functions without any changes. Many states of India especially after the independence of the country abolished the old local bodies and instead establish the formal local institutions. But as pointed out earlier, there still exist such customary panchayats in different parts of the country. The demands for their abolition or radical reform were often intrinsic to nationalist, anti-colonial political programme [7]. As a result, many such institutions in different part of the world have been abolished. In Zimbabwe, soon after independence, the President Mugabe eliminated “traditional leaders” from rural administration mainly to “maintain a monopoly of social control‟[10]. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana not only tried to suppress the powers of “traditional chiefs” but also managed to systematically reconstruct „chieftaincy‟ in the 1950s (Crook1986[13]; Rathbone 2000[14]). Similarly in Sri Lanka, the „village headmen lost their positions in 1956 [15]. However, so far as Sikkim is concerned, neither the people of the valley, nor the government and political parties of state have ever demanded the abolition of Dzumsas. They are all rather wanted to protect this institution in its present form due to uniqueness in its features in the state and a country as a whole. As a result, the Dzumsas like other formal local bodies (i.e. Gram Panchayat) continued to functions in this region and exercises all the powers and authority, provides useful services and implemented all the developmental schemes in the areas. VI. Chief of Dzumsa and other Functionaries Pipon and Gyapon are the two important office bearers of Dzumsas. All of them are elected directly by the villagers. Pipon is the highest office bearer in the administrative hierarchy and are directly elected by the people of village. For this, the assembly meets every year where the members of Dzumsas elect two pipons, one senior pipon and other junior pipon. Originally, both pipons were engaged in local administration but after the establishment of two tiers panchayati raj system in the state, the Dzumsas were recognized as territorial constituencies of the north district Zilla Panchayat and hence the senior pipon of the village has been made the member of Zilla Panchayat. Gyapon is another important officer of Dzumsa. He is appointed by the Pipon in consultation with village elders. There are two Gyapons in each village. The main functions of Gyapon are to assist the Pipon in performing their various duties. They act as messenger or constable to pipon. Gyapon help the pipon in convening the meeting of Dzumsa. The meeting of Dzumsas is held on public hall called as Mong-khyim (Dzumsa Ghar). It is a place where people meet to discuss and deliberate on their problems and transact important business of the welfare of the community. The house is a square roofless structure with a religious flag (tharcho) mounted on a long pole. The pipon- head of the Dzumsa- sits opposite the entrance on the concrete platform, while the members of Dzumsas sit in the middle. All the meeting is presided over by the pipon. Dzumsa normally meets once a year. But the pipon may call the meeting of Dzumsa at any time whenever the need for such meeting is arise, as there was no any rule for the frequency of meeting of Dzumsa. The meetings are generally called to conduct the public business, settle disputes between villagers, and now a day to distribute the governmental schemes to the poor. Most of the major decisions are taken in the Dzumsa meeting. The meeting covers the cultivation

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programmes of sowing, harvesting; cutting of hay from community pastures et al. Grazing and seasonal migration and disbursal of government assistance are also discussed in such meetings. VII. Election The mode of election of pipon is unique and it is not like elections held elsewhere. In the day of election, the contestants all stand in their respective places and the gathering physically moves onto the side of their chosen candidate. After this, the group on the side of each contestant is counted; whoever has the largest number on his side is elected as the pipon for a year. The system provides a maximum freedom to the member of Dzumsa in electing their leader according to their choice. In olden days, the office of pipon was however not elective. It was hereditary at first and then thereafter the King became the appointing authority. Macaulay, during his visit to Lachung writes, “The raja appoints a man every year. The present man was appointed three years ago. The pipon has no allowance but great authority”. During the course of time, the office of pipon became elective and at present every year, the pipon is elected directly by the people of village. Normally the pipon were elected for the term of one year, but his term of one year may be cut short by using the devise of direct democracy i.e. recall. This method has been used to remove the inefficient pipon from the office if he fails to perform his duty satisfactorily. He is however eligible for reelection. The chief qualification demanded of a pipon includes; he must be a member of Dzumsa; he must be land revenue payee and possess wealth; he must be a popular person in the village; must be a male member preferably elder one from the family; and he must be able, intelligent and has a good family background. The meeting of Dzumsa is fixed by pipon in consultation with Gyapon and village elders. They have their own peculiar method of informing the members about such meeting. Gyapon, an office-bearer of Dzumsa under the direction of Pipon informs the people about the Dzumsa meeting by shouting at the top of his voice from the top of hillock. Being a cluster settlement in both the villages, people live in close proximity and hence what the Gyapon shout from atop hillock could easily be heard by all the inhabitants. The people therefore attend the meeting accordingly. The attendance in the Dzumsa meeting was compulsory in the beginning and the absentees were fined by the pipon. But in course of time the attendance in the meeting was made voluntary and imposition of fine to the absentee has been removed and hence no absentee at present has been fined or punished. VIII. Powers and Functions Dzumsas in Sikkim have exercises vast powers and performs numerous functions and in some respect it enjoys more powers than the formal local bodies (Gram Panchayat). These include maintenance of local law and order, dispensation of justice, collection of taxes, organization of social functions and distribution of governmental schemes. The Dzumsa is responsible for the administration of the day-to-day affairs of villager. All the major decision like division of cultivable land, grazing facilities, harvesting, cutting of hay from community pastures, problem arising from seasonal migration etc., are taken in the Dzumsa meeting. It acts as the custodian of all the traditional rules and norms prevalent in the regions. It debarred the members of Dzumsas from going against the rules and customs of the society. The Dzumsas have some ecclesiastical functions. It involves in collecting the funds for religious activities including the construction of Gompas (monasteries), repairing and maintenance and organizing religious festivals like mask dance or poojas. Village festivals like mask dance are considered to be important social events. The dance appeared to be pivotal in the life of the tribe and sacred too. The pipon, the chief of Dzumsa, decided and fixes the amount of donation in cash or kind to be given by each household to the monastery. The Dzumsa also exercises some judicial power. It acts as the dispute resolution body and settles the entire dispute within the valley. The types of disputes that brought before the Dzumsas are many and varied. It‟s jurisdiction extend to all the petty disputes, thefts, minor property disputes, family disputes and marital problems including spouse abuse, desertion, bigamy and alcoholism. It also try to settle the cases of murder or a serious offences at this level and the matter will be referred to the higher authorities (either police or court) only when it failed to resolve in the meeting. Dzumsa has also the power to punish or fined a person convicted in any offences. The nature of punishment and the fine to the convicted persons are decided by the pipon in consultation with village elders. The punishment could range from heavy fines levied upon the perpetrator along with traditional appeasement of the one wronged. Harsher crimes could invite complete banishment from the village. Thus, in an overall, the Dzumsa act as the court of the region. Its decision is considered final and binding. Dzumsa looked into the social affairs of the village. Whether it be death or marriage it was binding upon each family to attend and contribute their bit to the event. The pipon was assisted by Gyapon who carried out the role of an organizer and informer. Gyapon inform the news of a death or marriage in the village and managed all such social events. It also provides social services and support to the needy persons in the village. This apart, the Dzumsa has been invested with the function to implement all the rural development schemes launched by centre and state government. The identification of beneficiaries, selection of site for the work to be undertaken, demarcation of contractual work area on infrastructural development etc. were done at the annual meeting of Dzumsa. The process of selection of beneficiaries for poverty alleviation programmes takes place in

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the meeting. All adults in the village are member of Dzumsa and are allowed to participate in the selection process. All state aid meant for the development of village were assigned to the pipon for disbursement. It also distributes old age pension to the beneficiaries of the area. Dzumsa‟s other responsibilities includes dissemination of information to the people on development and welfare programmes; provide feedback on the performance of development programmes undertaken and mobilize local resources to augment the finances of Dzumsa. Another important function of Dzumsa is the collection of taxes. Pipon with the help of Gyapon collects all the governmental taxes that include land revenue, forest tax, grazing tax etc. Elsewhere in the state, the tax collection function is assigned to the officials of respective line department and not to the Gram panchayat. This clearly indicates that Dzumsa in this respect is more powerful than the formal elected Gram Panchayat. IX. Protection of traditions, culture and identity Social, cultural and ethical issues primarily came under the purview of Dzumsa, the tribal self governing bodies. Culture, traditions and customs are the backbone of tribal self governing institutions. It is natural that the Dzumsa, like other tribal self governing institutions, care for the preservation of the culture and customs and assert for the maintenance of the separate identity of these tribes. Be it birth, marriage, death, feast, divorce, adoption, mutation of property, etc. are all controlled by Dzumsa. Moreover, the whole social behaviour is morally binding on everyone and is regulated by traditional tribal bodies. Furthermore, the families to which the deceased family belongs gather, and with the help of pipon they organize the events and arrange for the guests. Death is a particularly important moment both for the concerned family and society, and Dzumsa offers its support to the former by monopolizing the entire community. In rest of the activities, apart from pipon the whole village participates. Hence every events and activities go on under the desirable supervision of Dzumsa. X. Concluding Remarks Lachenpa and Lachungpa tribes like any tribes in India have different customs and practices around birth, marriage and death. Over and above these, cultural components like dialect/ language, dressing, dance, music, etc. are more prominent in shaping tribal identity. There is a strong sentiment among tribes to retain social life and values, for example, language, traditional music and dance and social practices. Dzumsa, the tribal self governing institution acts as a guardian and protector of the cultural components and cultural identity of tribes. It is regulatory body for social, cultural affairs - rituals related to birth, death, marriage, religious and cultural festivals. Its resolves conflicts arise from ancestral property distribution, land, physical and psychological harassments, violation of social norms, divorce, etc. The customary tribal self governing institution has provided a political space for autonomy, self respect and separate identity of Lachenpa and Lachungpa tribes. Like elsewhere in the country, there still exist the customary tribal self governance institutions in Sikkim. Even after the establishment of formal elected local bodies, Dzumsa in the state are not at all redundant as they provided valuable services to the tribes of the area which are not offered by formally elected Gram Panchayats. It plays a significant role in local governance both as social institutions and as agencies that impact the development process. Dzumsa, the tribal self-rule in Sikkim is not only considered as a mere administrative autonomy or coordination of tribal people into the state administrative machinery but it also plays a vital role in preserving and safeguarding the culture, customs, traditions and identity of tribes of the valleys. This clearly indicates that tribal self governance system in Sikkim is not disappearing; it is rather reinventing themselves with development and modernity and adapting itself to changing socio-political circumstances. XI. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]

M. Taher, “Tribes in North East India: A diagnostic survey in spatial pattern” The North East Geographer, vol. 9 (1&2), 1977. GoS, State Socio-Economic Survey 2005-06, DESME, Gangtok, 2006. Census, Registrar General and Census Commissioner, New Delhi, India, 2001. K. Ananthpur, “Rivalry or Synergy? Formal and Informal Local Governance in Rural India”, Working Paper 226, IDS, Brighton, 2004. D.G. Mandelbaum, Society in India, Bombay, Popular Prakashan, 1970. A. Krishna, Active Social Capital, New York, Colombia University Press, 2002. K. Ananthpur, “Selection by Custom and Election by Statute: Interfaces in Local Governance in Karnataka”, in N. Jayal et al (eds) Local Governance in India, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2006. J.C. White, Sikkim and Bhutan-Twenty One Years on the North East Frontier (1887-1908), London, Edward Arnold 1909. GoS, Sikkim Government Gazette Extraordinary No. 409, 12 Nov. 2001, Gangtok. C. Keulder, Traditional Leaders and Local Government in Africa: Lessons for South Africa, Pretoria, HSRC Publishers, (1998). W. Scharf, Non-State Justice System in Southern Africa; How Should Governments Respond? South Africa Institute of Criminology, University of Cape Town, 2003, available at www.ids.ac.uk/ids/law/justicewkshp.html. C. Goodenough, Traditional Leaders – A KwaZulu-Natal Study 1999 to 2001, Durban, Independent Project Trust, 2002. R. Crook, “Decolonisation, the Colonial State and Chieftaincy in the Gold Coast”, African Affairs, Vol. 85 (338), 1986. R. Rathbone, Nkrumah and The Chiefs: The Politics of Chieftaincy in Ghana 1951 to 1960, Oxford, James Currey, 2000. M. Moore, The State and Peasant Politics in Sri Lanka, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985.

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STUDY OF WEB 2.0 TECHNOLOGY FOR AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION MANAGEMENT JAYADE, K. G.1, GAIKWAD, C. J.2, KHOT, P. G.3, NIKOSE, S. M.4 Asst. Professor (Computer Science), College of Agriculture, Nagpur (M.S) India 2 Librarian, College of Agriculture, Nagpur (M.S.) India 3 Professor (Statistics) PGTD, RTM, Nagpur University, Nagpur (M.S.) 4 Asst. Professor (LIS), DLISc, RTM, Nagpur University, Nagpur (M.S.), India

Abstract: Effects of World Wide Web (WWW) and Internet have continually been noted in business, production, education, politics, governance, culture, social, communication, defense, space research and all other aspects of human life. We identify qualities of the Web, namely Web 1.0 as a Web of cognition, Web 2.0 as a Web of human communication. Web 2.0 technologies makes tasks like your search for reports, documents, research papers, thesis, images, videos, audios, movies and other data faster and easier. Web 2.0 have spread widely among the people in the world over the past nine years. Web 2.0 provides the user with more user-interface, software and storage facilities, all through their browser. This has been called "network as platform" computing. Major features of Web 2.0 include social networking sites, user created web sites, self-publishing platforms, tagging, and social bookmarking. These sites may have an "architecture of participation" that encourages users to add value to the application as they use it. Instead of multiple searches, you might type a complex sentence or two in your Web 2.0 browser and the Web will do the rest. The web 2.0 provides agricultural information management in mainly agriculture and related sciences (forestry, veterinary, wildlife, food science, environment, rural development, soil, and others). Web 2.0 technology is important for effective and efficient acquisition, storing and accessing the agricultural information. Keywords: Web 2.0, World Wide Web, Agricultural information, Library, Cognition, Communication. I. INTRODUCTION Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) have great influence in teaching, learning, education, research, extension, administration, marketing, library information services and other scholarly and professional activities through improved communication and access to information. ICTs have greatly simplified acquisition, organization, storage, retrieval, provision and usage of information. ICTs have greatly enhanced access to a range of current and latest information resources. We are utilizing a concept of information based on different subprocesses of information that take place in human life and are technically supported by ICTs. These are cognitive, communicative, and co-operative processes. Cognitive processes (including emotional ones) are individuals, or intra-subjective processes of generating information.

Source: http://socialwhisper.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/spivack_chart_530.jpg

Web 2.0 is a term coined in 1999 to describe web sites that use technology beyond the static pages of earlier web sites. The term is closely associated with Tim O'Reilly because of the O'Reilly Media Web 2.0 conference which was held in late 2004. Although web 2.0 suggests a new version of the World Wide Web, it does not refer to an update to any technical specification, but rather to cumulative changes in the ways software developers and end-users use the Web. Since 2004, the term "Web 2.0" characterizes the changes to the web, especially the current education, library models of sites on the World Wide Web. Web 2.0 is the network as platform, spanning all connected devices; Web 2.0 applications are those that make the most of the intrinsic advantages of that platform: delivering software as a continually-updated service that gets better the more

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people use it, consuming and remixing data from multiple sources, including individual users, while providing their own data and services in a form that allows remixing by others, creating network effects through an "architecture of participation," and going beyond the page metaphor of Web 1.0 to deliver rich user experiences.

Web 2.0 provide the user with more user-interface, software and storage facilities, all through their browser. This has been called "network as platform" computing. Major features of Web 2.0 include social networking sites, user created web sites, self-publishing platforms, tagging, and social bookmarking. Users can provide the data that is on a Web 2.0 site and exercise some control over that data. These sites may have an "architecture of participation" that encourages users to add value to the application as they use it. Some scholars have put forth cloud computing as an example of Web 2.0 because cloud computing is simply an implication of computing on the Internet. As the popularity of Web 2.0 has grown, companies have noted the intense consumer engagement and creativity surrounding these technologies. Web 2.0 serves the global network community for agricultural information users across the country and beyond.

. Cooperative processes are integrative, concern the supra-individual level and let information emerge from synergetic effects of communicating subjects. Originally, Computer-Supported Cooperative Work researched this topic from the perspective of the involvement of ICTs. Nowadays, this approach takes advantage from research in collective intelligence, wisdom of crowds and so on. Social-networking Web 2.0 sites, such as Youtube, Flickr, Blogger, Twitter, Facebook, Wikipedia, Wordpress and MySpace, now attract more than 700 million visitors a month. II. Web 2.0 Technology •Users are both readers and writers –Generate content –Control content •Ever-increasing amounts of content –Dynamic content •Users participate –Communication –Collaboration •Users add value to applications as they use it –Collective intelligence by way of user participation •Rich user experience –User-friendly interface –Personalized content •The Web as a programming platform –Run applications entirely through a browser

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â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Portability: software above the level of a single device and Openness

Source: http://www.oreillynet.com/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/graphics/figure1.jpg

A Web 2.0 site may allow users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual community. Examples of Web 2.0 include social networking sites, blogs, wikis, video sharing sites, hosted services, web applications, mashups and folksonomies. Web 2.0 websites allow users to do more than just retrieve information. They provide the user with more userinterface, software and storage facilities, all through their browser. This has been called "network as platform" computing. Major features of Web 2.0 include social networking sites, user created web sites, self-publishing platforms, tagging, and social bookmarking. Users can provide the data that is on a Web 2.0 site and exercise some control over that data. These sites may have an "architecture of participation" that encourages users to add value to the application as they use it. Some scholars have made the case that cloud computing is a form of Web 2.0 because cloud computing is simply an implication of computing on the Internet. The concept of Web-asparticipation-platform captures many of these characteristics. Bart Decrem, a founder and former CEO of Flock, calls Web 2.0 the "participatory Web" and regards the Web-as-information-source as Web 1.0. Web 2.0 offers all users the same freedom to contribute. While this opens the possibility for serious debate and collaboration, it also increases the incidence of "spamming" and "trolling" by unscrupulous or less mature users. According to Best, the characteristics of Web 2.0 are: rich user experience, user participation, dynamic content, metadata, web standards and scalability. Further characteristics, such as openness, freedom and collective intelligence by way of user participation, can also be viewed as essential attributes of Web 2.0. Key features of Web 2.0 include 1. Folksonomy : Free Classification of Information 2. Rich User Experience 3. User as a Contributor 4. Long Tail 5. User Participation 6. Basic Trust 7. Dispersion A third important part of Web 2.0 is the Social web, which is a fundamental shift in the way people communicate. The social web consists of a number of online tools and platforms where people share their perspectives, opinions, thoughts and experiences. Web 2.0 applications tend to interact much more with the end user. As such, the end user is not only a user of the application but also a participant by: Podcasting Blogging Tagging Curating with RSS Social bookmarking Social networking Web content voting

Source:www.theappgap.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/03/web1to31.jpg

The popularity of the term Web 2.0, along with the increasing use of blogs, wikis, and social networking technologies, has led many in academia and business to append a flurry of 2.0's to existing concepts and fields of study, including Library 2.0, Social Work 2.0, Enterprise 2.0, Classroom 2.0, Publishing 2.0, Medicine 2.0,

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Telco 2.0, Travel 2.0, Government 2.0, and even Porn 2.0. Many of these 2.0s refer to Web 2.0 technologies as the source of the new version in their respective disciplines and areas.

Blogs, wikis and RSS are often held up as exemplary manifestations of Web 2.0. A reader of a blog or a wiki is provided with tools to add a comment or even, in the case of the wiki, to edit the content. This is what we call the Read/Write web. Talis believes that Library 2.0 means harnessing this type of participation so that libraries can benefit from increasingly rich collaborative cataloging efforts, such as including contributions from partner libraries as well as adding rich enhancements, such as book jackets or movie files, to records from publishers and others. III. Web 2.0 tools Web 2.0 tools are very useful in this respect for language teachers for a number of reasons: 1. It has always been difficult to build the expected applications that were part of Web 1.0 (or earlier generations of computing), although it has been/is still being tried; 2. We have had exercises in various guises: BASIC, Authorware, Flash, JavaScript – Hot Potatoes is probably now the most widely known version; arguably a Web 2.0 service; 3. The Internet does provide a useful resource of all kinds of authentic material, most of it is free at the point of delivery – Wikipedia; YouTube etc; 4. There is a range of tools that can enable us to be social in all sorts of ways: a. Textually: This can be achieved with blogs and wikis, or with collaborative writing software, like Google Docs. Chat is also text and tools like MSN, or Google Talk, can be used to rehearse spoken language in writing. Other tools where text is very important are forums, which have formed the backbone of online education up until the recent past. b. Orally: As well as being used for text chat a tool like MSN or Skype can be used for spoken communication. Until quite recently the communication was one-to-one, but now groups can speak together. c. Visually: MSN, Skype, Adobe Connect Professional, Elluminate, WizIQ and other similar tools can be used for video conferencing exchanges. These tools add a visual dimension to the interaction. d. Aurally: Podcasting. New ways to get information: Today, Internet surfers can subscribe to a Web page's Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds and receive notifications of that Web page's updates as long as they maintain an Internet connection. Expanding access to the Internet beyond the computer: Many people access the Internet through devices like cell phones or video game consoles; before long, some experts expect that consumers will access the Internet through television sets and other devices. IV. WEB 2.0 Services At the core of this third option is the collection of services known somewhat vaguely as Web 2.0. Whereas the early Web was primarily one-directional, allowing a large number of users to view the contents of a comparatively small number of sites, the new Web 2.0 is a bi-directional collaboration in which users are able to interact with and provide information to central sites, and to see that information collated and made available to others. Wikipedia (http://www.wikipedia.org; Dee, 2007) provides a compelling and well-known example, in which individuals are able to provide the contents of a vast encyclopedia that is managed by a comparatively small group of reviewers and administrators. Such services typically provide for extensive loosely structured metadata; in the case of Wikipedia, for example, users are able to access the complete history of any entry, including all previous versions and edits. The issues provoked by Web 2.0 services are immediately evident when one compares Wikipedia with traditional mechanisms for compiling encyclopedias. Instead of an elaborate administrative structure that recruits a number of contributors, waits for their inputs, compensates them, and edits, compiles, and prints the results, a process that often can last for years, Wikipedia is assembled continuously, contributions appearing

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instantaneously. Contributors are entirely volunteers, and in many cases without any professional qualifications. Errors are often caught by users, or by reviewers, and result in edits. But Wikipedia lacks the authority conveyed by a recognized publisher, by an extensive process of review and edit by experts, and by the qualifications of its contributors. Many examples already exist of Web 2.0 services designed to acquire, assemble, and publish geographic information. Wikimapia (http://www.wikimapia.org) is a service operating on similar lines to Wikipedia, allowing citizens to provide descriptions of places of interest to them, along with geographic coordinates. Each entry is comprised of a rectangle aligned with latitude and longitude, together with a text description. At time of writing there were 4.2 million entries, including descriptions of most of the buildings on the campus of the University of California, Santa Barbara, along with numerous places of interest in the surrounding area. Entries are vetted, again by a group of volunteers, and must meet a number of criteria. 4.2 million is an interesting number in this context, because it is roughly the size of the world‟s largest gazetteers, which are lists of recognized placenames with geographic locations. For example, the Alexandria Digital Library gazetteer (middleware.alexandria.ucsb.edu/client/gaz/adl/index.jsp) is approximately of this size, having been compiled from various official US Government sources. Traditional gazetteer entries are highly structured, consisting of triples of the form <name, location, type> (Hill, 2006), and using a controlled vocabulary to define types. By contrast, Wikimapia is a volunteered gazetteer, produced entirely by individual citizens, and potentially providing much richer descriptions of places that may include hyperlinks. Other sites in this genre include Flickr (www.flickr.com), with its collection of over 21 million (at time of writing) geo-referenced photographs; and the increasing proportion of entries in Wikipedia that have been geo-referenced. At a higher level of sophistication are projects in which volunteers contribute substantial technical content. For example, OpenStreetMap (www.openstreetmap.org) is building a public-domain street map of the entire world through volunteer effort. Each contributor develops a map of his or her local streets using GPS tracking; and individual contributions are assembled and reconciled into a single patchwork. Extensive metadata is incorporated, since each piece of the patchwork may have different levels of accuracy and may have been acquired at different dates. Some level of expertise is required in the use of GIS and the project‟s software, in the basic principles of geographic measurement, and in the project‟s system for classifying streets. In a similar vein Inrix‟s Dust Network is tracking some 500,000 vehicles on U.S. highways to provide real-time data on congestion (http://www.inrix.com). At a third level of sophistication are those services that allow contributors to make their own comparatively complex information available to others within easy-to-use Web 2.0 environments. Google Earth is perhaps the best-known of these services, its client software having been downloaded more than 1 billion times since its first release in 2005. Google Earth‟s Application Program Interface (API) allows any user to create and publish new content, in the form of layers that can be viewed over the Google Earth imagery base, or mashed with it. Tens of thousands of sources, many of them developed by citizens with no prior experience in geographic information technologies, have taken advantage of this mechanism in recent months, so that today it is possible to find on the Web overlays depicting all of the places found in the life and novels of Jane Austen (bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showflat.php/Cat/0/Number/411188/an/0/page/0), historic maps of many areas of the world (many maps from the David Rumsey collection, www.davidrumsey.com, are available in Google Earth‟s Featured Content), the campaigns of Alexander the Great (bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/download.php?Number=126402), three-dimensional representations of the buildings of central London (bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/download.php?Number=420893), and the subway system of many cities (bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showthreaded.php/Cat/0/Number/579229/page/vc/vc/1). All of these are viewable using the intuitive interface of Google Earth. All of them have been volunteered, in many cases by citizens with purely altruistic motives. Fast and efficient ways to share content: YouTube is the perfect example. A YouTube member can create a video and upload it to the site for others to watch in less than an hour. The problem of choosing information -Find the information -Extract relevant information -Interpretation by human users -Synthesis - Content in different languages (Spanish, Russian, Japanesse, Chinese, ..) - Find out relevant information from heterogeneous sources - Extract - Interpretation - Agregation - Consistency of the information

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V. Challenges of Web 2.0 Technology The new technologies web 2.0 provide new challenges related to acquisition, preservation, maintenance and security issues, training of users, and lack of awareness and commitment among key stakeholders. VI. Conclusions Web 2.0 provides the user with more user-interface, software and storage facilities, all through their browser. This has been called "network as platform" computing. Users can provide the data that is on a Web 2.0 site and exercise some control over that data. These sites may have an "architecture of participation" that encourages users to add value to the application as they use it. Instead of multiple searches, you might type a complex sentence or two in your Web 2.0 browser and the Web will do the rest. The web 2.0 provides agricultural information management in mainly agriculture and related sciences (forestry, veterinary, wildlife, food science, environment, rural development, soil, and others). Web 2.0 technology is important for effective and efficient acquisition, storing and accessing the agricultural information. True two-way communication Web 2.0 are true two-way communication which facilitate and emphasise two-way interactive communication provide opportunities for people to realise the two-way symmetrical model of communication that holds to be more ethical and more effective than one-way information communication. Breakdown of the control paradigm Beyond using the enabling tools of the „social web‟, Web people need to adopt and convince their management to adopt the philosophy, values, principles and culture of Web 2.0 and its future iterations. New skills to engage in online conversations and conferences We need to re-learn media relations, as traditional media databases no longer provide the contacts needed, and bloggers and other social media authors usually do not accept news releases and rarely attend interviews or conferences. Online video conferences and online seminars are held nowadays using Web 2.0 technology. Issues of privacy and reputation Also, people should be at the forefront of identifying and establishing guidelines for practices in relation to Web 2.0. „Ruthlessly‟ harvesting citizens‟ profile data for use in marketing is likely to lead to major concerns over privacy and trigger public protests, legal challenges, regulation, and reputation damage for those involved. In this research paper, we have outlined quality of the World Wide Web, namely Web 2.0 as a medium for human communication. This means that we distinguish between a cognitive Web, a communicative Web. When people speak of Social Software or Web 2.0, what they normally mean is that the World Wide Web is today dominated by communication and co-operation (including community-formation). In order to distinguish between these two aspects, we have suggested the distinction between Hypertext is a Web 1.0 technology, blogs and Web-based discussion boards are Web 2.0 technologies, wikis are Web 2.0 technologies. Web 1.0 is based on an understanding of the social as Durkheimian social facts, Web 2.0 adds the Weberian idea of communication. Web 2.0 expands the understanding of the social from Durkheim and Weber to Tönnies and Marx, it is a system of online collaboration that enables the formation of virtual communities, co-operative knowledge, and cooperative labour. There are many benefits for agricultural information management in future on the Internet but there are also many challenges which must have clear solutions if there is to be significant growth in technology uptake. REFERENCES B. Krishnamurthy and G. Cormode, “Key differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0.” First Monday, vol. 13, Number 6. http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2125/1972 [2] B. Singh, “Difference Between Web 1.0, Web 2.0, & Web 3.0 With Examples” 2010, http://ezinearticles.com/?Difference/Between/Web-1.0,-Web-2.0,-and-Web-3.0---With-Examples&id=3683790 [3] B. Lee, “Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web.” 2000, http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/ [4] B. Corey, H. Jochen and M. Roadmap, “Pathways to the 3D Web. A Cross-Industry Public Foresight Project” http://www.metaverseroadmap.org/MetaverseRoadmapOverview.pdf [5] G. Motteram and P. Sharma. “Blending Learning in a Web 2.0 World.” International Journal of Emerging Technologies & Society, 2009, vol. 7, No. 2. http://ictaugustine.pbworks.com/f/Blending+Learning+in+a+Web+2+World. [6] Macnamara. J, “Public communication practices in the Web 2.0-3.0 mediascape: The case for PRevolution.” Prism, 2010, vol. 7, No. 3. http://www.prismjournal.org. [7] M. Goodchild, “Citizens as Voluntary Sensors: Spatial Data Infrastructure in the World of Web 2.0.” International Journal of Spatial Data Infrastructures Research, 2007. Vol. 2, http://www.geoinformatics.cn/wp/content/uploads/citizensasvoluntarysensors.pdf. [8] S. John, “The Conversational Interface: Our Next Great Leap Forward. 2003.” http://www.accelerationwatch.com/lui.html [9] S. Rubel, “Web 2.0 is Branding 2.0.” 2005,Vol. XI, No. VII. http://www.moveo.com/data/White_Papers/GettingThere_Dave_103006.pdf [10] T. O'Reilly, “O'Reilly Radar: Web 2.0: Compact Definition?.” 2005. http://tccweb20.googlecode.com/svn/trunk/Pesquisa/O'Reilly%20Radar%20%20Web%202.0%20Compact%20Definition.pdfDefinition.pdf. [11] Tim, O'Reilly. 2005. “What Is Web 2.0, Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation of Software.” http://facweb.cti.depaul.edu/jnowotarski/se425/What%20Is%20Web%202%20point%200.pdf, and http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html [12] Web 2.0.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0. [1]

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

A NOTE ON SOME LARGER CLASSES OF OPERATORS Dr.A.RADHARAMANI Department of Mathematics Chikkanna Government Arts College Tirupur Tamilnadu , India Abstract: Let H be of all an infinite dimensional complex (separable) Hilbert space and L(H) denote the algebra bounded linear operators on H. We have the following proper inclusion relation Normal Quasi-normal Subnormal Hypo normal (M, k)* An operator T L(H) is said to be hyponormal if TT* (M,2)* if (TT *) every x H, with

T*T or equivalently

T *x

Tx for all x H and

T 2T *2 . An operator T L(H) is said to be parahyponormal if Tx

TT * x for

x = 1. Motivated by this definition the new class of Quasiparahyponormal operators on

L of a sigma finite measure space is introduced and the condition for quasiparahyponormal operators is also characterized. We give a characterization of such an operator and investigate the relation of such class of operators and other known classes of operators. Moreover, we study the sum, product, direct sum and tensor product of two quasiparahyponormal operators.

transformation T on

is a

Let

X, ,

be a

-finite measure space. A

-measurable mapping from X onto X such that

T

is absolutely

continuous with respect to . A weighted composition operator is linear transformation acting on a set of Wf wf  T where w is a complex valued, complex valued measurable functions f of the form measurable function. In case w =1 a.e., conditional expectation operator E (./ T

W becomes a composition operator, denoted by CT .The

)

E (.).E ( f ) is defined for each non-negative measurable

f or for each f LP (1 P), and is uniquely determined by the conditions: 1 (i) E ( f ) is T measurable and (ii) If B is any T 1 measurable set for which fd converges we have fd function

As an operator on L , only if T

T

E f

d .

E is the projection onto the closure of the range of CT . E is the identity on LP if and

. The Radon-Nikodym derivative of T 1 with respect to is denoted by h and that of k with respect to is denoted by hk where T is obtained by compositing T k times. Let wk 1

denote w w  T

w  T 2 ....... w  T k

so that W k f

f  T k . S.Pannayappan [3], has proved

weighted composition operators for the class (M,k) . In this way weighted composition operators of 2

quasiparahyponormal on L -spaces are characterized and their various properties are studied. Let H be an infinite dimensional complex (separable) Hilbert space and L(H) denote the algebra of all bounded linear operators on H. Every operator where T * condition

TT *

N U*

T * can be decomposed into T *

. In this paper T * N T*

U* T*

U * T * with a partial isometry U,

denotes the polar decomposition satisfying the kernal

.We introduce and study a new class of operators p-*Paranormal operators and

Absolute k-*Paranormal operators. We give a characterization of such an operator and investigate the relation of such class of operators and other known classes of operators. Let X , , be a -finite measure space. Let

T:X

X be a non-singular transformation CT on L2 ( ) induced by T is a composition

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f  T for f in L2 ( ) .If CT is bounded, then we call CT a composition 2 2 operator on L ( ) . It is known that T induces a bounded composition operator CT on L ( ) if and only if the 1 1 measure  T is absolutely continuous with respect to the measure and h d  T is the radon transformation given by

CT f

– Nikodym derivative of the measure

with respect to

composition operators of Posinormal and quasiposinormal on

. .We characterized Composition and weighted L2 -spaces are characterized.

2000 Mathematics Subject Classification : 47B20 , 47B38 . Key words: Hilbert space , Parahyponormal operator , Class (M,2)*

THE CLASS OF QUASIPARAHYPONORMAL OPERATORS L(H) is said to be Quasi parahyponormal if TT * x

Definition 0.1: An operator T every x H, with

T 2T *2 x ---(1)for

x = 1.

[1]. Mahmoud M. Kutkut characterizes parahyponormal operator iff (TT *)

2 (T * T )

0 for every

0 . We prove the following 2

2 2

2 (TT *) 2

An operator T L(H) is quasi parahyponormal iff (T T * )

Theorem 1.1:

0 for

every 0. Proof: For all x H,

(T 2T *2 ) 2 2

2 (TT *) 2

2 2

((T T * ) T 2T *2 x

TT * x

2 (TT*)

2 TT * x

0 for every 2

) x, x

0. 0 for every

0 for every

T 2T *2 x for all x H 2

2 2

2 (TT *) 2

Thus T is quasi parahyponormal iff (T T * )

0 for every

Corollary 1.2: A weighted shift T with decreasing weighted sequence k 1

k 2

0. is quasiparahyponormal iff

for every k.

Proof: Assume that the weighted shift Tis quasiparahyponormal , then T satisfies (1). Since T is a weighted shift then its adjoint T* is also a weighted shift and defined by

T * (e k )

k 1 k 1

TT * ek 2

4 k 1

2 k 1

T T * ek 2

T 2T *2 ek Thus

TT * ek

Conversely let x

4 k 1

k 1

H with

--------------(ii)

2 k 2

T 2T * ek

being complex for every k, and

2 1/ 2

(

)

1 . Now

2 k

------------(i )

k 1

2 k 1 k

2 k 2 k

k 2

TT * x

0 so that TT * ek

(In case of unilateral T* eo

k 1

k 2 k

4 k 1

by Cauchy-Schwartz inequality

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A.Radharamani, American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 3(1), June-August, 2013, pp. 35-42

1/ 2

TT *

K 1

T 2T *2 x

T 2T *2 ek

k 1/ 2 2 k

k 1

k 2

1 . Using the assumption (

Since

TT * x

) is weighted decreasing sequence for every k , we obtain

T 2T * 2 x

Thus T is quasiparahyponormal Corollary 1.3: A weighted shift T with decreasing weighted sequence 1

K 2

k 1

then T-1 quasiparahyponormal iff

for every k

The proof is similar to the proof of corollary 1.2 Lemma 1.4:If an operator T L(H ) is (M ,2) * then T is quasiparahyponormal.

L(H ) is (M ,2) * then (TT *) 2

Proof: Assume that T

Consider TT * x

T 2T *2

(a)

TT * x, TT * x T 2T *2 x, x by (a)

T 2T *2 x x Thus T is quasiparahyponormal Remark : 1.1 We have the following inclusion relation Normal quasinormal Subnormal (M ,2)* quasiparahyponormal The following example shows that there is a quasiparahyponormal operator, which is not (M, 2)*

1 / 2,

l 2 defined by T ( x) (0, 1 x1 , 2 x2 .......... ) where 1 for n 4 and T is nt of class (M, 2)*[2]. We show that T is

Consider the operator T : l

Example 1.1:

1 / 4,

1 / 2 and

quasiparahyponormal Proof:

((T 2T *2 ) 2 2

= =

x1 , (

6 1

(

2 (TT *) 2 4 1

2 6 1

) x, x

) x2 , (

4 1

6 2

) x2

4 2

(

6 2

) x3 ,......),( x1 , x2 , x3 ,.....) 4 2

) x3

.......> 0

So T is quasiparahyponormal. T is not (M , 2)* , this implies that the inclusion in remark1.1 is strict. 1.5 M-Quasihyponormal operator Definition: An operator T is said to be M-quasiparahyponormal operator if TT * x

M T 2 T *2 x

for each unit vector x in H When M = 1 this operator is called quasiparahyponormal. Theorem 1.6: for all

2 2

An operator T on H is M-quasiparahyponormal iff M (T T * )

2 (TT *) 2

0 2

2 2

2 (TT *) 2

Proof: For all x H, M (T T * ) M

T 2T *2 x

2 TT * x

0 for every 2

0 for every

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A.Radharamani, American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 3(1), June-August, 2013, pp. 35-42

4 TT * x

TT * x

4 M 2 T 2T *2 x

M T 2 T *2 x

x for all x H with x

2 2

2 (TT *) 0 for every Thus T is quasiparahyponormal iff M (T T * ) 0. II. Algebra of quasiparahyponormal operators. In this section we will prove the sum, direct sum, product and tensor product of two quasiparahyponorml operators is again quasiparahyponormal. Lemma 2.1: The direct sum of two quasiparahyponormal operators is also quasiparahyponormal. Proof: Let x

H such that x

Assuming that T, S are quasiparahyponormal and using Cauchy-Schwartz inequality we have

S )(T

S) * x

(TT * SS*)x TT * x1

SS * x 2 x1 x1

T 2T *2 2

T T * x1 T 2T *2 x1

Thus

x2 x2

S 2 S *2 2

S S * x2

1 2

x2 2

1 2 2

S 2 S *2 x 2

(T 2T *2 (T

S 2 S *2 ) x

S ) 2 (T

S ) *2 x

S is quasiparahyponormal.

Lemma 2.2:The-tensor product of two quasiparahyponormal operators is also quasiparahyponormal. Proof: Let x

H such that x

Assuming that T, S are quasiparahyponormal and using Cauchy-Schwartz inequality we have

S )(T

S) * x

(TT * SS*)x TT * x1 T 2T * 2

SS * x 2 x1 x1

T 2T *2 x1 (T 2T *2 (T

S 2 S *2

x2 x2

S 2 S *2 x 2 S 2 S *2 )( x1

S ) 2 (T

x2 )

S ) *2 x

S is quasiparahyponormal. 1 0 1 0 Example 2.1: Let T and S 1 1 0 1 0 0 2 2 and (T S )(T S ) * (T S ) 2 (T S ) *2 0 0 Thus

S ) 2 (T

S ) *2

0 0 0 1 2

2 ((T

S )(T

S )*)2

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(A)

Since A is selfadjoint, it is enough to prove that 2

So that

A 0. Indeed A

So that The eigen value

Which implies that

(TS ) 2 (TS ) *2 A=

1 0 1 1 5 12

and

12 29 2

(TS )(TS ) *

and

2 ((TS )(TS )*)2

Since A is selfadjoint , it is enough to prove that So that

A 0. Indeed A 2

0 and 1 2 0 . (A) [0, ) . Thus T+S is quasiparahyponormal

(TS ) 2 (TS ) *2

Example 2.3: Let

[0, ) .[3]

3 5

2 5 4 12 6 12 6 29 10 (A) [0, ) .[3]

2 5 4 12 6

168

2 3

12 6 29 10

780

957

0 2 2 14 31 and 168 2 780 95 has non-negative discriminant and therefore Since the expression 2 , 0 0 they are positive. The eigen value 1 2 and 1 2 . Which implies that (A) [0, ) . Thus TS is quasiparahyponormal. So that

III. Theorem

QUASIPARAHYPONORMAL WEIGHTED COMPOSITION OPERATORS

3.1:

w2 h  T

Suppose

quasiparahyponormal

and

only

w2 2 h2  T 2 a.e.

Proof: We have,

Wk f

W *kW k f

wk f  T k and W * f

hk E wk f  T

W *k wk f  T k

hk E wk 2 f  T k  T hk E wk 2  T Also

Then

W *Wf

hE w2  T 1 f

W kW *K

wk 2 hk  T k

W 2W *2

W is quasiparahyponormal

w22 h2  T 2

WW * 2

0 for every

w2 h  T

0 0.a.e

Which is equivalent to

w2 h  T

w22 h  T 2

w2 h  T

w2 h  T 2

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Corollary3.2: 2

w h T

Suppose

Mw2 h2  T

Then

M-quasiparahyponormal

and

only

and

only

a.e.

Proof: W is M-quasiparahyponormal 2

M 2 W 2W *2

M 2 w22 h2  T 2

WW *

0 for every 2

w2 h  T

0.a.e

Which is equivalent to

w2 h  T

M w2 h  T 2 a.e

Theorem.3.3:

hE w2  T

Proof: Since T *k

W f

Suppose

Then

quasiparahyponormal

h2 E w2 2  T k . a.e.

, E is an identity and so k

hk wk f  T

W * is quasiparahyponormal

W *2W 2

h2 E w2 2  T Which is equivalent to hE w IV.

W *W

2 2

T

0 for every

hE w2  T

2 1

h2 E w2 2  T

0.a.e

Posinormal and Quasiposinormal Composition operators

Theorem 4.1 1

Let CT

B( L2 ( )) . Then CT is posinormal iff c h 2 f

h T

1 2

Pf , for all f

Proof:

CT is Posinrmal c 2C * C T T 2 C C * c C *C T T T T

C C * T T

h  TPf , f

c 2 hf , f

f, f

By lemma 1 [1] it follows that 2

1 2

2 2

c2 h f d

c h f

hT f d

P h T

1 2

hT

1 2

c h T

1 2

Pf for all f

Theorem4.2 1

Let CT

B ( L2 ( )) . Then CT * is Posinormal iff h 2 f

Proof:

CT * is Posinrmal c 2C C * T T C *C c 2C C * f , f T T T T

C *C T T

hf , f

c 2 h  TPf , f

By lemma 1 [1] it follows that

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A.Radharamani, American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 3(1), June-August, 2013, pp. 35-42

1 2

h f

hf d

hT f d

c P hT

1 2

h T

1 2

Theorem 4.3 If

cd  T

is 1

posinaormal 1

/ d T

1 2

h T

ch f

then

1 2

Pf -----(1)

for

all

holds

iff

0 a.e where c>0.

Proof: and let A

Suppose that equation (1) holds. Let E be a set of finite measure in 1

Since A is T

1 2

measurable,

c h P

h T

and

A 2

1 2

c2h

c 2 T 1 ( A)

hT d

h  T CT

c2 T

h2d

E E

Therefore cd  T

Then c h Pf Since T

1 2

/ d T 1

/ d T

h2 d h

0 a.e

. Suppose that f is

0 a.e . Then for any E in T

measurable and

of finite measure the above

A j disjoint sets in T 2

E 1

cd  T

Conversely suppose that statements are hold for

d T d

1 a j h T 2 Aj

h  T Pf

measurable simple functions are dense in

R CT . , equation (1) holds for all f.

Theorem 4.4

B( L2 ( )) . Then CT is quasi posinormal iff c 2 g 0

Let CT

f 0 a.e

Proof:

CT is QuasiPosinrmal C *C 2 T T

c 2C *2 C 2 T T 2 2 2 C *C c C * C 2 f, f T T T T

c2M

f 2 0

c 2h 0 2 c g 0

h 0

f, f

f 2 a.e 0 f a.e 0

V. Posinormal and Quasiposinormal Weighted Composition operators Theorem 5.1 1

. Then W is Posinormal iff w2 h  T

Suppose

. ,E is an identity and so

c 2 hw2 .T

Proof: Since

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h wf  T

W*f

Then W is Posinormal

c 2W * W

WW *

c 2W *W f , f

WW * w2 h  T

c 2 hw 2 .T

0 for every f 2

f d

w2 h  T

c 2 hw 2 .T

Theorem5.2 W is QuasiPosinormal iff

hE w2  T

1 2

c 2 h2 E w2  T

Proof:

w f T hE wf  T 1

We have, Wf

and W * f W is Quasi Posinormal

W *W

c 2W *2 W 2 2

c 2W *2 W 2 f , f

hE w 2  T

1 2

0 for every f 2

c 2 h2 E w2  T f d

0 for every E

hE w2  T

1 2

c 2 h2 E w2  T 1 a.e

Theorem:5.3 Suppose

. Then W* is QuasiPosinormal iff w22 h  T

W 2 h  T a.e

Proof: Since

. E is an identity and so

W* is QuasiPosinormal

WW *

c 2W 2W *2

WW *

w2 h  T

c 2W 2W 8 2 f , f 2

c 2 w22 h2  T

0 for every f 2

f d

0 for every E

w22 h  T

W 2 h  T a.e REFERENCES

[1]. [2] [3]. [4]. [5]. [6].

Mahmoud.M.Kutkut : On the class of parahyponormal operator ; Jour.of.Mathe.sci Vol 4 , No.2 (1993) (73-88) N.Chennappan and S.Karthikeyan : * Paranormal composition operators ; Indian. Jour.pure appl. Math, 31(6): 591-600 June 2000 Rudin.W : Functional analysis , Mc . Grow Hill (1973). S.Panayyapan.,”Non Hyponormal weighted composition operators”Indian.J. Pure appl.Math.27(10):979-983pp,1996. H.Crawford Rhaly,”Posinormal Operators”, J.Math.Soc.Japan David J.Harrington and Robert Whitley , “Seminormal composition operators”, J.Operator theory 11(1984) , 125-135

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Problems of Literary-Artistic Translation Diler Singh, Associate Lecturer, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat, Solan, H.P. India Dr. Dipali Sharma Bhandari, Asst Professor, Department of English, NSCBM Govt PG College Hamirpur (HP) , India Abstract: Broadly speaking, translation is finding expressions in another language preserving the semantic and stylistic equivalence, matching grammatical structures and cultural contexts. Put simply, translation can be considered as the replacement of the elements of the source text with the cultural context and grammatical and semantic conventions of the target language so as to transfer the impact of the source text on the mind of a reader who, being unilingual, has no way of experiencing it in the original form. Alexander Fraser Tytler’s three basic principles of translation propose that a translation should be accurate, faithful, graceful and creative. Expanded, they cover all aspects of literary translation. A good translation preserves the spirit and sense of the original in the strength of the structure, force of expression, mastery of language and the qualities of imagination and discernment. These principles define what the final product of translation must be like and , by extension, what the duties of a translator are. However a strict adherence to these principles seems a hard task to attain. In the modern scenario the problems of translation most specifically, literary translation have increased multifold. The present paper attempts to examine the problems a translator has to encounter in his work . I. Problems of Literary-Artistic Translation The unification of human emotion can be exacted through translated literature as it familiarizes people with the culture and traditions across the world. This engages us with the problems of literary- artistic translation. All translation poses problems which the translator has to resolve satisfactorily in order to produce a good translation. While a literal translation has to grapple with the problems of lexical or structural ambiguity, lexical holes, lexical mismatches and problems arising from language barriers alone; translation of literature has to deal with stylistic features, content, culture and meaning as well. The problems of literal translation are mostly lexical because the emphasis is on the ‗word‘ as a unit of translation and the translation follows the bottom-totop pattern (word-to-text). In case of literary translation, however, the problems are both cultural and semantic, since the text is often more important than the words constituting it and in most cases more important than the word in isolation. The translation process, too, follows the top- to-bottom pattern of hierarchy (text-to-word). Paul Valery‘s analogy compares language to the two legs that can be used either for walking or dancing. The instrumental use of legs for walking which is simple, straightforward and has a singular movement represents the referential use of language; that is, the language of science, history or everyday discourse. The use of the same legs for dancing is complex and involves infinite variations of movements within a limited space; this is akin to the use of language in a literary or poetic framework. The factors determining the process of translation depends on the nature of the original text or more specifically, the use of language in the source text. Rene Wellek and Austin Warren feel it is fairly easy to distinguish between the language of science and the language of literature. ―The ideal scientific language is denotative‖, they clarify, ―It aims at one-to-one correspondence between sign and referent. The sign is completely arbitrary; hence equivalent signs can replace it. The sign is also transparent; that is, without drawing attention to itself, it directs us unequivocally to its referent‖ (Theory of Literature 22-23). Scientific language tends towards such a system of signs as mathematical or symbolic logic. Its ideal is such a universal language as the characteristic universal is…‖ say Wellek and Warren. (Theory of Literature 23) This is why scientific-technical translation becomes easy once the signs and their respective referents have been determined in the languages concerned. Literary translation or the translation of works where the literary use of language has been affected is somewhat more complex than scientific technical translation. For one, the literary use of language implies that ambiguities will inadvertently creep in. As Rene Wellek and her co-author feel, literary language is highly connotative. It abounds in ambiguities and ―is full of homonyms, arbitrary or irrational categories such as grammatical gender; it is permeated with historical accidents, memories, and associations…moreover, literary language is far from merely referential. It has its expressive side…‖ (Theory of Literature 23) According to David Daiches, ―science says things explicitly, directly, simply, in ―notational‖ language; poetry express itself paradoxically, ironically, indirectly, obliquely in language which, far from having a one-for-one

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correspondence with what it denotes, creates its own meaning as it moves‖( Critical Approaches to Literature 166). This means that the sign-referent relationship is different in literary language. Here the sign is not transparent, but translucent and when the diffused light falls on the referent through it, a completely different picture is revealed. In other words, the one to one sign-referent correspondence of the scientific language is replaced by multiple correspondences between the sign, the referent and the resultant meanings that emerge out of the situation. ―There is a further important distinction between literary and scientific language‖, opine Wellek and Warren, ―in the former, the sign itself, the sound symbolism of the word is stressed. All kinds of techniques have been invented to draw attention to it, such as meter, alliteration, and patterns of sound.‖(Theory of Literature 22-23) Furthermore, in literary usage, words are used not merely for their primary meaning; they carry a secondary meaning or the contextual meaning as well. Meaning is a matter of the interpretation, which in turn is a matter of choice, context and usage. The fact that meaning in literary language differs according the usage points to the truth that literary language and consequentially literary translation is context and culture-bound, unlike scientific-technical language translation. In literature the basic problem in translation arise in its nebulous origins. Literature is product of an emotion, a moment and the author‘s confrontation with them. It is the product of individual genius, imagination and vision. The roots of literature nourish themselves on the psychology of the artist, which colors his vision. All of these are highly individualistic and non transferable traits. It therefore becomes very difficult for the translator to visualize the author‘s intent and relive the experience and emotions of the author at the instant of creation. This factor, which renders an exact translation impossible, complicates the task of translation. The translator has to guard against an involuntary diffusion of his own vision and personality into the translation. Since literature is subjective, the translation would be subjective too but this is the least desired element in a translation. The translator has to face the problem of choosing his affiliations to faithfulness. He has to choose his priorities from among the form, registral features, meaning, sense, emotions and images while deciding upon a faithful recreation. Literature is multidimensional and multilayered. Ordinary language admits to a limited range of interpretability but poetic language is marked by the superficial primary sense diverging out to various secondary meanings arising due to imagery, witticism, conceits, puns and symbolic nuances. Poetic language is suggestive and allegorical too. It is not the words but their association that make literature. Poetic language often carries a mythic tint which can be traced to the social, cultural and in some cases personal context. While translating them, the translator has to remodel the context to facilitate understanding by the target language audience. Language is a culture bound phenomenon. It exists in the cultural and historical perspective of the users and has a whole tradition associated with it. A rendition of culture specific words, religious customs and ceremonies, poetic fancies, mythological allusions, archetypal images and philosophical contexts therefore become problematic. The peculiarities of a nation‘s mental makeup, too, unwittingly influence the work of translator. Problems in translation of literature arise because it cannot be dealt with at the single level. Strict adherence to all the basic principle of translation at the same time is a herculean task. The translator has to erase his identity from a product of his own workmanship which is an onerous task in itself. At the same time he has to infuse his work with the spirit and soul of the original. He has to delve in the psychology of the poet and relive the experience and emotion of the author at the instant of creation. He has to reproduce faithfully the form and registral features besides capturing the effusive quality so characteristic of a literary work and weaving it into an equally mesmerizing pattern in the target language. He has to preserve all the niceties of the language of the original while ensuring that the secondary meaning is adequately expressed. A perfect matching at all these levels is quite difficult to attain. Add to this the cultural and historical perspectives, orientation of the target language audience and the problems involved in a convincing rendition of cultural specific words, religious customs and ceremonies, poetic fancies, mythological allusions, archetypal images and philosophical contexts: and the problems of the translator multiply exponentially. Each language is an individual and distinctive system. It has a basic structure. The distinctiveness of a language is the most essential factor in defining it as an individual system. There can never be a complete parallelism between two languages and this is the reason why language barriers crop up. The differences between two languages can be listed as under: 1. SL(source language) has grammatical categories absent in TL(target language) or vice versa 2. SL has vocabulary absent in TL or vice versa 3. SL uses its grammatical classes and vocabulary in different combinations and patterns than TL The problems of translation can be accredited mainly to the difference in structures and organization of the languages concerned and to the difference in the cultures which use these languages. These two in interface give rise to ambiguities which complicates the task of translation. The main sources of ambiguity in translation are the lexical and structural distinctions between the languages concerned, lexical holes, cultural gaps and multiword units like idioms and collocations. These factors collectively or in isolation give rise to complications in the process of translation.

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There is no ideal mode of translation. Douglas Robinson sums up translation as an ―intelligent activity, requiring problem solving‖( Becoming a Translator: An Accelerated course 51).This applies most fittingly to the translation of poetry, ‗poetry‘ being the cover-term encompassing all imaginative literature—whether prose, drama or verse .Imaginative literature is distinct from scientific literature and various works of literary art deviate in different degrees from the scientific literature. Of the various notions regarding translation, very few confer a respectable status upon it. Translation of poetry is essentially ―a compromise between the original texts and the present interests and capacities of a given writer‖ (The Oxford book of Verse in English Translation xi) says Charles Tomlinson. The Italian adage ―Traduttore – Traditore‖ has done much harm to the reputation of the translator and the translated works by declaring that the translator is a traitor. Robert Frost once said that what is lost in translation is poetry. Should the translator imitate the obscurity or ambiguity of the original in order to be faithful? Is he justified in adding something to the original text by way of explanation? To this the only answer can be that the translator must exercise his judgment and assume the role of an original in such a case. As a general rule nothing of real moment should be omitted and the additions must be as innocuous as possible, none should obstruct the continuity of the poem. Copying the style of the original and keeping the spirit and sense intact involves creative activity of the highest caliber. The responsibilities of a translator are far too many. He has to appease the author, the critic and the reader at the same time. His product has to be artistic, faithful and yet: original. Too often, the translators are not given due credit. This leads to a deterioration of quality in their subsequent works. Zlatko Gorjan feels that the translator‘s elan, the element so much needed in artistic creation is killed if the work of translators is not appreciated or understood; and indirectly the quality of their translations is ruined (Quality in Translation: Proceedings of the III Congress of the International Federation of Translators 253). Lila Ray feels that even intelligent appreciation of translations is often found lacking (Quality in Translation: Proceedings of the III Congress of the International Federation of Translators 164). Translators often face a general disinterest and apathy on the part of the critics. Dr. Prabhakar Machwe feels that there should be a class of special critics for translations (Quality in Translation: Proceedings of the III Congress of the International Federation of Translators 159) The lack of interest on the part of the critic proceeds from the mediocre translations, which originates from the translator‘s lack of motivation. Translators have to brave the critical onslaught from the critic, the author (if he lives) and the reader. They are paid paltry sums since the publisher has to reckon with marketing, royalties and other costs. Lila Ray feels that there is a want of ―better recognition and adequate remuneration‖ (Quality in Translation: Proceedings of the III Congress of the International Federation of Translators 164). Prof. Ervino Pocar lists the two serious mistakes that the publishers commit – they pay very little and allow very little time. There are a few translators who command high prices for their services but their number is very small. Smaller remunerations mean that the translator will look for alternative sources of income or hurry from one assignment to the next. In either case he will not devote his whole hearted effort to the task at hand and ultimately the quality of the translation will suffer. Financial security relieves allows the translator to work feely; putting in his best efforts towards his work. The resulting product can be expected to be of a better quality. It is very unworthy of art that translation is given the status of copying or cheap imitation. It remains to be understood that translation, like any original writing, is an act of creation; it is only made more difficult by the various parameters which the translator has to attain. An original work is like a stream gushing down a slope, shaping its own course as it moves along. A translation, on the other hand, is an effort to refill the creek with anything but water, painstakingly simulating its course to the last degree. It is much more cumbersome, and the final effect, too, would not be the same. Translation, the most thriving literary activity today has contributed enormously towards the unification of the country. It deserves credit for integrating the populace universally: better than any religion, philosophy or metaphysics. Literature is a matter of human emotion and its delights cannot and should not be restricted by social, cultural or geographical boundaries. The community has not yet reached out to explore the possibility of a world literature or the world emotion. The emotion is universal whereas the language is regional. Ideally, language should be as universal as the emotion itself, but physical constraints make the realization of this ideal impossible. Translation as an agent of homogenization of emotions tries to attain universalization of human emotions to a considerable extent. The importance of translation as an effective means of communication on the literary scene is thus established beyond doubt. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Cery E. & R.W. Jumpelt, eds.. Quality in Translation: Proceedings of the III Congress of the International Federation of Translators (FIT), Godesberg, 1959. London: Pergammon P Ltd, 1963. Print Daiches, David. Critical Approaches to Literature (second Edition).Calcutta: Orient Longman Ltd, 1997. Print Robinson, Douglas. Becoming a Translator: An Accelerated course. London: Routledge, 1997. Print Tomlinson, Charles, ed. The Oxford book of Verse in English Translation. London: Oxford University Press, 1980.Print Wellek, Rene & Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd, 1985. Print

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ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF ELDERLY IN SELECTED PAID AND DESTITUTE HOMES IN CHENNAI, INDIA G. Vani Bhushanam1, K. Sreedevi2 and Janaki Kameshwaran3 Research Associate, All India Coordinated Research Project on Home Science, Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad 1 Lead interventionist, Behavioral Science Unit, National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, India 2 Lecturer, SG., Department of Home Science, Women‟s Christian College, Chennai 3 Abstract: The transition from the traditional pre-industrial to modern phase of development of society in India has in many ways changed the social context of the adjustment of the aged. In India, the elderly population depends heavily on the family for economic and emotional support. With joint family system, slowly diminishing the elderly are now being placed in ‘Homes’ and left to the care of such Organizations. This study was designed to assess the nutritional status of the elderly in selected paid and destitute homes in Chennai, India. The nutritional status of one hundred and forty elderly from paid and destitute homes was assessed using subjective, anthropometric and clinical parameters. The BMI of the elderly in destitute homes was within the normal range of 17.5 to 24.9kg/m2. It was found that the women in the age group of 52 to 64 years had higher BMI than their older in both the sexes. The women in the 75+ age group range were malnourished while the rest were normal in paid homes. The clinical signs of nutritional disorders were, in general, not specific and mostly associated with old age. The awareness levels of elderly in nutrition knowledge revealed a mean 36%. However, individual differences were observed within the homes in all the criteria assessed. Key words: Paid Homes, Destitute Homes, Nutritional Status, Elderly, Organization

INTRODUCTION

The population of the aged is on the increase the world over as never before and holds a serious social and economic implication. India is a „mature‟ community and with the population above 60 years increasing steadily, by the turn of the century it will become an ageing society. People over 54 constitute about 12.4% of the Indian population. According to the United Nation‟s Population Fund (UNPF) and Help Age International, India has around 100 million elderly at present and the number is expected to increase to 323 million constituting 20% of the total population, by 2050[1]. Irudaya Rajan and Kumar (2003) analysed the National Family Health Survey (1992 – 93) data and found that a large majority (88%) of the older persons in India live with their kin[2]. Despite the belief that children are the security of the aged, institutions for the aged are mushrooming since the 1990‟s. In 1998, India has 728 old age homes [3] while the recent statistics reveal that there are 1281 old age homes in India [4] These demographic changes has been accompanied with a fast changing family structure due to forces like urbanization and migration which are not quite conducive to the welfare of the elderly[5]. The institutionalization of the elderly which began as early as 1901 still remains inadequate when compared to the structured institutions of the West [6]. The trend clearly reveals that ageing has become a major social challenge and vast resources will be required towards support, care and treatment of the older persons [7]. Many factors are likely to influence the levels of institutionalization among the old. These include the availability of family support for old people who are no longer able to maintain full independence, income, housing, provision of health and welfare services and prevalence of mental and physical disability. Among the numerous environmental / external factors that modulate ageing, nutrition plays a significant role. The inseparable triad of nutrition, ageing and health is the logical basis for appropriate management of problems that arise and interfere with the interdependent factors. AIJRHASS 13-211; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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Malnutrition is known to be very common in institutionalized elderly. Although it may be relatively easy to diagnose overt malnutrition, the identification of marginal or subclinical malnutrition is beset with difficulties. In India, this section of the population depends on their children for physical, moral and financial support. However, owing to the socio-cultural changes occurring in India and the joint family system slowly diminishing the emergence of institutional homes is on the rise with steady increase in the number of inmates joining institutions. This study was designed to assess the nutritional status of elderly in paid and destitute homes in Chennai, India. II.

METHODOLOGY

Study design: Selection of Homes: Two paid and two destitute homes in the city of Chennai were selected based on purposive sampling from the list of homes published by “Vishranthi Charitable Trust”. Selection of sample: All the inmates aged >52 years willing to respond to the investigator, having no physical disabilities like being stone deaf, dumb, lame and not bedridden were selected from two paid and two destitute homes. A total of 140 participants formed the study group out of which 68 and 72 inmates were from paid and destitute homes respectively. Tools for Data Collection: A pre-tested Interview Schedule; Knowledge Assessment Questionnaire (KAQ); Observation Schedule and Clinical assessment schedule published by NAC ICMR was used to elicit information from the inmates on the a) General information b) Anthropometric measurements which includes Height, Weight, Mid –Arm Circumference and c) Nutritional Knowledge. III.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The nutritional status of one hundred and forty elderly from paid and destitute homes was assessed using subjective, anthropometric and clinical parameters. The sanitary conditions in and around the four homes were also observed. General Information Age: The age of the respondents was found to range from 52 to 85 years. 18% belonged to 52-64 years, 37% belonged to 65-74 years and 45 % of them were 72 years and beyond. Sex: 41% men and 59% women were institutionalized in both paid and destitute homes. Life style pattern Education: A majority (61%) of inmates in destitute homes were high school dropouts in destitute homes followed by illiterates (24%), higher secondary school education (11%) and graduates (4%). A majority (40%) of inmates in paid homes were high school dropouts followed by inmates having higher secondary school education (32%), graduates (18%), and illiterates (10%). Occupation: 84% in paid homes had been sedentary workers, 15% heavy workers and 1% moderate workers while 64% in destitute homes had been sedentary workers, 32% heavy workers and the rest moderate workers. One out of every two women in paid homes had been working before being institutionalized and 59% in destitute homes had been employed. Family Type: All the respondents had come from nuclear families in destitute homes while 71% in paid homes had come from nuclear families. Nutritional parameter Anthropometry: The respondent‟s height & weight were measured, based on which BMI was calculated for each subject. The mean height of the male inmates in paid and destitute homes were observed to be 158.6+3.7 and 156.5+1.4 cm respectively. The mean height of the female inmates in paid and destitute homes were observed to be 151.8+3.0 and 142.0+3.4cm respectively.

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The mean weight of the male inmates in paid and destitute homes were observed to be 55.5+3.3 and 49.9+1.9 cm respectively. The mean weight of the female inmates in paid and destitute homes were observed to be 58.8+2.1 and 46.4+1.2cm respectively. The mean heights and weights of the selected subjects are presented in (Table 1&2). TABLE 1: MEAN HIEGHTS OF ELDERLY IN PAID AND DESTITUTE HOMES

PAID HOMES

Age Group

Male

DESTITUTE HOMES

Female

Male

Female

52-64 years

153.4

156.2

156.0

145.0

52-64 years

162.4

149.3

157.5

143.0

52-64 years

160.0

150.0

155.9

138.0

Mean + SD

158.6 + 3.7

151.8 + 3.0

156.5 + 1.4

142 + 3.4

The mean height of women of age-group 52-64 years were taller than women of the 65 years and beyond. The mean height of men of age group 65 – 75 years was taller than men of other age groups in both paid and destitute homes. It was observed that women tend to stoop more and this could lead to an apparent reduction in their heights. TABLE 2: MEAN HIEGHTS OF ELDERLY IN PAID AND DESTITUTE HOMES

PAID HOMES Male

Age Group

DESTITUTE HOMES

Female

Male

Female

52-64 years

51.6

55.8

47.5

45.3

52-64 years

58.4

50.0

74.0

47.0

52-64 years

56.5

44.0

52.4

46.9

Mean + SD

55.5 + 3.3

49.9 + 1.9

58 + 2.1

46.4 + 1.2

The women in the age group of 75 years and above have the least mean weight in comparison to other age groups. The weight in women seems to reduce with the age as indicated by a drop in body weights of women from a mean of 55.8kg to 44kg unlike the case with men. Women are generally attached to their families and the emotional trauma of having to leave family could be one of the reasons of consuming less leading to weight loss. The average BMI of males in paid and destitute homes were 21.9 + 1.6 and 19.4 + 1.9 respectively and the average BMI of females in paid and destitute homes were 19.9 + 0.8 and 20.6 + 0.3 respectively. The age wise BMI of inmates is given in Table 3 TABLE 3: MEAN BODY MASS INDEX OF ELDERLY IN PAID AND DESTITUTE HOMES

PAID HOMES Age Group

Male

Female

DESTITUTE HOMES Male

Female

52-64 years

22.0 + 6.2

22.6 + 4.2

19.95 + 4.4

22.7 + 4.4

52-64 years

21.8 + 3.2

20.6 + 3.5

17.7 + 2.5

20 + 4.9

52-64 years

21.8 + 3.8

16.5 + 5.0

20.5 + 3.1

19 + 4.4

Mean + SD

21.9 + 1.6

19.9 + 0.8

19.4 + 1.9

20.6 + 0.3

The BMI of all the age groups was well within the normal range except for women in the 75+ age group who were malnourished even extending to the severe malnourished stated of body mass index < 11.5. Maximum deviation was found in men in the 52-64 years age group. AIJRHASS 13-211; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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The Mid-arm circumference was found to be higher in men. There was little difference within the age group of both men and women in paid and destitute homes.

Clinical assessment: The clinical signs of nutritional disorders were, in general, not specific and mostly associated with old age. Nutritional knowledge The Knowledge Assessment Questionnaire (KAQ) developed to assess the knowledge levels on food and its functions; balanced diet; nutrients and its sources; role of nutrients in the human body; common nutritional deficiencies revealed a mean score of 22 against a maximum score of 50. 35% of the subjects scored 22, 27.5% scored 16, 22.5% scored 28 and 15% scored 26. The knowledge levels of the subjects on disorders due to certain nutrients and therapeutic importance of food was the least followed by role of nutrients in the human body.

IV.

SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

The nutritional status of the elderly is an interdependent factor relying more on the psycho-social implications. Health problems due to aging may play havoc when integrated with the other factors. Hence care of the elderly on all the fronts is of utmost importance. REFERENCES [1]

Age care statistics. Available from: http:// www.helpageindia.com. [cited on 2007 Oct 6].

[2]

Irudaya Rajan S. and S. Kumar (2003) Living Arrangements among the Indian Elderly – Evidence from the National Family Health Survey, Economic and Political Weekly, XXXVIII:1,pp75-80.

[3]

Singh, Yogendra (1997), Changing trends in the family and the adjustment of the aged, Research and Development Journal, Vol. 3(2), pp 31-42.

[4]

Directory of Old Age Homes in India, Revised Edition 2009, Policy Research and Development Department, Help Age India

[5]

National Institute of Social Defence, Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, GOvt. of India (2005, March, 17) retirieved September 5, 2006 from www. http//nice.nisd.gov.in/publications.

[6]

Das N.P and Shah Urvi (2004), A study of Old Age Homes in the care of the Elderly in Gujarat – A Project Report, pp1

[7]

Ushvinder KP (2010), Help Age India – Research & Development Journal, 16:1, pp.20 – 29

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Available online at http://www.iasir.net

UNOFFICIAL DIPLOMACY AT WORK: A SAARC PERSPECTIVE Prof. Rajender Gupta1 and Neelam Choudhary2 1 Deptt. Of Economics, University of Jammu 2 Assistant Professor of Economics, DDE, University of Jammu, J & K, INDIA. Abstract: When one thing stops working, we shop around for alternatives. In the realm of regionalism, initially only state was lent credibility, while non-state actors remained underrated. But now, with the achievements of this burgeoning group, this view point has got the chuck. The literature is jam-packed with success stories of this heterogeneous group. Many proven studies on hand show that the official actors in SAARC diplomacy have been snowed under with certain questions/ disputes/ conflicts they are not well versed in handling and solving. As true of many other such organizations, the SAARC officials have not succeeded much in sowing the seeds of peace and prosperity for the people. The onus of completing the unfinished task of enabling SAARC reach the crescendo of performance now lies also with unofficial SAARC. For almost two decades now i.e. since 1990s, unofficial dialogues have got a sporting chance of proving and sustaining themselves. To what extent have they remained insulated from the ‘wheels within wheels’ situation characterizing SAARC and whether its (Unofficial SAARC’ s) staggering achievement (Or the absence of it) has made a difference? With this question, this paper intends to analyse unofficial diplomacy in SAARC and concludes that the way these non-state actors have stood by the cause of regional cooperation and beyond that i.e. their contribution in spawning a general support for one ‘South Asia’ speak well for themselves, given that it was not of yore that the first unofficial dialogue got itself recognized. I. Introduction When one thing stops working, we shop around for alternatives. In the realm of regionalism, initially only state was lent credibility, while non-state actors remained underrated. But now, with the achievements of this burgeoning group, this view point has got the chuck. The literature is jam-packed with success stories of this heterogeneous group. As true of many other such organizations, the SAARC officials have not succeeded much in sowing the seeds of peace and prosperity for the people. The onus of completing the unfinished task of enabling SAARC reach the crescendo of performance now lies also with unofficial SAARC. For almost two decades now i.e. since 1990s, unofficial dialogues have got a sporting chance of proving and sustaining themselves. To what extent have they remained insulated from the ‗wheels within wheels‘ situation characterizing SAARC and whether its (Unofficial SAARC‘ s) staggering achievement (Or the absence of it) has made a difference? For answering this question beggaring description, I intend to dig as much evidence out of the ground of well established studies, as my digger (my ability to analyse, time constraint, relevance etc.) allows. With this background, this paper assesses unofficial diplomacy in SAARC. To understand the contribution of different tracks to regional cooperation, Institute of Multitrack Diplomacy‘s (IMTD‘s) Multi Track Diplomacy (MTD) model has been relied upon. II. Multi Track Diplomacy: The System In order to understand the system by which international peacemaking occurs the parable of the blind man and the elephant might be considered (Diamond and McDonald, 1996: 1)11: Like the blind man, if we feel only the trunk or the tusk or the tail of the peace pachyderm, we will misperceive the true nature of this lively creature. Likewise, if we consider the animal as a whole but don‘t know the parts and how they each contribute, we lose the value of acquaintance with a richly complex being. Multi-Track Diplomacy is a conceptual way to view the process of peacemaking as a complete elephant, a living system which needs the combination of all its body 1 Cited in Siver 2006.

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parts to function. Diamond and McDonald (1996), Chigas (2003), Montville and Davidson (1981), and Nan (2003) all support the theory that different levels of Track diplomacy exist as the ‗body parts‘ which, when combined, can function most effectively as the complete elephant. So as to fully capture the complexity of Track II diplomacy, one must understand that it is comprised of separate sub-tracks. The Multi-Track theory reflects the values of the different Tracks, which, when combined, contribute most effectively to a peace process. MultiTrack theory recognizes that in modern, complex society peacemaking cannot be left solely to either governmental interaction or the responsibility of the state. (Carvalho 2010 ) These nine sub-tracks are: Government or Peacemaking through Diplomacy, Nongovernmental / Professional or Peacemaking through Conflict Resolution, Business orPeacemaking through Commerce, Private Citizen or Peacemaking through Personal Involvement, Research/ Training and Education or Peacemaking through Learning, Activism or Peacemaking through Advocacy, Religion or Peacemaking through Faith in Action, Funding or Peacemaking through Providing Resources, and Communications and the Media, or Peacemaking through Information. Each sub-track contains a system within itself with regards to membership, activities, philosophy, and purpose, which often overlap. They mostly complement each other‘s values and activities when combined as the living system of modern peacemaking. Therefore, the Multi-Track approach is the interrelatedness and coordination of these nine sub-tracks. 2 2 Compass Interaction Model, The compass Interaction model best describes the Multi-Track approach and in theory proves the most appropriate model because it demonstrates the correlation of all the sub-tracks as having equal val3ue but different functions. 3

Figure : Multi-Track Diplomacy (Compass interaction model) 44 Overview of non-state actors in South Asia (SAARC) 2 Carvalho 2010 3 Ibid 4 Siver 2005

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There is an urgent need to expand South Asian cooperation and connectivity beyond the realm of the state. There has been increased activity and cooperation among South Asia‘s non-state actors – the corporate sector, professional associations, civil society, media, cultural groups, and Track II processes……(Gujral) 5. The forces of globalization, increasing economic interdependence,….. and especially post-September 2001 terrorism….have all triggered new common efforts among states in South Asia as elsewhere…….(Bailes etal 2007 ).The post-cold war order has made governance polycentric…..With the transfer of sovereignty from the mono-centric governance of the past to disparate groups of citizens ….. the responsibilities of socializing tendency of heterogeneous civil societies have increased in policy making, advocacy, mediation of power and the management of distributional conflicts. Presently, the state no longer monopolizes the security function…… (Wagner, 2006:110) 6 5….New issues such as ecology… have broadened the concept of security…….. Modern politics is couched in the language of rights (Tuck, 1999:1).7 678Participation rules have also marked a shift from top-down elite to a bottom-up stakeholders' participatory process…... ( Dahal ).The inability of the governments led the civil society in South Asia to take the lead during the second phase in the 1990s. This period spawned a wide range of non-official dialogues ……( Behera, 2009 ). It has been talked about non-state actors in Asia that cooperation and inclusiveness is leading to ―interregional regime-building‖(FES 2007).A revealing facet of this new phenomenon is the induction of a novel bottom up forms of regionalism initiated by the civil society (Lama ). Here, the concept of alternative regionalism fits well. 8 History of unofficial dialogues in SAARC According to a senior State Department official the idea of a non-official Indo-Pak dialogue was under consideration during the last years of the Reagan Administration, but it materialized in the aftermath of the 1990 crisis when the Gates Mission was dispatched to Islamabad and New Delhi ( Shah 1997 ). Different tracks of unofficial diplomacy in SAARC Let us now discuss the unofficial tracks (2-9) in accordance with the multitrack diplomacy.This paper includes the unofficial steps taken in a multilateral framework i.e. under the aegis of SAARC. The bilateral dialogues have been excluded. Track 2 Track 2, according to Santos and Esq. refers to unofficial, informal peacemaking by conflict resolution professionals and NGOs, usually nongovernmental and unofficial groups and individuals, often parallel to and in support of Track 1. In literature on multi-track or multi-actor diplomacy, Track 2 is delimited for government officials operating unofficially.The activities of Track Two peace workers vary from organizing problemsolving workshops, acting as messengers and go-betweens to ….organizing seminars and conferences and private one-on-one diplomacy behind the scenes. …Track Two Diplomacy can make a difference. In Somaliland, for instance, the so-called Boroma process…culminated in a meeting of elders of all clans of Somaliland who in a remarkable display of participatory democracy elected a government and a president.9 Kaye (2007:8) 9defines track two as unofficial policy dialogues, focused on problem solving, in which the participants have some form of access to official policymaking circles. Evans refers to those Track 2 activities which involves meetings of academics, journalists, politicians and also…govt. officials ….attending in their private capacities as ‗blended dialogues‘ (1994c:125) 10 10 Professional (conflict resolution) in SAARC It has been estimated that in 1998-99 alone there were over 38 track-II channels working in South Asia (Naik 2001), which is indicative of the involvement of civil society actors. Thus, unofficial SAARC is fast emerging in domestic and regional peace constituencies (Lama ) .11 11 Some track two activities in SAARC 12 12

5 Cited in Dahal 6 Ibid 7 The concept is discussed in Keet 2007 and Chandra 2009 8 Cited in Introduction to People Building Peace 9 Cited in Acharya 2011 10 Cited in Muthiah Algappa ed. (2003) Asian Security Order: Instrumental and Normative Features (Stanford: Stanford University Press):247 11 Cited in Ahmed and Bhatnagar 2008 12 Sources for PSCR, IRS, MCPR, ICPI &SFG, IPCS, WISCOMP: Elbinger 2007

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The Program on Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution (PSCR) at the University of Karachi , The Institute of Regional Studies (IRS) in Islamabad, Pakistan, The Malaviya Centre for Peace Research (MCPR) at Banaras Hindu University,The International Centre for Peace Initiatives (ICPI) and Strategic Foresight Group (SFG) ( twin think tanks based in Mumbai; While SFG engages in research on future security issues, ICPI is involved in conflict resolution in South Asia), The Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies (IPCS) and Women in Security, Conflict Management and Peace (WISCOMP) are some institutes having efficiently fretted the rope of mistrust and distrust with the saw of papers, books, seminars, workshops, dialogues etc. Since 1994,Harvard University‘s Program on International Conflict Analysis and Resolution (PICAR) has been working to foster problemsolving dialogue in an unofficial effort to contribute to peace in Sri Lanka..( Hicks and Weisberg ). Some other track two initiatives include Neemrana process 1313, Balusa Group,14 14Kashmir Study Group (KSG), Shanghai Process 15 15, Stimson Center Dialogues,16 16CSIS Meetings on Nuclear Risk Reduction Centres (NRRCs), 17 17 18 Cooperative Monitoring Center, Sandia National Laboratories, 18 19 20 Maritime Activities: The Confidence and Cooperation in South Asian Waters Project,192122 Worldnet dialogues 20 23and IGSAC 21 24. These are some gems, the shining example of which studs them well into the crown of SAARC‘s multitrack diplomacy. The achievements are too many to be discussed in one paper. In the next paragraph, they have been touched upon. While discussing the Track Two dialogues in South Asia with a focus on policy-oriented and problem-solving activities, Faiz argues that track two dialogues in South Asia are mostly semi-official in nature, dominated by a few retired government officials. ―This leads to a ‗lack of cross-fertilization of ideas‘ as new and innovative approaches to problems are not generated.‖ Despite the criticism faced by some of these, in particular, Neemrana for engaging the same people year after year, these track two initiatives have a lot to show.They have been able to keep the negativity of the Political Economy in check or at least neutralise it.They have granted flexibility to the not so supple mind of the official actors. For example, relaxation in travel restrictions between India and Pakistan by the two governments has been partly attributed to the efforts of the Neemrana process. One of the proposals made by the Balusa Group was the establishment of effective military-to-military hotlines between India and Pakistan, increasing interaction between the intelligence agencies of India and Pakistan, nuclear confidence building and greater education of Indian and Pakistan leaders concerning the responsibility of leading nuclear weapon states. According to two South Asia observers, the KSG ―has achieved a reputation for nonpartisan objectivity that has earned it a hearing in New Delhi and Islamabad, and a measure of confidence among Kashmiri leaders‖ (Schaffer and Schaffer, 2005, p. 313).22 25 … Stimson organizers also believe that their workshops and publications on nuclear terrorism have raised considerable consciousness of this problem in official circles, particularly since the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States. The CSIS group recommended the creation of NRRCs in India and Pakistan to improve communications and reduce the risks for miscalculations leading to nuclear conflict. IGSAC recommended the establishment of a Poverty Alleviation Commission 23 SAARC’s Track 1.5 (Track one and a half) Mapendere has elaborated on the concept of track one and a half diplomacy, which was originally brought forward by Susan A. Naan, describing a mode in between track one, comprised of official actors, and track two diplomacy. He defines track 1.5 diplomacy as ―peace making activities undertaken by non-political third parties between high political representatives of warring groups, or governments‖ (Mapendre 2000: 66). 24 Track 1.5 diplomacy is supposed to combine the positive aspects which both track one and track two diplomacy have to 13 For details of Neemrana, see Faiz, Waslekar (1995), Kaye (2007) 14 Balusa group has been discussed by Faiz, Kaye, Dixit (2005), Durrani (2001). 15 Kaye 2007 16 Ibid 17 Ibid 18 Ibid 19 Ibid 20 Faiz 21 Waslekar 1995

22 Cited in Kaye 2007 23 Supra No. 21 24 Cited in Heiling 2007

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offer. …..However, beside Mapendre‘s definition, others see track1.5 diplomacy as a process that distinguishes itself from track one diplomacy merely by its informal character, not by the type of mediator ( Berghof Foundation for Peace Support2007). 25 26…. Track two is thus a form of semiofficial interaction; the degree of official involvement and influence here is far greater here than in epistemic communities. ….. ( Acharaya 2011 ) Bulk of the literature on SAARC counts the apex bodies as track 1.5. But in some studies all the professional bodies (including recognized) form track 1.5.There is a rapid growth in the number of SAARC apex bodies that specialize in different spheres. These include South Asia Chambers of Commerce and Industry (SCCI), South Asia Free Media Association (SAFMA), SAARC Law, South Asian Federation of Accountants (SAFA) and Foundation of SAARC Writers and Literature (FOSWAL). Characterized as Track One-and-Half, these are autonomous organisations and some also receive financial support from the SAARC Secretariat and directly service the official SAARC process.26 ……The three apex bodies of SAARC, SAFA, SAARC Law and CCI, actively promote the objectives and development goals including the UN Millennium Development Goals of the South Asian region. ( Perera 2008) …The affiliation provides them information, visibility, linkage, access and recognition…. complement the official willingness to foster people-to-people relations and build regionalism from bottom-up (Behera, 2008:2).27 2728 Apart from these professional bodies of track 1.5, SAARC also recognizes ISACPA (Independent South Asian Commission for poverty alleviation), SAARC Research Network, SAARC FINANCE etc., where there is considerable degree of autonomy from the official SAARC process but the SAARC secretariat gets involved in feeding the final output to the official process. These professional bodies (apex and recognized) have certainly facilitated professional interactions but have not contributed much towards improving economic connectivity ( Kelegama: 3913). SAARC has seen some recent developments in this regard. Suba Chandran has suggested the establishment of an Indo-Pak Nuclear Commission on the model of the Indus Water Commission (IWC) between the two countries. ―….The technical aspect of the Nuclear Commission could work alongside a track-1.5 initiative, to avoid a major shortcoming of the Indus Water Commission.‖ ( Chandran 2010). Saman Kelegama, while speaking at the 4th SAARC business leaders conclave on key issues of SAARC, stated among other things … that the link between track 1 and 2 should be made more formal. In this regard, he appreciated the formation of SAF.( Kelegama 2011). Touted as a Track 1.5 initiative, the South Asia Forum brings together government functionaries businessmen, media and academics to generate "out of box ideas" for facilitating greater regional economic integration and people-to-people contact in the region……… (IANS, 2011) Private sector (Business organizations): Track 3 Although Diamond and McDonald assert that most businesses do not view themselves as having anything to do with peace, the fact is that negotiations concerning money, resources, and labor always require diplomacy, and so the diplomatic efforts of international businesses as they open new ventures are de facto peace negotiations.(Cuthbert 2005) The Private Sector…encompasses a wide range of actors, mainly involved in forprofit pursuits in commercial, trading, contracting, farming, mining, and other areas. ….. (Ulimwengu). Private sector in SAARC The private sector is emerging as an important stakeholder for regional economic integration. …..SAARC is increasingly facing pressure from the private sector to remove barriers to allow market integration. 28 29 In an issue paper, prepared by Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI), useful insight has been given for improving the business environment for private sector led integration in South Asia. The paper was the result of a conference convened in New Delhi on 17‐18 November 2009 …..In the concluding Technical Session: ―Building Brand ‗SAARC‘, participants discussed ways to make the SAARC ―brand‖ more visible …..Participants agreed that strengthening the SAARC ―brand‖ is critical to boosting regional integration in South Asia. (ADB and FICCI, 2010) In a Regional Conference on SAARC (2006), in his paper "Private Sector and Conflict Management" Gautam Ghosh highlighted the role of the private sector in the national economies and their ability to deal with issues more efficiently. (Ghosh 2006). The Punjab, Haryana and Delhi (PHD) Chamber of Commerce and Industry and other business organizations have played significant role in the regional cooperation in SAARC. PHD IndiaPakistan Desk have attempted to promote bilateral trade between the two countries since its inception in 1982….. An extremely important initiative… is the formation of the India–Pakistan Chamber of Commerce and Industry …in May 2005. This joint forum …intends to bring the two countries closer by enhancing the level of trade…. … Other such initiatives include .. formation of Joint Business Councils (JBC) composed of 25 Ibid 26 Behera 2009 27 Cited in Dahal 28 Supra no.26

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representatives of South Asia‘s business federations. ….By all accounts, South Asia is witnessing the rise of the business community as the vanguard of regional cooperation and interdependence. In fact, it can ultimately prove to be the biggest catalyst for peace in the region.29 30 As commented by Rosario (2008)3031,business forums have reportedly been accorded privileged status in these sub regional institutional arrangements, where their views and inputs are closely regarded by high-level officials . The same is true in South Asia. SAARC in 1992 granted formal ―apex body‖ status to a South Asian business network—the SAARC Chambers of Commerce and Industry (SAARC-CCI)—and in 2000, chose to extend that status for a further 15 years without the need for a biennial review as initially planned…..(Nesadurai 2010). It is officially recognized by all the governments as well as the SAARC Secretariat. 31 32 The literature supports the fact that private sector could not reach its limits in this region. In SAARC, it has got a cold response from policy makers in important decisions. ―While the market is an important driver pushing for regional economic integration, it is not in the driver‘s seat. ….They were conspicuously absent in the formal negotiations over SAFTA. .They are yet to be accorded a seat on the negotiating table.32 33 One reason for lack of effectiveness of private sector in SAARC can be its nature. Diversity leads to lack of consensus among players in the private sector. Track 4: Private Citizen or Peacemaking through Personal Involvement ‗Citizen diplomacy‘ is defined as people-to-people diplomacy undertaken by both individuals and NGOs. ….Proponents of citizen diplomacy claim that …these dialogues are based on perspectives which criticize the official policies by questioning the priorities and assumptions of the official decision making circles. ..The ultimate objective …is the promotion of social transformation. Indeed, the history of engagement of citizens‘ groups …predates the rise of Track 2.33 34 While discussing the appropriateness of this track, Davies and Kaufman stress that it has developed in response to the profound challenges that ….complex conflicts present to all those working to build a sustainable and just peace…….citizen diplomacy empowers those most impacted to participate in the search for peace (Davies and Kaufman 2002 :2) Citizen diplomacy in SAARC Many influential citizens have proved that they can make the difference so far as promoting regional cooperation or conflict resolution is concerned. Some track four actors of SAARC 34 35 include H.T. Parekh, Dinesh Singh, Dr. Ponna Wignaraja, O.P. Shah, Bose and Hasan ,Rajive 35 Ganguli; few names in the list of people known for their supernumerary performance in promoting people to people contacts in South Asia. Youth The role of younger generation was stressed in Inaugral address of a conference (SAARC 2015 organised by FES) by Sh. I.K. Gujral. ―A new generation of the professionals, policy makers and actors and agencies are fast taking over the entire operations in the region. This generation has no baggage of mistrust, suspicions and low confidence. They are what our Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh calls ―the people who think out of the box‖. 36 36 Keeping in account the potential hidden in youth for peace building, many dialogues have been aimed at them. Says Faiz, ―The Summer school is one such initiative which attempted to engage the younger generation of South Asia in dialogues and communications. Prior to this, unofficial dialogues had a ‗generational vacuum‘. …The Regional Center for Strategic Studies (RCSS) also started a parallel process of workshops and dialogues involving the younger generation of South Asian scholars and opinion makers. Outside South Asia, the Henry L. Stimson Center in Washington and the Program in Arms Control, Disarmament and International Security at the University of Illinois in Urbana-Champaign have also been the venues for young South Asians to engage in dialogue and research on issues relating to regional stability and security….‖

29 Supra no.20 30 Cited in Nesadurai 2010 31 Supra no.28 32 Ibid 33 Supra no 29 34 Sources of Parekh, Singh,Wignaraja,Shah & Bose and Hasan (Waslekar 1995) 35 Elbinger 2007 36 FES 2007

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As observed by Manjari Sewak (Sewak 2006) 37 37, third generation Indians and Pakistanis (in the age group of 22-40 years) are beginning to bridge the divide of deep hostility and distrust that separated their parents and grandparents… Beena Sarwar (1997)38 38lists technological advances that break down the barriers between antagonists such as television, the internet and email as important factors in the creation of cultural understanding. …..―Thank God for email," Sarwar quotes a journalist participating at an Indo-Pak forum held in Lahore in November 1995. ….It is precisely the sort of collaboration described by Sewak and the cross-border communication documented by Sarwar that is needed to counteract and heal the wounds of Partition.39 39.Ahmed and Das show the significance of an informed public to change the cold war mind-set in India and Pakistan. (Ahmed and Das 1998 ) That the cross border citizen dialogues between India and Pakistan have succeeded in doing what official and semi-official dialogues couldn‘t, finds mention in a detailed analysis of these dialogues by Faiz. It deals with these initiatives since independence. Some of these initiatives are India–Pakistan Friendship Society, Pakistan India People‘s Forum for Peace and Democracy (PIPFPD),Expatriate Indians and Pakistanis, The India-Pakistan Soldier‘s Initiative for Peace (IPSI), Anti-nuclear initiatives: Pakistan Peace Coalition (PPC), Movement Against Nuclear Weapons (MANW), Movement in India for Nuclear Disarmament (MIND),(CNDP), lndian Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW), The Indian Doctors for Peace and Development (IDPD) and the Pakistani Doctors for Peace and Development (PDPD)…. Apart from this, some other initiatives include Doon School Old Boys‘ Society and The Pakistan-India People's Solidarity Conference.(Behera 2002) Official steps towards people to people contacts Indo-Pakistan ….. dialogues on strategic issues contributed to build confidence among key actors of both the countries. The Indo-Pakistan Bus diplomacy…. has become an emblem of the hope for peace and friendship between two countries …40 40 Speech by Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh on the launch of Amritsar – Nankana Sahib Bus Service, Amritsar (2006): “ I hope this bus service opens yet another chapter in improving the relations between our two countries. …As an ancient saying goes, a road is made by walking. I am happy that we are moving forward and creating a road, one step after another, even though many hurdles have come up along the way…...‖ 41 41 In an attempt to remove barriers to people to people interaction,recently (Feb. 2011),SAARC countries approved a proposal to exempt 19 categories of people from visa requirement and agreed on a liberalised scheme …..(The Hindu, Feb. 2011 )…..If one were to look at connectivity with Pakistan, some of the important steps have been implementing the NDA government‘s idea of increasing connectivity between Rajasthan and Sind, the two Kashmirs and the two Punjabs. Connectivity with Bangladesh and Bhutan has also gone up by road.( Yhome and Maini 2011) Official obstacles Shahid Kardar argues that the biggest factor standing in the way of people-to-people contact in South Asia is the negative perceptions about each other rooted in history……He categorises these obstacles to people to people contact as perceptual, legislative and procedural.( Kardar (2000): 87-116 ). A critical evaluation of citizen diplomacy is being done by Navnita Behera who argues that the most ironic fact is the inability of people to influence the policy-making agenda. …In this regard, Behera calls for the exploration of a ‗post-modernist agenda‘, ‗a bottom-up approach‘ in which civil society plays a more significant role…..42 42 In a related study, Timsina argues: ―It is unfortunate that the rulers of countries of this region have kept the people apart through the creation of walls of suspicion, hostility, intolerance, dis- and misinformation and the prevention of interaction amongst the people in order to maintain control over their societies‖…..(Timsina 2010). These official barriers to people to-people contact, (in particular visa regime) have been severely criticised. ―As a result, succeeding generations of Indians and Pakistanis have little or no first-hand knowledge of each other, which perpetuates images based on hostility and suspicion. ……‖ 43 43 Diaspora 37 Cited in Elbinger 2007 38 Ibid 39 Supra No. 35 40Dahal 41Cited in Salik 2006 42 Cited in Faiz 43 Ahmed and Das 1998

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When we talk of citizen diplomacy, the diasporas are not to be ignored. ….When we talk about the South Asian diaspora, we mean people of South Asian descent who are not living in their original homeland….( South Asian Concern 2010).The Diaspora …could be more constructively engaged, for example, as a Diaspora think tank ( Reychler). The South Asian diasporas are at an important crossroad. They are no longer made up of low skill workers …Some of the newer diasporas from South Asia were formed by professionals …The per capita incomes of these people are much more than that of the local populations. (Burki 2011 ).The South Asian Diasporas and workers have become life-blood for the economic resilience of the region. 4444 As is now well-documented, the Sikh separatist movement in Punjab has received much institutional and financial support from Sikh militants in the United States…….( Lal 1999:42-48). RajaSingam (2011) discusses the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora‘s role in Tamil nationalism. Similarly, Kashmiri diaspora has been said to have helped keep the issue alive internationally. (ICG Asia Report N°79 p.27) Track five: Research, training and education It is perhaps unique among the tracks of diplomacy that even when states are in deep conflict …exchange of scholars to enable mutual learning often continues. ……Because of this, scholars have had what amounts to a ‗diplomatic immunity‘ in carrying out scholarly exchange. (Cuthbert 2005). Think tanks have existed since the early part of the last century when the Brookings Institution, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Chatham House and the Kiel Institute for the World Economy were established to bring knowledge to bear on government decision making.(McGann 2009). To quote Diamond and McDonald: ―This is a particularly vibrant component of the Multi-Track Diplomacy community. …from which much of the conflict resolution theory and practice is coming;45 45 The main think tanks of South Asia 46 include South Asia Network of Economic Research Institutes (SANEI), Regional Centre for Strategic Studies (RCSS) , Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies (IPCS ) The Centre for South Asian Studies (CSAS), Coalition for Action on South Asian Cooperation (CASAC), CPR. India Bangladesh Dialogue, The South Asia Centre for Policy Studies (SACEPS), South Asian Policy Analysis (SAPANA), The Consortium of South Asian Think Tanks (COSATT), AMDISA and Panos South Asia . Some of these think tanks, through research, advocacy and useful inputs to different summits and other facets of official diplomacy have shouldered their way through the crowd of failures confronting the organisation. The Pugwash conference on Kashmir (Dec. 2004) is creditable to IPCS.47.SAPANA‘s being the first ―virtual‖ institution is its distinguishing feature.48.Each such institute has a distinct identity, thus adding credibility to its existence. Track Six Diplomacy: Activism Diamond and McDonald relate that ―The primary task of the activist community is to change institutions, attitudes, and policies through political action.‖….. 4946 Civil society and peace building Civil society plays an important role in encouraging the cessation of armed conflict, and constitutes a vital force in post-conflict recovery. The role played by civil society in war and post-war contexts is increasingly acknowledged internationally…. In post-conflict recovery, civil society actors have considerable potential. A main element in Afghanistan‘s post-9/11 agenda, for example, is to provide cash grants to traditional village councils (shuras), while insisting - contrary to tradition – that shura members are elected by secret ballot (Berg and Kjellman 2004 )…..The functional approach to Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) states seven civil society peacebuilding functions. These are : Protection, Monitoring/early warning, Advocacy/ public communication, Socialization, Social cohesion, Intermediation/ facilitation and Service provision (World Bank 2006) On the other hand, the civil society may sometimes jeopardize the situation instead of improving it. ―….The relationship between civil society and peacebuilding is complex, and working with civil society groups in peacetime is quite different than during or following armed conflict…..Conflict disrupts the relationship between civil society, the state, and the market…. In many cases, there will develop an economic sector that

44 Supra no.40 45 Cited in Cuthbert 2005 46 (Source: Home pages of different think tanks, accessed March 2011) 47 Baba 2005 48 Alam 2006 49 Supra No. 46

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operates parallel to the legal financial market (Strand et al 2003).5047…Notions of civil society thus need to be tempered by the reality that they contain the potential for socalled ―spoilers.‖ …Well-meaning policy that does not incorporate an understanding of the roles civil society can play runs the risk of strengthening its uncivil rather than civil components (Maley & Saikal 2002) 514849. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) NGOs are a factor in some international negotiations…They attempt to reach government delegates wherever they may be accessible… Some NGO representatives are even occasionally invited to make presentations in the course of the official proceedings. (Feilleux 2009 )…..There are big international NGOs (BINGOs), national NGOs (NNGOs), and local NGOs (LNGOs) .GONGOs, or government organized NGOs, often refers to NGOs in the former Soviet bloc or China today but are different from QUANGOS, or the quasi-nongovernmental organizations that describe Canadian or Western European NGOs… DONGOs, or donor organized NGOs, are those established, but not necessarily controlled, by public or private donor organizations (Martens 2005: 31). 52 50…..Given the heterogeneity of NGOs in terms of size and organizational character, this can be thought of as a hybrid of Track II and Track III diplomacy. (Crow and Singh 2008 ) NGOs are often excellent sources of information on situations and developments on the ground in early warning ..(Bakker). NGOs in South Asia ……South Asia has a vibrant civil society movement and large number of active Non-Government Organizations (NGOs), often with a sense of mission and commitment to justice and service to the community. ….. …. Recently, some NGOs have focused towards conflict resolution. The NGO-government relationship is less confrontational and more complementary. ….. The NGO movement across South Asia has significant difference in characteristics such as numbers of NGOs, their distribution across each country, their coverage in terms of local, national, regional and global issues, their capacity to deliver services, advocacy role and national and international impacts of their activities.The representation of South Asian NGOs is poor at the global level in many respects. ….There has been beginning of regional or national NGO networks such as Climate Action Network South Asia for Climate Change issues, but the voices are disproportionately small for the need of proper representation. … However there are some key research NGOs who are widely respected in the global community. These include BCAS, BRAC, Grameen Bank in Dhaka, Development Alternative (DA), Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) in Delhi, Cuts in Kolkata, Swaminathan Foundation in Chennai, Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI) and IUCN in Pakistan, Environmental Law Foundation in SriLanka, ICIMOD in Kathmundu, to mention a few. ….(Rahman 2002 ) In some of the conflictual situations, the NGOs have very vital role both in its management and resolution. In other cases, they have acted as major agents in preventive diplomacy. Many of these non-state actors advocate and advance regionalism for varied reasons. They exert a lot of pressure on official institutions at different levels..(Lama) Advocacy With Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Keck and Sikkink1998)53 51, Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink established a new field of interdisciplinary research on the significance and challenges of principled transnational organizing. ………The core resource of advocacy networks is information, which is usually collected on the local level, transmitted to allies abroad, and then published in reports and testimonies in order to mobilize moral outrage against human rights violations. …. Finally, advocacy networks hold governments directly accountable ….( Schmitz ). They …. classify and formulate the tactics those groups utilize: ―information politics,‖ ―symbolic politics,‖ ―leverage politics,‖ and ―accountability politics.‖ (Cakmak ). A significant example of advocacy is the pressure by the civil society on their respective governments to evolve legal provisions to curb the menace of trafficking of the girl child and women in South Asia. It was this networking among civil society organizations and activists which resulted in pressurizing the SAARC leaders to sign a Convention to fight this critical problem in the eleventh SAARC summit held in Kathmandu in early 2002 (Ahmed and Bhatnagar 2008 ).

50 Cited in Berg and Kjellman 2004 51 Ibid 52 Cited in Mc Mahon 53 Cited by Schmitz

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Some track six actors in South Asia include SAP-I 54 52 ( known for parallel summitry), People‘s SAARC, Sangat 55 , Simorgh 5653 and Shirkat Gah .The first People‘s SAARC meeting had taken place in New Delhi in July of 1995, as a parallel event to the 8th official SAARC summit (Pyakurel 2010 ). In Pakistan Shirkat Gah was given the task of monitoring the implementation of the SAARC Social Charter (initiated by SACEPS).… (Mumtaz and Abdullah 2006 ). Much has been done with regard to peace activism in which various labour organisations among others have hit the road to success. The Action Aid Pakistan is making a valuable contribution to the peace movement by sponsoring numerous people-to-people dialogues. (5754) Among peace initiatives, recently, a Peace moot was organized by Sindh Sufi Institute. (Nangiana 2011). In human rights activism and lobbying,Forum-Asia(Deuja 2010), SAFHR (5855), SAARC people‘s forum (5956) and SAHRDC 60 57 have successfully got rid of some of the ineradicable ills of the society. South Asian Watch on Trade, Economy and Environment (SAWTEE), PANOS-South Asia, Consumer Unity and Trust Society of India (CUTS), Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SPDI), etc continue to organize significant dialogues and publications to raise environmental consciousness ….61 58 Track Seven Diplomacy: Religion Religious diplomacy, or ―faith in action‖, is an effort by the worldwide religious community of many denominations to teach (or remind) people of the world that religion and belief systems are founded on peace and love rather than violence and war….. Practitioners of religious diplomacy must walk a fine line at times.62 59 Track Seven successes are …the success stories of person-to-person interaction that brings goodwill and understanding to the parties involved. 6360 One could say that religion has always played a significant role in public life …While this is no doubt true, it is also the case that religion has taken a back seat politically ever since the secular values of the European Enlightenment were imposed on Western societies in the eighteenth century ….(Masuzawa 2005)64 61 A study of Iraq and Afghanistan demonstrates that military chaplains, as clergy and officers, occupy a unique space that blends a secular status and a religious one, making them well suited to serve as intermediaries between military and religious leaders in areas of conflict and post conflict stabilization……. ( Adams 2006 ) Reigious organizations are a rich source of peace services…. Religions contribute to peace-building …(Life and Peace Report, 1990) 65 62.. ……… Efforts could be of a traditional diplomatic nature or be categorized as Track II or Field diplomacy ( Reychler). ‗ Faith-Based Diplomacy‘, a seminar for the Kashmir peace process resulted in many fruitful discussions…. ( Philpott and Cox 2006 ). In a conference ‗Anatomy of Religious Conflict in South and Southeast Asia‘(2005) ,the religious conflicts of South and South East Asia were widely discussed. In general, if we sit musing on the history of conflicts anywhere in the world, it has a lot to do with religious fundamentalism. In an essay, using the Punjab conflict as a case study, Thomas provides a theoretical model of dispute resolution and crisis management for conflicts in which one major actor can be described as religiously fundamentalist..…….( Thomas 1999). A study carried out by Cooperation for Peace and Unity (CPAU) on ‗the role and functions of religious civil society in Afghanistan: case studies from sayedabad & kunduz‘, shows: ―In Afghanistan, relations between the government and religious actors and religious actors with other civil society players, are complex. Throughout the history, governments have sought its approval, and even existence, from religious authorities. In return religious actors function as advisors to the government. ….‖ (CPAU 2007). In the South Asian Journal conference ―Envisioning South Asia‖, in April 2006 in Islamabad, the ‗Group on Religious Extremism and Minorities‘ argued that both minority persecution and ghettoisation have to be countered. 66 63 In this regard, Chandran (2009) while examplifying Baba Chamliyal Mela along the international border suggests that more such regional festivals and border melas could be organized …all along the LoC. Inter-religious dialogues and peace movements of civil societies in South Asia have a manifest desire 54 Source: Ahmed and Bhatnagar 2008 55 Home page accessed 56 Waslekar 1995 57Faiz 58 Ibid 59 Nesadurai 2010 60 Supra no.57 61 Supra no.44 62 Cuthbert 2005 63 Ibid 64 Cited in Global Civil Society Year Book 2006-07 (chapter 6) 65 Cited in Reychler 66 Supra no.48

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to end insurgency and counter-insurgency operations in the region. …to turn the region into a peaceful community. ….67 64 One instance of religion having bound relations between two neighbours, India and Pakistan has been the Kartarpur Marg – Peace Corridor of sikh community of the two neighbours.. …..(IMTD 2010 ) Track Eight Diplomacy: Funding Track Eight Overview Track Eight diplomats are the philanthropists of the world. Often these are private individuals or foundations, but also included are such agencies as the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the U.S. Agency for International Development, and like chartered organizations. ….6865 Funding agencies in South Asia IMTD69, ADB ( e.g.The SASEC Information Highway Project 70, RETA 6417 (SANIE), USIS and some US foundations, 7166 FES72,7367 and The Henry L. Stimson Center 74 in Washington, DC. The centre has extensive experience in the promotion of Confidence Building Measures (CBMs) for the purpose of reducing regional tension. 7568 So, as the literature suggests, much of the funding of nonofficial dialogues continues to originate outside the region ….Some dialogues have simply died after the foreign funding ceased. South Asia Dialogues is a case in point. A counterexample is that of the Neemrana Dialogue….. 7669 Track Nine Diplomacy: Communications and the Media Overview Diamond and McDonald state that ―The primary task of the communications field is to use print, visual, and electronic media to inform and engage the public on issues relating to peace, conflict resolution, and international relations.‖ ….77 70 The media‚ as it exists today is a vast and complex organism that means different things to different people. ..it is looked at as a platform for self-expression.(Muralidharan ) The literature is replete with Television journalism during terror attacks (Mogensen 2008), the agenda-setting role of the mass media in the shaping of public opinion (McCombs ), Media and conflict transformation { (Jager & Link 1993; Van Dijk 1997).78 71I (Terzis 2000) 79 72. (Botes 1996). 8073}, Media broker diplomacy (Gilboa 2005 ) and of late, Social Media as a new Track of MTD (Gamaghelyan 2011 ). The news media‘s role in diplomacy has been discussed in Indian context by Rai. (2003). (Joshi 2001 ) deals with the Agra Summit, having got extraordinary media attention. The NGO Search for Common Ground, through its Radio Soap Operas has contributed to tolerance education 81. But media has not been able to gear itself up for meeting the challenges faced by the civil society in South Asia. This has been discussed by Bhasin (2011). Mass Media in South Asia is nation-based and primarily state-linked or state-biased ( Gunasekera 2002 ). The youth have been the major victims of this biased ness of the media. Argues Shah (1997): ―…Curricula act as instrumental tools of state policy for shaping the minds of future generations. …Hierarchical decisions take precedence over personal ones. These colonial organizations have an exclusive corporate mind-set that defines the value system of their personnel.‖ As is generally observed, one of the problems related to this field is that the media has a preference for 'bad news' above 'good news'( IMTD 2011 ). To undo it, radio can prove to be an effective means of communication, when it comes to reaching the hearts of the grass roots..(Islam 2011) 67 Supra no.61 68 Supra no.63 69 Source: IMTD 2008 70 Source: Asian Development Bank 2007 (Cited in Pradhan and Liyanage) 71 Source: Waslekar 1995 72 Waslekar 1995 discusses its role in CASAC 73 Its useful inputs to 14th summit find mention in FES (2007) 74 Krepon and Haider 2004 75 Supra No. 39 76 Behera 2002 77 Cited in Cuthbert 2005 78 Cited in Melone et al, 2002 79 Ibid. 80 Ibid 81 Burgess and Burgess 2010.

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Although track nine is the innermost circle, joining all other tracks, it has different roles to play in the different tracks. It is often surrounded by the controversial issue of whether the mumbo-jumbo of official diplomacy should be done with or without media. As Kappereler puts it, ―from confidential diplomacy is becoming public.‖ Whatever approach is taken to the media, everyone involved in a process—including the media—should clearly understand what can be publicized and what cannot, and why. If the media understand the importance of keeping some issues private, they will be more likely …to respect that privacy. 82 The print and electronic media are often the best partners in any good advocacy campaign…. Quality and reliable information is the life-blood of advocacy campaigns. 83 74. Some track nine actors of South Asia having spared no pains (to ensure that the hatred for the ‗other‘ is undone root and branch) include: Some one time regional conferences on strategic issues by Time Magazine and the Frontier Post, (Lahore) 8475, Aman Ki Asha85, The Centre for Media and Cultural Studies (CMCS),86 South Asia Free Media Association (SAFMA), South Asia Media Commission (SAMC)87 and The Media South Asia Project. 88 Some unofficial … activities have attempted to bridge the information gap between the independent Pakistani and Indian press media…. 8976 The information deficit in the region was addressed In the South Asian Journal conference ―Envisioning South Asia‖, facilitated by SAFMA, on 29-30 April 2006 in Islamabad. Given the rising numbers of South Asian Cyber citizenry, there is an urgent need to upgrade, integrate and facilitate cyber connectivity and accessibility. 90 77. When it comes to the joint initiatives with regard to media, one of the success stories is SAFMA, 91 78 having a lot to its credit.. Besides, Panos South Asia and Himal Southasian have been bringing together top media editors from India, Pakistan and Afghanistan for an open, informal and informed sharing of experience and information. (Himal 2011). Recently the public opinion of the Kashmir peace process was sought in Jammu..…..Academician Radha Kumar, one of the three interlocutors, told that the "biggest commonality that has been found across the state is that the people want a permanent and irreversible solution to the Kashmir crisis". (Pargal 2011 ) Additional tracks: People Building Peace recognizes Women, Arts, Sports as additional tracks . Women and peacebuilding Be it reconciliation, and reconstruction.(Marshall 2000), Bonn negotiations(Governance and Social Development Resource Centre 2009 ), or the issue of being given a voice at the negotiating table (Women & War: Power and Protection in the 21st Century) or supporting networks of women peacebuilders (Marshall et al 2011), women have started being recognized as peacebuilders. South Asia is no exception. ….Over the years, irrespective of political upheavals, women have persistently engaged in dialogue and communication across the border. (Faiz). Their role in peace building and post conflict reconstruction in Afghanistan, Sri Lanka and Nepal has been stressed upon by Rita Manchanda(2005). Women‘s Initiative for Peace in South Asia (WIPSA),92 79 Women‘s Action Forum (WAF),93 Women in Security, Conflict Management and Peace (WISCOMP),94 80Feminist writers,95 81 and Foundation of SAARC Writers and Literature (FOSWAL)96, 97 82 are some peacebuilders of this track in South Asia. Arts and Culture/ cultural diplomacy 82 Ibid 83 Rahman 2002 84 Supra no.71 85 The News International, Feb. 2010 86 Home page, accessed April 2011 87 SAFMA publication 88 Home page, accessed July 2011 89 Supra No. 43 90 Supra No.66 91 A detailed analysis of its achievements is done by Faiz 92 Peace bus and other initiatives (Faiz) 93 Ibid 94 WISCOMP Update 2005 95 Supra no.93 96 Ibid 97 FOSWAL has a diversified role.Its establishment is creditable to Mrs. Ajeet Kour .

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If properly introduced, …culture helps remove the feeling of formality that often blankets diplomatic gatherings…. A growing number of states acknowledge that culture is a high priority in diplomatic relations.‖(livemint.com, Aug.15, 2011) Culture is the subliminal third leg of international diplomacy, the first two being politics and economics.(Ghose 2010 ) ―Cultural diplomacy has become important as we seek to strengthen and reinforce people to people contact transcending political barriers,‖ said Mukherjee.(Express News Service, June 2008 ). The artist community of India and Pakistan has been in the vanguard of citizen peace diplomacy. As in other regions of the world, music, dance, the visual and performing arts have been able to reach out across the region…. Through their performances, these groups have …emphasized the need to resolve conflicts so as to divert energies towards the welfare of the people.98 83. In this regard, the ‗First SAARC cultural festival,99 Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA ),100 ,Tehrik-e-Niswan of Pakistan,101 84 and Ajoka Theatre Group10285 have brought off the tasks left unfinished by the official actors. In recent years, the Peace conferences103,104 are success stories in themselves . Sports In Sports, the generally talked about issue is that of cricket diplomacy between the two biggest members of SAARC. Comments like ‗cricket-inspired diplomatic thaw‘(The Hindustan Times, The Express Tribune, April 24th, 2011) are quite common. Cricket diplomacy may prove to be an effective tool to lever the crates of friendship and cooperation open. As comments Mehta (2011): ―When India and Pakistan can play cricket, why can‘t they undertake trade?‖ III. Conclusion This paper was centred on the the eight sub tracks of unofficial diplomacy ( as provided by the multitrack diplomacy model) and some additional tracks like track one and a half, women, arts and sports. It has been tried to take a long look at the situation in general and in particular in SAARC. This is a new facet of SAARC, a SAARC by the people (youth, women, artists, writers, citizens, think tanks, NGOs, media, religious bodies and all that jazz). The way these non-state actors have stood by the cause of regional cooperation and beyond that i.e. their contribution in spawning a general support for one ‗South Asia‘ speak well for themselves, given that it was not of yore that the first unofficial dialogue got itself recognized. References Acharya, Amitav (2011) ―Engagement or Entrapment? Scholarship and Policymaking on Asian Regionalism‖, International Studies Review 13, 12-17. Adams, George. (2006) ―Chaplains as Liaisons with Religious Leaders :Lessons from Iraq and Afghanistan‖, USIP Peaceworks No. 56. Ahmed, Samina and Suranjan Das (1998) ― Movements of People, Ideas, Trade, and Technology: Toward a Peaceful Coexistence of India and Pakistan‖, SAND98-0505/3 Alam, Imtiaz ed. (2006) ed. SAPANA South Asian Studies VolumeV: Energy Cooperation in South Asia, June. Algappa, Muthiah ed.(2003)Asian Security Order :Institutional and normative features (Stanford :Stanford University Press) 247.(limited preview available online) ―Anatomy of Religious Conflict in South and Southeast Asia,‖ (2005) Conference organised by Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies (IDSS), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 3-4 May. ‗An assembly towards a union of South Asian peoples (21-23 April 2010, Delhi ): Hundreds of South Asians attend Peoples SAARC conference‘. (Home Page, Sangat). Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) (2010) ―Key Proposals for Harnessing Business Opportunities in South Asia‖,3 March . Asian Development Bank. (2007) ― South Asia Sub regional Economic Cooperation Information Highway Project‖ Retrieved 15 April 2008 (by the author). Baba, Noor Ahmad (2005) ―Pugwash conference on Kashmir :some reflections‖, IPCS# 1620, 2Jan. Background paper ―Active role of Non-State Actors‖ (2006)in Regional Conference on ‗expansion of SAARC :challenges and opportunities‘, organised by the Institute of Foreign Affairs (IFA) and FES, 29-30 June, Lalitpur. Bailes, John Gooneratne, Mavara Inayat, Jamshed Ayaz Khan and Swaran Singh (2007) ―Regionalism and Security building: Regionalism in South Asian Diplomacy‖, SIPRI Policy Paper No. 15, 2007 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Sweden.

98 Supra No. 96 99 SAARC bands festival 2007 100 Suhrawardy 101 Supra No. 98 102 Ibid 103 Sufism for peace, India International Centre, 2006. 104 Budhism for peace, India International Centre, 2009.

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Carvalho, Vanessa Roque de (2010) ―A Critical Descriptive Analysis Of The Role Of Track I And Track II Diplomatic Interventions: The Case Of The Democratic Republic Of Congo (1998-2002)‖, Thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in International Studies at Stellenbosch University, March. Chandran, D Suba (2010) ―Indo-Pak Nuclear Commission :A SWOT Analysis‖ IPCS #3279, 11 November. Chandran, D. Suba (2009) ― Expanding Cross-LoC Interactions : Perspectives from India,‖ IPCS Issue Brief 131, September. Chigas, D. 2003. Track II (Citizen) Diplomacy. [Online] Available:<http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/track2_diplomacy/>. [27 March 2009]. UC-900, March , Cooperative Monitoring Center Occasional Paper/3. Cooperation for Peace and Unity (CPAU) (2007) ―The Role And Functions Of Religious Civil Society In Afghanistan : Case Studies From Sayedabad & Kunduz‖, July. Crow, Ben and Nirvikar Singh (2008) ―The management of inter-state rivers as demands grow and supplies tighten: India, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh‖, University of California, Santa Cruz, MPRA Paper No. 12433. Cuthbert, Randall (2005), ― North Korea: The Potential Application of Multi-Track Diplomacy to Conflict Resolution and Peace Building‖, IMTD Occasional Paper Number 16, April. Dahal,Dev Raj ―Track II Diplomacy in South Asia :Limits and Possibilities for Regional Cooperation‖. Davies, John L. and Edward Kaufman ed.(2002)Second Track/ Citizens Diplomacy :Concepts and Techniques for Conflict Transformation (USA: Rowman and Littlefield publishers) 2. (limited preview available online) Deuja, Surya (2010) ―Establishing a Robust Regional Human Rights Mechanism in South Asia‖ Asian Human Rights Defender Main Feature :A regional human rights mechanism for South Asia 6( 1 ) 4-7. Dixit, Kanak Mani, (2005) ―Within Grasp : Persian Gas for the South Asian Engine‖, Himal, July-August . Durrani, Mahmud Ali ed. (2001) India and Pakistan: The Cost of Conflict and the Benefits of Peace Oxford : Oxford University Press. Elbinger,Lewis K. (2007) ―The United States Of South Asia :healing The Wounds Of Partition‖ A Research Report Submitted to the Faculty In Partial Fulfillment of the Graduation Requirements, Air War College, Air University FS-01, U.S. Department of State, February. Evans, Paul (ed.), Studying Asia Pacific Security Toronto: University of Toronto, York University Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies, 1994. Excerpts from the 9th Panos- Himal Roundtable ―Challenges and opportunities for lasting peace in-India, Pakistan and Afghanistan‖ held on 2-3 October 2010, Belgium Himal January 2011. Express News Service (2008) ―Cultural diplomacy important for people-to-people contact‖Posted Jun 02. Faiz, Asma-Ul-Husna ―India Pakistan Dialogue: Bringing the Society in‖, RCSS Policy Studies 39. FES(2007): ―SAARC: Slow Progress and Uncertain Prospects‖, Background paper 3 of the Conference on ‗SAARC 2015: Expanding Horizons and forging Cooperation in a Resurgent Asia‘, FES, New Delhi, February. Gamaghelyan, Phil (2011) ―Social Media :A New Track of Multi-Track Diplomacy‖ July 1,Caucasus edition, Journal of Conflict transformation . Ghose, Anindita (2010), ― The govt realizes the value of cultural diplomacy: Singh on ICCR‘s rapid expansion under his tenure and the organization‘s conscious Look East strategy‖, Hindustan Times Posted Sat, Nov 13 Ghosh, Gautam (2006) ―Private sector and conflict management‖ in Regional Conference on ‗expansion of SAARC :challenges and opportunities‘, organised by the Institute of Foreign Affairs (IFA) and FES, 29-3June, Lalitpur. Gilboa, Eytan (2005) ―Media-Broker Diplomacy: When Journalists Become Mediators‖, Critical Studies in Media Communication 22( 2): 99-120. Gunasekera, Laxman (2002) (a speaker) in ‗Second South Asian People Summit Inaugural Public Meeting‘ January 3, Nepal . Harpviken, Kristian Berg and Kjell Erling Kjellman (2004) ― Beyond Blue prints: Civil Society and peace building‖, concept paper commissioned by the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) Aug. Heiling, Robert M.(2007) ― Conflict Resolution in Aceh in Light of Track One and a Half Diplomacy‖ ASEAS 1 (2) (Retrieved Nov 02, 2008, from http://www.berghof-peacesupport.org/publications/) Hicks, Donna and William Weisberg ― PICAR Sri Lanka Problem-Solving Project‖, chapter 5 in David Smock ed. Private Peacemaking USIP-Assisted Peacemaking Projects of Nonprofit Organizations. Hindustan Times (2011) ―Cricket-diplomacy-back-channel-diplomacy-initiated-months-ago‖, April 24. IMTD Annual Report 2008 ―India/Pakistan Relations and Kashmir :Steps Toward Peace‖, ICG Asia Report N0 79, 24 June 2004. Islam, Sheikh Mohammad Shafiul (2011) ―Role of Radio in Peace Building Process in South Asia‖, Association for Progressive Communications (APC). Joshi, Hemant (2001) ― Media and Summit Diplomacy‖ suite 101.com 27Jul .

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R. Gupta et al., American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 3(1), June-August, 2013, pp. 5065 Kardar, Shahid (2000) ―People to People Contact in South Asia :Scope and Constraints‖ in Behera, Navnita Chadha ., Victor Gunawardena, Shahid Kardar and Raisul Awal Mahmood ed. People to People Contact in South Asia (New Delhi : Manohar Publishers) Kaye, Dalia Dassa. (2007) ―Talking to the Enemy: Track Two Diplomacy in the Middle East and South Asia,‖ Arlington, VA: RAND Corporation. Keck, M.E., and Sikkink, K. ed.(1998) Activists beyond Borders :Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca :Cornell University Press. Keet, Dot (2007) ―Alternative Regionalisms :Why and How?‖, Global Social Policy 2007; 7; 255. Kelegama, Saman (2007) ― Towards Greater Economic Connectivity in South Asia‖, EPW, September 29. Kelegama, Saman (2011) ―SAARC needs a major shake up‖ The Island, P.5, 27th September. Lal, Vinay (1999) ― Establishing Roots, Engendering Awareness :A Political History of Asian Indians in the United States‖ in Leela Prasad ed. Live Like the Banyan Tree :Images of the Indian American Experience (Philadelphia :Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies) 42-48. Lama (2006) in Regional Conference on expansion of SAARC :challenges and opportunities, organised by the Institute of Foreign Affairs (IFA) and FES, 29-30 June, Lalitpur. Lama, Mahendra P ―SAARC: Dynamics of Emerging New Regionalism‖. Maley, William, and Amin Saikal. (2002) ―Civil Society and Reconstruction :Some Reflections‖ Afghanistan Info 7-8. Manchanda, Rita (2005) Draft Version of Paper ―Women‘s Agency in peace Building and Gender relations in Post Conflict Reconstrucion with attention to Afghanistan, Sri Lanka and Nepal‖, UNIFEM Working Paper 8. Mapendere, J. (2000). ―Track One and a Half Diplomacy and the Complementarity of Tracks‖, Culture of Peace Online Journal, 2(1), 66-81. Retrieved May 29, 2008, from http://www.copoj.ca/pdfs/Jeffrey.pdfwww.copoj.ca/pdfs/Jeffrey.pdf. Marshall , Katherine., Susan Hayward, Claudia Zambra, Esther Breger, and Sarah Jacksont (2011), ―Women in religious Peacebuilding‖, USIP Peaceworks No. 71. Marshall, Donna Ramsey (2000) ― Women in War and Peace: Grassroots Peacebuilding‖ USIP Peaceworks No. 34. Martens, K., (2005) NGOs and the United Nations :Institutionalization, professionalization and adaptation New York: Palgrave. Masuzawa,Tomoko(2005) The inventions of World religions or How European Universalism was preserved in the language of pluralism , Chicago, University of Chicago press. McCombs, Maxwell ed. (2004) The Agenda-Setting Role of the Mass Media in the Shaping of Public Opinion University of Texas at Austin. McDonald, J. W. (1996). Multi-Track Diplomacy, A Systems Approach to Peace. Sterling, VA. Kumarian Press. McGann, James G., (2009) ― European Think Tanks: Regional And Trans-Atlantic Trends‖, The Think Tanks And Civil Societies Program, September. McMahon, Patrice ―NGOs and Peacebuilding: Challenges and choices for future research‖. Mehta, Pradeep S. (2011) ―Building Peace through Trade :The Future of Indo-Pak Relations‖ Consumer Unity Trust Society (CUTS), Jaipur. Melone, Sandra D. Georgious Terzis and Ozsel Beleli (2002) ―Using the media for conflict transformation :the common ground experience‖, Berghof Handbook for Conflict transformation, March. Mogensen, Kirsten (2008) ―Media, War and Conflict: Television journalism during terror attacks‖ Sage (Los Angeles, London, New Delhi and Singapore) Vol. 1(1)31-49. Montville, J. V., Davidson, W. D. (1981) ―Foreign Policy According to Freud‖, Foreign Policy, Winter 1981-82, 145-157.(cited pwks, conf.) Mumtaz ,Khawar and Tahira Abdullah (2006) ― Monitoring Implementation of the SAARC Social Charter in Pakistan‖, SACEPS Paper No. 12 (Submitted to South Asia Centre for Policy Studies (SACEPS) For Shirkhat Gah, Pakistan), September . Muralidharan, Sukumar ― Media And Conflict: Introductory Note Part I- Media Fundamentals‖. Naik, Niaz(2001), ―Confidence building in South Asia :problems and prospects‖, paper presented in International seminar on South Asian Economic Cooperation, problems and prospects, organised by the Institute of policy Studies (IPS) , Colombo. Nan, S.A.( 2003) ― Track I Diplomacy‖ in Burgess, G and Burgess, H. (eds.) Beyond Intractability. Nangiana, Umer (2011) Discussion : ―No to bombs and violence,‖ The Express Tribune, Feb.4. Nesadurai, Helen E.S. (2010) ―Labor and Grassroots Civic Interests In Regional Institutions‖, ADB Working Paper Series on Regional Economic Integration No. 63, November. Pargal, Sanjeev (2011) ―Consensus on dialogue; violence, militancy have failed: interlocutors‖ Daily Excelsior, July 13. Patil, Sameer Suryakant., Aparajita Mazumdar and Kamala Kanta Dash (2008) ―SAARC towards Greater Connectivity,‖ Conference Report, Institute Of Peace And Conflict Studies, Konrad Adenauer Foundation & India International Centre. Perera, Quintus (2008) ― CIMA partners SAARC Apex Bodies on Governance and Social Responsibility‖ Asian Tribune July, 29. Philpott, Daniel and Brian Cox (2006) ―What faith based diplomacy can offer in Kashmir?‖in David R. Smock ed. Religious Contributions to Peacemaking: When Religion Brings Peace, Not War, USIP Peaceworks No. 55: 5-8. Pradhan, Kishor and Harsha Liyanage Document 39, IDRC. ―Private Professionals for Peace‖ in Introduction to People Building Peace Eurpoean platform for conflict prevention and transformation. Project summary of the project ‗SAARC Bands Festival‘ held from 30November - 2 December, 2007 in Delhi. Pyakurelpp, Sushil (2010) ―National Human Rights Institutions (NHRIs) in South Asia: Cooperation needed to challenge regional impunity‖ Asian Human Rights Defender Main Feature :A regional human rights mechanism for South Asia 6( 1 ) 1315 Rahman, A Atiq (2002) ―Policy Livelihood Relationship in South Asia, Role of NGOs in Advocacy: Lessons Learnt from Bangladesh and South Asian Countries‖, Bangladesh Centre For Advanced Studies. Rai, Ajai K.(2003) ― Diplomacy and the News Media : A Comment on the Indian Experience‖ Strategic Analysis, 27( 1) JanMar. -Rajasingam, Nirmala (2011) ― The simulated politics of diaspora‖ Himal January. Report No. 36445-GLB (2006) ―Civil Society and Peacebuilding :Potential, Limitations and Critical Factors‖, Social Development Department, Sustainable Development Network Document of the World Bank, Dec. 20. RETA 6417 ―Supporting Network of Research Institutes and Think Tanks in South Asia: Phase II - Selection of the Next Set of Research Proposals ,Supplementary Technical Assistance for TA 6189-REG‖.

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R. Gupta et al., American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 3(1), June-August, 2013, pp. 5065 Reychler, Luc ―Field Diplomacy Initiatives In Burundi And Cameroon‖. Rosario, T..Cruz-del. (2008) ― Regionalism, Governance and the ADB :A Foucauldian Perspective,‖ Centre on Asia and Globalization Working Paper Series. No. 3. Singapore Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore. SACEPS Recommendations to The Sixteenth SAARC Summit, (Thimpu, April 2010). Salik, Naeem (2006) ―Minimum Deterrence and India Pakistan Nuclear Dialogue :Case Study on Pakistan‖ , LNCV Publications, March. Santos, Soliman M. and JR. Esq. ― The Role of Civil Society in Peace Processes in the South and South East Asian Regions‖, Background Paper 4d. Sarwar, Beena (1997) ―Indo-Pakistan Cross Fertilisation,‖ Himal South Asian, June. Schaffer, Howard B., and Teresita Schaffer (2005) ― Kashmir: Fifty Years of Running in Place‖, in Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela Aall ed. Grasping the Nettle :Analyzing Cases of Intractable Conflict Washington, D.C:United States Institute of Peace, pp. 295-318. Schmitz, Hans Peter ―Transnational Human Rights Networks :Significance and Challenges‖, Syracuse University. Sewak, Manjri (2006) ―Indo-Pak conflict: 'Ripe' enough to resolve?‖ The Financial Express, September 07. Shah, Aqil S. (1997) ― Non-Official Dialogue between India and Pakistan: Prospects and Problems‖ ACDIS Occasional Paper. Sibal (2011) ―Connect universities, hospitals of South Asia‖ IANS l September 10. Siver, Stanford (2005) ―A Process Oriented View of Conflict Resolution‖. Siver, Stanford (2006) ―Process Work and the Facilitation of Conflict‖, Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy with a concentration in Psychology and specialization in the Psychology of Conflict, June 6. Srinivasan, Anupama (2009) ―A Survey of Civil Society Peace Education Programmes in South Asia‖,Educational Policy Research Series Volume I Number 2 August . Strand, Arne, Hege Toje, Alf Morten Jerve, and Ingrid Samset.( 2003) ―Community Driven Development in Contexts of Conflict‖ Bergen :Chr. Michelsen Institute. ―Sufism For Peace‖ (2006) in the three-day international Conference on 'Sufism Sufi Traditions, Poetry and Philosophy' held at India International Centre, New Delhi, on March 18, 19, 20, 2006. Suhrawardy, Nilofar Muslim Media News Service (MMNS) .Terzis, G. (2000) ―Empathizing with the Enemy: How the Greek Media Coverage of the Earthquake in Turkey Moved the Two Peoples Closer‖, paper presented at 3rd International Crossroads in Cultural Studies Conference, 21-25 June, Birmingham. ―The Cultural Dimension in Contemporary International Relations‖ livemint.com, the wall street journal , Aug. 15, 2011. The Hindu (2011) ― SAARC revisits Visa Exemption Scheme‖ , February 9. The Institute for Multi -Track Diplomacy (IMTD) (2010) ―Kartarpur Marg: A Peace Corridor for India and Pakistan‖ Peace Building through Collaboration Project Report June. The News International (2010) ―Aman Ki Asha termed the noblest cause‖ Feb. 5. Thomas, C William.(1999) ― Gurus and Guerrillas :Religious Fundamentalism and Dispute Resolution‖, International Corner Spring. Timsina, Netra Prasad (2010) ―South Asian People‘s Assembly or People‘s SAARC: Enhancing inter-people linkages towards alternative regionalization‖, Asian Human rights Defender Vol.6 no.1,June. Tuck, Richard.ed. (1999) The Rights of War and Peace :Political Thought and the International Order from Grotious to Kant Oxford :Oxford University Press. USIP (2011) Women & War Book Launch and Symposium May 5-6 , Washington. Wagner, Christian. (2006) ― Religion, States and Conflict in South Asia,‖ in Muflesh R. Osmany and Saheen Afroze eds., Religion, Military and Security in South Asia, Dhaka: Academic Press and Publishers Library. Waslekar, Sundeep (1995) ― Track-Two Diplomacy in South Asia‖, ACDIS Occasional Paper, International Center for Peace Initiatives Bombay, India, October. What does 'South Asian diaspora' mean? South Asian Concern 2010 WISCOMP Update (2005) Vol. 6 No. 2, December, Foundation for Universal Responsibility of HH The Dalai Lama. Yhome, K and Tridivesh Singh Maini (2011) ― Keep the SAARC borders soft and irrelevant‖, Academy of the Punjab in North America, tehalka.com May 4.

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Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Status of Jews at the dawn of the French Revolution Vanishree Radhakrishna Research Fellow, Centre for the Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy (CSSEIP) National Law School of India University, Bangalore, India. I. Introduction Any historic study of the Jews in Europe is replete with the striking reality of historic injustice that has been perpetrated upon the community through a Christian legacy handed down over several generations. The community of Jews in Europe suffered peculiar social, economic and political disabilities in a caste system in which they were ostracized, condemned to perform certain occupations and relegated to certain geographical locations, making their case a unique one, froth with stigma and hatred. The pariah status of Jews in Europe was thus a common and accepted way of life. On the eve of the Revolution of 1789, Jews, along with minorities such as actors and undertakers were criticized by a hypocrite society that depended on the services of the above category of humans while equally detesting their presence. The spirit and rhetoric of the French Revolution of 1789 influenced the political and social language of France, as a catalyst that ultimately resulted in the recognition of Jewish political rights, supposedly on par with the other citizens of France. The Declaration of the rights of Man was enshrined in such universal language as man, general welfare, natural rights, society and general will1. Thus the Jewish“emancipation” can be considered a logical consequence of the Declaration of the Rights of Man2. Whether the “emancipation” resulted in the actual upliftment of the Jews or a complete assimilation or it ironically resulted in the creation of a renewed Jewish identity, has been a matter of controversy among intellectuals and historians3. Wendy Brown has argued that the “regeneration” of the Jewish identity has ultimately resulted in the 19th century “racialization” where the Jew had to die, giving rise to a race of Jews.4 This, she argues was carried out through disciplines such as Anthropology, Biology, Philology and Literature, where physical traits such as skin color, health, nose, genitals and feet became the sustaining factors of Jewishness rather than religious practices or distinctions.5 This paper argues that although the “emancipation” of the Jews has been coated in magnanimous terms, one must bear in mind the political and philosophical climate of Europe in general and France in particular, when analyzing the “Jewish question”. The path to obtaining civil rights and citizenship was neither an easy one nor was it an unconditional endowment. The rights were recognized in fragments and there were marked categories of citizens created, adding further qualifications in the process of political empowerment. However, despite the delayed and qualified recognition of political rights of the Jews in France, in a overall summation of the status of Jews, it is the first step towards citizenship that had a tremendous influence with in France and across Europe. II. Social and economic disparities among the Jews The Jewish community in France at the time of the revolution was not a static or unified and cohesive whole. The Sephardic Jews of Bordeaux were descendants of the migrants from Spain and Portugal. 6They were 1

Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen, 1789. see appendix Esther Benbasa The Jews of France: A history from antiquity to the present, (princeton University Press, New Jersey) 82. 3 See for example, Pierre Birnbaum Jewish Destinies: citizenship, State, and Community in Modern France, (Hill and Wang, New York, 2000) 31-35. 4 Wendy Brown , “Tolerance and / or equality? the “Jewish question” and the “woman question” Differences : A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies, Vol 15, No 2, Summer 2004, 5. 5 ibid. 6 , Marie Shanti Singham “ Betwixt Cattle and Men: Jews, Blacks and Women and the Declaration of the Rights of Man” in The Fench idea of Freedom- The old regime and the Declaration of Rights of 1789, ed. Dale Vankley ( Stafford university Press, 1994) 2

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wealthy, educated, French speaking and had assimilated into the French society and enjoyed such privileges as the right to trade and freedom of movement. 7Their admittance into France was on the pretext of being “ New Christians” or Conversos8. They were subject only to a nominal authority of the Catholic church and practiced Judaism in a discreet manner9. Having participated in the slave trades, they even went on to take part in the 1789 Estates General elections.10 In contrast, the Ashkenazic Jews residing in Alsace, Lorraine and Metz, were Yiddish speaking, following traditional form of Judaism and were very poor.11 They were subjected to heavy taxes and restricted movement and they were the most hated class.12 Forbidden from land ownership, they engaged in petty trade and money lending13. The Jews in Avignon were in a more advantageous position and engaged in silk and drapery business whereas the Jews in Paris were legally nonexistent.14 Given their distinct roots, levels of assimilation in to the French society and their social, economic and political influences, the Jews in France lacked a feeling of unity. While the Jews of Ashkenazim of Alsace and Lorraine sought to achieve civic equality and advocated education for the upliftment of the poor Jews, the Sepharic Jews of Bordeaux and Bayonne dreaded aligning themselves with the poor and more traditional Jews whom they considered inferior, lest their own status be jeopardized by associating with them. 15 They were apprehensive of any common legal status equating all the Jews, as they were already enjoying certain privileges and feared losing them.16 In fact, they expressed strong disagreement to the “misguided demands” of the traditional Jews of the east17. Thus the community of Jews was divided not only vis-a-vis the French society but also among the practitioners of Judaism in France. III. A move towards Jewish “emancipation” In 1787, minister Chretien Guillaume De Malesherbes prepared two memoranda describing the status of Protestants in France, resulting in a royal edict declaring that civil rights could not be limited to Catholics. This opened up a debate about non-Catholics and hence the “Jewish question” was raised for consideration.18 Malesherbes attributed the popular hatred for Jews to the Jewish quality of “remaining a nation with in a nation” and sought to “integrate” the Jews as a “religious minority” on par with the Protestants.19 The rights of Jews were not recognized in the Declaration of 1789. However, the Spanish and Portuguese Jews from southern France petitioned to the Assembly claiming that like the Protestants, they were taking part in the political process in cities like Bordeaux, and thus were not demanding new rights of citizenship but they were “asking to continue to enjoy their existing rights”20. The liberal Catholic bishop charles- Maurice de TalleyrandPerigord, spoke for the Committee on the Constitution endorsing the rights of the above category of Jews. 21 However, it was only on 21 September of 1791 that the Jews of Alsace and Lorraine were finally granted citizenship.22 IV. Arguments against Jewish “emancipation” The opponents of the Jewish cause argued vehemently against their political empowerment and representation. They insisted that the Jews did not owe allegiance to the nation of France due to their “alien nature” and that their practices such as not bearing arms on the Sabbath, following of peculiar dietary laws and restrictions on professional practices made them unworthy of French society and therefore not deserving of civil rights23. The deep rooted prejudice against the Jews is also evident from the criticisms of Abbe Jean Sieflein Maury, one of the chief opponents against the granting of Jewish citizenship, who believed that the Jews were intrinsically 7

ibid. ibid. 9 ibid. 10 ibid. 11 ibid. 12 ibid. 13 ibid. 14 ibid. 15 Paula E. Hyman The Jews of Modern France, (University of California Press, Berkely, 1988) 22. 16 Arthur Hertzberg, The French Enlightenment and the Jews : the origins of Modern Anti-Semitism, (Columbia University Press, New York, 1990) 314. 17 Birnbaum Pierre, Jewish Destinies: citizenship, State, and Community in Modern France, Hill and Wang, New York, 2000, 42. 18 Hyman, 21-22. 19 ibid 22. 20 Lynn Hunt, Inventing Human Rights, (W.W Norton & Company, New York, 2007) 157. 21 ibid. 22 Jay R. Berkovitz, “The French evolution and the Jews: Assessing the cultural impact” Association of Jewish Studies Review, Vol 20, 1 (1995) 25. 23 Hertzberg 351. 8

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contemptible and had not become so due their religious practices24. Francios Hell, in a pamphlet attempting to exonerate himself from accusations of forgery of receipts allegedly repaying the loans of Jews by Alsatian peasants, considered himself as the champion of “ so many oppressed citizens” against the “tyranny of the Jewish nation”25. In order to fill more hatred and to instill a sense of urgency and sympathy for the Alsatian peasants, Hell created a story of a Jew who is insistent in offering a loan to a peasant, despite the peasant's reluctance to accept the same. The Jew's persistence finally gives way and the peasant, not fully comprehending the consequences accepts the offer and the terms. The Jew then presents himself several times before the peasant, which results in “passions being inflamed” in the peasant. Seeing the the disturbed state of the peasant, the Jew “pretends to be firm”demanding a repayment of the loan, and ends up “renegotiating” for his higher advantage. The young peasant is now completely destroyed. Hell concludes “ it is thus that this fils de famille, altered by the fire of debauchery, drinking from the perfidious cup of usury, swallows in one stroke the patrimony he does not yet possess and the dowry of a woman to whom he is not yet engaged”26 Thus Francios Hell's portrayal of Jews as “anti- citizens” of evil and greed, a community engaging in usury and trickery to prey on innocent lives was a reinforcement of the prevalent hatred and prejudices against the Jews at the time. V. Citizenship to Jews The Jews of Alsace, Lorraine and Paris conjointly petitioned to the Assembly seeking citizenship by appealing to the ideological and political rhetoric of the revolution. The petition read “ everything is changing; the lot of the Jews must change at the same time; and the people will not be more surprised by this change than by all those which they see around them every day...... attach the improvement of the lot of the Jews to the revolution, amalgamate, so to speak, this partial revolution to the general revolution”27. On September 27, 1791 the Assembly recognized the rights of citizenship. The bill that was later signed into law read, “ the National Assembly, considering that the conditions necessary to be a French citizen, and to become an active citizen, are fixed by the Constitution, and that any man who, combining the said conditions, takes the civic oath and undertakes to fulfill all the duties that the Constitution imposes has the right to all the advantages it assures : Revokes all adjournments, reservations and exceptions inserted in the preceding decrees regarding individual Jews who shall take the civic oath.” 28 The new legislation made a distinction between “active” and “passive” citizens. “Active” citizenship meant having political rights to vote and hold public offices29. “Active” citizens comprised of men aged twenty five and above and who were capable of paying direct taxes worth three days' labor.30 This disqualified a majority of Jews to participate in the political process. “Passive” citizenship on the other hand, meant that the state would protect them without recognizing any political right to vote or hold public office31. The tactics of resorting to “adjournments, reservations and exceptions” to circumvent addressing the issue of whether Jews were eligible to hold public offices was sought to be corrected. 32 The Jewish community was forced to forego its corporate status and recourse to Jewish judicial institutions and Jewish laws33. The question of Jewish “emancipation” was thus a clearly conceived instrument to assimilate the Jews in to the French society so as to make them inconspicuous and devoid of everything that was characteristic of a Jew. Clermont- Tonnerre, a liberal, argued “ we must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals”34 HenriBaptiste Gregoire who was an ardent defender of Jewish rights, criticized the Talmund, hoped that the Yiddish language would be put to disuse and sought to reduce the authority of the Rabbis.35 Gregoire advocated several measures such as education of Jews along with Christian students, practice of “morally”

24 25

ibid. Ronald Schechter, “ The Jewish Question in Eighteenth Century France” Eighteenth- Century Studies

3.2(1998) 87. 26

ibid. Hunt 158. 28 Schechter Ronald, Obstinate Hebrews: Representation of Jews in France, 1715-1815, University of California Press, 2003, 152-153. 29 ibid. 30 ibid 152. 31 ibid. 32 ibid. 33 ibid. 34 Hyman 27. 35 Benbasa Esther, The Jews of France: A history from antiquity to the present (princeton University Press) 75. 27

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uplifting professions such as agriculture and military service.36 He also advocated several discriminatory practices such as revoking Christian debts to Jews, prohibiting the Jew from acquiring mortgages on Christian property, keeping the Jews from dealing with public funds and requiring Jews to participate in Christian sermons.37 VI. The negative responses of “emancipation” on the Jewish community Although equality was granted on paper, the first part of 1790s witnessed hostility towards the Jews and widespread discrimination against them persisted. Little impact was felt by the wealthy Jews who were already enjoying citizenship status. However, the following instances reveal that transition was not without obstacles for the newly liberated group. For example, it took four months for them to take the oath of citizenship in the municipality of Strasbourg, despite the passing of legislation to that effect38. In another example of lack of political will to implement the rights of the Jews, the mayor of Bischeim obstructed a Jewish group from taking part in elections for Justice of Peace39. Further, in the riots that broke out in 1792, Jews were targeted and the military and municipal council had to step in to prevent further harm40. Not only were the poor Jews shunned by their own wealthy brethren, but were also forced to experience discrimination at the hands of their hosts and those in authority. Thus despite the recognition of political rights, the Jews were far from being socially accepted. VII. Conclusion Although the Jewish “emancipation” has been justified as a political consideration meant for the upliftment of the Jews, given the political and philosophical changes taking place in modern France on the eve of the revolution, it became an imperative for the sovereign consolidation of power in France to assimilate the Jews. The political trends in Europe at that time demanded a “centralization and rationalization of power” and the creation of a “universal citizen.” Bringing the Jews under the umbrella of a centralized administration was a move of an efficient state to consolidate power. Despite the disunity among the Jews and a lack of political influence on the part of the poorer Jews, the fact that there was a political willingness on the part of the Assembly to recognize their political rights, can only be attributed to other compelling factors that were at play, ultimately changing the course of the Jewish cause in post revolution France. The irony of the revolutionaries' ideology is that despite the killing of God, hoping to create a totally secular state, France could not shed its Christian influences; there was an underlying hope that the Jews would eventually become 'Gentiles' by converting to Christianity. The agenda for Jewish community as a special category of underdogs that needed to be “emancipated” cannot thus be completely divorced from the heavy Christian burden of lifting the Jews onto a higher moral ground. The traditional view among Christians that the Jewish suffering was due to God's wrath for their cruelty towards Jesus Christ still persisted41 The assumption indeed was that the Jews were morally deprived and that they could be redeemed by following a Christian way of life and being loyal to a Christian God. The Sephardic Jews who were admitted on the guise of being “NewChristians” or “Coversos” are a classic example of the state's agenda for the Jews. The Jewish community itself is said to have been undergoing internal institutional and cultural changes even before the Revolution had its effect on the community42 and therefore the soil was fertile for changes to be welcomed in certain areas. 1770 and1780 witnessed the power of the Rabbis diminishing and the trend of fall in the observance standards of religious practices43. An open arm embrace of modernity by certain segments of the Jewish community can also be attributed to such changes taking place within the community itself. Despite the state's agenda, Jewish identity has thrived and is telling of a community that has embraced modernity along with maintaining, although discreetly, its unique culture and religious practices in France. The “scheming” Jews, who became an embodiment of everything that was “non-citizen”living as a “nation within a nation” could, with the “emancipation” become ideal citizens, “useful” to the French society. The “rebirth” of the Jews is thus neither a myth nor an absolute reality, it is, on the other hand, a story of a resilient community that has survived the onslaught of centuries of human tyranny. Bibliography 36

Ronald Schechter, The Jewish Question, 89.

ibid. Berkovitz R Jay 52. 39 ibid. 40 ibid. 41 Ronald Schechter, The Jewish Question, 86. 38

42 43

Berkovitz R Jay ibid.

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Books [1]. Benbasa, Esther, The Jews of France: A history from antiquity to the present, Princeton University Press, New Jersey,1999. [2]. Birnbaum Pierre, Jewish Destinies: Citizenship, State, and Community in Modern France, Hill and Wang, New York, 2000. [3]. Hertzberg Arthur, The French Enlightenment and the Jews : the origins of Modern Anti-Semitism, Columbia University Press, New York, 1990. [4]. Hunt Lynn, Inventing Human Rights, W.W Norton & Company, New York, 2007. [5]. Hyman.E Paula, The Jews of Modern France, University of California Press, Berkley, 1988. [6]. Schechter Ronald, Obstinate Hebrews: Representation of Jews in France, 1715-1815, University of California Press, Berkley, 2003. [7]. Singham, Shanti Marie, “ Betwixt Cattle and Men: Jews, Blacks and Women and the Declaration of the Rights of Man”in The Fench idea of Freedom- The old regime and the Declaration of Rights of 1789, ed. Dale Vankley, Stafford university Press, 1994.

Journal Articles [1]. Berkovitz R Jay, “The French evolution and the Jews: Assessing the cultural impact” Association for Jewish Studies Review, Vol 20, 1 (1995) 25-86. [2]. Brown Wendy, “Tolerance and / or equality? the “Jewish question” and the “woman question” Differences : A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies, Vol 15, No 2, Summer 2004, 1-31. [3]. Schechter Ronald “ The Jewish Question in Eighteenth Century France” Eighteenth- Century Studies 3.2(1998) 84-91.

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The Significance of Civil rights movement in America Vanishree Radhakrishna Research Fellow, Centre for the Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy (CSSEIP) National Law School of India University, Bangalore, India. The story of the struggles of African- Americans to organize into communities and demand for equality before law and equality of opportunity has been a long drawn struggle, fraught with vehement resistance based on deep rooted prejudices and hatred. The discriminatory Jim Crow laws curtailed growth of the community and the repeal of these laws came only after a long political and social struggle. Condemned as „communists,‟ politicians sought to portray blacks as evil that was required to be subdued, forcing the black communities to resort to religious rhetoric and avoiding 'economic' terms for the fear of being labeled as communists.1 The lack of political will and failure of Reconstruction to assimilate the blacks despite the 1857 Civil rights Act and the Supreme Court's approach of toeing the line of popular practice only added to widening the chasm2 and hardening of “the color line” at that time. Despite several justifications in various academic disciplines put forth by nineteenth century intellectuals to establish that the negro was in fact, endowed with lower mental capacities and hence incapable of contributing in any significant way,3 the struggles of the African American communities and their achievements are a source of inspiration and symbols of communal strength that have influenced every social and political institutions of modern America. Civil rights, a “moral issue” as declared by John F Kennedy on June 11, 1963, was an issue that was evaded by the civil society for a long time on one pretext or the other. It was finally the clarion call of the Civil rights leaders and the mobilization of thousands of affected blacks that brought the issues of racial discrimination into mainstream debate in America. The success of the Civil rights movement to garner support for the upliftment of a vast population by drawing attention to the peculiar disabilities faced by the blacks and stressing the need for special measures for their empowerment was done through the channels of court cases, appeals and media exposure This process eventually changed the map of the American work force hitherto unwelcoming to the blacks. Economic freedom thus becomes a precursor to the betterment of the African American communities. The southern diaspora, a “Great Migration” to the North provided the necessary social and political impetus to the civil rights movement in the South, at a crucial juncture.4 Black music, northern Diaspora and Black Metropolis Acceptance of black music in mainstream social circles has had a tremendous impact on the black community it its fight for basic respect and dignity. African Americans had to leave the south in order to gain the leverage needed to lift them and the rest of the nation out of Jim Crow segregation”.5Newer avenues became available to the blacks as a result of their migration in to some of the “great” cities such as Newark in New York, Camden in Philadelphia, Gary, Detroit, Cleveland and St Louis in Chicago, Long Beach in Los Angeles, and Oakland in San Francisco.6 The migrants' music was southern in spirit and their commercial success could be achieved only in northern metropolitan cities.7 For the black community, music became “the great twentieth-century channel to fame, fortune and cultural influence, the first substantial venue where whites were willing to acknowledge a pattern of black creativity and authority.” Music, broke down barriers in some ways and created a cultural confluence. Black 1

. Mclean. Nancy, Freedom Is Not Enough: The Opening of the American Workplace ( Harvard University Press, 2008), 37. 2 . Zunz. Oliver, Why the American Century? (University of Chicago Press, 1998) , 142. 3

. Mclean, 26.

. James. N Gregory, The Southern Diaspora : How the Great Migrations of Black and White southerners Transformed America (The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 2005) 238. 5 . Ibid., 237. 6 . Ibid., 117. 7 . Ibid., 135.

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performers influenced the “fashion, values, language and social styles” of white patrons.8 Louis Armstrong played the “ditties with a Texas-Oklahoma to please the dancing Okies, hillbilly western music also took the forms of “Jazz hillbilly” and “western swing” to keep up with the popular musical trends and demands.9 Talent search in southern cities resulted in opportunities in New york, Los Angeles and Chicago that became important centers for career minded artists.10 The formation of white Jazz bands was an important development that carried black music to the white audiences.11 The inclusion of females in the music industry was a shift in the social structure of the black community.12 The music industry turned Bessie Smith into an “Empress of Blues.” 13 The images of “female power and raw sexuality” attributed to African- American female musicians is prevalent to this day. The uniting force of the Black Metropolis and the connections it produced in business, politics and culture proved crucial for the African American community.14 The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the National Urban League were important alliances created in the northern cities. NAACP, a result of the Black Metropolis was a vast organization, an alliance of half a million members by 1945.15 The Urban League provided welfare services, helped negotiate terms with organized labor and created a platform for black issues in the Roosevelt administration in the 1930s. 16 In 1936 it organized black campaign committees to harness black votes and kept the Republican party alive to competition for black votes. 17 Thus forging future political alliances based on promise of racial equality. The NAACP drew the black middle class in to civil rights activities.18 Creating publicity by linking churches and media through lobbying efforts and law suits, it questioned racial discrimination and kept civil rights activism alive. NAACP 's activities were a reflection of the spirit and message of the Black Metropolis, 19 that laid down a fertile ground for the growth of civil rights movement in the northern cities of America. The Black Metropolis became a symbol of community building and forming of political 'alliances'. Organizational effectiveness was evident for example, when the black campaign committees organized for the congressional race in 1936. It was for the first time, an acknowledgement of the political importance of African Americans, inviting criticism from white segregationist senator Ed Smith, who considered it as a “humiliation” of the white south.20 This incident brought media focus on a “new spectacle of national campaigners vying for Negro votes.” 21 The impact of Executive Order 8802 Opening up of the defense sector for the African Americans was an important stepping stone in the struggle for civil rights. Demanding a right to work in the defense sector in 1940 with a slogan “ We Loyal Colored American Citizens Demand the Right to Work and Fight for Our Country” resulted in Executive Order 8802, for the first time since the Reconstruction, seeking to do away with discrimination based on race and the creation of a Federal Fair Employment Practice Committee (FEPC) to oversee government contracts of companies and unions.22 By passing the Executive Order 8802, President Roosevelt established for the first time a mechanism to include the blacks in the defense related industry.23 Thus the African American rhetoric, with an “unusually radical and universalistic vision of justice” that was founded on “ mainstream American values” proved fruitful. Finding it propitious, the community took advantage of the overall political climate against fascism in Europe to awaken the American conscience against the racial discrimination at home and pushed for a “Double V” campaign, reiterating victory abroad and victory at home.24 Roosevelt's New Deal 'reform legislations' also provided ample opportunity for the blacks to unite and organize.25 These developments were however, not without significant compromises on the part of the blacks. In order to please the Conservatives, 8

. Ibid., 135. . Ibid., 182. 10 . Ibid., 139. 11 . Ibid. 12 . Ibid., 140. 13 . Ibid. 14 .Ibid ., 124. 15 . Ibid., 264. 16 . Ibid., 249. 17 . Ibid., 258. 18 Ibid., 251. 19 .Ibid., 250. 20 .Ibid., 258. 21 .Ibid., 258. 22 . Mclean, 23. 23 . Ibid., 22. 24 . Ibid., 23. 25 . Ibid., 17. 9

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„reform legislations‟ excluded blacks in farm and domestic sectors.26 Additionally, the disenfranchisement policy was continued.27 Brown vs Board of Education- a landmark decision Resourceful activism on the part of African American leaders, progressive legislations and pro-civil rights activist judges were responsible for promoting the thought that “the destinies of the two races are indissolubly linked” giving a strong push to the cause of African Americans civil liberties. Supreme Court decisions that were pro-civil rights, made a lasting impact on the psyche of the African American communities and helped foster inclusion. In a break through decision, in Brown v Board of Education28 (1954) the Supreme Court ruled that psychological “damage” caused due to discrimination through segregation, was also a contributory factor in lower levels of performance of blacks in the field of education.29 This decision gave impetus to the hard work of NAACP and the social scientists who were keen on establishing that blacks were 'victims' of discriminatory social practices.30 Attitudes of indifference and apathy towards Affirmative Action: Affirmative action for the blacks proved to be an important instrument that could help the communities shed their years of poverty and social backwardness. President Lyndon Johnson declared that “freedom is not enough” and that “not just equality as a right and a theory, equality as a fact and a result” ought to be the goal in bringing justice to the African American community.31 Martin Luther King Jr was of the strong belief that special efforts through affirmative action was an imperative to bring the black communities into American social mainstream. According to him, there was a need for a “massive program by the government of special compensatory measures” to undo the humiliation of poverty.”32 King was acknowledging a need for 'pluralism' to become an active agent through affirmative action rather than remaining merely in a philosophical plane. 33 Despite negative portrayals as “discrimination in favor of blacks” “racial spoils system” and “free handouts,34” one of the reasons for the effectiveness of affirmative action can be attributed to the progressive approach adopted by the Supreme Court in the early years of its introduction. For example, In Griggs v Duke Power Company35, the appellants were black janitors who sought to apply for better positions at the Dan River, North Carolina power plant and were turned down by the company.36 The Supreme Court in a unanimous decision declared illegal, the “barriers” such as tests that were unrelated to the job and “favored an identifiable group of white employees.”37 The interpretation taken by the Court brought out potentially harmful nature of “ostensibly neutral industrial- relations systems” that could damage “historically excluded groups.” 38The Court pointed out that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act was concerned with the “consequences of employment practices, not simply the motive.”39 Black inclusion in the American work force has proved to be a gateway towards their progress. Studies by economists have clearly demonstrated that numbers based affirmative action programs have been beneficial to the black working class.40 Critics and anti-civil rights activists have persisted in their crusade, and their attitudes are often reflected in the judicial decisions and approaches taken by policy makers. As Oliver Zunz points out, for example, when the Civil rights Act(1964) was in its nascent stage as a bill, Virginia congressman Howard Smith, adopting delaying tactics, sought to garner the support of southerners against the bill to have the bill killed .41 In a classic case of reversal of stand, the Supreme Court in 1978, in Regents of the University of California v Bakke 42upheld a white student's claim that the reservation of a certain number of seats for minority students amounted to discrimination.43 The decision overturned the affirmative action policy and the objective it sought to achieve, denying justice to the historically disadvantaged groups. 26

. Ibid. . Ibid. 28 347 U.S. 483 29 . Zunz. Oliver, 151. 30 . Ibid. 31 . Mclean, 5. 32 . Mclean, 105. 33 Zunz. Oliver, 154. 34 .Mclean Nancy 304. 35 401 US 424 36 . Ibid., 109. 37 . Ibid. 38 . Ibid. 39 . Ibid. 40 . Maclean Nanacy 110. 41 . zunz Oliver, 142. 42 438 US 265 43 . Ibid., 153. 27

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Efforts at diluting the effectiveness of affirmative action policies and to psychologically damage the blacks, abound and are a reflection of obstruction of the democratic process .Conservative propaganda that blacks were seeking “handouts” without any reciprocal contribution and their portrayals of civil rights leaders as selfish liberals interested only in formal equality, have had a damaging effect on the community. 44 Depicting affirmative action in poor light and as detrimental to the beneficiaries who are “unqualified” “lazy” and illegitimate recipients of benefits, the Neoconservatives have attempted to play into the very stereotypes that have been prevalent since the 19th century. Ronald Reagan, an unpopular President with the African American community, having received the least number of African American votes as a Presidential candidate compared to any other Republican presidential candidate since the inception of the Republican party,45 sought to curtail the established affirmative action policies. The Reagan government sought to undo the progressive reforms that the affirmative action policy had undertaken in the twenty years before its assuming office.46 By seeking to rescind Executive Order 11246 that had opened up federal contract programs to include blacks, Mexican Americans, Puerto Rican men and women, the Reagan government, attempted to overhaul the hard earned rights and opportunities that had changed the lives of a huge minority population.47 The position of 15,000 businesses, employing twenty three million workers at 73,000 work sites were sought to be affected.48 With popular support against the overhaul of Executive Order 11246 from within the Congress, businesses and corporations, the Reagan administration resorted to other disruptive mechanisms to dilute its effectiveness. Depriving enforcement mechanisms of funds and appointing persons like William Bradford Reynolds as the head of the Civil Rights Division of the Justice Department,49the administration tried to weaken the enforcement. Reynolds held views that were adverse towards the office he held resulting in gross disrespect towards law.50 Lack of enforcement Enforcement of civil rights law has been fraught with loopholes; a New york Times Magazine investigation done in 1972 revealed that despite federal legal provisions in place, civil rights violations were common in public construction projects.51 Inspite of courts recording such violations, there were no instances of cancellation of such projects.52 The regional office of the Office of Federal Contract Compliance(OFCC) at New York responsible for ensuring compliance from thousands of government contracts in New York state, New Jersey, Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands was understaffed, consisting only of a director, assistant and a secretary to handle all the bulky work.53 The following instances are examples of how The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOP) lacked teeth. It was unable to implement the conciliation settlements that it secured, leaving the companies with ample opportunity to violate the terms of their agreements.54 President Lyndon Johson's proposed EEOP budget was cut into half because of the canvassing of some congressman, evidently an example of obstruction of justice.55 Despite the legal speculation of no more than two months between the time a complaint is filed and the conduct of investigation, by the end of 1968, the EEOP was taking 18 months to open the cases, “causing irreparable damage to the individuals concerned.” 56 Overburdened and lacking sufficient funds and authority, in 1972 the EEOP had a backlog of over 53,000 cases.57 The failure of the “first Reconstruction” to improve the lot of the African American community, and the slow but definite place of civil rights in the “second Reconstruction”- the fight has been about various aspects of citizenship- from enfranchisement to equal opportunities in the job market. The struggle against racial discrimination has been at various levels and in all walks of life. The perception of “rightness of whiteness” has haunted them since the inception of slave trade and continues to haunt them in the present. Although the civil rights movement and its consequences have not been completely appreciated, often times by the African American communities themselves, the impact on their social, economic and legal status 44

.Ibid., 339. . Ibid., 301. 46 .Ibid. 47 . Ibid. 48 . Ibid. 49 . Ibid., 301-302. 50 . Ibid., 51 .Maclean Nancy 102. 52 . Ibid. 53 .Ibid. 54 . Ibid., 111. 55 . Ibid. 56 . Ibid. 57 .Ibid. 45

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have been phenomenal in America. Recognition of legal rights of the blacks, although at times through piece meal legislations, has proved to be very effective in countering the imbalance created by racial discrimination. George Wallace's call for “Segregation now, segregation tomorrow and segregation forever”58 has died down even in the Conservative camps. Despite the clear hatred and white supremacy of organizations such as the Klu Klax Klan that acted on assumptions of intellectual inferiority and incapacity of the blacks, the black community‟s resilience and achievements have sought to demolish the stereotypes and prejudices. The attitudes of the opponents of civil rights have ranged from active resistance to indifference. It is reflected in such moves as canvassing for “color-blind” laws and the deliberate dilution of affirmative action policies through cutting funding of enforcement agencies. Yet, due to consorted efforts on the part of resilient community leaders, inclusive measures and dignity of labor have become a reality that have changed the dynamics of American society and unsettled long held prejudices.. The recognition of civil rights and provisions for affirmative action to compensate for society's historic injustice stands as a covenant of civil society's abstinence from reverting to perversion. The path traversed by the civil rights activists, was one fraught with insurmountable obstacles which could only have been overcome with the spirit of community and a hope for a just future for their children. The organizing power of the African- American communities came together under a single umbrella of eradicating racial discrimination and demanding the right to live as respectable citizens. The impact of the civil rights movement on race relations in modern America has influenced every modern institution. The role of African -American struggles and the ensuing civil rights movement in “enlarging the polity” is a significant national contribution, in that, it brought to the fore issues of segregation, inequality(both legal and actual) and unjust practices that were otherwise considered normal in a society that was experiencing “fascism abroad and fascism at home.” The civil rights movement, having gained momentum in the urban centers of the North, had its humble beginnings in the South with one lady's refusal to give up her seat in a public bus. As the movement progressed, it has built lasting alliances, giving it additional support and political leverage. A fight for basic dignity and human rights, the civil rights movement has become a symbol of struggle, sacrifice and achievement, and is a beacon of freedom for blacks, women and other minorities in America and the world over. In a modern multi cultural American society, racial equality is a necessary prerequisite for protection of its diverse ethnicity within the country and as a symbol of equality and human rights in the global arena. References [1]. [2]. [3].

Mclean. Nancy, Freedom Is Not Enough: The Opening of the American Workplace ( Harvard University Press, 2008), Zunz. Oliver, Why the American Century? (University of Chicago Press, 1998) James. N Gregory, The Southern Diaspora : How the Great Migrations of Black and White southerners Transformed America (The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 2005)

. Ibid., 51.

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Re-engineering of Personality through Language- A study of MBA students in a B-School in Pune 1,2

Dr. Dipali Biswas1, Aditi Kale2 Faculty, Sinhgad Institute of Management and Computer Applications, Pune, India

Abstract: The purpose of students undergoing MBA course is to make a niche for themselves in the corporate world / organizations or be entrepreneurs or to have academic excellence, so that they can be fine facilitators to the students of Gen Y. Whichever area they choose to unfold their potentialities, they should be able to express themselves and show-case their talents. This representation of their skills is reflected through their personality, which is an integration of all the skills put together- that has been built up in the course of one’s life. The purpose of the paper is thus to find out at what level the students can be categorized, depending on their responses and then re-engineer their personality through language, so that they can be well placed in the field of their choice. One hundred and forty three students had taken admission in a B-school in Pune. All of them were told to fill up the questionnaires. The results clearly showed at what level the students were and in which areas re-engineering needed to be done. Key Words: Language, Organizations, Communication skills, Personality, Re-engineering. I.

Introduction

Relation between language and homo sapiens are like the nucleus and the cell. One depends on the other for its progression in the universe. It is through language that the humans‟ personality is unfolded in the society. We are tool-using social animals. The most powerful tool known is the one we use to build every other tool, Languagespoken or written. But tools can be used with little or no skill to turn out mundane artifacts and garbage. By honing language skills, one can create masterpieces. To take part fully in a conversation one needs to take advantage of every clue offered as to a speaker‟s intended meaning. One needs to understand the speaker‟s body language, the speaker‟s beliefs about what words mean and the speaker‟s agenda. Absent of any of these lead to the listener to get hold of the wrong end of the stick. Having understood language, one needs to understand how it can „re-engineer the personality‟. For this one must have a fairly good idea about what„re-engineering‟ and „personality‟ mean. Re-engineering is a systematic starting over and re-inventing the way a firm or a business process gets its work done. Personality is the entire mental organization of a human being at any stage of his/her development. It embraces every phase of human character, intellect, temperament, skill, morality and every attitude that has been built up in the cause of one‟s life. Re-engineering of personality through language can be done by becoming aware that by its proper use, it becomes a yardstick for measuring intellectual growth. It is through language only that the human personality unfolds. This gift of gab is an avenue through which a person projects his/her ideas. An organization is its language. Conversation leads to agreement. Agreement leads to transaction. Therefore, an organization‟s language is critically important. It becomes more than simply a means for communication. It becomes a field for action, and a way of constructing truth. It becomes the basis for all transactions, the basis for all business. The structure of an organization‟s language is directly related to the structure of its culture. Culture creates language, and language shapes culture. An organization‟s ability to create language is synonymous with its ability to evolve. One may ask that why do companies which use Total Quality Management, (TQM), Quality Circles, and Business Process Re-engineering (BPR) face 75% of failure. [2] What is that competitive advantage which keeps one ahead of others? The answer to the above questions is, „Language.‟ Language shapes the mindset. The heart of organization learning is the ability to communicate. How one communicates totally depends on one‟s attitude. “Attitude is everything.” One must have listening skills so that one

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can partake in communication. A good communicator can built up the team work. For re-engineering of personality, communication skills are highly essential. When the foundation for communication is laid, then intelligence and high tech words take over for the reengineering of personality. “Whenever new technology is introduced into society, there must be a counter-balancing human response- that is, high touch.” When one skillfully interacts person-to person, one brings to an increasingly high-tech workplace, the necessary high-touch. It is ultimately the Habit which makes the personality. It begins from attitude, Culture, Language, Team Work, Listening Skills, Intelligence, High Tech Words, and Communication Skills. Habit makes personality

When one knows what to do(knowledge),and has the skill (how to do it), coupled with the desire (want to do), then re-engineering of personality takes place through language. II. Literature Survey While pioneering work is being done in all walks of life, in the corporate worlds about increasing the effectiveness and efficiency in work culture by using all new types of tactics like TQM, Quality Circles and BPR, little thought has been given to the “ability to communicate.” “Learning to work effectively in teams and groups, which is at the heart of organizational learning, is shaped by our ability to communicate.”When you think about it, the only thing a manager does that is visible to the organization is to listen and speak, and to draw and interpret symbols. Speaking and listening are where it‟s at.” So says Chairman Ray Stata of Analog Divices.[2] With this idea in mind the researchers have reviewed the following research papers/articles. 1. Mitchel Rothschild, in his article, “Want to Grow? Watch Your Language,” clearly states that the most important thing and above all the skills is the employees‟ willingness to listen to each other. Reform programmes have failed in companies simply because the culture which is a gate way to progress was not taken recourse to. What may seem like a minor matter of semantics is, in fact, an insuperable obstacle to organizational learning. In most cases, unless the organization adopts a new language and mindset, one appropriate to the fast-evolving competitive terrain of the Information Age, that company will not be able to learn fast enough to survive. [2] 2. Andy Sealock, Partner, Pace Harmon, in their article on, “Ethics, Language and Organizational Culture: Taking a hard Look at „Soft‟ Issues” opine that how language if understood properly can have the most positive impressions, which in turn can affect attitudes and customer satisfaction. They have also discussed about Corporate Ethics and organizational hierarchy. [3] 3. Bruce M.Tharp in his paper titled, “Diagnosing Organizational Culture,” states that „a company‟s prevailing values, attitudes, assumptions, and beliefs all make up the soft, invisible stuff of culture and determine its outlook-what it finds meaningful and important. Decades of research point to the link between culture and organizational effectiveness.‟ [5] 4. The book, “Notes on the Role of Leaderships and Language,” in regenerating Organizations, is based on the conversations with Dr. Michael Geoghgan and the team of Sun Company. He helped the company The Sun Team to evolve as highly competitive based on his 25 years of research and strategic planning at Dupiont. In a market that raises many fundamental business issues, he gave them means and ways of AIJRHASS 13-216; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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evaluating and regenerating their relationship with developers. He emphasizes that an organization is a set of conversations between people. These conversations are a living system. By continually changing its language- and its conversations –an organization continually regenerates itself. [1] 5. Amy Tan and Uwe Kaufman in their article on „Making Good Change Agents: Attitude, Knowledge, Skills‟ described how attitude, knowledge and skill are the potential tools for bringing good change. Managers or project leaders need to have determination and stamina to handle daily challenges. Commitment towards the work is the other major factor. Companies look for those candidates who have the above mentioned characteristics, while appointing managers. One of the Chinese characters, „Ren‟ describes that knowledge and skills have to be complemented by beliefs and attitude to get the good leader. At work, managers need to manage conflicting priorities, multiple constituencies and fast approaching deadlines. Managers need to address the group to overcome numerous challenges of transition and therefore they need to be highly effective under intense pressure. Skills like team building, forging strong interpersonal relationships and communicating within groups are mandatory for today‟s managers. [4] In order that the candidates are well placed in whichever chosen field of their work, it is pertinent that the facilitators in B-schools should be in a position to guide and direct the students who take admission to Bschools, so that they can cater to the demands of the corporate world. They become billable talents from day one. Students are fed with knowledge, but re-engineering of personality through language has rarely been done in any B-school. Hence in order to bridge the gap between the B-schools and corporate world, the researchers have undertaken this research paper. III. Research Methodology The researchers are in a teaching profession and are working on attaining excellence for students. While thinking about the placements of students, this is an attempt to understand the ability and then work on the re-engineering of required skills. For this study the primary data as well as secondary data was studied. Primary data: The students who enrolled themselves for the course of MBA were given the presentation to understand the importance of business communication and after completing the presentation they were asked to fill up the structured questionnaire. Those students who attended the orientation programme were considered for this study. So no sample is taken, this could be considered as census study. The total number of respondents was 143. Secondary data: The published research papers emphasizing on the importance of communication and personality development were studied before preparing the presentation. IV. Scope and Limitations The study was conducted only at Sinhagad Institute of Management And Computer Applications, Narhe, Pune. Only those students, who remained present for the orientation programme in August 2012, were the respondents for this study. Further Scope for Research: The similar study can be conducted for the same respondent group to understand the effect of the training imparted to them. V. Data Analysis Factors which bring about re-engineering of personality through language: Table 1: Analysis of Leadership qualities Diagram 1: Presentation of Leadership Qualities Leadership Questions 3 Total Level A 36.9 70.9 25.5 133.3 Level B 45.4 0 74.5 119.9 Mediocre 34.08 31.21 18.4 83.69 Escapist 0.71 8.51 2.84 12.06

Source: Responses of question no. 1,2 and 3

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Analysis: After testing the students responses it was found that level A and level B managers are almost equal. Mediocre are 24% and escapists are 4%. This means that re-engineering needs to be done at the mediocre level and also at level B so that they can be brought up to level A along with the 4% of the escapist. Table 2: Analysis of Intelligence among the respondents

Questions Level A Level B Mediocre Escapist

Diagram 2: Presentation of Intelligence.

Intelligence 2 Total 44 71.6 115.6 44 26.2 70.2 19.1 14.9 34 7.8 0.71 8.51

Source: Responses of question no. 4,5 and 6 of primary data. Analysis: After testing the students responses it was found that almost 50% are level A managers and 31% are level B managers. Mediocre are 15% and escapists are 4%. This means that re-engineering needs to be done at the mediocre level and also at level B so that they can be brought up to level A along with the 4% of the escapist. Table 3: Analysis of Vocabulary among students Diagram 3 : Presentation of Vocabulary among Students Vocabulary Questions 7 Total Level A 29.8 9.9 24.8 23.4 19.9 31.2 79.4 218.4 Mediocre 70.2 90.1 75.2 76.6 80.1 68.8 20.6 481.6

Source: Responses of question no.7, 8, 9 ,11, 12,13, 14 of primary data.

Analysis: After testing the students‟ responses it was found that level A managers are 31% and mediocre are 69%. It can be inferred that 69% of the students have to be given attention to and re-engineer. Table 4: Analysis of Students’ Personality Diagram 4: Presentation of Students’ Personality Source: Responses of question no. 10 from primary data Personality Questions Level A Level B Mediocre Escapist

1 68.8 16.3 26 12.76

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Analysis: It has been observed from the above data that 56% are level A managers, 13% are level B managers, 21% are mediocre and 10% are escapists. This data shows that nearly half of the students need the training on personality that is re-engineering of their personality. Table 5: Analysis of Studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s listening skills

Diagram 5: Presentation of Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Listening Skills

Listening Skills Questions 1 Level A

21.3

Level B

16.3

Mediocre

38.99

Escapist

Source: Responses of question no. 16 from primary data. Analysis: The management psychiatrist, Dr Marilyn Maple has observed that among the four skills ie Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing (LSRW) which is the foundation stone for routine activities in any work place, listening skills is the most important. But the analysis shows 78% of the students need training for improving their listening skills. Table 6: Analysis of High Tech Words Diagram 6: Presentation of Understanding High Tech words by students. Source: Responses of question nos. 17 to 22 from primary data High Tech Words Questions

Total

Level A

87.2

6.38

29.1

75.2

74.5

Level B

18.4

44.7

Mediocre

12.1

20.6

24.8

Escapist

31.22

4.26

50.4

322.78

63.1

25.5

49.6

176.6

35.48

Analysis: This shows that 54% of the students are well conversant and fall under level A. But rest must be exposed for application and understanding of High Tech Words. Table 7: Analysis of Attitude of students. Diagram: Presentation of Attitudinal influx Attitude Questions

Total

optimistic

96.5

35.5

96.4

228.4

dependent

14.2

22.7

36.9

pragmatic

4.26

18.4

11.3

33.96

negative attitude

0.71

23.4

7.8

31.91

Source: Responses of question nos. 23 to 25 from primary data Analysis: It can be seen from the diagram that 69% of the respondents are having optimistic attitude showing their capability of being level A mangers. 10% are pragmatic and fall under level B. Great efforts need to be taken for those 10% with negative attitude and 11% having dependent attitude. AIJRHASS 13-216; ÂŠ 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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Table 8: Analysis of cultural characteristics of students.

Diagram 8: Presentation of Cultural Characteristics of students.

Culture Questions

Total

Level A

41.1

51.8

18.4

111.3

Level B

17.7

12.8

75.2

105.7

Mediocre

41.1

6.38

16.3

63.78

Escapist

5.67

7.09

3.55

16.31

Source: Responses of question nos. 26 to 28 from primary data Analysis: The test results shows that 37% are culturally rich and belong to level A managers, 36 % belong to level B category, where as 21% are mediocre and 6% are escapists. It is the aim of an organization that all human resources should be culturally rich therefore reengineering needs to be done at the mediocre and the escapist level. Table 9: Analysis of students’ Team Spirit Diagram: Presentation of responses towards team spirit. Team Spirit 2 Total

Questions Level A

17.7

97.9

115.6

Level B

85.1

8.51

93.61

Mediocre

4.26

Escapist

4.26

3.55

7.81

Source: Responses of question nos. 29,30 from primary data Analysis: The results show very good responses of students‟ very high team spirit. This means team spirit can be utilized to bring about the reengineering of other traits of personality among students. Conclusion: The observations reflect that the students have good intellectual level, leadership qualities and team spirit mirroring positive attitude. They lag in vocabulary and comprehension of high technology words reflecting on their personality in total. This means that due to inability to express themselves through language their personality suffers. Another blow to their personality is their poor listening skills. Thus reengineering of personality through language needs to be done by emphasizing more on listening skills, vocabulary tests and high tech words. Furthermore from the secondary data it has been inferred that,‟ organization is a set of conversations between people. These conversations are a living system. By continually changing its language - and its conversations – an organization continually regenerates itself‟. Therefore, more exercises and activities should be given to enhance the above mentioned skills, as the integration of all these skills will bring about the reengineering of personality through language. References: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Geoghgan, Michael, Notes on the Role of Leadership and Language http://www.pangaro.com/littlegreybook.pdf Rothschild Michael, „Want to Grow? Watch your Language‟, Forbes ASAP (October 1993), http://www.bionomicsinstitute.org/text/resource/articles/ar_035.html Sealock Andy, Partner, Harmon Pace, „Ethics, Language and Organizational Culture: Taking a Hard Look at „Soft‟ Issues‟, December 6,2011, http://www.nearshoreamericas.com/outsourcing-considerations/ Tan Amy and Kaufmann Uwe H, „Making Good Change Agents: Attitude, Knowledge, Skills‟, February 26,2010, http://www.isixsigma.com/implementation/chnage-management-implementation/making-good-change-agents-attitude-knowledgeskills Tharp. M. Bruce, Diagnosing Organizational Culture, http://www.haworth.com/en-us/knowledge/workplacelibrary/Documents/Diagnosing-Org-Culture_6.pdf

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Reach and Academic Use of Various Applications of Social Media: A Survey among the University Students of Tamil Nadu Dr. R.Subramani1, D.V.Nithyanandan2 Assistant Professor, Department of Journalism and Mass Communication, Periyar University, Salem-636011 Tamil Nadu, India 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology , Periyar University, Salem-636011 Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract: Audio and Video tools, blogging and micro blogging tools, academic and research blogs, Social book marking, Social citation tools, e-journals, e-books, e-dissertations, and other applications of social networking sites are predominantly occupying the space in the academic arena. Social network sites (SNSs) applications and resources have attracted millions of users, many of whom have integrated these sites into their daily practices. The research findings of the ebrary’s Global student E Book survey report (2011) articulates that ‘Over 69 percent of students likely and very likely possessing social media for the academic purposes’. At the outset this paper examines the academic use of Social networking sites among the university students of Tamil Nadu. A descriptive survey was conducted to study the popularity, use of electronic resources by the students. It was found that students have less exposure with social networking sites in connection with academic activities. The frequency of use of Social networking sites for research, academic activities was rather low and average. Key words: Social Networking Sites, Students,I Internet, Online Media, Social Media Introduction I.

Introduction

Today Social media has become the „phenomenon of teenagers‟; and is a way of life. The growing ubiquity of cell phones, especially the rise of smart phones, has made social networking just a finger tap away and it has redefined how the individual user relate to each other as humans. It is about dialog – two way discussions bringing people together to discover and share information [1]. According to a survey by Nielsen (2009), two-thirds of the world‟s Internet population visits a social network or blogging site and the sector now accounts for almost 10% of all internet time [2]. In the age of audio visual gadgets ruling among University students have enabled them to explore new additions in the teaching learning process. The research study of Marisol Gomez Aguilar (2012) highlights that the new technological tools (social networks, blogs, video platforms, etc) have given them the freedom and power to share, create, inform and communicate and have become an extension of their lives‟ [3]. The Social Networking sites have numerous dimensions and meanings in the society. Similarly, MacArthur Foundation Reports on Digital Media and learning (2008) points out that it is no longer a waste of time for young people to browse the internet or to use social networks, as they are assimilating technological and communications competences that are crucial in the contemporary world [4]. This means that, together with a convergent use of the social use, for communication, information and entertainment along with other networks students have vast potential information to push the boundaries for a bigger educational sphere, and evidence is emerging that students are favourably disposed towards the academic use of social networks [5]. As stated by Laura James (2010) „Social Networking websites such as face book and LinkedIn have emerged rapidly. The use of Face book by higher education students is especially interested in gathering academic information [6]. New developments in the technological world have made the internet an innovative way for individuals and families to communicate. Social media networks have created a phenomenon on the internet that has gained popularity over the last decade. People use social media sites such as Face book, Twitter, and My space to create and sustain relationships with others [7] Spending time on social networking sites appears to be part of most U.S. young adults' daily activities. Ellison, Stein field, & Lampe, (2007) study found that, U.S. college students reported using Face book an average of 10 to 30 minutes daily [8]. Similarly Lenhart & Madden, (2007) study found that about half of 12–17 year olds with social networking site AIJRHASS 13-217, © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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memberships log on daily: 22% logged on to social networking sites several times per day, 26% once a day,17% three to five days perweek,15% one or two days per week, and only 20% every few weeks or less ([9], [10]). But ebrary‟s Global student E Book survey report (2011) articulates that over 69 percent of students were using social media for the academic purposes. In these circumstances this present study will have its own merit [11]. The ease of communication on social media allows college students to remain connected with a large number of others such as people from high school; acquaintances met at a party, friends of friends or music bands. With this large sphere of friendship networks a new kind of “audience” is created for one‟s self presentation on the profile. Analyzing their motivational pattern with regard to their online social media behaviour is pertinent to study the use of the Social media shaped personality in future. II. Objectives of the Study 1. 2. 3.

To study the reach and use of Various Applications of Social Media among the University Students of Tamil Nadu. To examine the popularity of electronic recourses among the University students of Tamil Nadu. To exemplify the use and purpose of Social Media among the University student of Tamil Nadu. III. Methodology

The survey method was employed to understand the reach and use of social media among research students in Tamil Nadu. The data was collected through a stratified random sampling from 482 research students whose population is about 10000. They are full time research students from five major state universities in Tamil Nadu viz., Madras University-Chennai, Bharathiar University-Coimbatore, Madurai Kamaraj UniversityMadurai, Bharathidasan University- Trichy and Periyar University- Salem. They were administered with the research students‟ internet activities. The investigation tries to explore various observable measurable internet activities of the individual research students. Hence, a thorough review of literature was compiled to list out various internet activities of the individual internet using research student. Based on that a stock of various internet activities were recorded and this inventory was circulated among software engineers, researchers in computer applications and professors of computer science and allied fields. Based on their suggestions some items were omitted and some items were added. IV.

Research Findings and Discussion

The findings obtained from the present study have been presented and discussed under the following heads. These sections exemplify the results of the study and the corresponding discussion on it. The results revealed interesting findings that would stand as a good piece of investigation in the social media. The distribution of respondents by study major was as follows: languages 7.3%, Finance 6.8%, Biology 22.4%,Chemistry 10.2%,Computer Science 6.0%,Mathamatics7.7%, Physics 8.3%, Geology 4.8%, Social Sciences 13.1%, Media Sciences5.6%, Education 6.0%, Library Sciences 1.2%, and Indian Music .6%. More over 17.8% respondents were Post Graduate students, 17.8% were belongs to M Phil and remaining 64.3 were PhD students. 49.6% of the respondents were women against 50.4 % men. Minutes 0

Frequency

Percentage

124

25.7

3-5 8 10 12 15-16 20 25 30 40 45 50 60 70 100 120 150 160 240 500 Total

10 1 129 1 55 75 1 35 4 2 1 29 1 1 7 1 1 1 2 482

2.1 .2 26.8 .2 11.4 15.6 .2 7.3 .8 .4 .2 6.0 .2 .2 1.5 .2 .2 .2 .4 100.0

Table 1: Amount of time dedicated to access the E- journals

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The principal aim of the study was understand the academic use of social networking sites of the university students. First we try to gather information regarding the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x;s access pattern and reading habit of e-journals. This study findings established that 26.8 %( n=129) of the university students have spent 10 minutes per day for reading ejournals and 25.7% of the students do not spend enough time to read e-journals. Today all the publishing houses are publishing their academic journals through internet. But ironically the findings of the study revealed that the accesses of e- journals percentage are reportedly very low. Out of the respondents .2% of the students have spent 4 hoursâ&#x20AC;&#x; time for the possession of electronic journals. Similarly .4% of the respondents have spent nearly 8 hours for accessing e- journals. Though the majority of the respondents are not having an attitude of possessing academic electronic resources, significant percentage of heavy users are familiar with the electronic resources of the social media. Table 2: Amount of time spent by students for browsing for e-books Minutes 0-5 10 14 15 20 25 30 40 45 50 60 120 Total

Frequency 148 87 1 27 93 3 81 20 1 1 17 3 482

Percent 30.7 18.0 .2 5.6 19.3 .6 16.8 4.1 .2 .2 3.5 .6 100.0

Next, we specifically wanted to study the exact percentage of respondents who possess the e books from the World Wide Web. One of our core objectives of the study was intended to find out the attitude of university students towards the familiarity of e books among the users of the social net work sites. Interestingly 30.7% (n=148) of the respondents spend 0 to 5 minutes per day, 19.3% (n=93) of the student spend 20 minutes per day, 18.0% (n=87) and 16.8% (n=81) of them spend 10 minutes and 30 minutes per day. Only 0.2 % (n=1) of the student spend 14 minutes, 45 minutes and 50 minutes. It is significant that the Research Students spend 5 minutes per day on E-Books. This indicates that one fourth of the respondents regularly having the attitude of possessing e books from the online media Table 3: Time spent by the students for browsing e-dissertations Minutes 0 1 3 5 7 10 15 20 25 30 40 45 50 60 120 150 200 Total

Frequency 299 2 1 6 1 97 21 23 1 21 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 482

Percent 62.0 .4 .2 1.2 .2 20.1 4.4 4.8 .2 4.4 .2 .2 .4 .6 .2 .2 .2 100.0

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Some study findings ascertain that university students make intensive use of social network sites for their academic development. More particularly we wanted to study the popularity of e dissertation among the research scholars. Out of the study it is learnt that 62.0% (n=299) do not spend any time and, 20.1% (n=97) of the student spend 10 minutes per day. 4.8% (n=23) 4.4% (n=21) and 4.4% (n=21) of them spend 20 minutes, 30 minutes and 15 minutes per day. Only 0.2 % (n=1) of the student spend 3 minutes, 25 minutes, 40 minutes, 45 minutes, 120 minutes, 150 minutes and 200 minutes. The acquired data reveals that Majority of the respondents were not aware about the potential use of edissertation. Table 4: Amount of time spent by the students for participating in the Webinars Minutes 0 2 5 8 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 120 200 Total

Frequency 315 1 6 1 44 29 60 16 1 2 5 1 1 482

Percent 65.4 .2 1.2 .2 9.1 6.0 12.4 3.3 .2 .4 1.0 .2 .2 100.0

Majority of the 65.4% (n=315) do not spend any time for webinar and 12.4% of them attend it for 20 minutes. Only 0.2% (n=1) of the respondents for 2 minutes, 40 minutes, 120 minutes and 200 minutes. Webinar is an online event which exclusively supplies the electronic materials to the select group of individuals via internet. The exclusive online service provider supplies useful information to the scholars about the funding details and research opportunities. But the study reveals that respondents did not have the attitude of using the webinar. Table 5: Amount of time spent by the students for browsing Weblogs Minutes 0 1 3 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 120 Total

Frequency 325 2 1 8 49 28 47 1 12 1 2 4 2 482

Percent 67.4 .4 .2 1.7 10.2 5.8 9.8 .2 2.5 .2 .4 .8 .4 100.0

Another core focus of the study was to examine the habit and attitude of university students in connection with the use of weblogs. Majority of the 67.4% (n=325) and 10.2% of the respondents (n=49) are using weblogs 0 minutes and 10 minutes. Only 0.2% (n=1) of the respondents are using weblogs 3minutes, 25 minutes and 40 minutes. In general students are effectively using the internet services. Again it indicates that research weblogs and exclusive research blogs were not popular among the student community.

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V. Conclusion The findings of this study demonstrates that the approach, attitude, and practices of university students towards familiarity and possession of online resources of Social Networking sites. The investigation has provided a framework to understand the internet behaviour of the research students. It is obvious that the computer technology has diffused in the society faster, easier than any other technology invented by human beings and so is that it has changed fast and easily the behaviour of the individual. However, the reach and use of various applications of these technology, here-the social media, needs to be understood more comprehensively for which the present study would play a pivotal role.

References [1] [2] [3] [4]

[5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

Solis.B, “Introducing the Conversation Prism”. Retrieved on June 01, 2010 at http://www.briansolis.com/2008/08/introducingconversation prism. Global Faces and Networked Places, A Nielsen report on Social Networking‟s New Global Footprint, March 2009. Retrieved on June 2, 2010 at http://www.nielsen.com/content/dam/corporate/us/en/newswire/uploads/2009/03/nielsen_globalfa ces_mar09.pdf Dr. Marisol Gomez Aguilar, The Academic Use of Social Networks among University Students, Comunicar, n. 38, v. XIX, Scientific Journal of Media Education, 2012 John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur, Living and Learning with New Media: Summary of Findings from the Digital Youth Project Foundation Reports on Digital Media and Learning, November 2008. Retrieved on Jume 6, 2013 at http://digitalyouth.ischool.berkeley.edu/files/report/digitalyouth-WhitePaper.pdf Espuny, c.; gonzález, j. & al. Actitudes y expectativas Del uso educativo de las redes sociales en los alumnos universitarios. Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento, 8, 1;171-185, 2011 Dr.Laura James et.al, JISC Academic Social Networking Final Report, Cambridge, 2010 Boyd, D.M. & Ellison, N.B. Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 13, pp 210-230, 2007 Ellison, N. B., et al, The benefits of Face book “friends:” Social capital and college students' use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(4), 1143– 1168, 2007 Lenhart, A., & Madden, M, Teens, privacy & online social networks: How teens manage their online identities and personal information in the age of MySpace. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project, 2007 Tiffany A. Pempek, et,al, College students' social networking experiences on Face book, Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,pp227-238, 2009 Dr. Allen McKiel , “Global student E Book survey report , ebrary, 2011

This work was part of the Social Media Project funded by Indian Council of Social Sciences Research (ICSSR) New Delhi, India

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Learning through Mass media is a flawless process in Distance Education system G. PONMENI Directorate of Distance Education Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra INDIA. Abstract: Distance education is generally providing education in which students are remote from the institution and rarely attend formal teaching sessions, compulsory teaching classes etc. Telephone plays important role to contact students. Distance educators use a variety of means of communication with the learners to present information and ideas to students for their motivation and to stimulate their thinking. Components of media are the resources and means of communication. The term media is derived from the Latin word and describes that it stands between receiver and the source of the message. Multimedia describes refined technology, Internet, web sites, etc. technology has radio, TV, video record player, telephone, fax machines and computers. Media in education refers to any kind of communication method that conveys information and made interaction between teachers and students. The message of distance educators is significantly more important than the means used to convey the message for distance learners. The inventiveness and imagination of teachers will be the key factors in the selection of media to communicate to the mass of pupils. Keywords: Multimedia; Mass media; Communication; Interaction; Distance education; Distance Educators; Distance learners.

I. Introduction Mass media influence our daily life more than any other cultural institution. They are our main sources of news and entertainment. According to Wilbur Schramm, a mass medium is essentially a working group organized around some device for circulating the same message, at about same time, to a large number of people, the messages are disseminated to a large number of people ie, to Mass. They are called the audience in general. In Distance education system we say mass as all kinds of learners. No media can sustain without a sufficient audience. The above definition again meetings about devices of circulating messages. These devices are technological means through which messages are communicated to the audience. Devices include printed documents, television, radio, DVD, cassettes, the internet etc. These are important in the Distance education institution to make clarity in the communication and interaction with learners. II. Objectives Objectives of this article are to explain about the use of print media, non-print media in the achievement of learning; it is to establish relationship among Audio, Visual and Computer based media; it is also to explain the need of multimedia in distance education system; to describe the features of computer based media in learning process; to identify the strength of various media in learning process. These are few objectives to be achieved from this article. III. Categories of various media for learning A distance education institution uses various media to deliver learning information and to associate with students and teachers. Some media can be used for both purposes; generally they are grouped into a) media which can be used to convey subject content, such as print materials, video tapes, audio tapes, television, computer-based courseware, and CD-ROM. b) media which permit communication between teachers and students, such as fax, radio, teleconferencing, videoconferencing and the Internet as in [13].

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IV. Print media Johannes Gutenbergâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s invented the moveable metallic type in the fifteenth century flagged the way for proliferation of the print media. The printing press introduced the method for mass production of texts. Before this invention of printing press, books were expensive materials affordable only for the aristocrats and royal families. Printing reduced the cost of books and made them available to the common men also. Rapid duplication of multiple copies of handy texts led to the innovation of modern newspapers and other printed materials. Print Media include Newspapers, Magazines, periodicals, books, all kinds of textual documents, newsletters, directories, advertising memos, business forms, pamphlets, posters and other printed publications for selling advertisement, programs at theatre presentations and sporting events etc. These are conveying the information in a print form and distinguished from broadcast or electronically transmitted communications. In short print media can be said as any kind of material in written form which gives us knowledge is called print media. V. Uses of print media Print based media is the most commonly useful medium in distance education system, because it is very easy to transmit the information towards the learners. The value and effectiveness of print resources are so high within the learners. In spite of the explosion of high tech computer-based communication and of the information super-highway, print based texts will remain the most accessible medium of communication for many years.. Printed information can be used anywhere and is always at hand for reference. Print media are useful to easy transformation of information. It is one of the reason distance education system using this media predominantly for its proper functioning. It is more economical and also traditionally used for pedagogical purpose. VI. Restrictions in Print media Print media requires skills of literacy for the preparation of the text to convey information; It requires high level of study skills for reader/learner; Interaction between teacher-learner and among the learners is not possible according to their needs of emergency; The opportunity of active participation of the learner is very less with print media; Learner should waste lot of time just for waiting to get some feedback; There are difficulties in providing individualised instruction in print media; Provision of psychomotor skill training is least in its use as in [10]. VII. Non-print media There are numerous non-print media which are facilitating the distance learners for better interactivity as worthy as face to face interaction. Non-print media are available for teaching learning process to remove the boundaries of print based media. Some of the non-print media are play a vital role in the teaching and learning process. Non print media is what we are using in online articles on Wikipedia, Yahoo and things of that nature as in [8]. Non print media consists of other than printed matter, such as slide shows, slide-tape presentations and video show, etc. Electronic media is a kind of non-print media in which, information are reached the audience by means of micro-electronic waves. The history of electronic mass media starts with the invention of radio by Marconi. The first radio station was set up in Pittsburgh, New York and Chicago in the 1920s. Following this USA, European countries also started radio stations for broadcasting as in [8]. VIII. Uses of Non-print media Non-print media helps the students to bring the learning atmosphere for active participation in their learning process. Motivation of learnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s psychology in drawing their attention towards learning process as in [12] is an important part that carried out by non-print media. Motivation to bring the curiosity of the learner towards learning is taking place by non-print media. Non-print media involves the learners to feel and sense by providing training in their psychomotor skills during their learning process. Technologies of non-print media such as computers, facilitates the learner to cater their individual requirements. Non-print media is facilitating as a supplementary medium for the print based media. Iconic symbol system as in [3], ie. Pictures, colours and signs for coding knowledge are clearly expressed through non-print media. Analogic symbol system such as more expressive and performance of dynamic activities are possible only through non-print media. The access of non-print media inside the education system facilitates the learners to overcome all the limitations of print media. IX. Limitations of Non-print media High tech technology-based media suffer from the various limitations of the specific technology to be used; its accessibility depends on availability, where and when it can be used and also contingent upon its reliable operation as in [7]. X. Audio, Visual and Computer based media Audio and video equipment are universal in these days. Computer hardware and software required for online access, it is comparatively less common in use and slightly expensive too. But it is true that computer is

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much more effective than the other media, in terms of value for money and educational effectiveness. Costeffectiveness is important in educational effectiveness of distance education system as in [1]. XI. Audio Based Media In distance education system radio broadcast and audio cassettes are mostly used as an audio media for effective teaching learning purposes. Radio is the biggest mass media of all and covers the largest population in the world. Both radio and audio cassettes are one-way technologies. Radio is used for live radio broadcasting and also broadcasts can be stored and used later through the way of audio cassettes. XII. Radio programmes in learning process Radio programmes can be produced for the learners in the form of direct lecture by expert teachers. Discussion based interviews with various subject experts on important issues can also influences the learning process through radio broad caste. Recorded cassettes or audio cassettes can be used by radio broadcast experts keeping that cassette as a resource material for learning process. Learners are provided with guided study material before radio broad castes and those materials should be discussed in the radio talk in radio-vision procedure otherwise known as audio-vision activity. XIII. Successful audio programme The programme can provide simple and concrete idea about concepts of lesson with appropriate example. Radio programme can be produced with the involvement of students in various aspects like discussion, followup activities etc. Audio/Radio programme can achieve the success by means of stating the link or integrating the programme with course materials, project works, assignments and also term end examinations. Telephone teaching also one of the audio programmes, it is used as a supplementary teaching device, in which learners can get some information regarding their course and also they can clarify their doubts. Educators must be available on telephone at the appropriate time for giving proper response to the queries of learners or some other common arrangement should be set up for this purpose. Audio-conferencing is a kind of extension of telephone teaching technology. In this teaching is carried out through the central telephone which is connected with a bridge of few numbers of telephones. Learners are at the receiving end, they can discuss with their teacher simultaneously for their clarifications. It can be said as a collaborative teaching learning as in [10]. XIII. Visual based media Television and video are powerful media used in distance education as a visual based media. American scholar Richard Clark said that media do not influence learning. Media is just a vehicle that carries and delivers instruction and information to the students. Television is an open medium and involves one-way communication. Television programmes can be recorded for future use and it can be viewing repeatedly whenever needed. There are different forms of television like instructional television, interactive television, video conferencing, tutored video instruction, etc. These can be used by the institutions on the basis of learning objectives and the available facilities. Television acts as direct teaching resource. Abstract concepts were concretized with the help of television. Learning by live demonstration as well as it is possible to be repeated also. The programmes of television are properly designed and can able to reach large number of audience. XIV. Computer based media Computer is an important media in communication process. Computers in the field of education are a significant one; it helps the learner in learning practices. It is also possible to connect the computers with remote areas through network. In the area of education, computers are acting as a media. There are number of developments available in this, such as all sort of calculations, graphic representation for a given data, picture making, writing the required matters, getting information from internet services, communicate through video and audio via computers, etc.as in [2]. XV. Computer and Elements of good teaching and learning Elements of good teaching and learning are teaching with explanations, examples, illustrations, and learning support in the form of professional advice, comments, encouragement etc. The learning of students includes reading, doing research work, attending discussion groups and involving all courses-required practical activities. One of the most important parts in the teaching learning process is evaluation. Assessment procedures, which will need revision and may be required to be changed to meet the necessities of a distance education programme. Computers assist all these activities effectively.

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XVI. Specific pedagogical purposes of computers in education Computers helpful for the learners in recalling the learning matters; Influence the learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; motivation; Responses of the learner are gets activated; Computers provides new instructions and stimulate the learners in their studies; Learners can able to get systematic and steady feedback; Provision of getting facilities for appropriate practice; Learning happens in a sequence manner and also in an appropriate aspect; Viable source of information for supporting the processes of learning; etc. XVII. Computer based media in Distance Education Computer based media in distance education is available in the following three forms as Independent mode; Interactive mode and Communication mode. According to Taylor in1995, the term flexible learning model is identified as a fourth generation media in Distance Education. The development of World Wide Web and its multimedia interactive capability are more important in distance education to bring it towards virtual reality. Presently there are virtual universities that deliver courses through World Wide Web. Online teaching and learning are very fast development in the world of computer based media as in [2]. Computer presents verbal, digital and also graphic information to the users as in [3], [10] & [13]. Interact with others by asking questions and answers; Facility to keep the record of answers for further use; Individualized Instructions for the learners can also possible as in [11]. Variety of software can possible to utilise in computers by the learner, etc. XVII. Learning through various advance media and Technology The telephone offers the opportunity for group links via teleconferencing, and television has led to the development of videoconferencing. Online and digital means of producing, transmitting and receiving messages are called new media. It encompasses computer mediated communication technology. It implies the use of desktop and portable computers as well as wireless and handheld devices. The forms of communicating in the digital world include CD-RoMs, DVDs, Internet facilities like World Wide Web, bulleting boarding, email etc. The most complex and expensive advances in educational media are being made in computer-based technology, particularly interactive CD-RoM and online course delivery as in [4]. More vocational training courses are now delivered through online for learning; students can communicate with teachers via e-mail. Their assignment submissions and contribution for bulletin board and discussions are possible. These are carried out through online presently as [5]. XIX. Blended approach in Distance Education System Distance education programmes are increasingly using combinations of media to deliver training in teaching and learning. For example, print materials often cite references to audio and video resources, which can be sent out to students from the library or resource centre on temporary loan. In the above examples print materials form a significant part of the delivery method. Other media components can offer supplementary information in a different format or provide different learning experiences for students which help them to learn skills more effectively as in [9]. The medium will determines its integration with the distance education process, it integrates with the students in various ways, students may read, listen, watch or interact with computers, etc. Media is also depends on the type of the students, where they are belongs to, what are their levels of existing skill and their learning styles. The purpose of using various media in learning is to improve the quality of the learning process of students, each medium has its own characteristics and it is matched with the skills needed to be developed in their learning process. Any medium can be used effectively for any subject on the basis of student influences, motivation and favourable circumstances. Educational medium should be selected on the basis of its capability of presenting the intended information to students. It should enable the student to actively participate in the learning process. XX. Summary Distance Education programme is very challenging for students. Those who have only experienced in the classroom-based instruction will often struggle with the absence of other students and teachers. These students will need to be taught how to work more independently, how to organise their study time and how to discipline themselves to study through domestic pressures and other influences. The process of Distance education learning is carried out through the use of various learning resources by the Distance Educators. They use a variety of means of communication with the learners. The resources and means of communication are known as the components of media as in [6]. The word media is a Latin word and it stands between receiver and the source of the message. The term multimedia describes about highly refined technology, as Internet and web sites consists of text, sound, vision

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and animation. Media in education refers to any kind of communication method that conveys information and made interaction between teachers and students. The purpose of using media in learning is to improve the quality of the learning process of students, each medium has its own characteristics and it is matched with the skills need to be developed in their learning. The medium will determines its integration with the distance education process, it integrates with the students in various ways and students may read, listen, watch or interact with computers, etc as in [12]. It is obvious that media depends on the type of the students, where they are belongs to, what are their levels of existing skill and their learning styles. Distance education programmes are increasingly using combinations of media to deliver training. For example, print materials often cite references to audio and video resources, which can be sent out to students from the library and resource centre. The application of audio, video and computer based media in teaching learning process are well recycled with Distance Education system. Learning through media is the latest trend in the educational institutions and more convenient process for distance learners in Distance Education Institutions. References [1]. Bates, Tony (1987); Teaching, Media choice and cost effectiveness of alternative delivery system, ERIC Document, Berlin (ED 292441): European centre for Development of Vocational Education. [2]. Bates, A.W (1999) Managing Technological Change: Strategies for College and University Leaders, San Francisco, Jossey Bass. [3]. Bates, A.W. (2011) Outlook for Online Learning and Distance Education, C Ontario, Canada, Contact North-Contact Nord. [4]. Daniel, John S. (1996) Mega-Universities and Knowledge Media: Technology Strategies for Higher Education, London, Kogan Page. [5]. HEFCE (2011) Collaborate to Compete: Seizing the opportunity of online learning for UK higher education, Report to HEFCE by the Online Learning Task Force, London, HEFCE. [6]. http://www.answers.com/ (2013) topic/print-media#ixzz1uOaCnp9O [7]. http://wiki.answers.com/(2013)Q/What_are_the_merits_of_print_media_and_non_print_media#ixzz1uOb7b7co. [8]. Muhammadali. N, (2011), Introduction to Mass Communication, Study material, Malappuram, Kerala, University of Calicut School of Distance Education. [9]. Olson, D.R., and Burner, J.S. (1974); Learning through experience and learning through media in D.R. Olson (ed) Media and Symbols, National society for the study of education, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. [10]. Ponmeni, G. (2012), Mass media in Distance Education, Chapter in Distance and Open Learning , Directorate of Distance Education, Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra University. [11]. Romiszowski, A.J. (1988); The selection and Use of Instructional media, London, Kogan press. [12]. Salomon, G. (1970) Interaction of Media, Cognition and Learning, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. [13]. STRIDE, (2006) Media and Technology in Distance Education, Hand book 7, IGNOU, New Delhi, Berry Art Press.

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Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Persian Paradisal Theme on the Wall of Mughal Tombs Rohita Sharma and Dr. Ila Gupta Humanities and social Sciences Department Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India Abstract: This paper is a comprehensive study of the mural decoration and its design elements used in the famous tombs of the Mughal era, the tomb of shaikh Salim Chisti (Fathepur-Sikri) and the tomb of Itimidud-Dulla (Agra). The monuments are world famous due to its grand architecture. Different types of decorative arts and beautiful symbolic and decorative motifs were used in the buildings as a part of the interior as well as exterior wall decorations. The motifs are in geometrical, arabesques, vegetation, abstract, animated and religious forms. This paper attempts to find aesthetic, cultural and regional logic for placement of different motifs for wall decoration in different squares and rectangular portition in the interior of the tomb. This paper also explores the theme, which has been applied in geometrical portions with different beautiful flowers, fruits and other motifs. This is en explorative study based on literature, survey and interviews. The study concludes that the mural decoration was an excellent experiment in combining the Hindu and Islamic art forms to provide serenity to the place and symbol of the paradise to the person lying in grave and visitors. Keywords: Mural, Flowers, geometric shaped garden, paradise I. Introduction The Mughal monuments in India are world famous for its beautiful and unique architecture. Which could be attributed to the amalgamation of the diverse set of population, belonging to different cultures, faith and racial groups, which have immigrated to India since time immemorial. Basically Mughals have emigrated from Central Asia, and brought with them their aesthetic values, cultural beliefs and many more things that were quite unique to India. Besides, they have also experimented with the native (predominantly Hindu) and Islamic art forms which made their monuments the unique pieces of arts and architecture. Mughal applied different type of wall decoration such as inlay (pietra-dura), glazed tile, glass mosaic, stucco, incised, painting and frescos murals. This paper covers mural decorations used in, the tomb of Sheikh Salim Chisthi and the tomb of Itimid-udDulla and gives the answer of these questions as what types of mural techniques and motifs have been used on the wall of tombs? What is the reason for applying particular motifs? Did they follow any theme or was it based on ruler‘s interest? II. Architecture of Tombs A. The tomb of Shaikh Salim Chisti The tomb of Shaikh Salim Chisti is located at Fathepur Sikri, just 23 miles west from Agra build by the great Mughal emperor Akbar (Havell, 2006),‖ The tomb is a world famous monument with many beautiful features. It is raised on about a meter high platform. There are five steps to reach its entrance porch. The tomb is placed in the center of the main hall under a hemispherical dome. The main tomb building has marble (sang-I-murmur) screen on all sides. The marble wall is beautifully carved and has a pearl-like appearance. It was originally built of red sandstone like the other buildings of Sikri, but either during the time period of Jahangir or at the beginning of the reign of Sahajahan, the same was changed completely into a marble structure. There is conflict between who replaced it, ―Its present appearance is due to a later development, possibly that which prevailed at the end of Jahangir‘s reign or the beginning of that of Shajahan‖ (Brown, 1983). The tomb has been replaced in marble by the brother of Jahangir. ―In the beginning, the tomb was partly in marble both inside and outside. The dome and verandah were of red sand stone. It was Qutubddin Khan Koka, foster brother of Jahangir, who added the outer marble screens and paved with marble. It was done around 1606 (Chandra 2000). According to native persons, the building was replaced with marble in the period of Jahangir, but in the interior, the marble has-been replaced only at the lower part of the side walls (dado height). The upper part (drum portion) is in the same condition having white washed with lime. This portion has been painted in different colorful flowers on marble as well as on white washed portion. It clears that the paintings are related to the later period of Jahangir. ―The tomb is made of white marble stone and the interior wall of the tomb, just over a meter high, is decorated with painted stylized flowers at a later age (Michael, 2006).‖ Other monuments of Jahangir‘s period were decorated with the same floral mural decoration as the tomb of Akbar, Sikandara and the tomb of Itimid-ud-dulla. The other common thing is the form of grapes and flower vases which are also drawn in the tomb of Itimid-ud-dulla and in the tomb of Salim Chisti. Grapes, vine-vessels, flower vases and pomegranates are the symbol of Jahangir‘s

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warmness. These points help to clarify the time-period of the mural painting in the tomb of Salim. The door to the main chamber is intricately carved with arabesque patterns and bears inscriptions from the Quran: To belong the east and the west; Whithersoever you turn, there is the face of God (Michael, 2006) Brown marble borders the interior bays, while the relief panels—with the Quranic verses—have a blue background. The carved and painted tomb chamber has a white marble floor, which is inlaid with multicolored stones. The tomb of Salim is famous for two reasons: one is for its unique architecture; and the second is that it is a secular place for all religions. B. The tomb of Itimid-ud-Dulla The tomb of Itimid-ud-Dulla is known as the baby Taj-Mahal built by the Mughal emperor Jahangir the son of Akbar. It contains cenotaphs of Mirza Ghiyas and Asmat Begum. Mirza Ghiyas Beg (Itimid-ud-dulla) was father of Nur Jahan, queen of Jahangir. He had a great position in Mughal court. In January 1622 Itimid-ud-dulla died. After his death Nur Jahan put in hand the construction in white marble of his exquisite tomb at Agra. which was finished six year later in 1628. It is situated near Yamuna in the old city of Agra near about one and half kilometer from Taj-Mahal. This building is made of white marble. Marble was used for the first time in this building. According to some scholar it is more plentiful then Taj-Mahal. ―It is like a brilliant casket, bejeweled with various styles of inlay‖ (Gascoigne1971) III. Internalization of Mural in Mughal Era Architecture It is a well-known fact that Mughals were fond of art. ―Akbar was very fond of paintings (Blochmann, 2010) miniature and portraiture, as well as architectural (Smith, 1909).‖ Babur was the grandfather of Akbar and came to Hindustan in the 16th century. There was a battle between Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Afghan kings of Delhi, and Babur (Havell, 2006). Babur had brought two Persian artists with him who continued their art work even after the death of Babur. After the death of Babur Humayun, his son Akbar took the power in his hand. The tradition of employing artists from abroad continued. These artists were doing fine work influenced by local culture, climate, tradition, material and technology. They respected the other artists and wanted to adopt their style. The Mughals were inspired by Persian art and applied this art in many Mughal monuments in India in the form of geometrical shapes. However, in many monuments, they used murals, the art of India. In the words of Nath (1970), ―unlike glazed tiling and mosaic work, which were no doubt introduced into India by the Islamic artist, stucco and painting were the ancient art of the Hindus. Though no examples of the art exist, we have overwhelming literary evidence which indicates that it was a well-advanced art in India in the pre-Christian period‖. Mural decoration is usually done on the surface of the wall of a building. In ancient times, it was done on rocks and caves. In the Indian sub-continent, we find frescos. It is also believed that the art of frescos in India is older than the Ajanta caves. The ancient Hindu painters also equally excelled in wall painting. With the rise of Buddhism, painting received a new impetus; it was used as the medium for the spread of religion and religious subjects became its main theme (Brown, 1983). Ajanta frescos style and technique later spread towards the east and the west, n. In the west and in Europe, there are many ancient frescos built in palaces and temples of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. One of the most famous fresco painting found in Europe at the time of the renaissance is ‗The Last Supper‘ by Leonardo, painted on the wall of a church in Milan. Persia was influenced by the European style, and from there this style was adopted by the Mughals. In 1506, Babur paid a visit to Herat, the residence of his uncle Husayn Byqara. Babur was fascinated by Herat, and his descriptions of the city still make interesting reading. There was a pavilion with mural depicting the heroic deeds of the Timurind Abu sa‘id Mirza. Later during the Mughal reign in India, murals were prominent features of castles and places (Annimarie, 2004). He (Akbar) supplied the idea and the motive force; the Islamic artist, chiefly Iranian, suggested the pattern—geometrical, floral inscriptional, conventional floresque and others as against the traditional animate figures of the Hindus. ―The new motifs revolutionized the whole art. Iranian influence gave a new interpretation to the ancient art of Indian painting (Nath, 1970).It is true that even Mughal mural decoration is an amalgamation of different arts. Yet, it has new features, and so this art is famous in the world. ―It is obviously of a comparatively earlier period and might be original‖ (Nath, 1970, p. 63). IV. Different mural technique In Mughal era different type of mural style has been used. They are very attractive and have an important place in the society. The most popular mural styles are inlay, tile, stucco and mosaic. Inlay is one most popular of them. This was known as Pietra Dura (Pietra = Stone, Dura = Hard). This art was related to Persia and adopted by the Mughals. The very first example was found in the Ashrafi Mahal and Tower of victory at Mandu, due to this some scholar said that this art is the ancient art of India but according to Nath before Mughal in Gujarat some Persian artist came to India and they lived here by changed their names. They work as an artist and add some mural decoration in their painting through this inlay was found in some places. In Mughal era this art has been used in Humanyun old fort in Delhi (Nath 2004)in the period of Akbar it can be seen in Buland Darwaza, Fathepur Sikri and in Delhi Gate Jahangiri Mahal Agra Fort. In the time of Jahangir this art reach its Zenith. The most popular example of this art is The Tomb of Itimad –Ud –Daulla near Jamuna in Agra, and the world famous monuments is TajMahal by ShanJahan Fig. 1 & 2.

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Figure 1 Inlay decoration in the TajMahal Figure 2 Inlay decoration in the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulla

Mughals art makes use of stucco as a decorative means in mosques and palaces. Indian knows stucco as a material for sculpture in an architectural context. It is rare in the countryside. History of tile (glazed brick), manufacture and decoration in Iran, goes back to the prehistoric period. It has an important position among the various decorative arts in Iranian architecture. Mughal brought this art in India. ―The new motifs revolutionalized the whole art. Iranian influence gave a new interpretation to the ancient art of Indian painting.‖ (Nath1970 ). V. Color Application In ancient times, artists used ‗earthen colors‘ in buildings. This technique is called panel paintings from the 13th to the 15th century. But later in about 1239, oil painting was practiced in England as trade (Touch, 1911) and oil colors were used for the first time by Hubert and Jan Van Eyke. When paints with oil base were introduced, tempera painting gradually lost its prominence as the preferred medium for major works of art. This style became popular in other countries too. Mughal artists were also influenced by this technique. ―The mural painting in the tomb of Salim is really exquisite work. The entrance to the interior room has been elaborately painted in floral and inscriptional pattern chiefly in gold, pink and green. ―The painting in the interior is bold and broad and has been done on a plaster layer 1/10 thick (Nath, 1970).‖ They applied a thick paint layer on the wall surfaces. Colors were prepared by the artists themselves. They used earthen colors, chemical color sand plant colors. Red color was made from Laakh, sindoor and hingul (Anand, 2005); white from lime; blue (neel) from the plant, blue; black from kajal and mustard oil; and yellow was made from the plant, dhak. Colors were derived from natural materials. Even eggs, gold powder and silver foil were sometimes used. VI. Subjects The interior walls of the tomb are fully decorated with painted mural decoration. No part of the wall is free, and almost all the paintings are different from each other. Subject of these murals is mostly flowers: lotus (kanwal), Lily, Rose (Gul-i-surkh), Pansy, Daffodils, Hibiscus, Juhi, Sunflower, Jasmine and Keshar. Besides these, there are many flowers, plants and creepers which grew in the Mughal garden, like Chameli, Champa, Chandni, Datura, Gudhal, Gandraj, Harsingar, Jawa-ki-rani, Sunflower, Mehandi Mogra and, etc. Mughals used these flowers for oil, perfumes and as cosmetics. Mughals had a variety of flowers. They had great knowledge of the names and quality of various flowers. Different flowers were used as beauty products too. Sweet-smelling flowers were used in large quantities. Oil was also extracted from flowers and used for the skin and hair (Blochhman 1997). In Figure 8, the arrow shows the lotus flower motif at the entrance of the tomb. It has also a symbolic meaning. This lotus is shown in full blossom and the meaning of the full blossom is that the empire was at the full peak or the prime stage in Akbar ‗s period. Another meaning is to show the welcoming effect. Figure 3 Lotus at entrance of Salim chisti Tomb Figure 4 Mural in the Tomb

As for the kanwal, there are two kinds. One opens when the sublime sun shines, turning whenever the sun, goes and closing at night it resembles the shaqayisa, but its red is paler. Its petals, which are never less than six in number, enclose yellow stems … the other kind has four white petals openthat at night and turn itself according to the moon but does not close (Blochhman 1997).Lotus is popular and can be seen easily in every monument. The floor is also decorated with this flower (Figure 9). It occupies a great place during Shahjahan‘s time (Figure 10). The ‗Aftab‘ was also used in this era. This flower is yellow. The Indians called it sunflower‘. There is a quality in this flower that it turns to the sun automatically. ―The Aftabi is round, broad and large, has a large numbers of petals and turns continually to the sun. Its stem reaches a height of three yards‖ (Blochhman 1997). In the tomb, this flower can be seen on the border of the square. This flower is in its original color and forms the yellow round with green petal (Figure 11). A flower on the border repeated three to four times in creeper style, seen in many Mughal miniatures, is the hand of a great personality. It is pink in color, with dark green colored gul-i-surkh (rose); the sewti resembles the Gul-i-surkh but is smaller. Gul-i-surk in Persian is a pink fragrant rose that blooms in spring (Blochhman 1997). Around this are creepers of many small flowers which may be Juhi, and try to show in its original form because this flower is in the creeper with many other flowers and the

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tree and makes itself dance; so the something is in Figure 12. ―The Juhi has small leaves; this creeper winds itself round about trees, and flowers in three years‖ (Blochhman 1997). Now the question to be answered is why only flower motifs are seen in the tomb? Why these flowers were in a square portion and not in a circle or any other shape? What was the aim behind depicting flowers on the side wall? What was the reason not to use the repetition of motifs? The answer may be that firstly, the Mughals were influenced by Persians. It was the Mughals who introduced paradise gardens under Persian inspiration (Jose, 1994). In Persian and Mughal painting, gardens were a favorite subject with artists but their representation, though realistic in detail, is idealized at least in the context of layout and settings, because in the Mughal era, India traded with Persia, China, and many European countries, along with Japan, Burma, the Dutch and the Turks. The Gardens were in square shape and floral arrangement. Nature was considered as an integral part of interior decoration. The fondness for nature was in their cultures. Mughals also adopted this thing and made their gardens square in shape, divided into number of squares. In the main square fruit and flower trees were planted. Each square contained one kind of fruit or flower. Sometimes several flower trees were mixed up in one square. Ram Bagh is the first garden in India (Figure 13) (Annimarie, 2004). Akbar made for himself beautiful gardens in Agra fort, Fathepur Sikri and other places. At Sikndara, there was another garden associated with his name. He lies buried there (Jayapalan, 2000). His awesome mausoleum stands in the middle of this beautiful garden. Some of the ladies like Bika Begum, the grandmother of Akbar, and Mariam Makani, the grandmother of Jahangir, were also interested in laying out gardens. Nurjahan‘s garden, called Shahdara, was built near Lahore. Shajahan was equally interested in gardens, and his Anguri Bagh in the Agra fort is a garden around the mausoleum of Mumtaj Mahal in the Taj. The garden was planted with fruit and flower trees. Mughals were lovers of nature. They thought that if a person thinks himself with nature, he can find new strength and art of life. So they made flower motifs in the tomb to look like a garden. ―The horticultural factor of the Mughal funerary complex is taken from Iran where the enclosed garden was developed if no one invented, and which for many religions came to be a symbol of paradise (old Persian, pairidaezaenclose park; Greek paradises, Modern Persian, Firdausi). For Islam, paradise is literally a garden watered by streams; burial in a garden is for the Muhammadan a kind of early anticipation of paradisal bliss. Since it is believed that dead live in their tombs (Jayapalan, 2000), the prospects of being buried in a shady, watered and flowery garden may make one even look forward to one‘s death‖ (Jayapalan, 2000). Mughals were fond of flowers and it shows in these lines: ―In Goverdhan‘s painting, Akbar wears the typical Mughal jama made of fine, somewhat transparent white fabric depicted with a faint regular pattern of flower springs all over in gold‖(Condra, 2008) It is also of concern that the tomb of Salim was decorated during the time of Jahangir or at the start of the reign of Shajahan. He was most fond of splendors. He loved nature even in his daily dresses with delicate embroidery. The border decorations also reminded the painting during the time of Shahjahan, which were decorated by ornaments. The other reason for flower motif is symbolism. There is no doubt that Akbar believed in Hindu mythology and did his work according to the stars. The artists knew this tendency so they made flower motifs. According to the Hindu mythology, flowers represent sacrifice, love, respect and peace. VII. Paradise Theme Now the question to be answered is why only flower motifs are seen in the tomb of Sheikh Salim? Why these flowers were in a square portion and not in a circle or any other shape? What was the aim behind depicting flowers on the side wall? What was the reason not to use the repetition of motifs? Why in the tomb of Itimadud-dulla vine-vessels dishes, flower vase, perfume bottles, were decorated. The answer may be that firstly, the Mughals were influenced by Persians. It was the Mughals who introduced paradise gardens under Persian inspiration (Jose, 1994)28. In Persian and Mughal painting, gardens were a favorite subject with artists but their representation, though realistic in detail, is idealized at least in the context of layout and settings, because in the Mughal era, India traded with Persia, China, and many European countries, along with Japan, Burma, the Dutch and the Turks. The Gardens were in square shape and floral arrangement. Figure 5 Mughal garden in different geometrical shapes Figure 6 Mural in Itimid-u-Dulla Tomb

Nature was considered as an integral part of interior decoration. The fondness for nature was in their cultures. Mughals also adopted this thing and made their gardens square in shape, divided into number of squares. In the main square fruit and flower trees were planted. Each square contained one kind of fruit or flower. Sometimes several flower trees were mixed up in one square. Ram Bagh is the first garden in India (Annimarie, 2004) 29. Akbar made for himself beautiful gardens in Agra fort, Fathepur Sikri and other places. At Sikndara, there was

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another garden associated with his name. He lies buried there (Jayapalan, 2000)30. His awesome mausoleum stands in the middle of this beautiful garden. Some of the ladies like Bika Begum, the grandmother of Akbar, and Mariam Makani, the grandmother of Jahangir, were also interested in laying out gardens. Nurjahan‘s garden, called Shahdara, was built near Lahore. Shajahan was equally interested in gardens, and his Anguri Bagh in the Agra fort is a garden around the mausoleum of Mumtaj Mahal in the Taj. The garden was planted with fruit and flower trees. Mughals were lovers of nature. They thought that if a person thinks himself with nature, he can find new strength and art of life. So they made flower motifs in the tomb to look like a garden. ―The horticultural factor of the Mughal funerary complex is taken from Iran where the enclosed garden was developed if no one invented, and which for many religions came to be a symbol of paradise (old Persian, pairidaeza enclose park; Greek paradises, Modern Persian, Firdausi). For Islam, paradise is literally a garden watered by streams; burial in a garden is for the Muhammadan a kind of early anticipation of paradisal bliss. Since it is believed that dead live in their tombs (Jayapalan, 2000)31, the prospects of being buried in a shady, watered and flowery garden may make one even look forward to one‘s death‖ (Jayapalan, 2000)32. Mughals were fond of flowers and it shows in these lines: ―In Goverdhan‘s painting, Akbar wears the typical Mughal jama made of fine, somewhat transparent white fabric depicted with a faint regular pattern of flower springs all over in gold‖ (Condra, 2008)33 It is also of concern that the tomb of Salim was decorated during the time of Jahangir or at the start of the reign of Shajahan. He was most fond of splendors. He loved nature even in his daily dresses with delicate embroidery. The border decorations also reminded the painting during the time of Shahjahan, which were decorated by ornaments. The other reason for flower motif is symbolism. There is no doubt that Akbar believed in Hindu mythology and did his work according to the stars. The artists knew this tendency so they made flower motifs. According to the Hindu mythology, flowers represent sacrifice, love, respect and peace. Sheikh salim was a saint and Itmid-ud-dulla was a chief minister and he was in habit of drinking. As the motifs were made according to personality but at last it was based on paradisal theme of Persian gardens. Figure 7 Mural in Itimid-u-Dulla Tomb Figure 8 Different type of vine vessels and fru

VIII. Conclusion This paper proves that the presence of different kind of motifs as geometrical fruits motif calligraphy is auspicious in the tomb of Salim. In the order of its use, the geometrical motifs come first, followed by flower and fruit motifs. Beside all ornaments, there are only floral motifs in the wall of the interior. The theme of this is based on the garden of Mughal period inspired by Persian and Indian arts. It is the best example of the amalgamation of Hindu and Muslim techniques in the garden and in the mural technique. This monument is also world famous and remains symbol of unity among different religions. Not only Indians but many foreigners also visit the dargah, a recent example being the visit of the president of France, Nicolas Sarkozi, and his wife, Carla Bruni. They went to the dargah on December 6, 2010. They also tied a red thread as an expression of their wish for a son (Hindustan, 2010). According to Michael (2001), when the Pakistani leader Pervez Musharraf was attending summit talks in Agra, his wife was escorted to the dargah to offer her prayers (Michael, 2006). References 1. Allami Abul Fazal (xxxx), The Ain-i-Akbari, Vol. 1, Translated into English byH Blochmann, Low Price Publication, Delhi. 2. Blochmann H (2010), Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazal, Vol. 1, p. 107, Calcutta. 3. Michael B (2006), The Tomb of Salim Chisthi: Marg Journal, Vol. 56, September,pp. 25-35. 4. Brown P (xxxx), Indian Painting, pp. 19-20. 5. Brown P (1983), Indian Architecture (Islamic Period), p. 98, DB Taraporevala Sons& Co., Mumbai. 6. Chandra G V (2000), The City of Victory and Harmony, p. 64, Kitab Mahal, 22Sarojini Naidu Marg, Allahabad. 7. Condra Jill (2008), The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing Through World History1501-1800, p. 211, Green Wood Publication. 8. Gascoigne B. (1971) ―The Great Moghuls‖ Pub. B.I. publications New Delhi, P.159, Havell E B (2006), A Hand Book to Agra and the Taj, p. 108, Echo Library. 9. Hindustan (2010), Fathepur Sikri, 6th Edition, December. 10. Jayapalan N (2000), Social and Cultural History of India Since 1556, pp. 37-47, AtlanticPublishers and Distributors. 12. Nath R (1970), Colour Decoration in Mughal Architecture, pp. 49-61, D B Taraporvala,Bombay. 12. Sachdeva Sema (xxxx), Bhartiya Chitrakala Pragetihasik kal se Pahari shelly, p. 56,Chitrayan Prakashan. 13. Annimarie S (2004), The Empire of Great Mughal, History, Art and Culture, p. 24,Reaktion Books Ltd., London. 14. Smith E W (1909), ―Akbar‘s Tomb Sikandara Near Agra‖, ASI ‘New Imperial Series,Vol. xxxv, p. 9, Allhabad. 15. Touch M (1911), Material of Permanent Painting, pp. 8-15, The Eddy PressCorporation.

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Re-engineering Recruitment Strategies with RPO Model for Recruitment Challenges in IT and ITES Industry Ms. Sunita Tank Dean and Head- Corporate Affairs and Placements Department of Management, Maharaja Agarasen Institute of Technology, Maharaja Agarsen Institute of Management Studies, Sector- 22, Rohini, Delhi. Abstract: Talent management is extremely important in such dynamic business world today and to do so it is essential to have an intense understanding of the recruitment pattern for the specific business line and how the key positions holders are moving in the job market. Recruitment and its challenges form a major part of talent management process especially in IT industry where huge capital investments are been made in the recruitment process for vacant jobs promotions and candidate screening, but still the process fall short in terms of its performance and delivery, leaving many pitfalls behind. Even if the company has the capacity to increase their scalability to large volumes of recruitment due to new or existing project deadline, which is quite common in this industry, the other issues like attrition, effective profile mapping, compensation management; cost cutting etc spoils the whole scenario. All such challenges needs an effective recruitment model where the quality of recruitment function improves with an impact on recruitment metrics of an organization. Recruitment Process Outsourcing (RPO) Model is a model which reduces employers' recruitment costs with a flexible "pay-for-performance" facility that deploys recruitment more efficiently when undertaking volume recruitment project or when an organization wants to control attrition and retain talent. It offers the entire gamut of tasks performed under recruitment function. In this direction, this paper is an effort to highlight the recruitment challenges faced by HR professionals especially in IT industry. Further it has showcased how RPO Model is an effective solution to overcome recruitment challenges in the said industry. Keywords: Recruitment Challenges, Talent Management, Attrition, Information Technology Industry. I. Introduction IT and ITES industry is an industry where employee attrition rate is always high in comparison to other industries and has been affected by the global economic crisis and has been forced to rethink its strategy to remain competitive. In addition to cost reduction this industry professional are keener to focus on employee retention strategies. According to a study conducted by MyHiringClub.com, the IT and ITES sectors saw the highest attrition rate of 23 per cent in the year 2010-11. The main reason for switching a job is pay packages (21 per cent), followed by career level growth (16 per cent), dissatisfaction with supervisors (15 per cent) and work pressure (14 per cent). Attrition can be witnessed highest at junior management level (0-3 years), and least at top management level (20 years). Following survey showcase IT and ITES industry as one of the industries with highest attrition rate.

Source: Deloitte- Compensation trends survey 2012 Following are the top attrition challenges in IT and ITES industry: Compensation Management: The said industry is of the most competitive and high paying industry in India. Employers even give 100% salary growth to talented employees. Under such situation employees walk away with multiple job offers in hand.

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Reallocation of the candidate: Seven most popular IT hubs namely Hyderabad, Bangalore, Pune, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai makes employees from other part of India, work away from family. This later becomes the major stability issue. Rapid change in technology used in IT industry. Work life balance still difficult to achieve for employees working in IT sector- long duty hours, night‟s shifts due to foreign clients. High female staff attrition rate due to Personal/ family commitments. Pursue further studies. Maintaining year over year increase in customer satisfaction ratio, in case the company is providing IT outsourcing service. Slowdown in product development firms- Research and development centres at Yahoo Inc., Microsoft Corp., Adobe Systems Inc. and other multinational software product firms are facing a slowdown in growth and product development work in India as they battle double-digit attrition rates with key personnel quitting to join start-ups or launch their own ventures. Source- Live Mint March 13, 2013. Frequent job change is a disadvantage for both the parties, as the companies‟ pays higher wages for the same skill set to an individual and for individuals benefiting from higher wages in the short-run does not means rise in knowledge and skill levels. Therefore in order to control the above said challenges, the companies in the domains of IT, ITeS and BPO have now started shifting their focus on enhancing individuals' performance, and are providing adequate training and work experience to employees. Besides, they have also been doling out large salary hikes and promotions to put a check on the rising attrition rate. II. Literature Review Recruitment Process Outsourcing as a concept was first realized in 1970‟s in US with the demand of technical skills going up with high tech companies, mainly information technology and manufacturing firms. Hiring cost was growing up in terms of tracking external experts and that time RPO service was only used to add more value to the technical jobs Later in 1980‟s and 1990‟s companies started realizing the fact of reducing the fixed cost of HR, which was primarily related to recruitments. James Caan from U.K. was the first person to develop RPO in the 1990s. Early 2000 registered a major change in RPO scenario. With the introduction of HRO today magazine- “The Baker‟s Dozen Survey of top RPO vendors in the world” in the year 2002, RPO became a big time business solution to talent management. In a prominent study by Future Step (RPO Service Provider) in the year 2005, it was stated that those recruitment models which just focus on cost-reduction and process have failed to integrate talent acquisition and management with the strategic imperatives for talent demanded by the business and organizations should realize that leveraging talent as a competitive advantage is paramount. A study by the Yankee Group in 2008 stated “RPO can provide companies with cost savings, increased candidate quality, effective screening processes/tools, metrics, and new technology without major capital investments. Companies can focus their internal HR resources on the strategic core business of the company.” The study revealed that due to RPO Model flexibility, innovative recruitment strategies and technologies, its end-to-end hiring programs, and dedicated program teams the companies are able to achieve its strategic target well on time in comparison to their competitors, by concentrating on their core business commitment and valueadded services in their specific industry. In a study, RPO in 2009, it was revealed that 62% of organizations that fully or partially outsourced recruitment was able to reduce cost per hire and organization are yielding significant performance gains across the board. The findings also introduced key performances areas of RPO such as time to fill positions, hiring manager satisfaction, new hire retentions. Aberdeen Group research study 2010 was able to build a long time waited business case for RPO. It was stated in the report that “If an organization is challenged by uncertainty, legacy processes, and resource constraints, RPO can provide the flexibility it needs to compete for key talent by innovating its processes and allowing resources to focus on core business competencies. Rather, organizations must identify the major holes and work with the provider to plug them. It was stated that when implemented successfully, RPO Model can yield great gains in business outcomes and other metrics. III. Objectives of the Study The research paper was undertaken with the following objectives: To analyze the recruitment challenges faced by an organizations in the IT and ITES industry. To analyze the effectiveness of RPO MODEL adoption in overcoming recruitment challenges in IT and ITES industry. IV. Research Methodology The parameters of the study were finalized and a structured questionnaire was designed to be used as a primary data collection tool. Interviews of Senior HR managers and HR Heads were also conducted to understand the recruitment challenges and the benefits of RPO Model adoption as a solution. The response received from all participants was validated and checked for accuracy and intended interpretation. The data than was collated and analyzed to get detailed insight on industry recruitment challenges. Secondary data was studied from books, magazines, various surveys and research papers.

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V. RPO Model Adoption: Need of the Hour Recruitment Process Outsourcing (RPO) is one the major service offered by HRO firms today. Human Resource Outsourcing (HRO) is a process where a company outsources some or all of its HR activities to an external service provider”. Some of the major HRO services are Recruitment Process Outsourcing (RPO), payroll and benefits, HRIS, Compensation, Performance Management, Mentoring and Coaching forms a part of HRO services. In RPO setup, an employer transfers all or a part of its recruitment activities to an external third party entity. The strategic framework for recruitment policy will be developed and remain in-house and only the implementation of these policies will be transferred to the RPO provider. RPO model leverages the combination of strategy, technology, resources and vendor management to improve the recruitment process. Improvements measured and monitored through real-time metrics are then tied to strict service level agreements. The model works primarily on employee retention services, workforce analytics and supply planning, talent acquisition designing, applicant tracking system (ATS), employee performance management, compensation solutions etc. It provides a global solution to optimize candidate quality, control costs, and deliver measurable results in performance and business impact. Instant scalability, speed, quality results, technology and precise hiring processes are the benefits to an IT company engaged in an RPO solution. The IT companies must research and choose an RPO provider that matches with the company‟s culture and has the experience to back up its claims. RPO Model is mainly adopted under the following business situations in an organization: To control attrition Expansion in Pipeline/Large Scale Hiring. Demands for Niche Skills. A movement for organizations to outsource the entire recruiting functions. Implementation of centralized hubs to drive optimal performance. Major Services Offered under Recruitment Process Outsourcing Model are: Strategic Consulting „Vacancy Gap Identification in Various Organizational Departments. Formation of Job Description/Job role. Sourcing and Applicant Tracking Platform. Pre Hire Assessments. Recruitment Process set up: Employment Verification, Phone Screens and Interviewing. Employee data management and Build talent communities. Social Media Networking. Offer Salary Negotiation/Compensation/Reward Planning Analysis of partnership of RPO vendor with the client to monitor performance. RPO firms only enter in an agreement with the organization when at least two of the above mentioned main services under RPO model are adopted. The service legal agreement is being processed once the deal is finalized with client. This also includes the key performance areas and with expected outcome, keeping in mind the recruitment challenges the organization is facing. Recruitment Process Outsourcing Model has the following three main stages: Stage One. Discovery of Requirement: The objective of this phase is to understand the client needs better and map a process or a model that helps RPO to hire “on time, every time for either one hire or more at a time. Below figure 1.1 showcases the designing of stage one.

Stage Two. Engagement with the Client: - The objective of this phase is to engage with the client and the candidates to attract and hire the most apt resources for the client in a cost effective and timely manner. Below figure 1.2 showcase the designing of stage two.

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Stage Three. Delivery of Services: - This phase is the culmination of the search process. Suitable candidates are interviewed in depth on technical and soft skills. References and other background information are thoroughly checked. At times, RPO vendor also assist its clients in creating and executing detailed, customized on-boarding, familiarization with the corporate culture, and induction training. Below figure 1.3 showcase the designing of stage three.

Some of the IT giants which top the client list of RPO firms are Apple Inc. with Futurestep â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A korn/Ferry company, Quantum Technologies with Hyrian, Microsoft Inc., and Sun Microsystems with Kenexa. Outsourcing the recruitment processes for an industry like IT and ITES, which faces an attrition of almost 50-60 per cent, can help the companies in this industry to save costs tremendously and focus on other issues like retention. The job seekers are also availing the services of the third parties (consultants) for accessing the latest job opportunities. This gives the mutual benefit to both the parties. RPO Model works best on employee expectation in terms of benefits, compensation and work polices. Working with a RPO provider can foster the innovation needed in legacy sourcing and hiring processes to fill requisitions with top quality hires. Below survey report by Aberdeen Group, November 2010 showcase drivers behind RPO Model adoption. The survey was conducted for nearly 200 organizations to determine the viability of RPO Model. Out of which 80 organizations were taken into consideration that were using fully or partially RPO services.

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Operational Benefits of RPO Model to IT Company: Reduced costs: By managing end-to-end recruitment process with managed recruitment budget. Enhance core competencies of internal HR management to allow them to focus on other core HR strategies. Highly skilled, culturally aligned recruiters – RPO are not just recruitment consultants rather they are experts in talent acquisition within the client‟s industry and are well versed with the organizational culture. Quality pool of candidate engagement for all key positions of an organization and provides a highly responsive, direct point of contact for all candidates, ensuring best career opportunities are identified for the most suitable candidates, managing business and candidate expectations carefully. Better support for hiring managers and factual advice to Line Management, saving them time and enabling them to structure and resource their business successfully. Turnaround time to close any open roles is reduced by putting in place the people, processes and technology correctly. Clear accountability for recruitment activities with clear state of outcome expected. Proactive, creative, well planned and structured approach makes RPO a successful model for talent hiring, management and retention. Strategic Benefits of RPO Model to IT Company Brand awareness – Dramatically improving candidate awareness of companies existence. Improve resource planning – RPO helps in understanding short, mid and long term business strategies to facilitate quality based talent pools in line with current and future demands. Develop Hiring Manager Skills – Continuous interview coaching and training is provided to line Management on both a structured and ad hoc basis to enhance candidate engagement. Employee engagement – RPO continuously hire managers to identify high performing and high potential internal talent and ensure they are considered for open roles, positively impacting employee engagement in the process. VI. Conclusion According to the latest report by Everest Research Group, the global RPO market had estimated growth of 25% in the year 2012. Cost cutting factor remains the main catalyst driving the RPO market. The Indian RPO market is estimated to be $ 2.5 billion and is expected to grow at 35-40%.Companies which has adopted RPO model are capable to save at least 40% to 45% of recruitment cost and in addition internal HR personals get the time and opportunity to involve themselves with core HR strategic issues. Further, in RPO adopted companies, employees have become extremely cautious before making any job move since the model adopts the latest technology, be it for applicant tracking system or connecting to social network to best of their advantage. This gives an absolute track record of the candidate‟s movement between the jobs and otherwise. The model includes all those additional processes and systems to hire only stringent and need base employees to their clients. RPO is the next level solution for all recruitment challenges specifically for IT industry where pool of talent with no time gap is readily available with quality hiring and improved productivity. VII. References 1. 2.

Is RPO a mature Market, March 2007, HRO Today Magazine. RPO in 2009: Driving Cost and Quality Improvements, March 2009, by Jayson Saba, Kevin Martin and Kimberly Madden, Aberdeen Group 3. Outsourcing Recruitment Is Not Evil: RPO Builds its Business Case on Flexibility, Scalability and Outcomes, November 2010 by Jayson Saba, Aberdeen Group. 4. Global RPO Report 2011 by Kelly Outsourcing and Consulting Group. 5. Recruitment Process Outsourcing (RPO) Annual Report 2012 - Raising the Bar to Sustain Momentum, Everest Research Group. 6. Human Resource Outsourcing : Analysis Based on Literature Review, International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, Vol.2, No.2, April 2011 7. A brief report on ITES and software industry in India, August 2012, by ASA and Associates. 8. Deloitte- Compensation Trends Survey 2012. 9. Challenges of ITES companies in India, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol. 1 No.2, February 2011. 10. HRO Today- 2013 Baker‟s Dozen Customer Satisfaction Ratings, Vol. 12, No.2, March 2013.

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Career Development in the Context of Globalization, Privatization and Liberalization T K GILL Professor Educational Psychology Department of Extension Education PAU Ludhiana, INDIA Freud’s comments “The world we know would perish without work” throw light on the importance of work. Work is the central and essential part of man’s life, without it life is not meaningful. Any person without work is a burden on earth. The common saying, “The work is worship” is very much true. But if the work is soul-less, life stifles and dies. The choice of work is one of the most important decisions one makes. It determines how time will be spent, who will be the friends chosen, what attitudes and what values will be adopted, where one will reside, what pattern of family living will be adopted. According to C. Wright Mills, “The life-fate of the modern individual depends not only upon the family into which he was born or which he enters by marriage, but increasingly upon the corporation in which he spends the most alert hours of his best years.” This is a very important decision but many a times it is made with little thought and assistance. One may go for it by imitating elders or friends or an admired teacher or a popular hero. Meaning of Career: Occupation is one of the earlier terms used for work, which emerged into profession and now career is the word most appropriately used for it. The term career has several meanings which vary with the user and many a times the same user may mean differently. Popular usage of the term career is synonym for occupation. Sometimes it is used as progression from one lower position in a field to the higher positions. The word career originated from the Latin word “carrus” which means chariot. According to Oxford Dictionary, career is the development of vocational behaviour over time. In scientific studies of work, it has been given a more special meaning, keeping in view its origin and denotes the sequence of positions occupied by a person during the course of life time. Vocational psychologists use “career” for occupational career (Super, 1957), but many use it to denote the complex roles played sequentially and sometimes simultaneously from the ‘cradle to the grave (Super, 1980), a life time career. Definitions: “A career is the individually perceived sequence of attitudes and behaviours associated with work related experiences and activities over the span of person’s work life.” - Hall (1976) “A career is a chosen pursuit; a profession or occupation. It is the sequence and variety of occupations (paid and unpaid) which one undertakes throughout a lifetime. More broadly, career includes life roles, leisure activities, learning and work.” The concept occupation, vocation or career is often confused even in scientific and professional writings because many individuals have only one occupation throughout their life while others may have a series of quite different occupations. Vocation is for occupation chosen and engaged in for a substantial period of life appropriate to one’s abilities, interests and values and desires whereas career denotes a life time sequence of positions and occupations. A career can be examined from different perspectives (Hall, 1976): Responsive Careers: These are characterized by the pursuit of occupations which are approved by and are typical of individual’s family or socio-economic group. Expressive Careers: In these an individual responds to internal and not external pressures. He seeks to fulfill and express his interest and use their abilities in the occupation. Choosing a career: Choosing a career is a modern concept. About three centuries ago a young man did not choose his career. He was expected to enter his father’s occupation or his father’s choice. A non-conformist who AIJRHASS 13-221; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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deviated from it, used to make his own way as a soldier of future or an emigrant to a new world. But, today the trend has entirely changed. Recently, there has been drastic change in the world of work. With the onset of globalization, numerous professions have emerging. The youth is perplexed how to make decision about his profession and advance in his career in the dynamic world of competition. After entering into the world of work, every one tries to advance, compete and excel others. One may also make frequent changes in the job positions. Career Development: Career development may be thought of as an aspect of general development of succession of occupations in which one engages during his life time. The term was first used by Charlotte Bühler in Austria. Career Development involves both theory and practice, the two sometimes closely related, sometimes ignorant of each other. The theoretical bases will help how individuals develop vocationally and can help a counselor in framing the guidelines for helping individuals to solve problems, avoid blocks, progress with efficiency and satisfaction in their profession. Definition: “ It is the process of preparing for, entering, adapting to and moving from one position to another during the course of life or more limitedly during the course of work life or it is the process of managing life, learning and work over the lifespan.” The terms career development, vocational development and occupational development are used synonymously. Each refers to life-long process of developing work values, crystallizing a vocational identity, learning about opportunities, trying out plans in part time, recreational and full time work situations. The terms ‘career’ and ‘career development’ became popular in 1960s replacing ‘occupational choice’ because this expanded perception was more useful than the earlier view of career development as occupational choice because it broke the time barrier that had previously restricted the vision of career development to only a cross-sectional view of an individual's life and may be thought of as an aspect of general development. Life Career Development: In the 1970s, the definitions of career and career development used by some writers became broader and more encompassing. Gysbers and Moore (1975, 1981) proposed the concept of ‘life career development’ in an effort to expand and extend career development from an occupational perspective to a life perspective in which occupation (and work) has place and meaning. They defined "life career development" as self-development over the life span through the integration of roles, settings, and events of a person's life. ‘Life’  the focus is on the total person--the human career. ‘Career’ identifies and relates: - the roles in which individuals are involved (worker, learner, family, citizen) - the settings where individuals find themselves (home, school, community, work place) - and the events that occur over their lifetimes (entry job, marriage,divorce, retirement). ‘Development’  indicates that individuals are always in the process of becoming. When used in sequence, the words ‘life career development’ bring these separate meanings together, but at the same time, a greater meaning emerges. Life career development describes unique people with their own life styles. Theories of Career Development: Career development theories try to explain that individuals choose careers in an orderly and systematic fashion. But many a times barriers to occupational choices such as stereotyping, prejudice and family, economic and educational constraints thwart individual’s opportunity to follow their interest. These also deal with the adjustments people make over time. Modern theories began appearing in literature in 1950s. There is a lot of diversity of duplicating or supporting and conflicting theories. Following is a brief account of various theories: A. Accident Theory: Individuals choose their occupation accidentally. Many people follow the path of least resistance in their career development by simply falling into whatever work opportunities happen to come their way. The choice is determined by unplanned exposure to powerful stimulus. We may hear accident hypotheses from people saying as: ‘It just happened to be there at the right time when I met my employer’ ‘I never thought I will go for this job, before I saw the vacancy in newspaper’ AIJRHASS 13-221; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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‘I wanted to join Army but being medically unfit, I opted to go for a teaching job.’ Such statements exhibit an element of chance in choosing one’s career, though chance may not completely explain the job entry. This theory overstates the external factors’ role in choice of career. No doubt, accident or exposure to a stimulus may provide an opportunity but internal and many other factors play their role in determining the response to that stimulus. B. Structural Theories: Structural Theories focus on individual characteristics and occupational tasks.  Trait and Factor Theory  Socioeconomic Theory  Vocational Personalities and Environments a. Trait-and-Factor Theory: Parson stressed the uniqueness of the individuals. These theories focus on personal traits and abilities such as aptitudes, interests and personality. Satisfaction in a particular occupation depends on the fit between one’s abilities and the job requirements. Wise selection of a vocation depends upon: - A clear understanding of oneself i. e. one’s aptitudes, abilities, interests, ambition, resources, limitations, and their causes. - A knowledge of the requirements and conditions of success, advantages and disadvantages, compensation, opportunities and prospectus in different lines of work. - True reasoning on the relations of these two groups of facts. Modern form of theory stresses interpersonal nature of careers and associated lifestyles. b. Socioeconomic Theory: These theories focus on socio-economic status as the determinant of career patterns, plans, job availability and feelings about the certainty about the plans. The opportunity structure imposes real limits on the full self-actualization of individual potential through career development c. Vocational Personalities and Environments Theory (Holland’s Theory): Holland’s theory is very practical and useful. He identified six categories in which personality types (vocational personalities) and job requirements can be classified. Individuals enter the environment because of their personality and remain in these environments because of reinforcement and satisfaction obtained through personal interaction. He suggested that "people can function and develop best and find job satisfaction in work environments that are compatible with their personalities." Holland based his theory of personality types on following assumptions:  People tend to choose careers that are reflective of their personalities.  Because people tend to be attracted to certain jobs, the environment reflects their personalities. Work environments (Table 1) and the six categories along with traits are as follows:  Realistic: Conforming, Humble, Frank, Materialistic, Persistent, Genuine, Practical, Hardheaded, Shy, Honest, Thrifty  Investigative: Analytical, Independent, Cautious, Intellectual, Pessimistic, Introverted, Precise, Critical, Rational, Curious,  Artistic: Imaginative, Original, Disorderly, Impractical, Intuitive, Emotional, Impulsive, Nonconforming, Expressive, Open  Social: Idealistic, Helpful, Cooperative, Kind, Sympathetic, Friendly, Patient, Tactful, Generous, Responsible, Understanding  Enterprising: Domineering, Optimistic, Adventurous, Energetic, Pleasure-seeking, Extroverted, Ambitious, Impulsive, Self-confident, Sociable, Popular  Conventional: Conforming, Inhibited, Persistent, Conscientious, Obedient, Practical, Careful, Orderly, Thrifty, Efficient, Unimaginative Table 1: Personality types and work environments Type

Activities

Occupations

Realistic

Working with tools and machines Farmer, Carpenter, Mechanical Engineer

Investigative Working ideas and theories

Chemist

Artistic

Creating things

Painter, Writer

Social

Helping people

Social Worker, Counselor

Enterprising

Leading others

Sales Representative, Entrepreneur

Conventional Organizing data

Auditor

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Holland illustrated the closeness and distance between the six personality types through a hexagon (Fig 1). The closer two orientations are in the hexagon arrangement; the closer are the personality types. Similarity in individual’s predominant and secondary orientations will lead to easy time in career selection while dissimilar orientations may result in difficulty in choosing the career. Realistic ( R )

Investigative ( I )

Conventional ( C )

Artistic ( A )

Enterprising (E )

Social ( S )

Fig.1 Holland’s Personality Types C. Psychodynamic Theory: Anne Roe and Robert Hoppoch stressed the importance of unconscious motivation and emotional needs. Vocational interest develop as a result of the interaction between the parents and their children. Childhood treatment by the parent is the prime determinant of eventual vocational placement. These childhood experiences revolve around the satisfaction of needs as below: i. Needs which are routinely satisfied do not become unconscious motivators. ii. Higher order needs if not satisfied disappear entirely. iii. Lower needs if rarely satisfied become dominant motivators. iv. Needs that are satisfied after unusual delay become unconscious motivators under certain conditions. Career choices reflect the desire to satisfy needs not met by parents in childhood. In general three parent-child rearing patterns exist: i. Emotional Concentration on the Child: This pattern takes two forms a. Over-protection: this encourages dependency. b. Over-demanding: parents emphasize too much on achievement. Children grown in this type of environment need constant feedback and rewards. They choose careers that provide recognition from others as performing arts. ii. Avoidance of the Child: This rearing pattern adopts two extreme patterns: a. Neglectful Parenting: Little effort is made to satisfy the needs of the child. b. Rejecting Parenting: No effort is made to satisfy child’s needs. The children brought up in such environments will concentrate on scientific and mechanical interests as a way of finding gratification in life and are more prone to deal with things and ideas. iii. Acceptance of the Child: Acceptance may be casual or more actively loving in either case. Independence is encouraged in this type of practice. Children from these families seek careers that balance the personal and non-personal aspects of life. They adopt professions such as teaching or counseling. D. Decision-Making Theories: Though decision-making is an element in all theories but Arroba’s, Gelatt’s, Hilton’s, Handerson’s, Hershenson and Roth’s theories have extensive incorporation of this concept. These theories focus on rational processes of decision-making presently known as decision–making styles. Decisionmaking begins with a purpose or objective, followed by data or information collection, predicting the outcomes, estimating the probable results and evaluating the desirability of outcomes.

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E. Cognitive Theories: Cognitive theories of career development are built around how individuals process, integrate, and react to information. The ways in which individuals process information are determined by their cognitive structures. These structures influence how individuals see themselves, others, and the environment. Cognitive theories suggest ways to help clients build or refine a hierarchy of thinking and decision-making skills that influence career development. F. Social Learning Theory (Krumboltz): Much growth takes place as a result of learning and imitating the behavior of others. John D. Krumboltz developed a theory of career decision-making and development based on our social learning, or environmental conditions and events, genetic influences, and learning experiences. People choose their careers based on what they have learned, Krumboltz theorized. Certain behaviors are modeled, rewarded and G . Developmental Theories: These theories (Ginzberg, Sidney, Super etc.) focus on the development of the individual over a relatively long period of time. These make use of contributions from differential psychology, personality psychology, role theory and Life-stage theory by Super (1980), the concept Life-Career Rainbow. Total arc of rainbow portrays life span from birth to death. And the life space is depicted by the several arcs of the rainbow. Each arc represents a major life-career role. The amount of time devoted to a role at any point is depicted by the shaded area within that arc, while effective commitment to a role is shown by the depth of coloring or shading of the total space. Each role has impact on the others Super’s Life-Span, Life-Space Theory (differential-developmental-social-phenomenological career theory): This theory has been built on 14 assumptions: • People differ in their abilities, personalities, needs, values, interests, traits, and self-concepts. • People are qualified, by virtue of these characteristics, for a number of occupations. • Each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities and personality traits. • Vocational preferences and competencies, the situations in which people live and work, and hence, their self-concepts change with time and experience. • The nature of the career pattern…is determined by the individual’s parental socioeconomic level, mental ability, education, skills, personality characteristics, career maturity, and by the opportunities to which he or she is exposed. • Success in coping at any given life-career stage depends on the readiness of the individual to cope with the demands of that stage. • Career maturity is a constellation of physical, psychological, and social characteristics. • Development through the life stages can be guided, partly by facilitating the maturing of abilities and interests and partly by aiding in reality testing and the development of self-concepts. • The process of career development is essentially that of development and implementing occupational self-concepts. • Work satisfactions and life satisfactions depend on the extent to which the individual finds adequate outlets for abilities, needs, values, interests, personality traits, and self-concepts. • Work and occupation provide a focus for personality organization for most men and women, although for some persons this focus is peripheral or even nonexistent. Career development occurs through the changes that people go through as they mature. Super formalized stages and developmental tasks over the life span. We play different roles during our lifetimes and the relative importance we give to those roles at different times in our lives. Individuals tend to play some or all of nine major roles in different theatres i. e. home, school, as shown in Fig: 2 Life Span • Growth - fantasy, interests, capacities • Exploration - crystallizing, specifying, implementing • Establishment - stabilizing, consolidating, advancing • Maintenance - holding, updating, innovating • Disengagement - decelerating, retirement planning, retirement living

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Son or daughter

Pensioner

Student

Leisurite

Parent Life Roles

Citizen

Worker

Homemaker

Spouse (Partner)

Fig: 2 Life Roles played by An Individual Life Space • While workers are busy earning a living, they are also busy living a life • The simultaneous combination of life roles we play constitutes the life style; their sequential combination structures the life space and constitutes the life cycle; the total structure is the career pattern. • The salience people attach to the constellation of life roles they play defines life structure. • The life space segment of the theory acknowledges that people differ in the degree of importance they attach to work. Every theory explains the basis for opting an occupation differently and there is overlapping too. Following is a model of career development (Fig. 3) based on various theories showing a relationship between different stages of career development and different life stages as well as needs: Model of Career Development based on Stages of Career in relation to Different Periods and Needs of Life: Career choice and career development are no longer one time event in one’s life. It is not only matching a person to an occupation. Career development is a process which starts at an early age contrary to view point of many people. During different periods of life, different stages of career development can be analyzed. These are characterized by distinctive developmental tasks, concerns, needs, values and activities (Table 2). A particular stage is a pre-requisite for the next. Needs and expectations change as the individual moves through the stages (Hall, 1968). 1. Pre-Work Stage: a. Fantasy Period: At this stage the child tries out various self-concepts in fantasy. He might be playing the role of a teacher, doctor, policeman and so on. It is not useless but plays some role in the choice of career later on in life.

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Table:2 Stages of Careers to Different Periods and Needs of Life S. No. 1.

Stages of Careers Fantasy Period Pre Work Stage Exploratory Period

Stages of Life Childhood Adolescence

Initial Work Stage 2.

Establishment Period

Retirement Period

Advancement Maintenance Decline Maintenance Re-employment

Adulthood

Old age

Needs Safety, Security, Physiological, Psychological Safety, Security Achievement, Esteem, Autonomy Esteem, Self-actualization Security Safety Self-actualization

b. Exploratory Period: It is the stage of exploration or identity formation. Individual at this stage begins to explore his or her self-concept and intentions for the future career. Self-examination, various role try outs and exploration of the occupational and social self takes place. They might be confused by the apparent gap between what they think that they can do and they must do to succeed in career.

Fig 3: Model of Career Development 2. Establishment Stage: This phase begins with the entry into the job. This phase can be divided into three sub-stages: i. Initial stage: The individual learns to involve with other persons, groups and organizations after joining the job. In the early years, one tries to establish in the chosen occupation. The success depends upon the establishment of his ego-identity as an adolescent. If satisfied, he advances further in the same occupation, otherwise he may try for a new job. ii. Advancement stage: This phase spreads from 30 to 45 years of age. Here the individual is less concerned for satisfaction of safety needs but is more concerned for achievement, esteem and autonomy. Emphasis is on using creative abilities and talents. iii. Maintenance stage: It is marked by the efforts to stabilize the gains of the past. Esteem and selfactualization are the most important needs in this phase. It is a period of creativity. One is devoted to generativity and achievements. The individuals, who are not achieving satisfaction from their work, experience physiological and psychological discomfort. 3. Retirement Stage: This is the final stage, termed ‘decline’ by Super (1973) but he was also reactive to the unattractiveness of the term and commented as Golden Years or Sunshine Years. AIJRHASS 13-221; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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Erickson referred to it as a stage of integrity-a pleasant term. It relates to transition from membership in an organization to retirement and new sets of activities. The person visualizes satisfaction or dissatisfaction with his life, choices and actions. Successful careers are the result of achieving certain career stages at certain ages. These days the individuals may opt for another career after retirement because of their good health. There are so many opportunities open to him in the present day scenario where he can utilize his experience in a better way guiding. Aging brings down the pace of work and there is decline in productivity, but some individuals may have opportunities to experience self-actualization through activities that were impossible to pursue while in job. Career Education/Career Information: The term and concept of ‘Career Education’ began to attract wide attention in 1971, when US Commissioner of Education Sydney P. Marland Jr. proposed that all education be thought of as preparation for career. It is different from vocational education because its emphasis is on general employability and adaptability skills applicable to all occupations whereas vocational education is primarily concerned with occupational skill training for specific occupations. Technology and super-industrialization have created a new relationship between man, his education and his work demanding a close co-ordination between the institutions and the world of work. The road to career passes through educational institutions especially the institutions of higher learning. Colleges and universities come into contact with students in formative years of their life. One of the important aims of institutions of higher learning is to prepare youth for work, to equip them for occupations as well as prepare them for cultivated intellectual and human lives. Institutions have to ensure that their products are employable and suit adequately to the needs of the market which constantly requires higher levels of education, skill development and professional specialization. Career education encompasses:  learning about the world of work, its changing nature, the general expectations of employers, and the demands of the workplace  developing self-awareness in relation to interests, abilities, competencies and values.  developing awareness and understanding of occupational information and career pathways  developing skills in decision-making which can be applied to career choices  acquiring the skills necessary to implement the career decisions made. But mere knowledge of career information does not guarantee self-exploration in career development, but good career decisions cannot be made without such data. Career Guidance: Career guidance is referred to by many different names as Vocational Guidance, Career Counselling, Occupational Guidance etc. This has been evolved to meet the changing context and needs of individuals within the society. The concept of career guidance is inclusive of all those activities that seek to disseminate information about present or future vocations in such a way that individuals become more knowledgeable and aware of themselves in relation to the world of work. It is meant for people who are pretty normal and have no emotional problems that would interfere with developing a rational approach for making a vocational career choice (Lakshmi, 2000). Career guidance is often thought to incorporate career information, career education and career counseling. A primary goal of career guidance is to assist all persons (children, young people, and adults) to become competent achieving individuals, to maximize their potential through the effective use or management of their own talents and their environment. The chosen occupation must shape the person and his life style. Career guidance may help individuals not only with their career adjustment but also with their personal and psychological adjustments. Need of Career Development in the Context of Globalization: Globalization has affected every walk of life. There is growing diversity in society due to intermingling of cultures, hence the values and needs are changing. Globalization is transcending socioeconomic and political barriers that the countries of the world are prone to build around themselves. A new world is being formed. It is a process of integrating economies, cultures, technologies and giving rise to new markets, new tools, internet links, media network, new opportunities to work. Globalization is marked by four modes of trade in services which have resulted in the increased mobility across the borders. The four modes are: -Cross-border Supply - Consumption Abroad - Commercial Presence and -Movement of Natural Persons. AIJRHASS 13-221; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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World Trade Organization with authority over national governments is arriving at the multinational cooperation agreements on trade. It is also having impact on the institutional framework in both developing and industrial countries. Change in the world of work today is very fast. Globalization is very much responsible for the change in classical employment methods. It drastically changed the global patterns of employment and employability leading to a global competitiveness in jobs, where one is no longer safe from overseas job hunters. Multi – National Corporations have changed the patterns of consumption of workers in the global society. The developing countries are being exploited for cheap labor and not being able to do anything about it. The changing economic, occupational, industrial, and social environments and structures in which people live and work have created conditions and needs not previously present. Young people today are both excited and confused by the innumerable career choices. Individuals must now give more attention to their career development. Career guidance in the present day scenario is must because of the following reasons:  Increasing complexity of world of work. Never before there have been many career options as there are today.  New occupations appear and old vanish. The individuals must be well informed in competitive environment as the best jobs go to the best informed and best prepared.  Due to different modes of trade in services under WTO, specialists are being employed from foreign countries because of skill levels; this is creating a loss of job availability for locals.  Jobs are no longer a stationary affair, traveling jobs are on the increase because multi national companies are not at a definite location, and they have a string of locations all over the world.  Jobless growth is a huge challenge in India, the growth rate of unemployment is higher than growth rate of employment.  Technology is forcing the world to change into a global village. The constant battle to keep up with the pace of technology is forcing to updating of skill levels for employment.  The frequency in change in jobs is increasing, the jobs are short term and careers are no longer for life. This may be due to acute job dissatisfaction or increased self-understanding or awareness of options. Retirees from armed forces also join new jobs.  Women, who do not join jobs in the beginning due to family responsibilities, may like to enter the world of work when children are grown up.  Some professions experience oversupply of workers. The theory and research base of counseling psychology has been expanded and extended substantially during the last few decades, but particularly during the past ten years. As new concepts about career development began to appear and evolve, concept of career counseling is also changing according to the needs of the changing society. It is obvious that people of all ages and circumstances have career development needs and concerns Individuals as well as society would benefit from career development programs, services, and counseling. Determinants of Career Choice and Development: According to National Vocational Guidance Association and American Vocational Association, the total constellation of psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic and chance factors combine to shape the career of any given individual. Following are the factors which must be kept in mind while choosing a career and they also affect the development of one’s career:  Education: Individuals, who have more education, qualify for higher levels of occupational employment. Individuals who are the best in various educational activities at the school and college level are most highly recommended for higher levels of occupations. From the very beginning while providing career guidance, educational level of the learners should be kept in mind.  Home and Family: Family as a biological unit which is responsible for heredity influences the individual from the time he comes to life. Father’s occupation, early experiences in the family, emotional as well as social climate and role models of the family affect the attitudes, values, work ethics which have far reaching effects on vocational choice and adjustment. Sub-cultural pressures and rewards are transmitted to the child through home resulting in certain behavioral patterns responsible for career development.  School: School is one of the social institutions which may facilitate or retard the progress towards success of career. What type of experiences and exposure to different types of skills, one had during his school days has long-lasting effects on the career development. AIJRHASS 13-221; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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 Socio-Economic Status: Socio-economic status is one of the factors that determine the opportunity to go for higher level of education, develop skills and interest in various activities. Because it gives the opportunity to choose from a variety of educational and occupational alternatives. Resources of the individual should be kept in mind while providing guidance. When asked about the future plan of their ward, a parents from lower S. E. S. will say: “I will make my child something better than what I do.” But in a middle class family, child grows up knowing a number of adults as role models and a middle class parent can enlist a number of possibilities and will say, “It is up to the child to decide.” Higher socio-economic status is also linked to exposure to many intellectual stimuli and educational experiences. Moreover one will not go for low wage or low prestige job if it is not according to his S.E.S. Economically weak individual can not afford to go for an occupation which needs long-term preparation as he is to fulfill his lower needs at priority.  Personality a. Traits: Personality is a complex psychological concept, by which an individual is understood and viewed different from another individual. Different occupations demand for different types of personalities as described by Holland such as strong, weak, polite shy, smart, introvert, extravert. Such traits must be taken care of while choosing a career. For example, an introvert may not be effective in an occupation involving communication skills, whereas a social and extravert person would be successful in a job having public relations. b. Self-concept: It is picture of the individual as it appears to him. It is an attitude or the understanding of the self about his capacities, and characteristics developed through exploration. Successful guidance depends upon the understanding of individual by himself as well as the counselor. Career chosen should be based upon needs and real circumstances surrounding his decisions. c. Values and Needs: Values and needs are important determinants of career choice and success. What a person seeks in the activity should be taken care of- whether he values money or status or support of human relations or an appreciation of positive change or independence, challenge, creativity, command, discipline and so on. Individuals having higher level needs have more opportunity to manifest themselves in the choice of occupation. These needs propel the individual in different directions according to their capacities, interests and experiences. These motivate the individual to act in a certain way as discussed by Maslow. The individuals opt, advance or stabilize in their career in order to fulfill their needs. d. Health and Handicaps: Health and physical development are a necessary consideration in every profession, but they are indispensable in certain professions such as army, police etc. Physical, mental and social handicaps may influence career development more as a result of public attitudes than of actual occupational limitations. These attitudes affect occupational placements and adjustment and may be barrier to career development. The social handicaps also lock up the individual into a low level jobs. While providing guidance health and guidance should be kept in mind.  Gender: Gender is also an important determinant of career choice and development. Some occupations are more suitable to males while others to females. For example, males are better in mechanical occupations, while girls are more suitable in nursery school teachers or nursing.  Intelligence: Academic as well profession pursuit necessarily draws on the intellectual talent of the individual. High IQ will naturally lead to higher academic achievement leading to the choice for high profile occupations. Moreover every occupation requires different level of IQ. While making a choice for career, intellectual level of the individual should be kept in mind.  Specific Abilities/Aptitudes: Different professions require different specific abilities or aptitudes. It is advisable that an individual must join a profession which is compatible to his aptitudes. Various techniques are available to test the specific abilities of the individual.  Interests: One’s interest or motivational pattern is very vital for the growth in any profession. It increases the possibility of success in a profession. Involvement in work will be automatic if one is endowed with interest and it will lead towards progress and increased out-put. When one progresses, reinforcement in the form of promotion, monetary benefits, incentives, recognition will be there and it will lead towards job satisfaction.

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Points to be kept in mind for providing Career Guidance: Career development is high priority item on an international as well as national scale. Entire process of herding the youth in educational disciplines unconnected with their aptitude and the world of work needs to be checked through scientific process of career guidance. To make the career counseling services more effective to meet the challenges of 21st century, it has to be properly understood in relation to the individual and many other factors. It is a joint venture of the individual, parents, educational institutions, employers, government and other agencies as discussed below:  Provide space for Career Guidance in Curriculum: Career guidance and education must go hand in hand. Career guidance should be provided space in the curriculum. Generally, it is thought that career education is meant for secondary school students. But it is not like that. Career Education should be made a part of the curriculum right from the very beginning i. e. nursery level till one completes the education as following: Nursery to Primary Level: At this level career awareness should be created among learners. They make spontaneous announcements regarding occupational choices. All fantasies about various occupations can not be accepted but these should not be ignored. Expressed occupational choices may help to determine child’s attitude towards different occupations. Children should be given more exposure to various occupations by taking them to bakeries, restaurants, factories, plants etc. so that they become aware of numerous occupations. Elementary to secondary Level: Here the attention should be paid towards the awareness of various subjects. Occupational uses of every subject should be taught. Awareness of adult occupations and their status emerges at least by mid-elementary school grade boys and perhaps a little later in girls (Hill, 1965). The learners should be familiarized with broad groups of occupations, so that they are able to plan about the choice of subjects. Experience based career education should be given at secondary school level. They must be provided opportunities to analyze, explore and understand themselves. Post Secondary level: It is the most appropriate time to give occupational information because best time to learn anything is just before we are going to use it, because the our interest is highest and there are less chances that our knowledge will become obsolete. Students must be made aware about maximum options available to them.  Make Career Guidance a life-long process: The task of career guidance does not finish as soon as one completes education and enters a job. When one enters into the job, he must be provided guidance to make adjustments in the profession and enhance his personal and career maturity. New entrants need guidance for good manners, good grooming, getting well along with co-workers. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) can at the best ensure one’s entry into a high profile job but Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is the prime factor, which keeps people employable and contributes towards the retention and progress and further promotion in the work field. High IQ may assure you a top position but high EQ may make you a top person. Goleman (1995) suggested that emotional intelligence contributes to eighty percent of person’s success or failure in life while intelligence quotient (IQ) contributes to only twenty percent. Individuals must be guided to be emotionally mature to control their emotions and express right emotions at the right time.  Planning of the Career: Forcing an individual in profession my lead to failure and thus hurting the self-esteem. The choice of the career should be planned from the very beginning, one should stumble into one. Poor choice results in dissatisfaction and frustration. This is not an easy task these days because of the following reasons: -complexity of world of work -there is lot of information -there is lack of information -there are people around whose opinion you can not ignore -stiff competition -many pressures to cope with Therefore, decision making about career should be done in a rational manner to eliminate any chances for regret. The process of career planning stretches through the secondary, senior secondary and college years of the individual.  Understanding and Developing Self-concept of the individual: The individual should be understood by himself, parents, teachers and the counselor in terms of academic potentials, attributes, talents, interests, personality, values, resources etc. planned routes to career or an optional career are chalked out during school years, keeping in mind all the attributes. AIJRHASS 13-221; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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Self: What the individual thinks about him is his self-concept. Development of self-concept is a slow and relatively unconscious process involving emotional maturity and readiness. He must be guided to solve his own problems, the responsibility of choices should primarily rest on the individual. Through introspection, he must be made capable of assessing himself correctly. At school level, various nominations, sociograms can be helpful in self-understanding. b. Parents: The parents should observe the child carefully, identifying his tastes, making note of his interests and hobbies, questions asked by him etc. Parents can play an important role in the development of self-concept. Parentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; judgments can help the counselor to make certain decisions about career guidance. c. Counselors: The counselor must understand the individual in terms of his abilities, aptitudes, interests etc. Various testing and non-testing techniques can be used to identify the specificities and guide the individual accordingly. ď&#x192;&#x2DC; Provide Comprehensive Career Information: Career information may not guarantee career development, but good decisions can not be made without complete information. Lack of enough and update information is one of the reasons that individual fails to make decisions or make unwise decisions or choices. The information or data collected should also reflect the vision for future. Many a times courses are taken unthinkingly with an eye on more lucrative profession at present but the status may not remain the same in future. Various sources may be used to collect information such as print media i. e. pamphlets, journals, publications, career dictionaries, career exhibitions and conferences, career resource centres, internet etc. Modern tools such as the world wide web have made it possible for workers to search for jobs on an international basis, rather than just locally and they can also advertise himself or herself over the internet. www.minoritynurse.com -http://kangaroostudies.com - www.naukri.com -timesjobs.com -www.monesterindia.com -work-m-live-overseas.com -freelanceindia.com -http//job.rediff.com -www.5toppers.com -http//job.rediff.com -ourdollars.com -careerkhazana.com -Monsterindia.com -www.medhunters.com -www.aviationemployment.com -www.spherion.co -www2.warwick.ac.uk Development of Various Skills: a. Vocational Skills: Every vocation requires a specific skill sets. Guidance must be provided to acquire specific skill sets or competencies required by a job, so the individual able to perform the job effectively with great success. He must be trained to be a responsible worker by understanding the desired work roles. . b. Self-knowledge and interpersonal Skills: Career guidance should focus on assisting all individuals in the development of self-knowledge and interpersonal skills, in obtaining life career planning competencies, in identifying and using placement resources, and in gaining knowledge and understanding of life roles, settings, and events, specifically those associated with family, education, work, and leisure. Individuals' feelings of control over their environment and their own destiny, and their relations with others and with institutions are of prime importance. c. Language skills: It may be required in some companies to learn a second language to cope with overseas clients. English is the language of the world at the moment, and many people are being forced to learn English to acquire jobs in global companies. It may be required in some companies to learn a second language to It may be required in some companies to learn a second language to cope with overseas clients. English is the language of the world at the moment, and many people are being forced to learn English to acquire jobs in global companies d. Communication Skills: Communication skills such as resume writing, letter drafting, speaking and presenting are must to get a good job. Even after getting the job these are necessary to progress further, to impress upon he others. e. Skills in the use of Computers and Computerized Technologies: Computerized Technologies is the hub of the globalization and it has changed the employment conditions. One feels handicapped without these and without having these skills to use these technologies, the workers are put on the back seat. Therefore, the students must be well-versed in skills for the use of information technologies.

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ď&#x192;&#x2DC;

Career Guidance for Different Types of Jobs: a. Employment in the Private Sector: Government jobs are decreasing but opportunities in the private sector are increasing day by day. Globalization, privatization, liberalization, commercialization and industrialization have created innumerable new jobs. New occupational changes have also incurred due to mechanization in every field which requires technical knowhow. What the individuals need is the proper guidance to opt for jobs in the private sector b. Self-Employment: Students must be encouraged to opt for entrepreneurship as a specialization, lessens their dependence on government or industry for jobs. They must be helped to start their own venture, which will create job opportunities for others also. For example, there are avenues for self-employment as Agro-service centres, custom service units, agro-industries, forest-based industries etc. They must be guided for self-employment as the danger of failure and rewards of success both are tend to be higher in self-employment. c. Supplement/Part Time Employment: Individuals can also opt for supplement or part time jobs as consultant in diverse fields such as sales, advertising, agriculture and allied areas. This will help them to utilize their time properly and raise their income. d. Home Employment / Internet Jobs Internet has opened the doors to a wide range of facilities like - email - provides a means of fast communication, websites - valuable database of information, online shopping, Internet marketing & email marketing etc. This in turn has opened an ocean of opportunities for individuals and for companies alike. One can work for a company or an organization through Internet sitting at home. One can work at his convenience and speed, startup cost is very less, qualification and experience is not a limitation, help is available anytime through email, and the monetary benefits are very good. Work at your own will and earn as much as you wish. But what is needed is the proper guidance. e. Overseas Employment: In our country, a large number of young individuals are migrating abroad for greener pastures. But many fall prey in the hands of money-making agents. They have to work hard or do odd jobs in spite of having good qualifications and take a long time to to establish abroad. If proper guidance is provided to them at right time, they can be saved from the loss they suffer. f. Change of Job: One does not always need to change jobs to attain the desired goals. But to grow one must not stick to a profession where there is little scope for growth. Moreover, these days there are frequent changes in jobs. Individuals join jobs even after retirement. So there is need for career guidance through out the life. The individual may join his first job but still he can look for better opportunity because of: -accute job dissatisfaction -increased self-understanding -increased awareness of options -development of a new life style in different direction than originally choosen etc. Therefore the individuals need guidance to change or advance in their career. ď&#x192;&#x2DC; Career Guidance for Individuals with Special Needs: a. Students with Poor Academic Performance: The individuals, who have been academically unfit, should not be viewed with a feeling of helplessness or rejection, rather those should be guided by identifying their abilities. b. Drop-outs: Many students drop out before the completion of school education for one reason or the other. They are poorly equipped to find rewarding work in this highly technological society. Generally the educational institutions do not own the responsibility of drop-outs, but the government should not turn these young boys and girls on the streets. Career guidance programmes can be arranged for them through educational institutions so as to enable them to identify their abilities to find a suitable job for which they have potential for career development. c. Challenged Individuals: Individuals with special needs owing their disadvantage or handicap, require special and careful guidance for opting a career. They may not progress academically but depending upon their handicap or specific ability, can be guided to go for vocational preparation. Many adults have to leave their present job as a result of trauma-induced injury or development ability. They need mental as well as vocational adjustment. They must not be let to repent, but guided to involve in a new job. d. Women: Women these are highly educated, but they can not remain away from their responsibility of taking care of their children. Many of them want to join job when the children are grown up so as to utilize AIJRHASS 13-221; ÂŠ 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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their potential in a proper way. There career guidance is must for them because they are entering to the world of work after a long break and much can change during that period. There are new women entrants into the jobs due to loss of their husbands. Due to dual responsibility, they can be guided for part time jobs. e. Economically Poor: Many individuals may have the talent, but they may not be financially sound so as to study further or to have some professional training. They must be guided about the loan facilities available to pursue their studies. f. Gifted Children: Gifted students are the treasure of a nation. Learners having special talent should be identified and guided for the proper development of their talent for the best use of the society.  Understanding Multi-cultures: Due to internationalization, the individual are from different cultures and diverse backgrounds. This is resulting in the emergence of new values which need to be understood in respect of the multicultural background. Teachers and counselors should be culturally responsive, who understand the background and needs of the diverse population.  Minimum Career Guidance Programme in Institutions: Every Institution whether an educational institution or an organization or an industry should have a minimum program of career guidance services. A the school or college level these duties can be assigned to the regular teachers or by appointing a part time career teacher, right from the very beginning as discussed earlier. Other organizations should also have a counselor who must guide the employees to grow professionally and be comfortable at the work place. a. Establishment of a Career Cells/Placement Cells in Educational Institutions: Career cells with minimum requirements must be established in all educational institutions. Trained regular teachers and visiting career specialists, volunteer professionals can guide the students about the choice of subjects and job options available. The students should be made aware about the employment prospects, nature of work, work environment, qualifications, earnings, advancement, stability, opportunities, hazardous etc. b. Career Programmes: Various career programmes must be arranged from time to time. Workers must be equipped with relevant skills to remain employable, they must be helped through planned programmes that will assist them to make informed decisions about their study and/or work options and enable effective participation in working life. Summer courses, career exhibitions, educational movies, practice interviews, seminars, conferences can be arranged. The students must be given first hand experience through linkage with various institutions and organizations. c. Alumni meet for Career Guidance: Alumni meets should not be held for the aim of meeting old students and old friends. Rather the students must share their experiences regarding there efforts to get a job and guide others. They can share their experiences regarding: ‘How to get a job ?’ ‘How to get along with co-workers or boss?’ ‘Whether to join a union or not?’ ‘How to continue education?’ ‘How to build a new social life?’ ‘How to supplement income through part time job?’ ‘How to advance in career?’ ‘How to excel?’ ‘How to invest savings?’ and so on……. d. Career Guidance in Organizations: The individual working in an organization must be guided to advance and maintain his or professional level. At the same time he needs guidance to have good relations with colleagues and superiors as well as commitment to the organization. Job satisfaction must be assessed from time to time. This will help in increase the productivity and at the same time the individual will be psychologically comfortable. Every organization must have a career counselor to guide and assess the natural talents, skills & professional strength.  Emerging Careers: Occupational patterns are changing very fast. New occupations are emerging and old are disappearing. It becomes the responsibility of the institutions to provide information about the new world of work. Some of the new areas are given below: -Art Therapists -Horticultural therapists -Bio-informatics -Bio Medical Equipment Technologists -Health Care Jobs -Medical illustrators: to catch a killer AIJRHASS 13-221; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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-Genetic Engineering -Engineering Psychology -Genetic Counselor -Retirement counselor -Internet Commerce -Cryonics -Personal Brand Names -Teaching-Special education -Telemedicine -Virtual Organizations -Information Technology: - Information broker - Information center manager -Cybersecurity CONCLUSION When the individuals are guided to develop healthy self-images, to view the future with hope and realism and to use opportunities to test out both educational and work options in a secure environment, they are more satisfied with life and become positive contributors in society. Career development and education should go hand in hand. Career guidance should be a life-long process aiming at employability, employment and a better life as per individual’s abilities, capabilities and challenges of the emerging word of work in the era of globalization. ‘A career should enable one to choose a life rather than simply a living.’ References [1]. Ginzberg, E. et al., 1951. Occupational Choice, An Approach to a General Theory, Columbia University Press. [2]. Goleman, Deniel (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why it can matter More than IQ. , New York: Bantam Books [3]. Gysbers, N.C., & Moore, E.J. (1975). Beyond career development--Life career development. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 53, 647-652. [4]. Gysbers, N.C., & Moore, E.J. (1981). Improving guidance programs. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. [5]. Holland, J L. 1973. Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Careers. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. [6]. Hill GE. 1965. Management and Improvement of Guidance. Appleton Century Crofts, New York. [7]. Hall, D T & Nougaim, K. 1968. An Examination of Maslow’s Need Hiearchy in an Organization Setting, Organizational Performance and Human Behaviour, pp. 12-35. [8]. Hall, D T & Hall, F S. 1976 What’s New in Career Management,” Organization Dyamics, Summer. [9]. Lakshmi, K. S. 2000. Career Counselling. In Encyclopaedia of Guidance Counselling. Mittal Publications. New Dehli, pp 42-67. [10]. Parsons, F. (1909). Choosing a vocation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. [11]. Super D E. 1957. Psychology of Careers: An Introduction to Vocational Development. Harper & Row, New York. [12]. Super, D E. 1980. A Life-Span, life-space approach to career development. T. Voc. Behav. 16:282-98. [13]. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/career [14]. http://www.answers.com/topic/career

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Employees’ Ethical value is the key to the competency of the organization Utpalendu Mondal Assistant Professor, Birbhum Institute of Engineering & Technology, Suri, Birbhum-731101, West Bengal, India. Abstract: Through this discussion we understand the definition of organization, human values, meaning of organizational culture, qualities of the professional practitioner and the meaning of organizational competency. The discussion also highlights Milton Rokeach’s Classification system of values, Spinoza’s sense of values and the Iceberg Model of Culture. An organization is inanimate or soul less due to absence of efficient, inquisitive, devotional employees. Employers’ and employees’ faith, coordination and cooperation are the assets of the organization. The objective of the paper is that the competency of the organization is leaded by the sense of values of individual. Key words: Organization, human values, organizational culture, organizational competency. I. Introduction Organization means a well structured social unit of people that provide to meet the requirements or to pursue collective objects. The nature of organization highlights to set up everybody at his instinctive work to fulfill the principle and objects. Human being is the unit of the organization. It is impossible to develop an organization if individual never be grown up in an organized manner or not be organized to the ideal or principle. The main quality of a worker or an employee is unrepelling adherence to the principle. Each and every people born and brought up with different nature. Two people never are equated. In spite of individual natural distinction, everybody meet the same organizational goal if their object and ideal are same. An employee would be a man of confidence, active habits and full of inquisitive serving tendency. II. Human values The word „value‟ derives from the Latin word “valere” which means “to be strong, to be well” and therefore “to be valid”. Value indicates principles or standards of behavior, judgement of good and evils which are important in life. The value added persons are the man of convictions; they may not be sweet but invigorating. They have the fanatic attachment to the principle. “He will stand like a tower when everything rocks around him and when his softer fellow- mortals are winnowed like chaff in the blast” (William James; 1935). The persons who are leaded by moral weakness, becomes a man of sweet comprising; supports other‟s weakness to maintain his own image; fears to maintain his way of life strictly as his weakness may be disclosed. Ideal- centric urge is the source of all energies in a human being. Without urge energy never exists which leads to depression and unequipped. Human values indicate efficiency, inquisitiveness, industrious habits, practicality, determination, will, scientific trend and sense of organizational prestige. Classification system of values (1973) - Milton Rokeach The social psychologist Milton Rokeach developed Rokeach Value Survey denoting the classification system of values. The system consisted of two sets of values- i) terminal values, ii) instrumental values and each set includes eighteen individual value items. i) Terminal Values Terminal values refer the desires or goals which the human beings tend to fulfill during the lifetime. These values vary among different groups of people in different cultures. The terminal values in RVS are: 1. True Friendship 7. Freedom 13. National Security 2. Mature Love 8. Pleasure 14. A Sense of Accomplishment 3. Self-Respect 9. Social Recognition 15. A World of Beauty 4. Happiness 10. Wisdom 16. A World at Peace 5. Inner Harmony 11. Salvation 17. A Comfortable Life 6. Equality 12. Family Security 18. An Exciting Life ii) Instrumental values: Instrumental Values refer to preferable modes of behavior. These are preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values.

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The Instrumental Values are 1. Cheerfulness 7. Courage 13. Broad- Mindedness 2. Ambition 8. Politeness 14. Logic 3. Love 9. Honesty 15. Obedience 4. Cleanliness 10. Imagination 16. Helpfulness 5. Self-Control 11. Independence 17. Responsibility 6. Capability 12. Intellect 18. Forgiveness Spinoza’s sense of values In late Eighteenth Century Spinoza‟s concept of values brought the revolution in the minds of Europe. He dedicated an alternative to materialism, atheism, and deism. Spinoza‟s ideas concentrated three appealsi) The unity of all that exists; ii) The regularity of all that happens; iii) The identity of spirit and nature. Through his discussion we realized that he appealed for the harmony; the harmony of physical heath, mind and nature. Environment never compels man but man collects the elements from environment with conation according to his birth reformation and being excelled. It is also clear that the whole universe is controlled by laws of nature, captive by cause and effect where he considered the existence of spirit. Nothing is accident. Sometimes the cause or effects are unknown to us, so it is called accident or coincidence. Organizational Culture The organizational culture influences the effectiveness of the organization. Culture reflects the general prototype of behavior, shared beliefs and values that employees have in common. Culture can be deduced from the discussion, activities and thoughts of the employees within an organizational setting. It engrosses the learning and transmitting of knowledge, convictions and patterns of behaviour over a period of time. It signifies that organization culture is fairly stable, not very fast changeable. Effective enterprises expand and foster an appropriate organization culture. Sometimes few organizations establish the statute or implied rules which are used as the guidelines of employees expected behaviour. The value of the employees in a farm identifies some fairly permanent beliefs which direct employee‟s action and behaviour in fulfilling the organization‟s goal. The Iceberg Model of Culture Surface Culture (Above the surface) Emotional Load: Relatively Low Deep Culture Unspoken Rules (Just below the surface) Behavioural Based Emotional Load: High Unconscious Rules (Far Below Surface) Value-Based Emotional Load: Intense

Source: weblearningservice.com/.../cultural proficiency/.../The%20Iceberg%20M. Surface Culture (Above the surface) The kind of visual elements of culture such as food, dress, music, visual arts, drama, crafts, dance, literature, language, celebrations, games which are easily identifiable, easily shared, and easily accessed. Unspoken Rules (Just below the surface) Elements of behavior-based culture such as courtesy, contextual conversational patterns, concept of time, personal space, rules of conduct, facial expressions, non-verbal communication, body language, touching, eyecontact, patterns of handling emotions that are perhaps not as easily pointed out, more ingrained into society. Unconscious Rules (Far Below Surface) It is value-based things such as notions of modesty, concept of beauty, courtship practices, notions of leadership, cadence of work, nature of companionships, tone of voice, attitudes towards seniors, concept of cleanliness, notions of adolescence, patterns of group decision-making, definition of lunacy, preference for competition or

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cooperation, tolerance of physical and mental pain, concept and respect of “self”, concept of past and future, definition of obscenity, attitudes toward dependents, problem-solving roles in relation to age, sex, class, relationship etc. that don‟t get talked about, and often times aren‟t even realized. Qualities of a professional practitioner 1. Integrity: It implies that a professional person would be honest. Truthfulness would be his property and he would be a man of sense of honour. 2. Independence: He would be the man of self determination, would be a good listener but be firm in taking decision. 3. Impartiality: He would be gratis from bias and behold the lack of prejudice. 4. Responsibility: He never is the worshiper of go-between. His commitments and implementations are woven in parallel. 5. Competence: His knowledge regarding the job would be specific and thorough. He would be skilled and be able to do the right job in right moment savings the time very effectively. 6. Discretion: He would very diplomatic and discriminate the works categorically but not individually. III. Competency of the organization The Organizational Competencies are the knowledge, skills, and behaviours that all employees are responsible for developing and applying to the work, what they do in support of the organization‟s mission, goals, and values. The first thing of Organizational Competency is advancing mission. It signifies the understanding of the unique issues related to the organizational objectives. Secondly, the competency lies in building of relationship and development of interpersonal skills among employees and outer world. It demonstrates the value added services and reliability. It nourishes respect, promotes cooperation and effectively deals with relationships. Thirdly, creative problem solving and strategic thinking are the key features of the organizational competency. It evolves new and innovative ideas, develops process and paves the way of implementation which makes the land mark in business world. The decisions are based on facts considering the risks. The skills of critical thinking and creative analysis are used to solve the problems. Fourthly, effective communication is the heart of the organizational competency. The employees would be very effective in verbal, written and presentation communication skills. Their leadership quality would be pregnant with listening skills. Fifthly, the organizational competency highlights the development of self and others. The employees and employers hunt for chances for learning and development. They apply their progressive skills and knowledge for adjoining the value to the performance of the organization. They look for performance feedback. Sixthly, organizational competency is inherent with goal orientation. Individual employee holds self responsibility and inspires others to meet organizational goal which adds the value of the organization. They achieve the desired outcomes through team work. They put a paradigm of integrity and ethics through demonstrated performance. Seventhly, the competent organization endeavours to meet the expectation and satisfaction of organizational clients and customers. IV. Conclusion Even loud mouth jingoism cannot suppress a person‟s avid desire to reach the peak of success. His daily routine, his way of communication and his physical gesture are the best enactment of his biopic. An employee dreams for his best days after joining his organization. He is keen to have a stone-pillar support from his employer which he deserves for his level best effort and contribution towards the development of his own organization. On the other hand it becomes the foremost duty of the employer to take adequate steps to abet the enthusiasm of the employee. A perfect synergy is possible between two if the employer supports an employee‟s dedication who desires to a skilled labourer rather than tinkering with his assignments. The ethical value which is inherited only from the upbringing of a child makes him a man of value. Then the inanimate building becomes a sportive fawn leaping forward to reach the desired point of success. References 1. William James, Selected Papers on Philosophy, J. M. Dent & sons limited, 1935, p.65 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rokeach_Value_Survey, 21st June, 2013 3. www.mio-ecsde.org/protarea/Annex_4_3_values_lists.pdf 1973, 21st June, 2013 4. Koontz. Harold; O‟Donnell. Cyril; Weihrich. Heinz; Essentials of Management, McGraw- Hills International Editions; Fourth Edition; 1986, p.263. 5. Ghosh Biswanath, Engineering Ethics, New Central Book Agency (P) ltd. London, 2012.p.10. 6. weblearningservice.com/.../cultural proficiency/.../The%20Iceberg%20M.25th June, 2013. 7. www.hr.umich.edu/voices/teams/career/CompetencyDefinitions.pdf, 28th June, 2013. 8. Organizational competencies review committee. March 19, 2007.

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Causes of Dropout Rate in Government High Schools (Male) Rani Gul, M.Phil Scholar, Institute of Education and Research Peshawar University Gulshan M.Phil Scholar, Institute of Education and Research Peshawar University Arshad Ali Assistant professor, Institute of Education and Research Peshawar University Abstract: A high rate of school drop-outs in Pakistan is a matter of concern; it means that social and public policy must adjust to resolve this important issue. The current paper attempted to explore the major causes of dropout in government high school (male) in district Charsadda, KPK, Pakistan and to suggest measures for controlling the dropout level. The population of the study was consisting of teacher, parents and students community in rural area of district Charsadda. There are about 63 government high schools in which 25 are situated in rural areas. Only ten schools were selected as sample using simple random sampling technique. Questionnaire and interview were used as instrument for the collection of information. The collected information were arranged, organized and tabulated for analysis and expressed in percentage. The major findings of this study concluded that our educational system is not able to fulfill the demands of the society. Poverty, illiteracy, unawareness of parents and unemployment of the educated people are the main causes of dropout. This situation may be improved if the government provide scholarships and job opportunities, to the educated peoples and arrange awareness programs for the adults. Key words: Dropout, elementary education, illiteracy, poverty, rural areas I.

Introduction

A. Background of the Study School dropout simply means early departure from school. These students who leave their schools without completion their secondary school, have no certificate.3school dropout is a worldwide issue facing by education department throughout the world. A number of researches have been conducted on this issues, the major of which included research work of; Mohsin, Aslam and Bashir (2004); De Cos (2005); Bridgeland, Dilulio, and Morison (2006), and Oghuvbu (2008). Pakistan since independence is facing this problem. The predictable population of Pakistan is 162million.5Education system in Pakistan is divided into five stages: Primary stage include (grades 1 – 5), Middle stage (grades 6 – 8), Secondary stage (grades 9 – 10), directed to secondary school certificate; Intermediate stage (grades eleven and twelve), leads to a Higher Secondary School Certificate; and higher education leads to graduate and post graduate degrees (“Pakistan”, 2009). The most incredible element of Pakistan‟s education system is its intrinsic inequalities. A total primary enrolment rate is 57%, in which an expected 7 million primary-aged children are out-of-school. According to Vision 2030, “Education is main element of economic growth because it is directly concerned with employability, entrepreneurship, women empowerment and productivity. Because it make possible the youth with enhanced ability, creative and systematically skilled to race with the fast altering Global inclination. Pakistan ranking high in south Asians countries where only ten percent of the whole population highest in South Asia with only an estimated 10 per cent of the population terminating their 12 years of schooling (Dawn, 2008, p. 21). According to the statement of the World Bank 15 %children in the age ranking of 10 to 18years, after admitting and attending school in the earlier period , dropped out before completing primary school in the academic session of 2001 – 02. This high percentage of dropout rate is mainly because of tedious outside of buildings, shortage of facilities and poor physical environment.” Free and good environment increases opportunities for Children to learn (Ahmad, 2008). It‟s not difficult to find out the main reasons of dropout .there is no single factor causing dropout . But a number of factor are involved which directed it as a procedure. (hunt, 2008). The main element behind this issue is poverty. Poverty not only influence the demand for schooling decreases the claim for education, but also

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influences the incapability of family, tution fees and other charges necessary for nourishment of children.it is linked with some high prospect expenditures of the education for the children. Distance to schools, bad quality of the education, insufficient arrangements, overloaded class rooms, unfit languages of the of instruction, irregularity of teacher and security problem in girls school, are common causes which increase school dropout (Colclough, et al. 2000). Often drop precursors, where kids can be seen as a hazard or vulnerable to simple early withdrawal (Hunt, 2008; Lewin, 2008; Ampiah and Adu-Yeboah, 2009). According to Callahan and Clark (288-289);Research has identified a number of reasons why children of school actually dissatisfied with schools usually, only a part of a large picture of discontent encompassing the student overall view of himself, with relation to the world. Poverty along with other social factors, putting pressure on greater extent on vulnerable and study centric children to dropout (Hunt, 2008) For example orphan, migratory kids, lower boxes/planned tribe children and minority group children of different languages , not every individual, circumstance have access distressed, are more compelling to dropout (UNESCO, 2010). Gendered weights, social performance within homes, partnerships and schools, differing pattern of approach for girl and boy (Colclough et al., 2000; Leach et al, 2003) Teaching different ages have different needs and sills concerning teaching methodologies and learning contents (Little, 2008). Children over the age of late enrollment or grade repetition, limiting older children, children in school years there is greater pressure to earn income for families (EPDC ,2009).Their short-term education Experience included often crowded classroom learning, limited learning opportunities Lack of learning materials and qualified teachers (Alexander, 2008). To make assure quality education and children capacities, progress shown through schooling system, the precedence can manipulate, that is kept on schooling within the household. Obviously those children, whose parents areeducated even a little bit upto matric, are themselves more interested to kep contact school for more long. (Lloyd, Mete and Grant, 2009). Children having different age and potentials, combined together in a single classroom, without adoption of appropriate teaching methods, learning and induce to participate in the School (Little, 2008). 1personal and family level factors, such as poor health, malnutrition and poverty, endangering meaningful educational opportunities for many children. As a result, many children registered in the school, but can not participate in school.Dropout often fails to perceive any issue in education. 11As summarized by the general account office (1987), the social costs of dropout problem include an under skilled labor force, lower productivity, lost taxes and increased public assistance and crime. 1.2 Statement of This kind of educational issues, combined with personal problems and domestic problems, such as poor health, starvation and scarcity, reduces valuable learning opportunities for students. Dropout often fails to perceive any issue in education. As general account office (1987) summarized,the social outlay of dropout problem comprises an under practiced effort strength, lower production, mislaid taxes and increased public assistance and crime. B. Statement of the Problem This study was carried out to find out the “causes of Dropout rate in Government high schools (male) in District Charsadda, KPK, and Pakistan. C. Research Hypotheses The following hypotheses were stated and tested; HO1: Detention at secondary level causes dropout HO2: Parent‟s illiteracy causes dropout HO3: Unemployment of the educated persons causes dropout HO4: Corporal punishment of the teachers causes dropout HO5: Poverty is also responsible for dropout HO6: Difficult subject matter is also responsible for dropout HO7: The present curriculum does not relate to real life situation and causes dropout II. Research Methodology and procedure A. Design of the Study The design employed for the study was a survey, “Descriptive type research” keeping in view the most common factors causing dropout, three types of questionnaire were prepared for the current research, and administered to the dropout students, Parents (Especially the mother),Teacher of the respective schools. B. Population and sample The population of the study was consisting of teacher, parents and students community in rural area of District Charsadda. There are about 63 government high schools in District Charsadda in which 25 are situated in rural areas. 10 government‟s high /higher secondary schools were randomly selected as sample schools. Size of sample was calculated as follows: Total number of Govt High Schools for boys in district Charsadda = 25, Sample Schools = 10, Sample % = 40% .Total number of dropout from their sample schools = 30, Sample % =23%.Total number of teachers at their high schools for boys = 30, Sample % = 43%

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III. Instrumentation The instrument used was questionnaire and interview. Three types of questionnaire were prepared, Questionnaire for teachers of sample schools, Questionnaire for dropout students and questionnaire for parents of dropout students. A. Procedure for Data Collection The data used for the study were collected by the researcher personally. Three types of questionnaire were made. The first type of questionnaire having 24 questions was administered among the teachers of the sample schools, while the second questionnaire constituted25 questions was administered among the dropout students through an interview held with them. The third type having 15 questions was filled in by the researcher through an interview held with the parents of dropout students. All the questions were in Yes/No form. IV. Findings and Discussion Causes of drop out as perceived by parents The withdrawal of students is a threatening signal to our educational system. The following table shows that 100 % parents believed that harsh attitude and corporal punishment of the teachers are the dominant reason of dropout. The second important factor of school dropout is related to the fact that parents involved their Children in responsibilities that are not related to school, such as helping with family tasks instead Of doing school work (60%). 40% parents were believed that Low income make it difficult for the parents to make their home a contented environment for all their children‟s. This thing influence school attendance and studence show irregularity in attending school (it is the view of 60% parents).40% parents were of the view that the curriculum does not fill the demand of the society, which cause the dropout. Table 1: Causes of Dropout: Parents Response 100 80 60

High Average Low

40 20 0

40% parents were of the view that the increase in unemployment of educated persons is also the main cause of dropout.60% parents were of the view that students are facing many problems in School adjustment which included no promotion, Disciplinary problems, divergence (with teachers, class fellows) and burden of home work which compel students to leave school before completion of the secondary education.20% parents were of the opinion that failure in detention also causes dropout.80% parents were of the view that the student should chose the elective subjects according their own interest, without it dropout will occur. Causes of drop out as perceived by teachers The data given in table revealed that 100% teachers were of the opinion that illiteracy and ignorance of the parents and domestic atmosphere influences the student‟s education. The responses show that parents‟ involvement in school has greatly influenced the students or even led to their leaving school in almost 50% cases. The parents‟ low level of education leads to a lack of motivation to attend school. Lack of interest and parents‟ neglect often associated with domestic violence results dropping out.80% teachers were of the view that the curriculum does not fill the demand of the society, which cause the dropout. 60% teachers were of the opinion that a great deal of home work also causes dropout .70% teacher were of the view that the increase in unemployment of educated persons is also the main cause of dropout . 60% teachers were of the opinion that failure in detention also causes dropout .40% teacher responded that frequent transfer of teachers is also one of the main causes of dropout .100% teacher were of the view that the student should chose the elective subjects according their own interest, without it dropout will occur.

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Table 2: Causes of Dropout: Teachers Response 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

average high Low

Another factors included perception of irrelevancy of the school curriculum(80%), school environment(50%) and attitude of teachers and teacher interest in students problems (40%)were the factors within school settings which have a large impact on students dropout. Another major reason is perception of the society about unemployment status of educated peoples.70% teacher were of the view that the increase in unemployment of educated persons is also the main cause of dropout.because of this parents take away their sons from schools and engage them in their own occupation. The major causes of dropout in view of 80% teachers were Individual factors which included individual attention , students encouragement, lack of self-esteem, social skills and confidence, Lack of concentrations and self management skills. Causes of drop out as perceived by dropout students As shown in Table 80% students were of the opinion that harsh attitude and corporal punishment of the teachers causes dropout .78%were believed that transport facility is a big hurdle in their way of continuing education.60% of the students were of the opinion that lack of guidance, weak memory, difficulty of course, failure in class 9th and long distance of school forced them to discontinue their studies. In rural areas roads and public transport are usually less developed and long travel, particularly out of the village is not considered as safe as travel to a comparable distance It can be observed that the most common factor is concerned with lack of interest as far as school is concerned, and a very low degree of motivation which is added to low learning abilities, attention deficiency disorder and memory deficiency.20% students responded that they left their schools due to the subject of mathematics . For lower secondary students it can be noted that there is a higher degree of non-promotion correlated with discipline problems, and detention exams or failure in class 9th exam (as 60%respondants). Table 2: Causes of Dropout: Teachers Response High 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Average Low

Due to harder living conditions and lower incomes 60%students were greatly affected, which resulted in their abandoning school. These students have also been forced by their parents to work or help raise their younger ones. The poor economic conditions of the parents often compel them to take away boys from school and

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connect them in earning activities. To conclude, we should point out that the most frequent causes of dropout are related to the students Family and personal background, which is also the cause of their educational environment. V. Conclusions School dropout is a very complex phenomenon, a very dangerous one, due to the fact that it happens Much too easily and frequently. It is enough for one of the mentioned variables to be present, for the Student to fail at school and eventually abandon school. The risk of school dropout is much higher in families with a low standard of living, which have to deal with poverty and marginalization. The perceptions of the parents, Teachers and students were studied to find out possible reasons. The reasons point out by all the Respondents included poverty, employment of their children to perform domestic duties, parent‟s unawareness of the aims, goals of education and their illiteracy. Lack of government attention to the problems of teachers, students and schools regarding facilities, not providing playgrounds and not providing peaceful environment. The frequent transfer of teachers, their hard and brutish attitude towards the students and their corporal punishment, which causes dropout. The school is also responsible for dropout because of Lack of professional and vocational education, lack of useful skills in the curriculum, lack of basic facilities and co curricular activities at school. students poor performance, increase in unemployment of educated persons, Too much homework, the present system of education which is not a valuable and does not fulfill the demands of the society. It is also concluded that the weak background of the students in the subject of Mathematics is the barrier in the way of their continuation in further studies. VI.

Recommendations/suggestions

After a deep study of the causes of the dropout at secondary level in district Charsadda, KPK, Pakistan, the findings and conclusions were drawn. The following recommendations were made on the basis of those findings and conclusions I. Most of the parents of this district are below the poverty line. The government must give scholarship to the poor students in greater number and control the price and quality of copies and other stationeries, school uniform and shoes, so that common man can easily afford these necessities for their children‟s. II. Efforts should be made to encourage wealthy and influential people of the society to provide financial assistance to the poor and needy students to continue and complete their education. In addition to this the community must keep itself in touch with schools, so that their problems and difficulties are sorted out. III. This is also recommended that government should investigate the parents to give proper attention to their children. It is also the prior duty of the government to inform the parents about the value and importance of education through mass media like TV, Radio, Newspaper, and magazines. IV. It is also suggested that the government should provide basic facilities like drinking water, electricity, toilet, sitting –mats, furniture, and black boards on priority bases. V. Educational awareness programs should be introduced for adults. VI. Co-curricular activities must be started in high schools on large scale to engage the attention of the students in their daily programs. VII. The government should start some religious education programs at secondary school level for the spiritual development of the students. VIII. The curriculum should be designed according to the actual needs of the society. IX. Vigorous change should be brought into curriculum and in the method of teaching. Children from agricultural background and environment should be given practical opportunities for gardening and farming in the school. X. Our present educational system is mostly theoretical emphasizing rote memorization. Govt should introduce activity based curriculum and should discourage rote memorization. Activity method should be made compulsory the development of an inquiring mind, a liking for manual and technical work. XI. The government should start teacher welfare programmes to reduce the problems of the teachers in this way the teacher would be able to give due attention to their duties and students. XII. Government must setup industries to minimize the problem of unemployment of educated persons. References [1]. [2]. [3].

Alexander, R. (2008). Education for All, the Quality Imperative and the Problem of Pedagogy. CREATE Pathways to Access No 20. Consortium for Research on educational Access, Transitions and Equity: University of Sussex. Little, A.W. (2008). Size matters for EFA. CREATE Pathways to Access No 26. Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity: University of Sussex. Ampiah G.J. and Adu-Yeboah, C. (2009). Mapping the incidence of school dropout: case study of communities in Northern Ghana‟ Comparative Education, vol. 45 Issue 2, pp 219-232

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[4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [15]. [16]. [17]. [18]. [19]. [20]. [21]. [22]. [23]. [24]. [25].

Hunt, F. (2008). Dropping out from school: A cross-country review of literature. Create Pathways to Access No 16. Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity: University of Sussex. Lewin, K.M. (2008). Access, Age and Grade. CREATE Policy Brief No 2. Consortiu for Research on Edwww.qurtuba.edu.pk/ucational Access, Transitions and Equity: University of Sussex. Education Policy and Data Center (2009). Pupil Performance and Age: A Study of Promotion, Repetition, and Dropout Rates among Pupils in Four Age Groups in 35 Developing Countries. Working Paper EDPC-09-02. Washington DC: Education Policy and Data Center. Arif, G.M. and Najum, U.S. (2003). Production of Cognitive and Life Skills in Public, Private, and NGO Schools in Pakistan. Pakistan Development Review (PDR), 42: 1 Spring. Pp. 1-28. Holmes, Jessica (2003). Measuring the Determinants of School Completion in Pakistan: Analysis of Censoring and Selection Bias. Economics of Education Review 22. Lewin, K.M. (2007). „Improving Access, Equity and Transitions in Education: Creating a Research Agenda.‟ CREATE Pathways to Access Series, No 1. Brighton: University of Sussex. Hunt, F. (2008). Dropping out from school: A cross-country review of literature. Create Pathways to Access No 16. Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity: University of Sussex. Colclough, C., Rose, P. and Tembon, M. (2000). Gender Inequalities in Primary Schooling: The Roles of Poverty and Adverse Cultural Practice. International Journal of Educational Development, 20: 5–27. UNESCO. (2010). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2010: Reaching the Marginalized. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Lloyd, C.B., Mete, C. and Grant, M.J. (2009). The implications of changing educational and family circumstances for children‟s grade progression in rural Pakistan: 1997-2004. Leach, F., Fiscian, V., Kadzamira, E., Lemani., E. and Machakanja, P. (2003). An Investigative Study of the Abuse of Girls in African Schools. London: DFID. Colclough, C., Rose, P. and Tembon, M. (2000). Gender Inequalities in Primary Schooling: The Roles of Poverty and Adverse Cultural Practice. International Journal of Educational Development, 20: 5–27. Lloyd, C.B., Mete, C. and Grant, M.J. (2009). The implications of changing educational and family circumstances for children‟s grade progression in rural Pakistan: 1997-2004. Economics of Education Review, 28(1): 152-160. Khan, A. A. (2008). Recalling Aligarh and Udaipur; Dawn PakistanSECTORhttp://unesco.org.pk/education/documents/situationanalysis/National_Final_Report_Education_Poli cy_Analysis.pdf World Bank Case Study on Primary Education in Pakistan http://www.worldbank.org/oed/education/pakistan.html Report No. 3724

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Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Reservation Policy and Indian Constitution in India DR.SUNIL KUMAR JANGIR (Assistant Professor) POLITICAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENT "It is against the fundamental principles of humanity, it is against the dictates of reason that a man should, by reason of birth, be denied or given extra privileges" -Mahatma Gandhi Abstract: However, the theme of reservations has figure importantly in open debates constantly since the recommendations of the Mandal Commission Report were sought to be implemented in 1991 nearby has been extremely tiny discussion by the beneficiaries of reservations. This paper looks at some of the more important chronological, constitutional and lawful moments in the development of a reservations procedure in India. Keywords: Reservation, Discrimination, Constitution, Law, Untouchability I.

Introduction

The spirit of equality pervades the provisions of the Constitution of India, as the main aim of the founders of the Constitution was to create an egalitarian society wherein social, economic and political justice prevailed and equality of status and opportunity are made available to all. However, owing to historical and traditional reasons, certain classes of Indian citizens are under severe social and economic disabilities [so] that they cannot effectively enjoy either equality of status or of opportunity. Therefore the Constitution accords to these weaker sections of society protective discrimination in various articles, including Article 15(4). This clause empowers the state, notwithstanding anything to the contrary in Articles 15(1) and 29(2), to make special reservation for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. (RESERVATION AS A WELFARE MEASURE , COMMUNALISM COMBAT ,2010) II. Cast based reservation system in India An ordinary form of long-ago discrimination, inside humankind in India is the carry out of untouchability. Scheduled Castes (SCs) are the main targets of this medieval put into practice a practice which is banned by the Constitution of India (Basu, Durga Das (2008) an untouched human being is measured, contaminated or a lesser human. Though during the Vedic period a person's 'Varna' (not 'caste') was clear by his/ her socio-economic duties these duties were either of your own accord performed or were assigned by the local superintendent , and 'varna' was originally not clear by one's birth into any exacting family. Nevertheless, over the years Caste has been defined by one's birth. The most important stated aim of the Indian reservation system is to boost the opportunities for improved social and instructive position of the underprivileged communities and, thus, allow them to take their equitable place in the conventional of Indian society. The reservation scheme exists to provide opportunities for the members of the SCs and STs to increase their representation in the State Legislatures, the executive appendage of the Union and States, the labor force, schools, colleges, and other 'public' institutions. (Financial Support", 0ct 2011) The Constitution of India states in Article 15(4): "All citizens shall have equal opportunities of receiving education. Nothing herein contained shall preclude the State from providing special facilities for educationally backward sections (not "communities") of the population.” [Emphasis and parentheses added. It also states that “The State shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of society (in particular, of the scheduled castes and aboriginal tribes), and shall protect them from social ''injustice'' and all forms of exploitation." The Article further states that nothing in Article 15(4) will prevent the nation from helping SCs and STs for their betterment ['betterment' up to the level enjoyed by the average member of other communities.( Laskar, Mehbubul Hassan 2011) In 1982, the Constitution specified 15% and 7.5% of vacancies in public sector and government-aided educational institutes as a quota reserved for the SC and ST candidates respectively for a period of five years, after which the quota system would be reviewed. This period was routinely extended by the succeeding governments. The Supreme Court of India ruled that reservations cannot exceed 50% (which it judged would AIJRHASS 13-225; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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violate equal access guaranteed by the Constitution) and put a cap on reservations. However, there are state laws that exceed this 50% limit and these are under litigation in the Supreme Court. For example, the caste-based reservation stands at 69% and the same is applicable to about 87% of the population in the State of Tamil Nadu. In 1990, Prime Minister V. P. Singh announced that 27% of government positions would be set aside for OBC's in addition to the 22.5% already set aside for the SCs and STs.(The Struggle for Equality in India 2002) III. Constitutional Provisions The exact necessities for the reservation in services in favour of the members of the SC/STs have been made in the Constitution of India. They are as follows: Article 15(4) and 16(4) of the Constitution enabled both the state and Central Governments to reserve seats in public services for the members of the SC and ST, thereby, enshrining impartiality of opportunity in matters of civic service. Article 15(4) states that: “Nothing in this Article shall prevent the State from making any provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class or citizens, which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the State.” Article 16(4 A) states that: “Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provisions for reservation in the matter of promotion to any class or classes of posts in the services under the State in favour of SCs and STs which in the opinion of the State are not adequately represented under the State”(Constitutional 77th Amendment, - Act, 1995). Article 16 (4 B) states that: “Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from considering any unfilled vacancies of a year which are reserved for being filled up in that year in accordance with any provision for reservation made under clause (4) or clause (4A) as a separate class of vacancies to be filled up in any succeeding year or years and such class of vacancies shall not be considered together with the vacancies of the year in which they are being filled up for determining the ceiling of fifty percent reservation on total number of vacancies of that year” (Constitutional 81st Amendment, - Act, 2000). The Constitution prohibits discrimination (Article 15) of any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, etc.; untouchability (Article 17); and forced labour (Article 23). It provides for specific representation through reservation of seats for the SCs and the STs in the Parliament (Article 330) and in the State Legislative Assemblies (Article 332), as well as, in Government and public sector jobs, in both the federal and state Governments (Articles 16(4), 330(4) and 335). (Sukhadeo Thorat and Chittaranjan Senapati 2006) IV. Impact of reservation policy on employment and education V. Impact of reservation policy on employment and education. As may be evident from the particulars in the earlier paragraphs, the strategy of reservation had a helpful effect in conditions of induction of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes into public sector employment and in educational institutions. However, their accessible share in employment and educational institutions still falls short of the target in certain categories of jobs and higher education. The target in the case of Groups D and C are close to the population mark of 15 per cent for scheduled castes and 7.5 % for scheduled tribes but fall short in Groups A and B. As against this, the true position regarding the representation of other backward classes in central services is not available. However, as stated in para 6.4, in the All India Services and central services for which employment is made through the Union Public Service Commission, representation of other backward classes is very near to their share. With the growth in the share of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in public services, it had positive multiple effects on the social and economic situation of these two disadvantaged groups. The data provided by the ministry of personnel indicates that in recent years the vacancies reserved for the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes are being filled fully even in the „elite‟ services at the centre. 8.3. Reservation did not provide equal opportunities within each group/community to all beneficiaries. Consequently, different castes and tribes within a group/community have not benefited from reservation equally. Almost in all categories of beneficiaries among scheduled castes, scheduled tribes or other backward classes and minorities, there is a growing sense of deprivation amongst different categories, which is leading to internal dissension. For example*, in Punjab, the Valmiki Samaj is asking for a separate quota of reservations on the ground that Ramadasis and Mazbis have cornered the benefits. Likewise, Chamars in Uttar Pradesh and Mahars in Maharashtra are said to have benefited from the reservations more than other castes identified in the schedule from these regions. Similar accusations have been made against the Meena community by other scheduled tribes. Problems of this kind are manifold in the case of other backward classes, as in each state there are dominant groups, usually with economic and political clout, who reap the benefits of reservations. There are Ezhavas in Kerala, Nadars and Thevars in Tamil Nadu, Vokkalligas and Lingayats in Karnataka, Lodhs and Koeris in Central India, Yadavs and Kurmis in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and Jats in Rajasthan, which, despite their dominant status, have been clubbed as backward classes eligible for benefits under reservations. For these reasons, reservation has become a contentious issue today, more so when it is applied to other backward classes. AIJRHASS 13-225; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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Report on Workshop, „Assessment of the impact of reservation policy‟, organized by JNU, New Delhi. Reservation for minorities has been provided by the state governments of Kerala and Karnataka. [Kerala provides 10 per cent reservation in educational institutions and 12 per cent reservation in employment for Muslims as well as two per cent reservation in educational institutions and four per cent reservation in employment for Christians/LCs/Anglo-Indians. Karnataka provides four per cent reservation in educational institutions and four per cent reservation in employment for Muslims.] The government of Andhra Pradesh also passed an act providing five per cent reservation for Muslims. However, this has been turned down by the apex court for want of specific recommendations by the state Backward Classes Commission. On March 25, 2010 the Supreme Court gave an interim order up- holding the validity of four per cent reservation provided to backward members of the Muslim community in the situation. A bench comprising Chief Justice KG Balakrishnan and Justices JM Panchal and BS Chauhan however referred the issue to a Constitution bench to examine the validity of the impugned act, since it concerned vital issues of the Constitution. (Reservation as a welfare measure, communalism combat 2010) VI. Statement of Problem However the occupation reservation policy has three important flaws. First, it has a discriminatory bias alongside Muslims who do not advantage from such policies. Second, it emphasizes caste or tribe rather than income or wealth: The goal of reservation in India has been to bring about an improvement in the welfare who, historically, have been economically and socially depressed. But, in arriving at this judgment about who should be eligible for reservation, the criterion has been a person‟s caste rather than his income or wealth. Consequently, groups belonging to what Article 115 of the Indian Constitution calls “socially and educationally backward classes” have benefited from reservation even though, in practice, many of these groups could not be regarded as “backward”. This has meant that many of the benefits of reservation have been captured by well-off groups from the depressed classes (for example, chamars from the SC) while poorer groups from the depressed (for example, bhangis from the SC) have failed to benefit. (Akash Shah, 2010) VII. Methodology The methodology in this research study is not one-dimensional. It is rather host of historical, theoretical and analytical. The data is being collected from primary as well as secondary sources. Book, Journals and Magazines available in various libraries be the main source. VIII.

Review of literature

Dalmia, Vasudha; Sadana, Rashmi, eds. (2012). "The Politics of Caste Identity “So for this is concerned the mention may be made that reservation is necessary in the lower caste people because the people which are living in those sections are much more economically weak. Joshi, Barbara R. Untouchable!: voices of the Dalit liberation movement. Minority.As the name mentions the Untouchables where helpless in various matters such as schooling and taking part in various matters in which other people used to they were demanding reservation. IX. Conclusion Now day‟s politicians are playing a major role in reservation policy. The reservation policy was only for 10 years after the independence, for upiftment of SC and ST but till now it is continue and no one has taken any step to amend it or revise it or to change it. The reason behind this is the population of SC and ST in country. Nearly 33% voting is done by SC and ST so now if they make any change in the reservation policy against the SC and ST then they have to suffer a lot for the same. So they are not taking any steps against the reservation policy. References Bhattacharya, Amit. "Who are the OBCs?". Archived from the original on 27 June 2006. Retrieved 19 April 2006. Times of India, 8 April 2006. Basu, Durga Das (2008). Introduction to the Constitution of India. Nagpur: LexisNexis Butterworths Wadhwa. p. 98. ISBN 978-81-8038559-9. Chapter 3- An Assessment of Reservations (Pg 32)". News. Dalit Bahujan Media. Retrieved 17 November 2011. Financial Support". University Grants Commission, India. Retrieved 20 October 2011. Laskar, Mehbubul Hassan. "Rethinking Reservation in Higher Education in India". ILI Law Review. Education Safeguards". Department of Education. Government of India. Retrieved 27 November 2011. Indra Sawhney And Ors. vs Union Of India (UOI) And Ors. on 8 August 1991. New Delhi: Supreme Court of India. 1991. Ramaiah, A (6 June 1992). "Identifying Other Backward Classes" (PDF). Economic and Political Weekly. pp. 1203–1207. Archived from the original on 30 December 2005. Retrieved 27 May 2006. Parliament of India. Retrieved 4 November 2011. The Untouchables of India". Praxis. Retrieved 20 October 2011. AIJRHASS 13-225; © 2013, AIJRHASS All Rights Reserved

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