Aijrhass vol2 print

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734 ISSN (Online): 2328-3696 ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688

Issue 5, Volume 1 & 2 December-2013 to February-2014

American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR) (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

STEM International Scientific Online Media and Publishing House Head Office: 148, Summit Drive, Byron, Georgia-31008, United States.

Offices Overseas: India, Australia, Germany, Netherlands, Canada.

Website: www.iasir.net, E-mail (s): iasir.journals@iasir.net, iasir.journals@gmail.com, aijrhass@gmail.com

PREFACE We are delighted to welcome you to the fifth issue of the American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS). In recent years, advances in science, engineering, formal, applied and natural sciences have radically expanded the data available to researchers and professionals in a wide variety of domains. This unique combination of theory with data has the potential to have broad impact on educational research and practice. AIJRHASS is publishing high-quality, peer-reviewed papers covering topics such as Business administration, Management, Marketing, Finance, Economics, Banking, Accounting, Human resources management, Entrepreneurship, Relationship management, Risk management, Retail management, Linguistics, International relations, Anthropology, Archaeology, Sociology, International business, Tourism and hospitality management, Law, Psychology, Corporate governance, Education, Ethics, Geography, History, Industrial relations, Information science, Library science, Media studies, Philosophy, Political science, Public administration, Sociology, Social welfare, Literature, Performing arts (music, theatre and dance), Religious studies, Women studies, Production and operations management, Organizational behavior and theory, Strategic management & policies, Statistics and Econometrics, Technology and innovation, Management information systems and other closely related field in the disciplines of arts, humanities and social sciences.

The editorial board of AIJRHASS is composed of members of the Teachers & Researchers community who are enthusiastically involved in the systematic investigation into existing or new knowledge to discover new paths for maintaining a strong presence in the arts, the humanities and the social sciences which can easily be coupled with the information and communication technologies. These fields respect objective and logical reasoning to optimize the impact of research in social, economic and cultural, quality of life to understand the advancements in humanities, arts and social sciences. These fields are the pillars of growth in our modern society and have a wider impact on our daily lives with infinite opportunities in a global marketplace. In order to best serve our community, this Journal is available online as well as in hard-copy form. Because of the rapid advances in underlying technologies and the interdisciplinary nature of the field, we believe it is important to provide quality research articles promptly and to the widest possible audience.

We are happy that this Journal has continued to grow and develop. We have made every effort to evaluate and process submissions for reviews, and address queries from authors and the general public promptly. The Journal has strived to reflect the most recent and finest

researchers in the fields of humanities, arts and social sciences. This Journal is completely refereed and indexed with major databases like: IndexCopernicus, Computer Science Directory,

GetCITED,

CRCnetBASE,

Google

DOAJ,

SSRN,

Scholar,

TGDScholar,

Microsoft

Academic

WorldWideScience, Search,

INSPEC,

CiteSeerX, ProQuest,

ArnetMiner, Base, ChemXSeer, citebase, OpenJ-Gate, eLibrary, SafetyLit, SSRN, VADLO, OpenGrey, EBSCO, ProQuest, UlrichWeb, ISSUU, SPIE Digital Library, arXiv, ERIC, EasyBib, Infotopia, WorldCat, .docstoc JURN, Mendeley, ResearchGate, cogprints, OCLC, iSEEK, Scribd, LOCKSS, CASSI, E-PrintNetwork, intute, and some other databases.

We are grateful to all of the individuals and agencies whose work and support made the Journal's success possible. We want to thank the executive board and core committee members of the AIJRHASS for entrusting us with the important job. We are thankful to the members of the AIJRHASS editorial board who have contributed energy and time to the Journal with their steadfast support, constructive advice, as well as reviews of submissions.

We are deeply indebted to the numerous anonymous reviewers who have contributed expertly evaluations of the submissions to help maintain the quality of the Journal. For this fifth issue, we received 108 research papers and out of which only 48 research papers are published in two volumes as per the reviewers’ recommendations. We have highest respect to all the authors who have submitted articles to the Journal for their intellectual energy and creativity, and for their dedication to the field of humanities, arts and social sciences.

This issue of the AIJRHASS has attracted a large number of authors and researchers across worldwide and would provide an effective platform to all the intellectuals of different streams to put forth their suggestions and ideas which might prove beneficial for the accelerated pace of development of emerging technologies in formal, applied and natural sciences and may open new area for research and development. We hope you will enjoy this fifth issue of the American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences and are looking forward to hearing your feedback and receiving your contributions.

(Administrative Chief)

(Managing Director)

(Editorial Head)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS), ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 (December-2013 to February-2014, Issue 5, Volume 1 & 2).

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BOARD MEMBERS

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EDITOR IN CHIEF Prof. (Dr.) Waressara Weerawat, Director of Logistics Innovation Center, Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Thailand.

Prof. (Dr.) Yen-Chun Lin, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Jung Christian University, Kway Jen, Tainan, Taiwan.

Divya Sethi, GM Conferencing & VSAT Solutions, Enterprise Services, Bharti Airtel, Gurgaon, India.

CHIEF EDITOR (TECHNICAL) Prof. (Dr.) Atul K. Raturi, Head School of Engineering and Physics, Faculty of Science, Technology and Environment, The University of the South Pacific, Laucala campus, Suva, Fiji Islands.

Prof. (Dr.) Hadi Suwastio, College of Applied Science, Department of Information Technology, The Sultanate of Oman and Director of IETI-Research Institute-Bandung, Indonesia.

Dr. Nitin Jindal, Vice President, Max Coreth, North America Gas & Power Trading, New York, United States.

CHIEF EDITOR (GENERAL) Prof. (Dr.) Thanakorn Naenna, Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Thailand.

Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Huiyun Liu, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London.

ADVISORY BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Kimberly A. Freeman, Professor & Director of Undergraduate Programs, Stetson School of Business and Economics, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States.

Prof. (Dr.) Klaus G. Troitzsch, Professor, Institute for IS Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany.

Prof. (Dr.) T. Anthony Choi, Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States.

Prof. (Dr.) Fabrizio Gerli, Department of Management, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, Italy.

Prof. (Dr.) Jen-Wei Hsieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan.

Prof. (Dr.) Jose C. Martinez, Dept. Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Panayiotis Vafeas, Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Patras, Greece.

Prof. (Dr.) Soib Taib, School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia.

Prof. (Dr.) Vit Vozenilek, Department of Geoinformatics, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic.

Prof. (Dr.) Sim Kwan Hua, School of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Rafael Ignacio Alvarez Sanchez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Praneel Chand, Ph.D., M.IEEEC/O School of Engineering & Physics Faculty of Science & Technology The University of the South Pacific (USP) Laucala Campus, Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji.

Prof. (Dr.) Francisco Miguel Martinez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Antonio Zamora Gomez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Leandro Tortosa, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Samir Ananou, Department of Microbiology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain.

Dr. Miguel Angel Bautista, Department de Matematica Aplicada y Analisis, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de Barcelona, Spain.

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Prof. (Dr.) Prof. Adam Baharum, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Universiti Sains, Malaysia, Malaysia.

Dr. Cathryn J. Peoples, Faculty of Computing and Engineering, School of Computing and Information Engineering, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.

Prof. (Dr.) Pavel Lafata, Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, 166 27, Czech Republic.

Prof. (Dr.) P. Bhanu Prasad, Vision Specialist, Matrix vision GmbH, Germany, Consultant, TIFACCORE for Machine Vision, Advisor, Kelenn Technology, France Advisor, Shubham Automation & Services, Ahmedabad, and Professor of C.S.E, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Anis Zarrad, Department of Computer Science and Information System, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Prof. (Dr.) Mohammed Ali Hussain, Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Dr. Cristiano De Magalhaes Barros, Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Prof. (Dr.) Md. Rizwan Beg, Professor & Head, Dean, Faculty of Computer Applications, Deptt. of Computer Sc. & Engg. & Information Technology, Integral University Kursi Road, Dasauli, Lucknow, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Vishnu Narayan Mishra, Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Ichchhanath Mahadev Road, Surat, Surat-395007, Gujarat, India.

Dr. Jia Hu, Member Research Staff, Philips Research North America, New York Area, NY. Prof. Shashikant Shantilal Patil SVKM , MPSTME Shirpur Campus, NMIMS University Vile Parle Mumbai, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Bindhya Chal Yadav, Assistant Professor in Botany, Govt. Post Graduate College, Fatehabad, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India.

REVIEW BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Kimberly A. Freeman, Professor & Director of Undergraduate Programs, Stetson School of Business and Economics, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States.

Prof. (Dr.) Klaus G. Troitzsch, Professor, Institute for IS Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany.

Prof. (Dr.) T. Anthony Choi, Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States.

Prof. (Dr.) Yen-Chun Lin, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Jung Christian University, Kway Jen, Tainan, Taiwan.

Prof. (Dr.) Jen-Wei Hsieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan.

Prof. (Dr.) Jose C. Martinez, Dept. Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Joel Saltz, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.

Prof. (Dr.) Panayiotis Vafeas, Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Patras, Greece.

Prof. (Dr.) Soib Taib, School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia.

Prof. (Dr.) Sim Kwan Hua, School of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Rafael Ignacio Alvarez Sanchez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Francisco Miguel Martinez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Antonio Zamora Gomez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Leandro Tortosa, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Samir Ananou, Department of Microbiology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain.

Dr. Miguel Angel Bautista, Department de Matematica Aplicada y Analisis, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de Barcelona, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Prof. Adam Baharum, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Universiti Sains, Malaysia, Malaysia.

Prof. (Dr.) Huiyun Liu, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London.

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Dr. Cristiano De Magalhaes Barros, Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Prof. (Dr.) Pravin G. Ingole, Senior Researcher, Greenhouse Gas Research Center, Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER), 152 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-343, KOREA. Prof. (Dr.) Dilum Bandara, Dept. Computer Science & Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka.

Prof. (Dr.) Faudziah Ahmad, School of Computing, UUM College of Arts and Sciences, University Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman.

Prof. (Dr.) G. Manoj Someswar, Principal, Dept. of CSE at Anwar-ul-uloom College of Engineering & Technology, Yennepally, Vikarabad, RR District., A.P., India.

Prof. (Dr.) Abdelghni Lakehal, Applied Mathematics, Rue 10 no 6 cite des fonctionnaires dokkarat 30010 Fes Marocco.

Dr. Kamal Kulshreshtha, Associate Professor & Head, Deptt. of Computer Sc. & Applications, Modi Institute of Management & Technology, Kota-324 009, Rajasthan, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Anukrati Sharma, Associate Professor, Faculty of Commerce and Management, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India.

Prof. (Dr.) S. Natarajan, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SSM College of Engineering, NH 47, Salem Main Road, Komarapalayam, Namakkal District, Tamilnadu 638183, India.

Prof. (Dr.) J. Sadhik Basha, Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Prof. (Dr.) G. SAVITHRI, Department of Sericulture, S.P. Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati517502, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Shweta jain, Tolani College of Commerce, Andheri, Mumbai. 400001, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Abdullah M. Abdul-Jabbar, Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Salahaddin-Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq.

Prof. (Dr.) ( Mrs.) P.Sujathamma, Department of Sericulture, S.P.Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati-517502, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India.

Prof. (Dr.) Manjulatha, Dept of Biochemistry,School of Life Sciences,University of Hyderabad,Gachibowli, Hyderabad, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Upasani Dhananjay Eknath Advisor & Chief Coordinator, ALUMNI Association, Sinhgad Institute of Technology & Science, Narhe, Pune -411 041, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sudhindra Bhat, Professor & Finance Area Chair, School of Business, Alliance University Bangalore-562106, India.

Prof. Prasenjit Chatterjee , Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MCKV Institute of Engineering West Bengal, India.

Prof. Rajesh Murukesan, Deptt. of Automobile Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering college, Chennai, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Parmil Kumar, Department of Statistics, University of Jammu, Jammu, India Prof. (Dr.) M.N. Shesha Prakash, Vice Principal, Professor & Head of Civil Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Alanahally, Mysore-570 028 Prof. (Dr.) Piyush Singhal, Mechanical Engineering Deptt., GLA University, India.

Prof. M. Mahbubur Rahman, School of Engineering & Information Technology, Murdoch University, Perth Western Australia 6150, Australia.

Prof. Nawaraj Chaulagain, Department of Religion, Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington, IL. Prof. Hassan Jafari, Faculty of Maritime Economics & Management, Khoramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, khoramshahr, Khuzestan province, Iran Prof. (Dr.) Kantipudi MVV Prasad , Dept of EC, School of Engg., R.K.University, Kast urbhadham, Tramba, Rajkot-360020, India.

Prof. (Mrs.) P.Sujathamma, Department of Sericulture, S.P.Mahila Visvavidyalayam, ( Women's University), Tirupati-517502, India.

Prof. (Dr.) M A Rizvi, Dept. of Computer Engineering and Applications, National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Bhopal M.P. India.

Prof. (Dr.) Mohsen Shafiei Nikabadi, Faculty of Economics and Management, Industrial Management Department, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran.

Prof. P.R.SivaSankar, Head, Dept. of Commerce, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post Graduate Centre, KAVALI - 524201, A.P. India.

Prof. (Dr.) Bhawna Dubey, Institute of Environmental Science( AIES), Amity University, Noida, India.

Prof. Manoj Chouhan, Deptt. of Information Technology, SVITS Indore, India.

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Prof. Yupal S Shukla, V M Patel College of Management Studies, Ganpat University, KhervaMehsana. India.

Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kohli, Head of the Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering, D.A.V.Institute of Engg. and Technology, Kabir Nagar, Jalandhar,Punjab (India).

Prof. (Dr.) Kumar Irayya Maddani, and Head of the Department of Physics in SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dhavalagiri, Dharwad, State: Karnataka (INDIA).

Prof. (Dr.) Shafi Phaniband, SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad, INDIA. Prof. M H Annaiah, Head, Department of Automobile Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Soladevana Halli, Bangalore -560107, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Prof. R. R. Patil, Director School Of Earth Science, Solapur University, Solapur Prof. (Dr.) Manoj Khandelwal, Dept. of Mining Engg, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur, 313 001 (Rajasthan), India Prof. (Dr.) Kishor Chandra Satpathy, Librarian, National Institute of Technology, Silchar-788010, Assam, India Prof. (Dr.) Juhana Jaafar, Gas Engineering Department, Faculty of Petroleum and Renewable Energy Engineering (FPREE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia-81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor.

Prof. (Dr.) Rita Khare, Assistant Professor in chemistry, Govt. Women’s College, Gardanibagh, Patna, Bihar.

Prof. (Dr.) Raviraj Kusanur, Dept of Chemistry, R V College of Engineering, Bangalore-59, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Hameem Shanavas .I, M.V.J College of Engineering, Bangalore Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay Kumar, JKL University, Ajmer Road, Jaipur Prof. (Dr.) Pushp Lata Faculty of English and Communication, Department of Humanities and Languages, Nucleus Member, Publications and Media Relations Unit Editor, BITScan, BITS, PilaniIndia.

Prof. Arun Agarwal, Faculty of ECE Dept., ITER College, Siksha 'O' Anusandhan University Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Prof. (Dr.) Pratima Tripathi, Department of Biosciences, SSSIHL, Anantapur Campus Anantapur515001 (A.P.) India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sudip Das, Department of Biotechnology, Haldia Institute of Technology, I.C.A.R.E. Complex, H.I.T. Campus, P.O. Hit, Haldia; Dist: Puba Medinipur, West Bengal, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India.

Prof. (Dr.) R.K.Tiwari, Professor, S.O.S. in Physics, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, M.P.-474011.

Prof. (Dr.) Deepak Paliwal, Faculty of Sociology, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani-Nainital Prof. (Dr.) Dr. Anil K Dwivedi, Faculty of Pollution & Environmental Assay Research Laboratory (PEARL), Department of Botany,DDU Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur-273009,India.

Prof. R. Ravikumar, Department of Agricultural and Rural Management, TamilNadu Agricultural University,Coimbatore-641003,TamilNadu,India.

Prof. (Dr.) R.Raman, Professor of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai university, Annamalai Nagar 608 002Tamil Nadu, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Ahmed Khalafallah, Coordinator of the CM Degree Program, Department of Architectural and Manufacturing Sciences, Ogden College of Sciences and Engineering Western Kentucky University 1906 College Heights Blvd Bowling Green, KY 42103-1066.

Prof. (Dr.) Asmita Das , Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Shahbad, Daulatpur, Delhi 110042, India.

Prof. (Dr.)Aniruddha Bhattacharjya, Assistant Professor (Senior Grade), CSE Department, Amrita School of Engineering , Amrita Vishwa VidyaPeetham (University), Kasavanahalli, Carmelaram P.O., Bangalore 560035, Karnataka, India.

Prof. (Dr.) S. Rama Krishna Pisipaty, Prof & Geoarchaeologist, Head of the Department of Sanskrit & Indian Culture, SCSVMV University, Enathur, Kanchipuram 631561, India Prof. (Dr.) Shubhasheesh Bhattacharya, Professor & HOD(HR), Symbiosis Institute of International Business (SIIB), Hinjewadi, Phase-I, Pune- 411 057, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Vijay Kothari, Institute of Science, Nirma University, S-G Highway, Ahmedabad 382481, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Raja Sekhar Mamillapalli, Department of Civil Engineering at Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur, India.

Prof. (Dr.) B. M. Kunar, Department of Mining Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad 826004, Jharkhand, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Prabir Sarkar, Assistant Professor, School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Room 307, Academic Block, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar, Nangal Road, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India.

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Prof. (Dr.) K.Srinivasmoorthy, Associate Professor, Department of Earth Sciences, School of Physical,Chemical and Applied Sciences, Pondicherry university, R.Venkataraman Nagar, Kalapet, Puducherry 605014, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Bhawna Dubey, Institute of Environmental Science (AIES), Amity University, Noida, India.

Prof. (Dr.) P. Bhanu Prasad, Vision Specialist, Matrix vision GmbH, Germany, Consultant, TIFACCORE for Machine Vision, Advisor, Kelenn Technology, France Advisor, Shubham Automation & Services, Ahmedabad, and Professor of C.S.E, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India.

Prof. (Dr.)P.Raviraj, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, Kalaignar Karunanidhi, Institute of Technology, Coimbatore 641402,Tamilnadu,India.

Prof. (Dr.) Damodar Reddy Edla, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004, India.

Prof. (Dr.) T.C. Manjunath, Principal in HKBK College of Engg., Bangalore, Karnataka, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Pankaj Bhambri, I.T. Deptt., Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana 141006, Punjab, India.

Prof. Shashikant Shantilal Patil SVKM , MPSTME Shirpur Campus, NMIMS University Vile Parle Mumbai, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Shambhu Nath Choudhary, Department of Physics, T.M. Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur 81200, Bihar, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Venkateshwarlu Sonnati, Professor & Head of EEED, Department of EEE, Sreenidhi Institute of Science & Technology, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Saurabh Dalela, Department of Pure & Applied Physics, University of Kota, KOTA 324010, Rajasthan, India.

Prof. S. Arman Hashemi Monfared, Department of Civil Eng, University of Sistan & Baluchestan, Daneshgah St.,Zahedan, IRAN, P.C. 98155-987 Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Chanda, Dept. of Jute & Fibre Tech., University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, West Bengal, India.

Prof. V.S.VAKULA, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, JNTUK, University College of Eng.,Vizianagaram5 35003, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Nehal Gitesh Chitaliya, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology, Vasad 388 306, Gujarat, India.

Prof. (Dr.) D.R. Prajapati, Department of Mechanical Engineering, PEC University of Technology,Chandigarh 160012, India.

Dr. A. SENTHIL KUMAR, Postdoctoral Researcher, Centre for Energy and Electrical Power, Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0001, South Africa.

Prof. (Dr.)Vijay Harishchandra Mankar, Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Mangalwari Bazar, Besa Road, Nagpur- 440027, India.

Prof.

Varun.G.Menon, Department Of C.S.E, S.C.M.S School of Engineering, Karukutty,Ernakulam, Kerala 683544, India.

Prof. (Dr.) U C Srivastava, Department of Physics, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, U.P-203301.India.

Prof. (Dr.) Surendra Yadav, Professor and Head (Computer Science & Engineering Department), Maharashi Arvind College of Engineering and Research Centre (MACERC), Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Kumar, H.O.D. Applied Sciences & Humanities Dehradun Institute of Technology, (D.I.T. School of Engineering), 48 A K.P-3 Gr. Noida (U.P.) 201308 Prof. Naveen Jain, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, College of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur-313 001, India.

Prof. Veera Jyothi.B, CBIT, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. Aritra Ghosh, Global Institute of Management and Technology, Krishnagar, Nadia, W.B. India Prof. Anuj K. Gupta, Head, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RIMT Group of Institutions, Sirhind Mandi Gobindgarh, Punajb, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Varala Ravi, Head, Department of Chemistry, IIIT Basar Campus, Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Mudhole, Adilabad, Andhra Pradesh- 504 107, India Prof. (Dr.) Ravikumar C Baratakke, faculty of Biology,Govt. College, Saundatti - 591 126, India.

Prof. (Dr.) NALIN BHARTI, School of Humanities and Social Science, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Shivanand S.Gornale , Head, Department of Studies in Computer Science, Government College (Autonomous), Mandya, Mandya-571 401-Karanataka, India.

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Prof. (Dr.) Naveen.P.Badiger, Dept.Of Chemistry, S.D.M.College of Engg. & Technology, Dharwad-580002, Karnataka State, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India.

Prof. (Dr.) Tauqeer Ahmad Usmani, Faculty of IT, Salalah College of Technology, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman.

Prof. (Dr.) Naresh Kr. Vats, Chairman, Department of Law, BGC Trust University Bangladesh Prof. (Dr.) Papita Das (Saha), Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Rekha Govindan , Dept of Biotechnology, Aarupadai Veedu Institute of technology , Vinayaka Missions University , Paiyanoor , Kanchipuram Dt, Tamilnadu , India.

Prof. (Dr.) Lawrence Abraham Gojeh, Department of Information Science, Jimma University, P.o.Box 378, Jimma, Ethiopia.

Prof. (Dr.) M.N. Kalasad, Department of Physics, SDM College of Engineering & Technology, Dharwad, Karnataka, India.

Prof. Rab Nawaz Lodhi, Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology Sahiwal.

Prof. (Dr.) Masoud Hajarian, Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, General Campus, Evin, Tehran 19839,Iran Prof. (Dr.) Chandra Kala Singh, Associate professor, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India Prof. (Dr.) J.Babu, Professor & Dean of research, St.Joseph's College of Engineering & Technology, Choondacherry, Palai,Kerala.

Prof. (Dr.) Pradip Kumar Roy, Department of Applied Mechanics, Birla Institute of Technology (BIT) Mesra, Ranchi- 835215, Jharkhand, India.

Prof. (Dr.) P. Sanjeevi kumar, School of Electrical Engineering (SELECT), Vandalur Kelambakkam Road, VIT University, Chennai, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Debasis Patnaik, BITS-Pilani, Goa Campus, India.

Prof. (Dr.) SANDEEP BANSAL, Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, I.G.N. College, Haryana, India.

Dr. Radhakrishnan S V S, Department of Pharmacognosy, Faser Hall, The University of Mississippi Oxford, MS- 38655, USA. Prof. (Dr.) Megha Mittal, Faculty of Chemistry, Manav Rachna College of Engineering, Faridabad (HR), 121001, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Mihaela Simionescu (BRATU), BUCHAREST, District no. 6, Romania, member of the Romanian Society of Econometrics, Romanian Regional Science Association and General Association of Economists from Romania Prof. (Dr.) Atmani Hassan, Director Regional of Organization Entraide Nationale Prof. (Dr.) Deepshikha Gupta, Dept. of Chemistry, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences,Amity University, Sec.125, Noida, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Muhammad Kamruzzaman, Deaprtment of Infectious Diseases, The University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW-2145.

Prof. (Dr.) Meghshyam K. Patil , Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Chemistry,Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,Sub-Campus, Osmanabad- 413 501, Maharashtra, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kr. Dargar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur (Raj.) Prof. (Dr.) Sudarson Jena, Dept. of Information Technology, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India Prof. (Dr.) Jai Prakash Jaiswal, Department of Mathematics, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal, India.

Prof. (Dr.) S.Amutha, Dept. of Educational Technology, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli620 023, Tamil Nadu, India.

Prof. (Dr.) R. HEMA KRISHNA, Environmental chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada.

Prof. (Dr.) B.Swaminathan, Dept. of Agrl.Economics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India.

Prof. (Dr.) K. Ramesh, Department of Chemistry, C.B.I.T, Gandipet, Hyderabad-500075. India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Kumar, H.O.D. Applied Sciences &Humanities, JIMS Technical campus,(I.P. University,New Delhi), 48/4 ,K.P.-3,Gr.Noida (U.P.) Prof. (Dr.) G.V.S.R.Anjaneyulu, CHAIRMAN - P.G. BOS in Statistics & Deputy Coordinator UGC DRS-I Project, Executive Member ISPS-2013, Department of Statistics, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar-522510, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India.

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Prof. (Dr.) Sribas Goswami, Department of Sociology, Serampore College, Serampore 712201, West Bengal, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sunanda Sharma, Department of Veterinary Obstetrics Y Gynecology, College of Veterinary & Animal Science,Rajasthan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences,Bikaner334001, India.

Prof. (Dr.) S.K. Tiwari, Department of Zoology, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur-273009 U.P., India.

Prof. (Dr.) Praveena Kuruva, Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore560012, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) Rajesh Kumar, Department Of Applied Physics, Bhilai Institute Of Technology, Durg (C.G.) 491001, India.

Dr. K.C.Sivabalan, Field Enumerator and Data Analyst, Asian Vegetable Research Centre, The World Vegetable Centre, Taiwan.

Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kumar Mishra, Department of Environmntal Science and Energy Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.

Prof. (Dr.) Manisha N. Paliwal, Sinhgad Institute of Management, Vadgaon (Bk), Pune, India.

Prof. (Dr.) M. S. HIREMATH, Principal, K.L.ESOCIETY’s SCHOOL, ATHANI Prof. Manoj Dhawan, Department of Information Technology, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Technology & Science, Indore, (M. P.), India.

Prof. (Dr.) V.R.Naik, Professor & Head of Department, Mechancal Engineering, Textile & Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji (Dist. Kolhapur), Maharashatra, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Jyotindra C. Prajapati,Head, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa Anand -388421, Gujarat, India Prof. (Dr.) Sarbjit Singh, Head, Department of Industrial & Production Engineering, Dr BR Ambedkar National Institute of Technology,Jalandhar,Punjab, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Professor Braja Gopal Bag, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Technology , Vidyasagar University, West Midnapore Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kumar Chandra, Department of Management, Bhilai Institute of Technology, Bhilai House, Durg (C.G.) Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kumar, Assistant Professor, School of Chemistry, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) L. Suresh Kumar, Mechanical Department, Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India.

Scientist Sheeraz Saleem Bhat, Lac Production Division, Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums, Namkum, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India.

Prof. C.Divya , Centre for Information Technology and Engineering, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli - 627012, Tamilnadu , India.

Prof. T.D.Subash, Infant Jesus College Of Engineering and Technology, Thoothukudi Tamilnadu, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Vinay Nassa, Prof. E.C.E Deptt., Dronacharya.Engg. College, Gurgaon India.

Prof. Sunny Narayan, university of Roma Tre, Italy.

Prof. (Dr.) Sanjoy Deb, Dept. of ECE, BIT Sathy, Sathyamangalam, Tamilnadu-638401, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Reena Gupta, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura, India.

Prof. (Dr.) P.R.SivaSankar, Head Dept. of Commerce, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post Graduate Centre, KAVALI - 524201, A.P., India.

Prof. (Dr.) Mohsen Shafiei Nikabadi, Faculty of Economics and Management, Industrial Management Department, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran.

Prof. (Dr.) Praveen Kumar Rai, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, U.P. India.

Prof. (Dr.) Christine Jeyaseelan, Dept of Chemistry, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, India.

Prof. (Dr.) M A Rizvi, Dept. of Computer Engineering and Applications , National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Bhopal M.P. India.

Prof. (Dr.) K.V.N.R.Sai Krishna, H O D in Computer Science, S.V.R.M.College,(Autonomous), Nagaram, Guntur(DT), Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kr. Dargar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur (Raj.) Prof. (Dr.) Asim Kumar Sen, Principal , ST.Francis Institute of Technology (Engineering College) under University of Mumbai , MT. Poinsur, S.V.P Road, Borivali (W), Mumbai-400103, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Rahmathulla Noufal.E, Civil Engineering Department, Govt.Engg.College-Kozhikode

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Prof. (Dr.) N.Rajesh, Department of Agronomy, TamilNadu Agricultural University -Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Har Mohan Rai , Professor, Electronics and Communication Engineering, N.I.T. Kurukshetra 136131,India Prof. (Dr.) Eng. Sutasn Thipprakmas from King Mongkut, University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand.

Prof. (Dr.) Kantipudi MVV Prasad, EC Department, RK University, Rajkot.

Prof. (Dr.) Jitendra Gupta,Faculty of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura.

Prof. (Dr.) Swapnali Borah, HOD, Dept of Family Resource Management, College of Home Science, Central Agricultural University, Tura, Meghalaya, India.

Prof. (Dr.) N.Nazar Khan, Professor in Chemistry, BTK Institute of Technology, Dwarahat-263653 (Almora), Uttarakhand-India.

Prof. (Dr.) Rajiv Sharma, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai (TN) - 600 036,India.

Prof. (Dr.) Aparna Sarkar,PH.D. Physiology, AIPT,Amity University , F 1 Block, LGF, Sector125,Noida-201303, UP ,India.

Prof. (Dr.) Manpreet Singh, Professor and Head, Department of Computer Engineering, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Haryana, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sukumar Senthilkumar, Senior Researcher Advanced Education Center of Jeonbuk for Electronics and Information Technology, Chon Buk National University, Chon Buk, 561-756, SOUTH KOREA. .

Prof. (Dr.) Hari Singh Dhillon, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar (Punjab), INDIA. .

Prof. (Dr.) Poonkuzhali, G., Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Chennai, INDIA. .

Prof. (Dr.) Bharath K N, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, GM Institute of Technology, PB Road, Davangere 577006, Karnataka, INDIA. .

Prof. (Dr.) F.Alipanahi, Assistant Professor, Islamic Azad University,Zanjan Branch, Atemadeyeh, Moalem Street, Zanjan IRAN Prof. Yogesh Rathore, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RITEE, Raipur, India Prof. (Dr.) Ratneshwer, Department of Computer Science (MMV), Banaras Hindu University Varanasi-221005, India.

Prof. Pramod Kumar Pandey, Assistant Professor, Department Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering, ITM University, Gwalior, M.P., India Prof. (Dr.)Sudarson Jena, Associate Professor, Dept.of IT, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India Prof. (Dr.) Binod Kumar,PhD(CS), M.Phil(CS),MIEEE,MIAENG, Dean & Professor( MCA), Jayawant Technical Campus(JSPM's), Pune, India Prof. (Dr.) Mohan Singh Mehata, (JSPS fellow), Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Physics, Delhi Technological University, Delhi Prof. Ajay Kumar Agarwal, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Mech. Engg., Royal Institute of Management & Technology, Sonipat (Haryana) Prof. (Dr.) Siddharth Sharma, University School of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Satish Chandra Dixit, Department of Chemistry, D.B.S.College ,Govind Nagar,Kanpur208006, India Prof. (Dr.) Ajay Solkhe, Department of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Neeraj Sharma, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Chemistry, GLA University, Mathura Prof. (Dr.) Basant Lal, Department of Chemistry, G.L.A. University, Mathura Prof. (Dr.) T Venkat Narayana Rao, C.S.E,Guru Nanak Engineering College, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Rajanarender Reddy Pingili, S.R. International Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) V.S.Vairale, Department of Computer Engineering, All India Shri Shivaji Memorial Society College of Engineering, Kennedy Road, Pune-411 001, Maharashtra, India Prof. (Dr.) Vasavi Bande, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Netaji Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Hardeep Anand, Department of Chemistry, Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra, Haryana, India.

Prof. Aasheesh shukla, Asst Professor, Dept. of EC, GLA University, Mathura, India.

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Prof. S.P.Anandaraj., CSE Dept, SREC, Warangal, India.

Satya Rishi Takyar , Senior ISO Consultant, New Delhi, India.

Prof. Anuj K. Gupta, Head, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RIMT Group of Institutions, Mandi Gobindgarh, Punjab, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Harish Kumar, Department of Sports Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Mohammed Ali Hussain, Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Manish Gupta, Department of Mechanical Engineering, GJU, Haryana, India.

Prof. Mridul Chawla, Department of Elect. and Comm. Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India.

Prof. Seema Chawla, Department of Bio-medical Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Atul M. Gosai, Department of Computer Science, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Ajit Kr. Bansal, Department of Management, Shoolini University, H.P., India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Vasistha, Mody Institute of Tecnology and Science, Sikar, Rajasthan, India.

Prof. Vivekta Singh, GNIT Girls Institute of Technology, Greater Noida, India.

Prof. Ajay Loura, Assistant Professor at Thapar University, Patiala, India.

Prof. Sushil Sharma, Department of Computer Science and Applications, Govt. P. G. College, Ambala Cantt., Haryana, India.

Prof. Sube Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Narnaul, Haryana, India.

Prof. Himanshu Arora, Delhi Institute of Technology and Management, New Delhi, India.

Dr. Sabina Amporful, Bibb Family Practice Association, Macon, Georgia, USA. Dr. Pawan K. Monga, Jindal Institute of Medical Sciences, Hisar, Haryana, India.

Dr. Sam Ampoful, Bibb Family Practice Association, Macon, Georgia, USA. Dr. Nagender Sangra, Director of Sangra Technologies, Chandigarh, India.

Vipin Gujral, CPA, New Jersey, USA. Sarfo Baffour, University of Ghana, Ghana.

Monique Vincon, Hype Softwaretechnik GmbH, Bonn, Germany.

Natasha Sigmund, Atlanta, USA. Marta Trochimowicz, Rhein-Zeitung, Koblenz, Germany.

Kamalesh Desai, Atlanta, USA. Vijay Attri, Software Developer Google, San Jose, California, USA. Neeraj Khillan, Wipro Technologies, Boston, USA. Ruchir Sachdeva, Software Engineer at Infosys, Pune, Maharashtra, India.

Anadi Charan, Senior Software Consultant at Capgemini, Mumbai, Maharashtra.

Pawan Monga, Senior Product Manager, LG Electronics India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.

Sunil Kumar, Senior Information Developer, Honeywell Technology Solutions, Inc., Bangalore, India.

Bharat Gambhir, Technical Architect, Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Noida, India.

Vinay Chopra, Team Leader, Access Infotech Pvt Ltd. Chandigarh, India.

Sumit Sharma, Team Lead, American Express, New Delhi, India.

Vivek Gautam, Senior Software Engineer, Wipro, Noida, India.

Anirudh Trehan, Nagarro Software Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

Manjot Singh, Senior Software Engineer, HCL Technologies Delhi, India.

Rajat Adlakha, Senior Software Engineer, Tech Mahindra Ltd, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India.

Mohit Bhayana, Senior Software Engineer, Nagarro Software Pvt. Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

Dheeraj Sardana, Tech. Head, Nagarro Software, Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

Naresh Setia, Senior Software Engineer, Infogain, Noida, India.

Raj Agarwal Megh, Idhasoft Limited, Pune, Maharashtra, India.

Shrikant Bhardwaj, Senior Software Engineer, Mphasis an HP Company, Pune, Maharashtra, India.

Vikas Chawla, Technical Lead, Xavient Software Solutions, Noida, India.

Kapoor Singh, Sr. Executive at IBM, Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

Ashwani Rohilla, Senior SAP Consultant at TCS, Mumbai, India.

Anuj Chhabra, Sr. Software Engineer, McKinsey & Company, Faridabad, Haryana, India.

Jaspreet Singh, Business Analyst at HCL Technologies, Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

TOPICS OF INTEREST Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:  Business administration  Marketing & Management  Finance  Economics  Banking  Accounting  Human resources management  Entrepreneurship,  Education and its applications  Business ethics  Relationship & Risk management  Retail management and communication  Linguistics  International relations  Anthropology & Archaeology  Sociology  International business  Tourism and hospitality management  Law  Psychology  Corporate governance  Demography  Education  Ethics  Geography  History  Industrial relations  Information science  Library science  Media studies  Philosophy,  Political science  Public administration  Sociology  Social welfare  Literature  Paralegal  Performing arts (music, theatre and dance)  Religious studies  Visual arts  Women studies  Production and operations management  Organizational behavior and theory  Strategic management Policy  Statistics and Econometrics  Personnel and industrial relations  Gender studies & Cross cultural studies  Management information systems  Information technology

TABLE OF CONTENTS (December-2013 to February-2014, Issue 5, Volume 1 & 2) Issue 5, Volume 1 Paper Code

Paper Title

Page No.

AIJRHASS 14-105

Urban and architectural heritage; interdisciplinary methods in the evaluation of acoustic design in traditional houses Debache Samira & Benzagouta Yasser Nassim

01-05

AIJRHASS 14-108

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS ON AGE AND QUALITY OF WORK LIFE BETWEEN MANAGERIAL AND NON- MANAGERIAL EMPLOYEES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MANUFACTURING ENTERPRISES IN KERALA Dr. A.S. AMBILY

06-22

AIJRHASS 14-111

Content Analysis of the Bhatera Copper – Plates: A Historical Review Dr. Sahabuddin Ahmed

23-25

AIJRHASS 14-112

The Impact of Cooperatives as an Economic and Social Institution in the Fishing Villages of Surigao del Sur (Philippines) Retsy D. Tomaquin, DPA

26-30

AIJRHASS 14-117

Educational Wastage: A Problem of Primary Education Rajesh Ekka, Dr. Prohlad Roy

31-34

AIJRHASS 14-118

Phulkari and Bagh folk art of Punjab: a study of changing designs from traditional to contemporary time Rajinder Kaur, Ila Gupta

35-43

AIJRHASS 14-119

A comparative study on perception of organisational climate among the employees of MNC and Indian software companies Dr.S.Murugesan, Dr.M.Kannan, Dr.P.Ramasamy

44-48

AIJRHASS 14-120

IMPACT OF FAMILY RELATIONSHIP OF B.ED STUDENTS ON THEIR ADJUSTMENT Krishan Lal

49-53

AIJRHASS 14-129

Knowledge and Adoption gap of Tribal farmers of Bastar towards Rice Production Technology D.P. Singh and S. K. Yadav

54-56

AIJRHASS 14-133

Manju Kapur’s Virmati in Difficult Daughters: A New Woman Mrs .Nitasha Grewal

57-60

AIJRHASS 14-134

Women SME Entrepreneurs in ensuring women empowerment in Bangladesh: A Study on Women SME Entrepreneurs in Bangladesh Fatema Khatun, A.T.M Fardaus Kabir

61-68

AIJRHASS 14-136

Excavations at Basadila Tilatar, District-Gorakhpur Uttar Pradesh (India) Dr. Shitala Prasad Singh

69-84

AIJRHASS 14-137

The Mining Industry and other Development Interventions: Drivers of Change in Mamanwa Traditional Social Milieu in Claver, Surigao del Norte: A Case Study (Philippines) Ramel D. Tomaquin, DPA, Ph.D.

85-89

AIJRHASS 14-138

STUDY OF EMERGING DISPUTE AT INDO-CHINA BORDER Neeraj Solanki

90-92

AIJRHASS 14-140

Empowerment to Village Entrepreneurship through Agro-Processing Techniques S. K. Nag, S. Patel, S. K. Patil, A.Pradhan, M.S.Paikra, D.P.Singh & P. K. Verma

93-94

AIJRHASS 14-143

KNOWLEDGE AND AWARENESS AS DETERMINANTS OF REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH: A RURAL – URBAN PERSPECTIVE Dr. Balwan Singh

95-103

AIJRHASS 14-145

Gender Equality: A Long Way to Attain Dr. P. Neeraja

104-106

AIJRHASS 14-146

AWARENESS OF RIGHT TO EDUCATION ACT AMONG PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS KRISHAN LAL

107-112

AIJRHASS 14-147

CAREER MATURITY IN RELATION TO LEVEL OF ASPIRATION IN ADOLESCENTS KRISHAN LAL

113-118

AIJRHASS 14-148

MEN AND WOMEN MANAGERS: CAN THE DIFFERENCES BE -BY- PASSED? Dr. Twinkle Prusty

119-122

AIJRHASS 14-150

ACADEMIC STRESS AMONG ADOLESCENT IN RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE AND DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS KRISHAN LAL

123-129

AIJRHASS 14-152

A Sociological Analysis of the Impact of Premarital and Marital Counseling in Preventing the Global Trend of Divorce Abanyam, Noah Lumun, Sambe, Ngutor, Avanger, Moses Yandev

130-136

AIJRHASS 14-153

Education in pre independence period- a review Ratnesh Ranjan, Anuradha Pandey, V. Ranjan

137-142

Issue 5, Volume 2 Paper Code

Paper Title

Page No.

AIJRHASS 14-156

Determinants of Adoption of Drip Irrigation in Sugarcane Cultivation in Tamil Nadu N. Kiruthika

143-146

AIJRHASS 14-158

An Assessment of ICT Competence among Teachers of Federal Unity Colleges in North Central Geo-political of Nigeria Amuche Chris Igomu & Iyekekpolor Solomon, A. O.

147-152

AIJRHASS 14-162

Spiritual Reformation of Humanity – a Study on Temple of Dimirimunda Pintu Mahakul

153-158

AIJRHASS 14-168

TEACHERS' UNDERSTANDING OF CHILD CENTERED APPROACH AND ITS IMPLEMENTATION KRISHAN LAL

159-164

AIJRHASS 14-169

Holocaust and Death of God: A Study of Elie Wiesel’s Night Nitisha Mehrotra, Naresh K. Vats

165-167

AIJRHASS 14-172

IMPACT OF NUCLEAR FACTOR ON PEACE AND SECURITY IN SOUTH ASIA NEERAJ SOLANKI

168-169

AIJRHASS 14-173

J.Krishnamurti’s Notion of Freedom from the Known: an Observation Dr. Prantika Sarmah

170-173

AIJRHASS 14-174

ANALYSIS OF TERRORISM BETWEEN INDO-PAK RELATIONSHIP AND SUGGESTIONS NEERAJ SOLANKI

174-179

AIJRHASS 14-179

Explaining the Relationship between Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing Dimension of Dynamic Capabilities (Case Study: Barid Samaneh Novin Company) Gholamali Tabarsa, Akram Hadizadeh Moghadam, Mohammad Hamidian

180-183

AIJRHASS 14-180

The influence of R.W.Emerson on secularism and his influence on American Society.

The influence of the Bhagavad Gita on R.W.Emerson and Secularism Shivadurga, Prof. Dr. Anoop Gupta

184-187

AIJRHASS 14-183

EMOTIONAL MATURITY, SELF CONFIDENCE AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF ADOLESCENTS IN RELATION TO THEIR GENDER AND URBAN-RURAL BACKGROUND KRISHAN LAL

188-193

AIJRHASS 14-184

PAIN MANAGEMENT, MENTAL HEALTH AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AMONG PATIENTS DIAGNOSE WITH CHRONIC PAIN IN NASARAWA STATE, NIGERIA Nalah Augustine Bala

194-197

AIJRHASS 14-185

Role of Non-Government Organizations in Confronting Trafficking In India Apeksha Kumari

198-200

AIJRHASS 14-186

IMPACT OF NATIONAL RURAL HEALTH MISSION (NRHM) ON THE HEALTH SECTOR IN HARYANA Pritam

201-206

AIJRHASS 14-188

Explaining the Relationship between Meta-Cognitive Capability of Cultural Intelligence and Social Capital (A Case Study of National Iranian Oil Products Distribution Company) Gholamali Tabarsa, Akram Hadizadeh Moghadam, Asal Basiji

207-210

AIJRHASS 14-190

Effect of entrepreneurship development through cashew processing on socio-economic status of villagers S. K. Nag, S. K. Patil, S. Patel, A. Pradhan, R. S. Netam, M. S. Paikra and D. P. Singh

211-213

AIJRHASS 14-192

HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT IN INFORMATION TECHNICAL INDUSTRY Surender Kumar

214-217

AIJRHASS 14-193

Analysis of Urban Land Use Changes: A Case Study of Sonipat City in Haryana, India Dr. Sneh Sangwan, Balwan Singh,Mahima, Kuldeep Singh Suhag

218-223

AIJRHASS 14-194

Profile of Cognitive Styles of High School English Teachers D. Srinivas Kumar, M. Siva Kumar

224-227

AIJRHASS 14-195

SEXUAL HARASSMENT OF WOMEN Krishan Lal

228-232

AIJRHASS 14-196

THE PROLIFERATION OF ARMS AND ITS EFFECT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF DEMOCRACY IN NIGERIA Aver, Tyavwase Theophilus, Nnorom, Kingsley C, Ilim Moses Msughter

233-238

AIJRHASS 14-203

Spatial Patterns of Skewed Child Sex Ratio in Rural Haryana Dr. Sneh Sangwan, Dr. Balwan Singh, Ms. Mahima, Dr. Randhir Singh Sangwan

239-244

AIJRHASS 14-204

Communicating Disaster Mitigation Literacy to Coastal Communities in Pacitan, Indonesia Gatut Priyowidodo & Jandy Luik

245-248

AIJRHASS 14-205

Panchayat and Economic empowerment of rural women by hands on Training NagaLaxmi M. Raman and Neeru Dubey

249-252

American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Determinants of Adoption of Drip Irrigation in Sugarcane Cultivation in Tamil Nadu N. Kiruthika Department of Agricultural Economics Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India I. Introduction Drip method of irrigation introduced to improve the water use efficiency and it has been practiced in different parts in India since early nighties. Drip method of irrigation reduces the working hours of pumsets through water saving and therefore it reduces the consumption of electricity and also increases the efficiency of productive capacity of the crops. Though drip irrigation technology is introduced primarily to increase the water use efficiency in agriculture, it also delivers may other economic and social benefits to the society. Reduction in water consumption due to drip method of irrigation over the surface method of irrigation varies from 30 to 70 percent for different crops (INCID, 1994, Narayanamoorthy, 1997; Postal et al., 2001). According to the data available from research stations, productivity gain due to drip method of irrigation is estimated to be in the range of 20 to 90 percent for different crops (INCID, 1994). While increasing the productivity of crops significantly, it also reduces the cost of cultivation substantially in labour intensive operations.

Cultivation of sugarcane in India dates back to the Vedic period. In agriculture sector, sugarcane shared is about 7% of the total value of agriculture output and occupied about 2.6% of India’s gross cropped area during 200607. Sugarcane provides raw material for the second largest agro-based industry after textile. About 527 working sugar factories with total installed annual sugar production capacity of about 242 lakh tonnes are located in the country during 2010-11. Sugar is the major produce of sugarcane. The domestic demand of sugar is rotating around 22-23 million tonnes annually, where as the production of sugar in India during last 5 years is rotating around 24.3 to 26.3 Million ton. Maharashtra is the largest producer of sugar contributes about 34% of sugar in the country followed by Uttar Pradesh. In Tropical zone Maharashtra is the major sugarcane growing state covering about 9.4 lakh ha area with production of 61.32 Million ton, whereas the productivity of Tamil Nadu is highest in tropical zones. Uttar Pradesh is the highest sugarcane producing State in sub tropical zone having area about 22.77 Lakh ha with the production of 135.64 Million Ton cane whereas Haryana has highest productivity of sugarcane in Sub tropical zone (DSD, GOI, 2013).

Brazil is major sugarcane producing country with an area about 90.77 lakh ha and production of about 717.46 Million ton followed by India. Sugarcane productivity is highest in Colombia (101.32 t/ha) followed by Philippines (93.71 t/ha). Amongst 10 major producing country Colombia has the highest yield of sugarcane due to the richest biodiversities in the world and has access to multiple climates. The yield gap of sugarcane in India with respect to 10 major sugarcane producing countries during the last 5 years is ranges 1.33 – 31.22 t/ha.

Sugarcane as such is neither exported nor imported, however the sugar which is a main produce of sugarcane crop is exported and imported as per the Government policies. As per Cooperative Sugar (Vol.-44 No.4, Dec. 2012) the total export of sugar during 2010-11 is 32.49 lakh ton value Rs. 10.35 thousand crore and import is 10.00 lakh ton for value Rs. 2.72 crore during the same year. Water scarcity is the major problem in the cultivation of sugarcane.

Even though there has been increasing development of water management technologies over the years, the adoption rate by the farmers is comparatively small ranging from only 15–20%. Quite a few studies have analysed the impact of drip method of irrigation on water use efficiency, water saving, cost of cultivation, labour use, productivity of crops etc using both experimental and farm level survey data in India. However studies have not analysed the factors which influence the adoption of drip irrigation in sugarcane. Hence this paper attempts to determine the farm and farmer characteristics and other socio economic characteristics that influence the adoption of drip method of irrigation in sugarcane.

II. Review of literature Shah et al. (2002) found that a general lack of development of water resources for smallholder irrigation was the constraining factor for rural development undermining a number of developmental strategies during the green revolution.

Sheikh et al., (2003) studied the factors that determine the farm and farmer characteristics and other socioeconomic factors that influence the adoption of ‘no-tillage’ technologies’. Logit models were used for the

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analysis undertaken. In the study it was found that in the ‘cotton–wheat’ system personal characteristics like education, tenancy status, attitude towards risk implied in the use of new technologies and contact with extension agents are the main factors that affect adoption. And the study found that in the ‘rice–wheat’ system, resource endowments such as farm size, access to a ‘notillage’ drill, clayey soils and the area sown to the rice– wheat sequence along with tenancy and contact with extension agents were dominant in explaining adoption.

Suresh kumar et al. (2011) find out that drip irrigation received considerable attention from policy makers because of its significant contribution towards resource saving, enhanced agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability. The study explored the potential benefits of drip irrigation adoption by addressing the social benefits and costs in Southern India. The study showed that adoption of drip irrigation technology has resulted in significant external and private benefits. The social benefit–cost ratio (SBCR) ranged from 4.33 to 5.19 at a 2% discount rate under different scenarios across regions. This confirms that a wide adoption of drip irrigation produces sufficient social benefits to justify the subsidization of drip irrigation. The authors also suggested that water management policy should focus attention on the promotion of drip irrigation in regions where water and labour scarcity are critical.

Palanisami et al. (2012) found out the return to water management research investment that will help to finetune investment in future research. A detailed study was carried out using the data from Tamil Nadu state, India.

The study found that the successful technologies yielded a moderate return ranging from 11–20%. It also found that with higher adoption levels of the water management technologies, the rate of return will be higher. The authors also suggested that strategies to boost technology transfer and upkeep should be given importance in water management programmes.

Humayun et al. (2013) examined the factors affecting the biogas technology adoption in rural areas in Bangladesh. The study was conducted by a survey method on respondents. Stratified random and purposive sampling techniques were applied for selecting 150 biogas users and 150 non-users. Data were collected through individual interviews by using structural questionnaire. A qualitative response model (Logistic regression model) was applied for examining the main factors influencing the biogas adoption. The study found that socioeconomic factors play an important role in the respondents' behaviors toward biogas adoption. The empirical results indeed highlighted that year of education, income level, number of cattle, and women headed family have significant influences on the decision of biogas plant installation. It also found that increasing the level of education, empowering women, enhancing the yearly income and number of cattle are strategies likely to increase the adoption rate of biogas plants.

Kiruthika et al., (2013) evaluated the demographic characteristics which cause consumers to be more likely to purchase IPM grown produce. Following the Lancaster consumer’s demand theory the paper assumed that consumer’s utility depends on product characteristics instead of the product itself. Consumer’s choice for IPM grown produce was analyzed within the random utility discrete choice model and a logit model was specified. A hypothetical willingness-to-purchase as well as willing-to-pay models for IPM produce were presented in the study. Income and education were found to be the most significant determinants of willingness-to-purchase IPM grown produce. The results also indicated that younger individuals, those who frequently purchase organic produce, those who visit farmers market, those who know the riskiness of the pesticide and those who live in urban areas were all found to be more likely to pay a premium for IPM grown produce. In the study the authors also quoted that respondents also ranked pesticide residues as their top food safety concern relative to five other common sources of food risk.

III. Methodology Among the districts of Tamil Nadu state, Villupuram district stands first and Erode district stands second in both area and production of sugarcane. However, drip irrigation technology was highly adopted in Erode district of Tamil Nadu. Hence for the present study Erode district was purposively selected. Among the taluks in Erode district, Erode taluk was selected purposively for the present study, since both cultivation and adoption of drip irrigation in sugarcane were concentrated in this taluk. There are three blocks in Erode taluk. Among the three blocks, based on the maximum area under sugarcane two blocks viz., Kodumudi and Modakurichi were selected. The villages of the selected two blocks were listed and three villages were selected at random. From each village thirty farmers were selected randomly.

The research reported here seeks to identify key variables affecting a decision with a dichotomous outcome depending on a farm’s features and a farmer’s characteristics and the specific attributes of the drip irrigation technology. In modelling terminology, ‘adopt’ is represented by ‘1’ and ‘do no adopt’ is represented by ‘0’, when the dependent variable is the fact of adoption (Amemiya, 1981; Jamnick and Klindt, 1985), assuming that an individual decision-maker makes rational choices in maximizing his/her utility (Amemiya, 1981; Rahm and Huffman, 1984). To develop the model, take the situation facing a farmer considering whether to adopt the drip irrigation technology or to persevere with the current conventional practices. If ‘t’ denotes a technology and it equals ‘1’ for the conventional irrigation technology and ‘2’ for the drip irrigation technology, the utility of each technology depends on a vector Si, the socio-economic factors of the individual, and a vector At, the attributes of the technology itself. For the farmer, Ui1 and Ui2 are indirect utilities derived from continuing with the

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conventional practices and the adoption of drip irrigation technology, respectively. In their linear form, these utilities can be stated as:

and where di and gi are vectors of coefficients corresponding to the variables in the vector representing socioeconomic factors (Si) and of the vector of technology attributes (Ai) respectively, and ei is an additive error term.

A farmer adopts the drip irrigation technology if Ui2>Ui1 or, continues with the conventional tillage technology, if Ui1>Ui2. Defining a qualitative variable for the adoption of new technology, y i=1 if a farmer adopts ‘drip irrigation’ and otherwise yi=0. Now the probability of adoption can be written as: P (y2) = P (Ui2 > Ui1) = P (ɛi2 - ɛi1 < βi2Zi – βi1Zi) where y2 is a binary choice variable for the drip irrigation technology, Ui2 and Ui1 are the conditional indirect utility functions. The logit and probit models are quite similar as the cumulative normal and logistic distributions are very close to each other except at their tails (Ashton, 1972). However, the tails of a logistic model are flatter than the probit model (Amemiya, 1981). The results produced by either model are similar, unless the samples are very large and many observations fall near the tails (Maddala, 1983). But the logistic transformation is more convenient to compute. Unless there are other theoretical reasons for preferring a distribution function to the logistic cumulative distribution function, the logit model is preferred when repeated observations are available (Judge et al., 1980; Pinack and Rubinfeld, 1981). The logistic model also has a direct interpretation (as does the probit model) in terms of the logarithm of the odds in favour of success (Collet, 1991). Being based on the cumulative logistic probability function t, the logit model can be used for transforming the dependent variable to predict probabilities within the bound (0, 1). The dependent variable becomes the natural logarithm of the odds when a positive choice is made and the model is specified as

where Px=the probability that an event (farmer adopts the drip irrigation technology) occurs for an observed set of variables Xi; Bi=the coefficients to be estimated; and Xi=the explanatory variables, that is, the socioeconomic characteristics of the individuals and the technology attributes.

The empirical model used in the present study is Y = a + β1 Age + β2 Age2 + β3 Education + β4 HS+ β5 Experience + β6 Total land + β7 Water scarcity + β8 Extension agent + ei Table 1. Description of the variables used in the Logit model Variables Type Description Dependent variable Drip Irrigation adoption

Binary

1 if the farmer adopt the drip irrigation technology in sugarcane

Continuous

Cultivator : Age in years

Continuous

Cultivator : Age in squared

Education

Binary

HS Experience Total land

Continuous Continuous Continuous

1 if the household head attended more than primary school Household size Cultivator : Experience in years Total land area owned (in ha)

Extension agent

Binary

Water Scarcity

Binary

Independent variable Age Age

2

1 if the farmer contact with the extension agent 1 if water scarcity exists

IV. Results and Discussion The estimated parameters from the logit model of the determinants of adoption of drip irrigation in sugarcane were utilized to estimate the marginal effects. The marginal effects, shown in table 2, show the impact of a marginal change in the independent variable on the probability of adopting drip irrigation in sugarcane.

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Table 2. Results of marginal effects of Probit estimation for IPM onion adoption p-value Variable dy/dx z Age -0.191 -0.035 -1.71* Age2 0.541 0.002 0.61 Education 0.806 0.006 0.25 HS 0.281 -0.024 1.08 Experience -0.123 -0.032 -1.73* Total land 0.412 -0.018 -0.77 *** Extension agent 0.026 0.273 2.52 Water Scarcity 0.12 0.316 2.75 Number of observations 90 Pseudo R2 0.89 Note: Significance of t-statistics of mean difference is at the *10%, **5% and ***1% levels.

The explanation of the magnitude of effect of an Xi variable through the coefficients (βi) is not straight forward in a logit model. Hence to explain the effect of the independent variable elasticities were developed. The elasticity of probability may be defined as a proportionate change in probability of P(Y=1) due to a proportionate change in Xi. Marginal effects of this regression are provided in table 2. The marginal effect of an independent variable is the change in the probability of observing a certain outcome, if the independent variable changes by one unit, with other variables constant. The parameter dy/dx shows that a one percent change in X i would bring the dy/dx percent change in probability for a particular value of the logit model.

In the present study, the results showed that age and experience negatively and significantly influence the adoption of drip irrigation in sugarcane. Since younger farmers are more likely to be risk takers and hence perhaps more likely to be adopters than older farmers. Access to extension service results in households making better farming decisions and interactions with extension agents positively influences the adoption of the technology. Results show that access to extension service positively and significantly influences the adoption of drip irrigation in sugarcane.

References 1.

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Amemiya, T. 1981. Qualitative response models: a survey. Journal of Economic Literature. 19: 1483 – 1536.

Ashton, W.D. 1972. The Logit Transformation. Griffin and Co., London.

Collett, D. 1991. Modelling Binary Data. Chapman and Hall, London.

Directorate of Sugarcane Development. 2013. Status Paper on Sugarcane. Govt. of India, Ministry of Agriculture.

Humayun, K., Rosaine N. Yegbemey and Siegfried Bauer. 2013. Factors determinant of biogas adoption in Bangladesh. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 28: 881-889.

INCID. 1994. Drip Irrigation in India, Indian National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage, New Delhi.

Jamnick, S.F., Klindt, T.H. 1985. An Analysis of ‘no-tillage’ Practice Decisions. Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, University of Tennessee, USA. Judge, G., Griffiths, W., and Hill, R.C.1980. The Theory and Practice of Econometrics. John Wiley and Co, New York.

Kiruthika, N. and Selvaraj, K.N. 2013. An Economic analysis of Consumer preference towards Integrated Pest Management (IPM) produce. Journal of Environmental Research and Development (JERAD).,7(4A).

Maddala, G.S. 1983. Limited-dependent and Qualitative Variables in Econometrics. Cambridge University Press, New, York.

Narayanamoorthy, A. 1997. Economic Viability of Drip Irrigation:An Empirical Analysis from Maharashtra. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol.52, No.4, pp.728-739.

Palanisami, K., R. Kakumanu, D. Suresh Kumar, S. Challamuthu, B. Chandrasekaran, C. R. Ranganathan and Mark Giordano. 2012.

Do investments in water management research pay? An analysis of water management research in India. Water Policy. 14(4): 594612.

Pinack, R.S., Rubinfield, D.L., 1981. Economic Models and Economic Forecasting. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Postal, S., Polak, P., Gonzales, F., & Keller, J. 2001. Drip Irrigation for Small Farmers: A New Initiative to Alleviate Hunger and Poverty. Water International. Vol. 26, No.1.

Rahm, M.R., Hufman, W.E., 1984. The adoption of reduced tillage: the role of human capital and other variables. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 66, 405–413.

Shah, T., van Koppen, B., Merrey, D., de Lange, M. & Samad, M., 2002. Institutional alternatives in African smallholder irrigation: Lessons from international experience with irrigation management transfer. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Sheikh, A.D., T. Rehman and C.M. Yates. 2003. Logit models for identifying the factors that influence the uptake of new ‘no-tillage’ technologies by farmers in the rice–wheat and the cotton–wheat farming systems of Pakistan’s Punjab. Agricultural Systems. 75: 7995.

Suresh Kumar, D., and K. Palanisami. 2011. Can drip irrigation technology be socially beneficial? Evidence from Southern India.

Water Policy. 13(4): 571-587.

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

An Assessment of ICT Competence among Teachers of Federal Unity Colleges in North Central Geo-political of Nigeria Amuche1 Chris Igomu & Iyekekpolor2 Solomon, A. O. Faculty of Education Taraba state University, Jalingo Taraba State, Nigeria 2 Department of Math and Statistic, Federal University, Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria 1

Abstract: The study was designed to assess ICT Competence among Teachers of Federal Unity Colleges in North Central Geo-political of Nigeria. The survey research was utilized. The population of the study comprised all FUC teachers in the North-Central Geo-political zone of Nigeria. Eight (8) FUCs out of the twenty-two (22) FUCs were utilized for the study. The target participants were all teachers in the 8 sampled FUCs. The researchers adopted accidental sampling technique so as to enable purposive administration of the research instrument and have a good mix of teachers in diverse subject areas. The research instrument was administered to a total of four hundred (400) teachers (50 teachers per school). Only three hundred and eighty-eight (388) were successfully completed and returned, giving a return rate of 97.0%. Out of this number of teachers, one hundred and two (102) were female while two hundred and ninety-eight (298) were male. In terms of subject distribution, the sample comprised Social science (113), Languages (101), Vocational and Technical (23), Sciences (56) and Arts (107) teachers. The research instrument tagged “ICT Competence for Teacher Questionnaire” (ICTQ) was used for data collection. The study revealed that the competency level of FUC teachers is low and majority of FUC teachers cannot utilize ICT in teaching their subjects. Most teachers have personal computers/laptops but have little or no competence in the usage of ICT. It is apparent that the main skill acquired by the teachers is in Word processing which can be attributed to typing of examination, test questions, student record and so on by the teachers. Again, access to internet by the teachers was mainly private indicating inadequacy of the facility in the colleges. Majority of the teachers rated their ICT competence as low. This indicates that FUC teachers are not sufficiently equipped to integrate ICT into the school system. Finally, it was concluded that major challenges to ICT usage among FUC teachers were related to funding of ICT training, availability of facility and workload on the part of the teachers. It is recommended that the Federal Government should increase funds for training and re-training of FUC teachers in ICT. Also, training of teachers in ICT should be made compulsory and continuous in line with the dynamics of ICT. Teachers should have a rethink about ICT training and make out time to improve their competency level irrespective of their workload. Finally, the government should ensure compulsory ICT training for teacher education programmes at teacher training institutions.

I. Introduction Technology has changed our world and continues to alter the way we do things, bringing with it not only tremendous benefits, but also tough challenges. Information and communication technology (ICT) is a major aspect of today’s technology with its ever-growing worldwide acceptance and usage for development.

Development is partly determined by the ability to establish a synergistic interaction between technological innovation and human values in reference [3]. The interaction between ICT and the teacher is a major factor that can bring about development particularly in the education sector. Reference [13] posited that the rapid rate at which ICTs have evolved since the mid 20th century, the convergence and pervasiveness of ICTs, give them a strong role in development and globalization.

It has been discovered that knowledge of ICT usage improves human capacity in every field of human endeavour, including business transactions, industrial operations, educational programmes and life in general.

In the field of education, reference [15] highlights the opportunities that ICT presents for enhancing the quality of teaching and learning to include: providing encouragement for teachers to reflect on how they teach and learn; applying theory and research on learning and principles of good instruction to designing online learning environments; making teaching and learning more visible and public; encouraging collaboration and teamwork among teachers (and students); offer greater access to learning for more people.

Aware of the significance of ICT educational programmes, government in the world have adopted several measures to facilitate acquisition of ICT education by enhancement of education and training programmes. The teacher who is the major facilitator of the teaching and learning process comes to centre-stage. According to reference [6], teacher training in the use of ICT is the best starting point in the ICT policy of a country because

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they are the key to making learning happen. In this age where all education system in the globe are being pressurized to apply the information and communication technologies to teach students, the expected needed knowledge and skill to achieve this must come from the teacher. A good teacher is expected to know what to teach and how to teach it convincingly. Reference [4] posited that teaching is becoming one the most challenging professions because of rapidly expanding knowledge and advent of modern technologies thereby posing a challenge for teachers to adjust their pedagogical roles. At the secondary school level, the Federal Government of Nigeria has made concerted efforts to infuse ICT into teaching and learning by providing ICT facilities into her model secondary schools (Federal Unity Colleges).

Therefore, considering the prominent role of the teacher in the educational system, it then becomes imperative that teachers at this level of the education system must be ICT compliant. In view of the above, this study evaluates ICT competencies among teachers of Federal Unity Colleges (FUCs) which are the model secondary schools in Nigeria.

A. Brief History of Federal Unity Colleges in Nigeria The history and philosophy behind the establishment of the Federal Government Colleges otherwise known as Federal Unity Colleges (FUCs) can be traced to the idea expressed by the late Nigerian Prime Minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. When political unity was becoming a mirage in the late sixties, the Prime Minister consequently conceived the idea of using education as a tool for nation-building. It was believed that if people from all part of the country were brought together to study there might be the possibility of breaking down their ethnic prejudices which might give rise to national unity and rebirth.

The first set of Federal Unity Colleges to be established by the government was Federal Government College Warri, Federal Government College Sokoto and Federal Government College Okposi which was closed down during the civil war. These three FUCs were established between 1964/1965. The other set of colleges belonging to this group are colleges established between 1970 and 1975. The establishment of the FUCs was anchored to the then General Yakubu Gowon’s programme of 3Rs (Reconciliation, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction). Subsequently, the government established one co-educational college and one female college in each state of the country. The Kings College and Queens College established in 1909 and 1929 respectively were adopted as FUCs. The FUCs were established for the purpose of serving as a forum to promote national unity among the youth and by extension adults; serving as centre for excellence or model secondary schools.

Today, there are a total of 104 FUCs in Nigeria. The Federal Ministry of Education in conjunction with the Petroleum Technology Development Fund has provided ICT facilities in the 104 FUCs to actualize the goals of integrating ICT in secondary schools. Therefore, it thus becomes imperative that FUC teachers should be ICT competent.

II. Statement of the Problem ICT literacy among secondary school teachers has been viewed as prerequisite in adoption and integration of ICT in the school system. It has been observed that in the FUCs in Nigeria, ICT usage among teachers is still very minimal as most students are technologically savvy than their teachers. This informed the researchers’ decision to investigate if this prevailing situation could be attributed to teachers’ competence in ICT. III. Objectives of the Study The study aims at: 1.

Ascertaining how Federal Unity College (FUC) teachers rate their ICT competency level.

2.

Investigating the competency level of FUC teachers in the use of ICT. 3.

Establishing what numbers of FUC teachers have personal computers.

4.

Determine the main source of access to internet by FUC teachers.

5.

Ascertaining the challenges of academic usage of ICT by teachers of FUCs. 6.

Determine the source of funding for teachers’ ICT training.

IV. Research Questions To achieve the stated objectives, the following research questions were posed: 1.

How do teachers in FUCs rate their ICT competency level?

2.

What is the ICT competency level of FUC teachers?

3.

What number of FUC teachers possess personal computer?

4.

Where do FUC teachers have access to internet?

5.

What are the challenges of ICT usage faced by FUC teachers?

6.

What are the major sources of funding for FUC teacher ICT training?

V. Role of ICT in Teaching and Learning Information and communication technology (ICT) refers to the eclectic application of computing, communication, telecommunication and satellite technology in reference [16]. Many countries in the world

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(Nigeria inclusive) recognize the importance of ICT. They are training teachers to use technology as tools for enhancement of teaching and learning. Reference [2] remarked that the use of ICT enhances problem-solving skills and attitude as well as to develop knowledge and manipulative skills. Also, Jung (2005) pointed out that teachers can be trained to learn how to use ICT and teachers can be trained via ICT. The following are the importance of ICT as enumerated by the Nigerian Teachers Institute in reference [12]: i.

It can be used to support conventional classroom works. ii.

To design and develop learning materials. iii.

Students can exchange electronic materials like journals, books etc. iv Some libraries store electronic versions of books and journals through which ICT teachers can have access, store and analyze information in electronic forms. v.

ICT is useful in research activities. vi.

ICT can be useful in administration, recording students’ data, personal administration, purchasing/supplies and advertisement. vii.

Gives room for individualized and independent learning. viii.

ICTs make learning more vivid and engaging. ix.

ICTs have broken teachers-centered instruction x.

It also provides a two-way channel of communication for exchange between teachers and students with peers for feedback.

In view of the enormous benefits of ICT in the educational system, teaching will be simplified and learning experiences will be more effective with the use of ICT. VI. ICT Application in Nigerian Secondary Schools Some developments in the Nigerian education sector indicate some level of application in the secondary schools. The Federal Government of Nigeria in reference [7] recognizes the prominent role of ICTs in the modern world and has integrated ICTs into education in Nigeria. It is the intention of government to provide necessary infrastructure and training for the actualization of this goal. The Federal Ministry of Education has launched an ICT driven project known as SchoolNet (www.snng.org) which was intended to equip all schools in Nigeria with computers and communication technologies. Although, efforts have been made to ensure that ICTs are available and used in Nigeria secondary schools (for example, in FUCs) but reference [3] reported that the level of uptake is still slow.

VII. Empirical Studies Several studies have been carried out on ICT application in secondary schools in Nigeria. Reference [3] discovered that the unavailability of some ICT components in schools hampers teachers’ use of ICT. Lack of adequate skills and access points in the schools were reported as factors inhibiting the use of the internet by secondary school teachers in reference [11]. Drain of trained teachers to better-paid ICT related jobs has been found to be a factor in both developed and developing countries in reference [5]. A study by reference [9] revealed that majority of the respondents who had undergone ICT training did so at personal expense and even where trainings were organized by school authorities and computer centers, payments in many of the cases have been from personal purses.

VIII. Method In consonance with the objectives of this study, the survey research was utilized. The population of the study comprised all FUC teachers in the North-Central Geo-political zone of Nigeria. The sample frame for the study is as shown in Table 1 below: Table 1: Sample Frame for Assessment of ICT Competence among Teachers of Federal Unity Colleges in North-Central Geo-political Zone in Nigeria S/N 1.

STATE BENUE

NO. OF SCHOOL* 4

NO. OF TEACHERS* 256

2.

FCT ABUJA

6

1277

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

KOGI KWARA NASARAWA NIGER PLATEAU

2 2 3 3 2 22

213 204 421 556 257 3,184

SAMPLE SCHOOL FGC OTOBI FGC GBOKO FGGC BWARI FGBC APO FGC KWALI FGC UGWOLAWO FGC ILORIN FGC KEFFI FGC MINNA FGC JOS

NO. OF SAMPLE 2 3

1 1 1 1 1 8

SOURCE: Federal Ministry of Education, Abuja (As at January, 2010)

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Eight (8) FUCs out of the twenty-two (22) FUCs were utilized for the study. The target participants were all teachers in the 8 sampled FUCs. In order to avoid being restricted to sampling teachers in various subject areas, the researchers adopted accidental sampling technique so as to enable purposive administration of the research instrument and have a good mix of teachers in diverse subject areas.

The research instrument was administered to a total of four hundred (400) teachers (50 teachers per school).

Only three hundred and eighty-eight (388) were successfully completed and returned, giving a return rate of 97.0%. Out of this number of teachers, one hundred and two (102) were female while two hundred and ninetyeight (298) were male. In terms of subject distribution, the sample comprised Social science (113), Languages (101), Vocational and Technical (23), Sciences (56) and Arts (107) teachers.

The research instrument tagged “ICT Competence for Teacher Questionnaire” (ICTQ) comprised four (4) sections. Section A sought demographic information on gender, Grade level, Teaching subject and Institution.

Section B consisted of four items eliciting information relating to source of funding for teacher ICT training, possession of computer, place of access to internet and rating of ICT competence. These items require a “YES” or “NO” answer. Section C contained 13 items measured in a 4-point Likert-like scale of “Not competent”, “Fairly competent”, “Competent” and “Very competent”. Finally, Section D was an open-ended question requiring the respondent to indicate three (3) challenges (in order of triviality) faced in the use of ICT. Logical validity of the instrument was established by subjecting the instrument to critical appraisal and rating of three experts; two in the field of Measurement and Evaluation and the other in ICT. This yielded an index of 0.67. A pilot test was carried out in Federal Government College Rubochi and Federal Government Girls College Keana to test the research plan. The result of the test carried out on 40 teachers (20 from each school) was analyzed using the Split-Half Reliability method with the associated Spearman- Brown correction formula to obtain the coefficient of internal consistency of the instrument as 0.82. This revealed that the instrument was suitable for the study. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

IX. Results and Discussion The results are presented and discussed following the sequence of the research questions for the purpose of ease of understanding: Table 2: Respondents’ Rating of ICT Usage and Skills (N = 388) SKILLS

Word Processing E-mail Data Analysis Networking E-Library E-learning Lesson Preparation Giving Notes & Assignment Online Video Conferencing E-payment Mobile Phone Browsing Educational Software Use of Power-point (Projector)

Not Competent Frequency (%) 53 (13.7) 100 (25.8) 213 (5.9) 259 (66.8) 294 (75.8) 241 (62.1) 301 (77.6) 291 (75.0)

Fairly Competent Frequency (%)

Competent Frequency (%)

Very Competent Frequency (%)

Competent + Very competent Frequency (%)

109 (28.1) 152 (39.2) 125 (32.2) 100 (25.8) 53 (13.7) 62 (16.0) 67 (17.3) 82 (22.1)

183 (47.2) 98 (25.2) 39 (10.1) 25 (6.4) 20 (5.1) 63 (16.2) 18 (4.6) 8 (2.1)

43 (11.0) 38 (9.8) 11 (2.8) 4 (1.0) 21 (5.4) 22 (5.7) 2 (0.5) 7 (1.8)

226 (58.2) 136 (35.1) 50 (12.9) 29 (7.4) 41 (10.5) 85 (21.9) 20 (5.1) 15 (3.9)

331 (85.3) 353 (91.1) 151 (38.9) 330 (85.1) 315 (81.2)

41 (10.6) 26 (6.7) 101 (26.0) 41 (10.6) 60 (15.5)

16 (4.1) 9 (2.2) 95 (24.5) 17 (4.3) 10 (2.6)

(0) (0) 41 (10.6) (0) 3 (0.7)

16 (4.1) 9 (2.2) 136 (35.1) 17 (4.3) 13 (3.3)

Table 3: Teachers’ Rating of ICT Competency Level (N = 388) RATING OF COMPETENCY LEVEL

NUMBER

PERCENTAGE (%)

HIGH

41

10.6

MODERATE

105

27.0

LOW

242

62.4

Table 4: Respondents’ Ownership of personal Computer (N = 388) OWNERSHIP OF COMPUTER YES NO

NUMBER 267 121

PERCENTAGE (%) 68.8 31.2

Table 5: Respondents’ Access to Internet (N = 388) ACCESS TO INTERNET PRIVATE (MODEMS) CYBERCAFES COLLEGE INTERNET

NUMBER 209 160 19

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PERCENTAGE (%) 53.9 41.2 4.9

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Table 6: Challenges to ICT Usage among Respondents S/N 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

CHALLENGES Absence of ICT Facilities in School Lack of Funds Inability of School to organize ICT training Inadequate Power Supply ICT Illiteracy Insufficient time due to workload Lack of time to practice ICT facilities are used only for school support (Administration) Inability to acquire ICT facilities Lack interest in learning ICT

Table 7: Respondents’ Source of funding for ICT Training (N = 388) SOURCE OF FUNDING SELF FEDERAL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

NUMBER 318 70

PERCENTAGE (%) 82.0 18.0

Research Question 1: Table 2 shows that the percentage of teachers who are competent in the use of ICT in all the skills measured was below 50% apart from Word processing skills. The highest areas of competence indicated by teachers were in usage of ICT for the purpose of e-learning (21.9%), and mobile phone browsing (35.1%). Other areas of ICT competence show an alarming low competence. Given this result, it can be said that the competency level of FUC teachers is low.

Research Question 2 Teachers’ rating of ICT competency level as shown in Table 3 indicates that only 41 (10.6%) of FUC teachers have high rating of ICT competency level. Those with moderate competency level were 105 (27.0%) while the majority 242 (62.4%) rated their ICT competency as low. This result indicate that majority of FUC teachers cannot utilize ICT in teaching their subjects.

Research Question 3: Table 4 shows the result of ownership of personal computers. While 267 (68.8%) have computers, 121 (31.2%) did not. The high percentage of FUC teachers having personal computers can be attributed to the supply of computers laptops (Zinox) by the Federal Ministry of Education to FUC teachers for an installment payment of over a period of one year. Despite the high number of personal computers, the level of skills in ICT is still low.

Research Question 4: The result of teacher access to internet is presented in Table 5. The result shows that 209 (53.9%) of FUC teachers access the internet by private means (modems). While 19 (4.9%) use the college internet access, 160 (41.2%) use public cybercafés. This result indicates that a greater number of teachers have no access to internet within the college.

Research Question 5: As listed in Table 6, a wide range of challenges/difficulties to ICT usage has been indicated by the respondents.

However, the challenges can be summarized into: funding, facility-related and workload and teacher personal disposition to the use of ICT. Research Question 6: The source of funding for ICT training as shown in Table 7 reveals that majority of the teachers 318 (82.0%) spend for ICT training individually. The number of FUC teachers trained by the Federal Ministry of Education 79 (18%) is low. Respondents however indicate that training received under the auspices of government is not detailed and covers a short period of time.

X. Conclusion From the findings of the study, it was concluded that ICT skill development undertaken by FUC teachers was mainly self-funded. Also, findings reveal that most teachers have personal computers/laptops but have little or no competence in the usage of ICT. It is apparent that the main skill acquired by the teachers is in Word processing which can be attributed to typing of examination, test questions, student record and so on by the teachers. Again, access to internet by the teachers was mainly private indicating inadequacy of the facility in the college.

Majority of the teachers rated their ICT competence as low. This indicates that FUC teachers are not sufficiently equipped to integrate ICT into the school system. Finally, it was concluded that major challenges to ICT usage among FUC teachers were related to funding of ICT training, availability of facility and workload on the part of the teachers.

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XI. Recommendations Based on the findings and the conclusions drawn in this study, it is recommended that the Federal Government should increase funds for training and re-training of FUC teachers in ICT. Also, training of teachers in ICT should be made compulsory and continuous in line with the dynamics of ICT. Teachers should have a rethink about ICT training and make out time to improve their competency level irrespective of their workload. Finally, the government should ensure compulsory ICT training for teacher education programmes at teacher training institutions.

References [1]

[2] [3] [4]

[5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16]

Abidoye, J. A. and Ayelaagba, S. O. (2006). “The Place of new Information and Communication Technologies in TeachingLearning Process in Nigerian Schools.” Paper presented at the TRCN skills acquisition, Summit and campaign for Teachers in Akure Zone.

Ajoku, L. I. (2000). “The Production and Use of Instructional materials by students and Teachers in the Classroom.” In: V. A. Asuru (ed). Teaching Practice: A practical Guide. Pp. 18-26. Port Harcourt: Mission Publishers .

Adomi, E. E. and Kpangban, E. (2010). Applications of ICT in Nigerian Secondary Schools. Available: http://www.thefreelibrary.com. Retrieved on 22-11-10.

Amuche C. I. (2010). “Entrepreneurial and ICT Education as a Means of Achieving the Objectives of vision 20:2020.” A paper presented at the 9th conference of the National Association of Research Development held at Nasarawa State University keffi, September, 2010.

BECTA. (2000). “Emerging findings from the Evaluation of the Impact of ICT on Pupils Attainment.” London: BECTA. Carlson, S. and Gadio, C. T. (2002). “Teacher Professional Developmen in the Use of ICT.” In Haddad, W. D.& Draxler, A. (Eds), Technology for Education (pp. 118-132). Washington DC: UNESCO; Academy for Educational Development.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (2004). National Policy on Education. 4th Edition. Lagos: Nigeria. Educational Research and Development Council.

Federal Republic of Nigeria(FRN) (2006). Government in Action. Available: http://www.nigeriafirst.org. Retrieved on 20-11-10.

Jegede, P.O. (2009). “Assessment of Nigerian Teacher Educators’ ICT Training.” Issues in Information Science and Information Technology. 6: pp. 415-420.

Jung, I. S. (2005). “ICT-Pedagogy Integration in Teacher Training: Application Cases Worldwide Education.” Educational Technology and Society. 8(2);94-101.

Kaku, F. A. (2005). “The Use of Internet by Secondary School Teachers in the Rural Areas of Delta State. The case study of Udu Local Government Area of Abraka.” Delta State University. Unpublished B.Sc (LIS) Project.

National Teachers Institute (NTI, 2004). “Information and Communication Technology.” PGDE/DLS on Education, Cycle 1 Module 1-3. Kaduna; NTI Publication.

Nwagwu, W. E. (2006). “Integrating ICTs into the Globalization of the Poor Developing Countries.” Information Development.

22(3): 167-179.

Ogunlade, O. O. (2010). “Teachers and the challenges of Information and Communication Technologies.”

Radloff, A. (2001). “Getting online: The Challenges for Academic Staff and Institutional leaders. Available: hhtp://www.asclite.org.au/conferences/melbourne01/pdf/papers/radloffa.pdf.

Yusuf, M. O. (2005). “Information and Communication Education: Analyzing the Nigerian National Policy for Information Technology.” International Education Journal. 6(3):316-321.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Spiritual Reformation of Humanity – a Study on Temple of Dimirimunda Pintu Mahakul Doctoral Candidate, Department of Business Administration, Berhampur University, Bhanja Bihar, Berhampur-760007, Odisha, INDIA Abstract: From very ancient period spirituality attracts the attention of human resources. For their development and balance of workforce during crucial periods they adopt this path as only the way to sustain with humanity.

During diminishing of values among human individuals, humanity rapidly deteriorates. As results cruelty, violence, cheating and unethical incidences increase. To avoid these, people need to purify their thoughts and actions by spirituality. For personal purification and reformation of mind people around world go to churches, mosques and temples for prayers and worship. Not only they get mental peace but also get physical activeness for their daily works by doing so. Spiritual practices and rituals cannot be separated from human life. It is essential to educate them with such values during period of degrading humanity. To reform human societies in to nobility it is highly essential to have such study that highlights the potential of human transformation through spiritual reformation. Spirituality helps in nourishing the inner and original qualities of human individuals.

While people forget their original purpose and run behind a material desire, at that time spirituality acts as constructing remedy for human civilization. This study is done on an Indian temple that has actively played major role in bringing people closer towards spiritual reformation. Hope this study will definitely add value to many of the scholars and people being beneficial to them in all aspects of life.

Keywords: Humanity, temple, spirituality, management and reformation

I.

Introduction

“Karishinim phalavatim swadhaamirm cha no gruhe, Audumbarasaya tejasaa dhaataa pustim dadhaatu me.”

(Atharva Veda, Book 19, Hymn 31, Verse 3) “God of creation, by charm and power of Udumbara may give plenty of wealth in droppings of calf and in fruits and in the dwelling of heart, by uniting these may give plenty of food materials, milk and other things.”

The name of Cluster Fig i.e. Ficus racemosa also having synonym as Ficus glomerata, in Sanskrit is Udumbara.

In ancient South Koshli language Udumbara or Cluster fig is called as Dumer while in Odia it is called Dimiri and in Nepali it is called as Dumri. The name Dumermunda or Dimirimunda is derived from Sanskrit and Nepali which means availability of Cluster fig trees and its accessories in plenty amounts. Admiration of Udumbara is not only seen in sacred Hindu scriptures but also seen in Buddhist texts and special flowers are considered as holy materials and signs of any unimagined out comings in near future. Amulet of Udumbara is considered as sacred giver of wealth and happiness. So it unites its essence of conceptual teachings in Spirituality.

Dimirimunda means a place where plenty of food materials and crops like paddy, wheat, corn etc. and milk as well as many holy foods are available as plenty as needed. The mothers of calves give cow dung generally used as natural fertilizers including various decomposed leaves and straws and also the leaves of Cluster Fig trees.

The productivity increases a lot without any problems while natural fertilizers are used in the crop fields during cultivation. The holy Atharva Veda highlights the importance of Udumbara in 31 hymns of nineteenth book of this. In this prayer an individual urges in front of creator to dazzle his life in the power of charm of Cluster Fig. Amulet of Udumbara is the symbol of spiritual reformation. While values diminish in human civilization various problems arise like violence, bloodshed, wars etc. Life becomes critical to live. Natural change is observed and seasonal flow diverts the route on earth. Various natural calamities like hurricanes, draught, earthquakes and many more are seen abnormally in the increasing rate. These break backbone of life sustaining on earth. In such a period anxiety grows in minds of many and we think of spiritual reformation of society.

During the degradation of humanity spirituality acts as nectar to reform and amulet of Udumbara reminds us about our duty to acquire holy things including food, shelter, clothes and many more. Spirituality not only shapes the human behaviour but also decorates personality. So management of things become easier in all aspects. Now-a-days we observe that the humanity is rapidly degrading. In such a situation it is very much

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important to bring this back in to true and original state. The importance of fig is also known from the statements of Holy Bible. Now let us have a vision what Isaiah has said. Bible states, “Now Isaiah had said, “Let them take a cake of figs and apply it to the boil that he may recover.” (Isaiah 38:21, English Standard Version) Generally reformation means process of reforming any organization or institution or practice. Reforming means improving. The root word reform specifies its meaning as bringing necessary changes within institution, organization or society or place in order to improve this. In other way we can say that this is a process or action of high thoughts and qualities. Removal of defects, correction of errors, abolishing abuse and malpractice and alteration are nothing but reformation. These are always required in society. John Donne (1572-1631) defines spiritual reformation as the process of change or removal or perishing of sins and fear of human beings by spiritual practice and devotion to God that helps in shining of life with marvellous thoughts. Edward Taylor (1642-1729) defines spiritual reformation as a process of making a place of most clear whose shines are like as shines of sun with infinite devotional love that establishes confidence on Lord and humanity. Upendra Bhanja (1670-1720) defines spiritual reformation as an action that transforms an individual, an organization or a place in a path of spirituality to achieve excellence in performance of all aspects in economical, social and cultural motives. Baldev Rath (1789-1845) defines spiritual reformation is the change achieved in awareness of spirituality among people or institutions that decorates and nourish human civilization in righteousness and purity. Saint Bhima Bhoi (1850-1895) defines spiritual reformation as a path or process that changes an individual from his inner core giving recognition of his own identity that makes him perfect to sacrifice for others in society and redeeming of universe with respect to his life and life of others.

Pythagoras (570-495 BC) defines humanity as a theorem of love and kindness that nourishes people in righteous manner. Confucius (551 BC- 479 BC) defines humanity or Ren as love of people for each other that acts as strength of any civilization where people help each other and stand in unity. Plato (427-347 BC) defines humanity as a courageous justice of love that holds temperate wit, generosity, friendliness, greatness, magnificent, truthfulness as strengths of soul. Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC) defines humanity as virtue that highly values love and kindness and these are the two of the main strengths of human individuals.

Wing- Tsit Chan (1995) defines humanity as a justice of inner core of individuals with a level of justice with mainly three strengths of human individuals like love, kindness and social intelligence. Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman (2004) define humanity as an act of love altruism which are typical strengths and expressed to fairness and one out of six main virtues that are widely accepted in all cultures.

II.

Objectives of the study

To evaluate the strength of human population during a condition of diminishing values it is necessary to study the causes of degradation of morality. At the same time interpretation of preventive measures is also necessary to prevent society from down fall. In midterm to identify the development of civilization in righteousness we need to analyse the position of humanity and how can it be well balanced in future? Humanity is a typical product of virtue. Virtue is understood in the path of spirituality. So it is necessary to guide mankind with spiritual awareness. To understand and interpret the proper essence of spiritual reformation it is required to study about its nature and aspects. To remove ambiguities from society and bringing change and to keep human rights up it is necessary to study about spiritual reformation and implementation of its.

III.

Literature Review

Reformation in European empire dates back to 16th century AD. To purify religious believers and practices of religious affairs and to intensify individual piety the process of reformation starts in early of that century only.

At that time in Western Europe such movement comes that breaks the abuse and separates Roman Catholics and origination of Protestants is observed. Establishment of Protestant Churches takes rapid revolution basing on the doctrines of their personal feelings and rejection of catholic believe that salvation comes through grace which is received in sacraments of personalities. It is claimed that such principles have restricted the role of church to proclaim the divine gift like forgiveness which is very much unmerited. Martin Luther (1483-1546) one of the German reformation leaders in 1520 holds the imagination of English people. It is seen in history that William Tyndale (1494-1536) the Bible translator reinterpreted the theme and messages of reformation. During the period of reformation many parish churches come in rebuilding and lavishing with many costly materials, vessels and ornaments. In 1559 on the path of reformation the Church of England comes in to reality as a church of Protestant. With the speed of incredibility the process of reformation proceeds in entire corners of European countries. Giving the remarks for spiritual reformation Holy Bible states, “Behold, I tell you mystery. We shall not all sleep but we shall all be changed.” (1 Corinthians 15:51, Holy Bible, English Standard Version) Udumbara is itself a symbol of reformation mentioned in Buddhist texts. Famous influential Lotus Sutra of Mahayana Buddhist explains about the holiness of Udumbara in chapter 2 and 27. Udumbara teaches to give up many all doubts and uncertainty in the aspect of life as per the direction of king of law to abide and practice the

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law of righteousness. Special flowers of this plant while blossom these signify for a strategic change or about a new spiritual revolution in society. Buddhist scriptures say that special Udumbara flowers blossom so far once in a long gap and appear in a great while. It keeps precious importance of its identity and is the symbol of Dharma. So, Lotus Sutra in chapter 2 urges that it is highly essential to understand and behold Dharma i.e. righteousness as precious as Udumbara flower. As it is wonderful to hear the news of blossoming of special flowers which is expected to blossom once in a gap of three thousand years, it is also wonderful to hear about Dharma. Buddhists are guided to hold Dharma in chapter 27 because it is difficult to meet Buddha as like as it is very much difficult to watch the charm of special Udumbara flowers in a life time of 80-100 years, which appear in a far gap. The appearance of Buddha is uncommon. Likewise appearance of Cluster Fig is too uncommon as like as the doctrine of Buddha. The persons of Dharma are very rare in appearance. So we should not have doubts on such Dharma which appears for social reformation. The secret essence of Buddha dwells in rarest of rare Dharma and truly wondrous. In Indian system including many of the countries in world depend on cultivation for food and shelter. Whatever development today we see is possible due to development of society.

Society depends on food to sustain. Food grains are produced after cultivation. In ancient days people have depended on cattle for natural fertilizers and ploughing of lands. Atharva Veda considers cattle as precious animal resources on them human civilization depends for milk, ploughing and harvesting of crops. Now-a -day also rural India and many of Asian countries depend on cattle although modern scientific inventions are available for cultivation. Due to middle income status they do not use more scientific tools and techniques.

Sages in Veda pray Almighty to give as many as wealth as precious as power of charm of Udumbara. It is believed that they win great plenty while wear amulet of Cluster Fig with trust. So the name of village Dimirimunda signifies to such a place where the wealth of cattle and the precious animal resources are available in plenty to produce milk, crop and other food materials, people live in unity and integrity, fulfil their basic needs, get the taste of juice of many wild and cultivated fruits as like as charm of Cluster Fig and balance life of workforce. The description of fig tree and its medicinal importance is also mentioned in few places of Holy Bible. Isaiah 38:21, Number 13:23, 1 Samuel 30:12, 2 King 20:7 and few other verses speak about importance of Fig tree. Where uncommon Dharma resides and Dharma becomes the principal magnitude of civilization is called Munda or chief or leader. Dimirimunda signifies as the principal leader of the reformation of righteousness. People involve in service of domestic animals as well as of human beings along with the regional development of spiritual affaires to bring out reformation of diminishing society. Amulet of Udumbara truly vouchsafes with all excellent men about us and increases possessions and grants good wealth. People of this Indian village of Kuchinda of Sambalpur district of Odisha along with the support of regional villages have constructed a Radha Krishna temple in middle. The role of temple plays its role in social and cultural affairs like planning and organizing meetings and festivals, social justice to caste customs, educational affairs, women affaires, and specially organizing great meeting called Mahasabha in a gap of five or seven years. This Mahasabha concept is drawn in favour of meeting social, economical and cultural challenges to behold spirituality. Radha Krishna is the combination of both feminine and masculine aspect in Indian worship system worshiped in many temples across India. Radha is the supreme goddess of all and Krishna even is controlled by the love and affection of Radha. Enchanting of world is done by both but Radha is superior in enchanting Krishna. This teaches of women empowerment in family and society. The great devotion of Radha towards Krishna teaches that Radha is the great feminine energy called Shakti and Krishna is related to Shaktiman, the holder of energy. Any movement requires energy of mothers. They play major role in bringing family and society in to unity, reform the family by their inner power and courage and manage many affaires very smoothly. The community of Nanda Gopal is believed to be the ancestral dynasty of King Nanda and queen Yoshoda. People worship Goddess Kanaka Durga as their principal deity. The spiritual reformation movement starts in name of Radha Krishna and plays a major role in society building as well as personality development.

IV.

Importance of the study

Diminishing of values and ethics in society is a sign of danger for future. By seeing the scenario of rapid downfall of humanity anybody may get a jerk of hub in anxiety. In many cities it is heard that people say itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s difficult to live in modern society as robberies, loot, murders and violence are frequently occurring unexpectedly. Who does like such conditions? Even in modern age people love to live peacefully a marvellous life without hesitation. All need happiness and prosperities in respective lives. But the entire world has moved in to such a condition that there is chance of sudden attack by evils. Some may cause harm by terror or war.

Selfishness among human individuals is growing at the rate instead of growing helping nature. In such down fall it does not suit to hope for peace without reformation of society i.e. without bringing change. If we truly desire for change then we have to think about spiritual progress. Only spirituality can teach us how to bring spiritual reformation. In this study we highlight the efforts of a small village temple and its role and step towards spiritual reformation for learning broad world perspective and views from this.

A. Causes of downfall of humanity

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A.1. Selfish desires: - Increasing rate of selfish desires and importance of self interest instead of social interest have degraded the values of society and brought in to down fall. Desires and competitions of consuming worldly things are also causes behind this.

A.2. Increasing addiction: - Increasing rate of use of tobacco, narcotic products, alcohol, beverages and many other harmful products not only affect the physical health but also affect the mental health. Poor mentality results from such conditions. If a habituated individual does not get money for purchasing such products, starts stealing things from home or outside, cheats others, does loot and robberies.

A.3. Unsolved organizational conflicts: - Due to mismatching of working skills, learning and perception, work attitudes and organizational positions, conflicts arise among employees and employers. If conflicts are not resolute properly then these result to strikes and then to unseen violence.

A.4. Violence: - Unwillingness of giving birth to female children has resulted violence against foetus as female foeticide. Torture on girls, increasing violence on women, riots, breakage of communal harmony and other forms of violence have brought downfall of humanity.

A.5. Emerging Impurities: - Impurities have entered in to all most all sectors including food and shelter. The negative vibrations are added in environment in day to day life due to influence of impure mind and thoughts.

B. Necessity of spiritual reformation B.1. For social integration: - Integration plays a major role in society. Without integration it is difficult to manage consistency of actions, values, methods, new expectations, evaluation, and maintenance of principles.

For moral and ethical practice, integration is a big platform.

B.2. For balance of communal harmony:- Due to diversity in nationality, castes, colours and religions people divide in to different communal groups and fight against each other. For balance of them and to bring them in to one thread it is necessary of learning of respecting each other and accepting and honouring doctrines of each community or religions.

B.3. For social, cultural and economical development: - Time to time civilization passes through many challenges. To overcome these and re-establish spiritual reformation is required in proper social, cultural and economical development in all parts of any region or nation.

B.4. For maintenance of purity of environment: - Modern environment is almost polluted with soil, air and water with global warming. Spiritually well educated people become more aware about their surrounding environment and purify it by their thoughts and actions.

C. Learning of principles of management from temple culture Temple of Dimirimunda is managed according to the village administrative system. Although management of temples and charitable trusts in India are of same manner till we take the importance of this temple for the purpose of learning. When we talk about principles of management the name of Henri Fayol comes first as he has proposed about fourteen principles. Here we shall draw few of the management principles from temple culture.

C.1 Authority of organizational and communal supremacy: - The authority is chosen as per public demand by voting or taking public opinion of the region of Nanda Gopal community and termed as president of temple culture or principal authority of community. For assisting him a secretary and advisory board are also chosen in the same manner where youth and women are given chance and priority. This process is followed in a gap of five to seven years.

C.2. Division of cultural, social affairs and caste customs: - The unified members are selected from each village for different activities to be performed including caste system, marriage affaires, festivals, meetings etc. They act as chief of community and communication to the temple administration and authority.

C.3. Disciplinary guide lines and constitution of community: - Certain rules and necessary guidelines are prepared by the command of authority to guide general workers and people of community to live in highly principled manner. All these ethical and moral laws of conduct are written and preserved in dairy called Samhita of Nanda Gopal.

C.4. Unity of authoritative direction and command: - Members receive command from president and each member implements the same in his respective area. The entire community moves with common objectives ordered by the authority and members uniformly obey these and convince with people.

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C.5. Priority of interests from subordinate level to General: - Although interest of one person is listened still the priority is given on mass interest or whiles the interest of individual favours the general interests. The visions are fixed, analysed and taken up by general interests only.

C.6. Balance of order, equity and stability of tenure: - All people under one umbrella of temple administration are equally treated in all aspects, uniformly ordered, as far as possible all people are treated equally as parts of community and maintained well. Productivity is given importance and new people are welcomed to take part in various activities.

C.7. Mass initiative and encouraged harmony: - Management always takes steps to work initiative and encourages new and conceptual works and activities. General good feelings of common people are given importance during all meetings including annual and special meetings organized. Social, cultural and communal harmony is always encouraged.

D. Spiritual awareness and flavour of humanity The motive of great meeting i.e. the Mahasabha, which has held in the month of May in 2013, keeps importance of spiritual awareness among people. The essence of humanity has come as flavour of ideology of human individuals. The active participation of people from the regions and people of far places of the entire state has encouraged for the study about spiritual reformation. The data is collected according to the principles of random sampling by different favourable questionnaires and interpreted as per required and available tools and techniques.

Table 1: Influence of spiritual awareness in support of reformation Respondents Strongly refused Refused Neutral Supported Old women 20 00 02 02 01 Old men 20 02 01 02 03 Young women 20 01 01 02 05 Yong men 20 03 02 01 04 Teenagers both boys and girls 20 01 01 03 05 Total 100 07 07 10 18 Source: Opinion survey of people

Strongly supported 15 12 11 10 10 58

Table one represents the attitudes of people after having spiritual awareness towards spiritual reformation.

About 100 respondents are taken for sample survey, 20 from each of five categories of men and women of old and young and both teenagers boys and girls. Spirituality is the fundamental essence of reformation which is agreed in support (supported and strongly supported) by people in survey. It is clear that in total 76% of the people have agreed that spirituality is highly essential and only the alternative for reformation and spiritual awareness of Mahasabha of Dimirimunda helps a lot to the public for spiritual development.

Table 2: Influence of spiritual awareness in support of vegetarianism Respondents Strongly refused Refused Neutral Supported Old women 20 02 01 01 04 Old men 20 03 03 01 06 Young women 20 03 03 02 02 Yong men 20 04 03 03 05 Teenagers both boys and girls 20 02 04 01 06 Total 100 14 14 08 23 Source: Opinion survey of people

Strongly supported 12 07 10 05 07 41

Table two represents the interests of people in support of vegetarian food culture during ceremonies, festivals, meetings, gatherings and in all occasions after spiritual awareness. There is a link between food culture and spirituality that entire world agrees. In this study sample survey of 100 respondents are taken in to account, 20 from each category of, old women, old man, young women, young men and teenagers boys and girls. It is clear from above table that 64% of the people have agreed (supported and strongly supported) for the practice of vegetarianism in all aspects in the Mahasabha of Dimirimunda.

V. Result and Discussion It is clear from the study that about 76% of the people have agreed that for reformation, spirituality is helpful in all aspects of life in the Mahasabha of Dimirimunda and expressing their interests in support of practice of vegetarianism in all occasions 64% of the people have agreed for vegetarian food culture in the above meeting.

For the process of reformation spirituality is the only path to follow. There is no alternative in this regard.

Amulate of Udumbara teaches a lot to hold the principles of rarest of rare as soon as possible in life as time is precious. For attaining values and ethics in life spiritual knowledge helps a lot to justify the necessity of life.

Love, kindness, forgiveness etc. are the pillars of humanity and without understanding these properly life does not fill with essence. This modern period has shown us the signs of diminishing values in society. Spiritual reformation of humanity is very much required in this modern age. So, it is essential to have study about down fall of society and reformation of itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s with respect to spirituality.

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Pintu Mahakul, American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 5(2), December 2013-February 2014, pp. 153-158

VI. Conclusion Study about spiritual reformation helps in recognizing the self and duty to be performed in the society carefully. Such study teaches many more about duties and principles of management. These help not only the managers or employees or employers but also help common people in day to day life in planning, organizing, controlling, directing, and goal settings. Spiritual principles help in maintenance of unity, integrity and harmony in society. Bearing spiritual knowledge people help each other and live happily. So, such study becomes important. After having this study let us define spiritual reformation as an action or process of change that involves spirituality and influences human resources for new settlement of civilization full with love, peace, kindness, forgiveness, happiness and wealth of righteousness. In this regard let us define humanity as a power or strength that dwells in the inner core of heart as love for the self and for the others with a motive of selfless service or sacrifice for each other in any society. Spiritual reformation and humanity both are dependent with each other and theme is righteous. Reminding this Holy Bible says, “Whoever is righteous has regard for the life of his beast, but the mercy of the wicked is the cruel. (Proverbs 12:20, English Standard Version) References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20]

Acharya, Shriram Vedmurty. “Atharva Veda Samhita.” Yougnirman Yojna, Mathura, p246.

Benidict, Philip. “Christ’s Churches Purely reformed: A social History of Calvinism.” New Heaven 2002.

Bhanja, Upendra. “(a) Baidehisha Bilasha, (b) Kala Kautuka.” From Granthabali, Dharma Grantha Store, Cuttack.

Bhoi, Bhima. “Stuti Chintamani.” From Granthabali, Dharmagrantha Store, Cuttack.

“Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia.” Paragon Software Group, 2013. ASIN B00CEQ183G Burkert, Walter. “Lore and Science in ancient Pythagoraeanism.” Harvard University Press, 1972. ISBN 0-674-53918-4 Cameron, Euan. “The European Reformation.” Oxford University Press 1991.

Chan, Wing-Tsit. “The Evolution of Confucian Concept Jen.” Philosophy East and West Donne, John. “ A hymn to God The Father.” Poetry Foundation. Available at http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/173371 Gilman, Ernest B. “ Down Went Dagon.” University of Chicago Press, 1986. ISBN 0-226-29382-3 Gordon, Bruce. “The Swiss reformation.” Manchester University Press, 2002.

Griffith, Ralph T.H.(Translator) “The hymns of the Atharvaveda.” (1895-6) , Evinity Publishing Inc., 2009, ASIN B0026P417U Kern,H.(Translator) . “Saddharma-Pundarika or The Lotus of the True Law.” Sacred Book of the East, Vol XXI, 1884. Available at http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/lotus/ Lindsay, T.M. “ A History of the reformation.” Volume 2, C. Scribner’s Sons, New York 1906 p7.

McLeisch, Kenneth Cole. “Aristotle: The Great Philosopher.” Routledge, 1999 p4-7. ISBN 0-415-92392-1 Peterson, Christopher. Seligman, Martin E.P.“ Character strength and virtues:A hand book and classification.” Oxford University Press, Washington DC, pp 29-41. ISBN 978-0-19-530487-2 Plato, “Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy,” March 20, 2004. Available at http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/ Rath, Baldev. “Granthabali” Dharmagrantha Store, Cuttack.

Taylor, Edward. “(a) I go to prepare a place for you. (b) Meditation.” Donald E. Stanford (Editor). “The Poems of Edward Taylor.” North Carolina Press, 1989 “The Holy Bible.” English Standard Version, Crossway Bible, Good News Publishers, 2001

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Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

TEACHERS' UNDERSTANDING OF CHILD CENTERED APPROACH AND ITS IMPLEMENTATION Krishan Lal Assistant Professor Indus College of Education Delhi Road Rohtak, Haryana, INDIA. ABSTRACT: "Much more harm than good is done by your ceaseless preaching and moralizing." Childcentered approach aspires not to dictate, instruct and enforce a child to learn a particular thing. If one thinks deeply about it, all good education should be child-centered and vice-versa. But the reality is totally different. Teachers still give lectures. control and command the students, preach them values and do everything that essentially is not in synchrony of child centered approach. If teachers make the children agree to what we consider right or, without giving any freedom to them, to explore and learn, then not at all in any case, they can perform their role of friend, philosopher and guide. It is observed many times, that we, the adults are not at all sensitive, honest and responsible towards the nature, interests, attitude and aptitude of children. Rather, we force them to do things, the way we feel and think appropriate about them. School is a path on which a child walks to achieve the aim of education. But right from class I the child mugs up all the things without understanding it properly. Whatever is learnt without understanding proves burdensome for the students. The child-centered approach helps the children to increase self-learning which means that teachers do not make or instruct the children in knowledge; rather they help in the process of knowledge formation. Implementation of child-centered approach in teaching learning process is * essential, in order to develop the innate potentials of our blooming generation and to build up responsible and honest citizens with scientific attitude, who would be able to contribute positively in nation's development. Every child has its own style and pace of development. The basic characteristic children necessitate a careful planning and selection providing joyful and happier teaching-learning experiences. So the future needs and demands in the field of education should have to focus on child perspective and the teacher will provide guidance to them.

KEYNOTES: child centered approach, preaching, moralizing, ceaseless, adults, sensitive, honest, nature, interests, attitude, aptitude, self learning.

I. INTRODUCTION Education in wider sense is a process of development from cradle to grave. Education liberates human being from the shackles of ignorance, privatization and misery. It must also lead to a non violent and non- exploitative system. School curriculum therefore has to aim at enabling learners to acquire knowledge, develop understanding and circulate skills, positive attitude, values and habits conducive to all round development of their personality. (National curriculum frameworks for school education 2000) Whatever broadens our horizon deepens our insight refines our reactions and simultaneous thought and feeling educates us. (Edward throng, on philosophy and education, 1930) Teachers destroy the love of earning which is so strong when they are small by encouraging and compelling them to work for petty and contemptible rewards-giving stars, or paper marked 100 and tagged to the wall, or as on the report cards, for their satisfaction. The teachers encourage them to feel mat the end and aim of all they do in school is nothing more than to get a good marks on a test, or to impress someone with what they seem to know. In schools the children's curiosity is killed. By the age of 10 most of them do not ask questions, and show a good deal of score for the few who do. Carl Rogers states that "I become very irritated with the notion that students must be "motivated". The young human being is intrinsically motivated to a high degree. Many elements of his environment constitute challenges for him. He is curious, eager to discover, eager to know, eager to solve problems. A sad part of most education is that by the time the children has spent a number of years in school this intrinsic motivation is pretty well dampened." Rogers, 1969 p. 131) In many ways, the teacher break down the children's convictions that thing may make sense, or their hope that thing may prove to make sense. Thus we turn the vast majority of our students into the kind of people for whom all symbols are meaningless. We encourage the children to act stupidly, not only by scaring and contusing them, but by boring them, by filling their days with dull, repetitive tasks that make little or no claim on their attention

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or demands on their intelligence. Our heart leap for joy at the site of a roomful of children all slogging away at some imposed task, and we are all the more pleased and satisfied if someone tells us that the children don't really like what they are doing. We tell our selves that this drudgery, this endless busy work.

HISTORIC PAST: In the middle of 18th century, Rousseau (1772-78) made a direct attack on the conception, and he emphasized on child centered education. He contended that "the child was in no sense a little adult. The child should be educated in natural surroundings in accordance with his own nature". Following Rousseau, all major educational theories and movements took the child into accounted to a great extent than previously. John Dewey, the educational philosopher also talks about child centered education. He said that child can learn the learning material if the things are based on his interest. He also strongly opposed the rote memorization in the learning process and emphasized on learning by doing. Patrick had introduced the project method which can be used to teach the students. Montessori (1952-70) propounded the concept of auto education which implies that the child should be free to learn things according to his own chance. Children learn better thru play way method.

She felt that the roll of teachers was that of an observer rather than an instructor. The child centered approach will help the children increase self learning which means that children's do not make children, but they create such guidance.

II. CHILD CENTERED APPROACH The child centered approach promotes the right of the child to choose, make connections and communicate. It allows freedom for children to think, experience, explore, question and search for answers. It presents a creative celebration of children's work. Nursery practitioners take on a new role in seeing how play develops, rather than directing play; children therefore become more creative and enhance communication skills with one another. On the basis of the modes from which it derives, student-centeredness entails these characteristics: The focus is on active learning, using an integrated approach to connect new Learning to prior learning, stimulating interest and relevance, providing student choice and control, adapting to individual developmental differences, and providing a caring and supportive learning environment (bansberg, 2003).

Knowledge is constructed through authentic learning. It is learnt in real context or the context in which it was first generated. In other words, it links school learning experiences to real world situations.

Students are motivated more intrinsically (self-motivation) than extrinsically (external motivation).

Simply put, students are motivated from within not from without. For example, they type a written assignment because they take pride in their work not because they want people to admire or approve of it.

Students Feel included, value the educational process, and take control of their own learning. Implementing a student-centered model is a true Challenge for the 21st century. The process of incorporating it into our education system demands hard work and effort from teachers and students Alike. The key to the success of implementation requires, on the teacher's part, a careful study and a thorough comprehension of the model's principles, as Well as a genuine recognition of its value. Through The new understanding, teachers then can change their old beliefs and practices; they can set the new goals and standards, and plan their teaching, taking into account what is best for students. In so doing, Teachers can also work on their self and professional Development. On the learner part, likewise, students, guided by teachers, need to adopt a new conception of the learning process. They need to realize that if they are to keep pace with the rapidly changing world, and to compete in the global market place that has a growing demand for educated workers with Skills in critical thinking, problem solving and Decision making, they must change their long-time practice from passive to active learners. They need to empower themselves, gain control over their learning, and become autonomous learners. Finally, it is hoped, Teachers and students working in, can gradually make the learning environment more Productive and worthwhile.

III. SIGNIFICANCE All the important documents of education, namely Kothari commission reports (1964-66), national policy of education(l 986-92) and national curriculum framework for school education(2000), strongly favors the adoption of child centered approach for quality education. The importance of the concept of child centeredness for quality education has been reiterated of different policies and programmers formulated from time to time since the recommendation of kothari commission. Despite of it schools are lacking in its implementation.

Quantitative expansion coupled with deteriorating level of quality is a fact. Best efforts has crucial role in its implementation. Focus would be to know whether teachers really understand the child centered approach.

IV. OBJECTIVES To study the understanding of teacher's about child centered approach. To study the implementation of child centered approach in teaching learning process. To ascertain the factors that promote or hinder the child centered approach in teaching learning process V. HYPOTHESES There is the understanding of teacher's about child centered approach. There is the implementation of child centered approach in teaching learning process. There are the factors that promote or hinder the child centered approach in teaching learning process.

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VI. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The design of the study is comparable go the blueprint that the architect prepares before the bricks are let and building commences. Because good research must be carefully planned and systematically carried out, procedures that are improvised from step to step will not suffice. The worthwhile research projects are likely to result only from a properly prepared design.

SAMPLE: A sample is a proportional of population for observation and analysis, by observing the characteristics of the population from which it was drawn. Contrary to some popular option, samples are not selected haphazardly. They are chosen in the systematic way so that chance of the operation of the probability can be utilized. For the present study, the sample was selected from rohini zone because it was convenient from the investigator to collect data, from the zone. In order to conduct this study, 15 teachers from the 5 MCD Schools of his zone have been selected. The investigator stayed in this zone and was more familiar with the area and schools. Moreover collecting data from this zone saved much of the time of the investigator.

TOOLS: "Like the tools in carpenter box, each research tool is appropriate in the given situation to accomplish a particular purpose" factual materials or data unknown can be obtained from many sources direct or indirect. It is necessary to adopt or evolve systematic producer to collect essential data. For collecting new, unknown data required for the study of any problem, one may use various devices. For each and every type of research we needs certain instruments together, new facts or to explore new fields. The instrument thus employed as means are called tools. The researcher may use one or more tools according to his purpose. The two types of tools observation and interview schedule were used by the researcher to study the understanding of teacher regarding the child centered approach and its implementation in teaching learning process.

DELIMITATIONS (i) The study was limited to MCD schools of Rohini zone. (ii) The study was confined to the teachers of the first and second grades of each school.

Table shows the number and percentage of teachers giving a particular response relating to the above mentioned categories of child-centered approach.

To study the understanding of the teachers about child-centered approach in the teachinglearning process Sr.No.

Description of item

(A)

Setting of objectives

Teachers' responses No. of teachers 15

% 100%

1

Teachers who believe in setting of objectives before starting teaching earning.

2

Teachers who set the objectives according to the syllabus.

12

80%

3

Teachers who set the objectives according to the interest, attitude and aptitude of the children Teaching aids Teachers who use teaching aids Teachers who use teaching aids which are easily available

3

20%

15 9

100% 60%

Teachers who use teaching aids which are colorful and attractive Teacher's who use activities Because they are prescribed in text Books TEACHERS' PERCEPTION ABOUT STUDENTS Teachers who perceive that a) Good student is one who memorizes every thing and gets good marks. b) Who understands but do not rote memorize.

Teachers who like their students to be

6 11

40% 73.33%

11 4

73.33% 26.67%

a) highly mannered, less talkative and listen what the teachers says

9

60%

(b) talking among the groups and attention can be diverted from the teacher

5

40%

Teachers who think that (a) all the students are their favorite

13

86.67%

(b) only active students are their favourite

2

13.33%

(a) to set a limit students above that limit should be considered good

7

46.66%

(b) to compare the students with their past performance

8

53.34%

(b) Who understands but do not rote memorize.

4

26.6%

(B) 1.

2.

3.

(C) (D) 1.

2.

3.

(E)

Evaluation

1.

Teachers who prefer

VII. FINDINGS Setting of objectives: (i) All the teachers perceived in setting objectives before starting teaching learning process. Among them 80% teachers believed that objectives should be based on syllabus, however only 20% MCD schools teachers preferred to set the Objectives on the basis of students' interests, attitude and aptitudes.

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Use of Teaching Aids: At the time of interview all the teachers responded that concrete teaching-aids' must be used while teaching the primary schools students to make the concept clear. Yet only 25% teachers preferred to use the teaching aids, which are colorful, attractive and useful. However 75% teachers preferred to use teaching aids which are easily available. Contrary to this, at the time of observation it was notice that only one teacher was actually using the teaching aids at the time of actual teaching.

Teaching Learning Strategies: The results indicated that all the teachers believed in demonstrative method, activity method, discover) learning approach and discussion method. However 20% teachers believed in using lecture method in the classroom, in combination of demonstrative and discussion methods. All the teachers were observed not to use discover, learning approach. Moreover 14outof 15 teachers i.e. 93.33% teachers were observed to use lecture method. It revealed a drastic difference between the' teaches understanding of childcentered approach and its implementation in the classroom. Exactly 80% teachers believed in using children literature along with text books. More than 70% i.e. 73.3% teachers admitted to use the activities because they are prescribed in the text book, only 26.5% preferred to use activity method because they were in the interest of students.

Planning for lessons and activities: It was found that 60% teachers in MCD schools did not prepare the lesson plans, 20% teachers prepared the plans, but did not apply them. However only 20% teachers prepared the plans and applied them. It was observed that only 6.67% of teachers i.e. only one teacher was conducting activities in a planned and well organized manner. Whereas in case of 60.5% teachers activities were not planned. 5 out of 15 teachers i.e. 33.3% teachers planned the activities but had not executed them properly.

All round development: Interpretation of data indicated that focus of 60% teachers were focus on intellectual development through rote memorization rather than building up process of logical thinking and problemsolving, despite of having a good theoretical knowledge regarding the ideal intellectual development. Only 20% teachers found to preach the value as well as to follow them. 53%o of the teachers was not at all interested in moral development. They preferred to teach the child through instructions, in a harsh and rude manner.

Ironically, 26.67%> only preached the values to the students without showing any indication of following those value themselves. More than 70% i.e. 73.3%teachers responded mat students should be encouraged to do the work in cooperation of each other. However, in practice only one teacher was found to conduct a group activity during the teaching learning process.

Teachers' perception about students: It was observed 67% teachers treated the students as passive listeners.

Only 13% encouraged them in the process of active construction of knowledge. In the case of 73.3% teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interest of the students was completely ignored. Only one teacher was found trying to cater the interest of the students, by asking the choice of the subjects, they wanted to study. At the time of interview, 86%> of the teachers responded that all the students were their favorite. However only 13% teachers were found to pay attention to all. More over 73.3% of the teachers were found not to pay any attention towards the weak students.

They were simply ignored by them. During the interview, 60%> teachers accepted to like the students, who were well-mannered and. less talk active. Indirectly, they enforced the obedience and high standards of discipline on the students.

Role of teachers: After observing the teaching learning process, on the basis of Guide for Observation Schedule 73.33% teachers were found highly dominating. However 20% teachers performed in a way that was dominating yet they provided the freedom to the students in between the teaching learning process. Only one teacher was found to be democratic and acted as a facilitator and guide. She was trying to pay equal attention to all, by encouraging the weak students to actively participate in the game and by continuously interacting with them.

VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS Teachers in MCD schools are very well known with the concept of child centered approach. They have an understanding, what are various aspects that comes under it. Yet they lack in its implementation. Definitely, they are not provided with the basic facilities required to do their work efficiently and enable them to utilize their competencies at most. Yet, caliber and capacity of a professional is judged, in difficult circumstances. As for as implementation of child centered approach in teaching learning process is concerned in present scenario teachers need to motivate themselves and to work with dedication and devotion.

1.

By blaming the system all the time, cannot work. Being a professional it is the duty of teachers to try their best to improve the system, by being highly considerate about the students and society. One thing which makes the teachers frustrated is large number of students in the classroom. They complain that due to large number of students, they are incapable to pay individual attention to all the students. They also complain that it makes the execution of activities a headache to the teachers, in a class of more than 40 or 50 students. But "Where there is a will, there is a way". Certainly, problems arise due to the large number of students but if students are dealt with proper planning, the solution can be found out. For example work cards or assignment cards can be applied to them. More over teachers can choose some students for two or three days, in order to pay attention to them. Next

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2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

time, some other studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s can1 be selected. Similarly, problem of execution of activities can essentially be solved, if activities are properly planned and well organized.

Due to lack of time and large number of students teachers use lecture method in the classroom. The constraints teachers have to bear upon are noticeable. But every problem in this world has solution. It is really inhuman and criminal, to strangulate the souls of innocent children, by forcing them to bear the loads of learning. To do justice with these tiny children making the teaching learning process joyful by using child centered approach is the demand of the hour. Even with the on-going scarcity of facilities child centered approach can be implemented. For this teachers should be committed and competent. Commitment comes with the right values. Therefore, focus should be on the development of right values during the course of pre-service training. Along with it, in order to lubricate the corroded minds of working teachers, time to time in-service teacher-training programmers should be conducted. Process of capacity-building among teachers is required, that can be possible by appropriate visualization and then execution of right kind of teacher-training programmers, based on current needs.

Teachers also complain about non availability of funds, so that proper teaching aids can be used, they nag that neither funds nor teaching aids are provided to them. But if a teacher is really willing lowcost teaching aids can be improvised. More over by using the concrete material found in the immediate surroundings as well as the objects of daily use like eatables, toys etc, and teaching learning process can be turned in to a happier experience.

The prevailing system of education is neither teacher centered nor child centered. It can be known as an authority centered structure of education. It is an imposed system of education both upon the organizers of learning (teachers) as well as on the learners (children) themselves. Teachers find him / her. If nowhere to determine what he/ she should do what he/she is told to do. But the teacher is the one who has to transact the whole curriculum in the classroom .The effective teacher is the one who does her duty with foil dedication and commitment- She he can plan his/her lesson according to the child's need and interest and then transact it in to the classroom. Planning of the lesson is needed before teaching in the classroom. A teacher has expected to follow the instruction from his directorate or Head of the Department, but she/he can perform their duty without harming the rule and regulation of the authority. This is not to say that education today is totally not child centered.

However, there is need to focus our attention on the issue and direct our energies towards the development of learners. This is a joint responsibility of teachers and administrators specially the principal, who will have to play a major role because it is they who lay down politics and prepare the back ground in which the system of education function.

Moreover, teachers should be given freedom. All the time, they are pressurized with extra clerical kind of work. Now today teachers also have to distribute the mid-day meal, with which they do not feel comfortable. Due to extra load of work they feel exhaust and students feel distracted. Teachers should be kept free from extra work, so that they can focus on their major task i.e., planning, organizing, and execution of teaching learning process, oriented towards all round development of children. Employee should be recruited to the extra work like distribution of mid-day meal and other such work.

Hence, implementation of child centered approach is very much possible and also essentially significant. But to achieve it, we needs to work at various fronts, change in the system, requirement of new employees, opening of new schools, reducing the numbers of students in the classroom, improving the teacher-student ratio, conduction of appropriate teacher training programs etc. but, if the facilities are lacking, then also by the sincere and honest initiative of teachers can make implementation of child centered approach, a reality telling a story hard work, dedication and commitment.

REFERENCES

Agrawal, S.P. (2000). Children's Education in India. Delhi: Shipra Publications., Archie, J. B. (1974). Philosophy An Introduction. Bombay: Asia Publishing House., Arora, G.L.(1995). Child Centered Education for Learning without Burden. Gurgaon: Krishna Publishing Company.

Best, J.W. & Kalin, J.V. (2004). Research in Education (seventh edition). New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., Bourai, H.H.A.(1991). Dynamic Teacher. Delhi: B.R. Publishing Co., Buch, M.B. (1991). Fourth Survey of Research in Education. New Delhi: N.C.E.R.T., Buckman, P.(1973). Education Without School. Rupa & Co., Chaube, S.P.(1987).Great Indian Educational Philosophers. Vinod Pustak Mandir., Clancy, L. (1993). Discovery Centre Activities for the Pre-School Children; Professional Publishing.

Cullingford, C.(1989). The Primary Teacher: The Role of Educator and the Purpose of Primary Education. Cassell Educational Ltd. Cunningham, P.(1988). Curriculum Change in the Primary School Since 1945. Imago Publishing Ltd. Darden, R.F. (1968). The Philosophy of Primary Education. New York: Humanities Press., Haigh, G. (1990). Managing Classroom Problems in the Primary School. Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd., Kulshrestha, S.P. (2001). Educational Psychology, Meerut: Surya Publication.

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159-164 Kumar, N.S. (1998). A study of the Process of Implementing Activity Based Curriculum in the Primary School of Kerala. Dissert, D.P.E.P., Kumari, N. (2004). A study of the Use of Child Centered Teaching Learning Strategies in MCD and Private Schools. New Delhi. Jamia Millia Islamia. Unpublished Dissert.

Moyles, J. (1995). Beginning Teaching: Beginning Learning in Primary Education. Buckingham: Open University Press.

National Curriculum Framework for School Education (2000). New Delhi: N.C.E.R.T. Sandeep, P. (1981). Schools and Mental Abilities. Light and Life Publishing., Sinha, A. (1998). Primary Schooling in India. Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA

1.

(An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Holocaust and Death of God: A Study of Elie Wiesel’s Night 1

Nitisha Mehrotra, 2Naresh K. Vats 1 Student, 2Asst. Prof., University School of Humanities and Social Sciences Guru Gobind Singh Inderprastha University New Delhi, India Abstract: Holocaust literature primarily deals with the works which are the testifying records of the survival of the people and the witness of brutality during the Second World War. This paper is a study of Elie Wiesel’s Night from the lens of holocaust literature and talks about his thoughts and feelings regarding the death of god and murder of humanity in the concentration camp during Nazi regime.

Keywords: Holocaust, Night, Concentration Camp, Nazi

I.

Introduction

The holocaust of the 1940s is the most abominable period in world history. It was the systematic, bureaucratic, state sponsored persecution and murder of approximately 6 million Jews by Nazi regime and its collaborations.

‘Holocaust’ is word of Greek origin meaning ‘sacrifice by fire’. Genocidal policy enforced by Adolf Hitler lead Jews to be beaten to death, starved, burned in crematorium, forced to work in drastic condition, enslaved and forbidden to associate with the outside world. Immense hatred of Hitler for Jewish community comes from the fact that he blames Jews for the collapse of German economy after the First World War. According to Nazi’s Aryan race was the best and strongest among all and Jews belong to an inferior race were considered so inferior that they were not regarded as ‘People’ by Nazi’s. It was considered that the destruction of Jews will create a better living space for others. Nazi combined racial theories with the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin to justify their treatment of Jews. Nazi coined the term ‘Final Solution’ to refer their plan to annihilate the Jewish people and to disguise true nature of their crimes.

Victim of Holocaust left behind a genre of literature as a documentation of the nightmare they experienced.

These personal accounts also testify the resilience of sprit, will to survive and effort to retain human dignity under unbelievable circumstances. Holocaust affects the individuals with passion, dreams and agonies, rather than mere statistics. These accounts records the actual events and it could also act as a symbol of hope written by the concentration camp inmate like Eliezer of Elie Wiesel Night or Jew struggling to hide from Nazi’s like young girl Anne Frank of The Dairy of Young Girl.

Here, Night is a first person documentary and is a terrifying record of Elie Wiesel memories of the death of his family, death of his own innocence and his despair as a deeply observant Jew confronting absolute evil of men.

Night is narrated by a boy named Eliezer who represents Wiesel but details differentiate the character Eliezer from real life Wiesel. It is an attempt to recreate thought and experience the Wiesel had as a teenage camp prisoner. It also traces Eliezer emotional journey. As Eliezer struggles for existence, his most fundamental belief- faith in God, in fellow human beings and sense of justice called into questions.

At the start of the story, Elie was a devout Jewish who was so pious that he actually cries over and prays at the ruin of a destroyed temple in the town that he never attended. His faith in God was absolute. On being asked by the Moishe the Beadle, “why does he pray to God”, he answered “why did I pray? Why did I love? Why did I breathe?” His belief in omnipotent, benevolent God is unconditional and he cannot imagine living without faith in divine power. His faith is the product of Jewish mysticism. He is largely interested in studying Kaballah (Ancient Jewish Tradition of mystical interpretation of Bible). Also, Moishe makes him realize that one comes closer to God through the questions he asks and the replies which dwell in the depth of our soul.

Eliezer believed that whatever happens is for the good of the people or one of God’s greater plans. Either way, he would accept God’s will without questioning. He never forgets to pray before God, be it before Hungarian police summoning Jews or arriving at small ghetto. “Oh God! Master of the Universe, in your infinite compassion have mercy on us.”

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When rumors of Nazi’s crime first reached some of the outlying Jews towns, like Sighet, no one believed them.

The rabbis said “Nothing will happen to us, for God needs us”. The town felt that God was with them and would protect them from anything as horrible as what the rumors suggested. They felt safe and secure in their faith.

“And we, the Jews of Sighet, were waiting for better days which would not long be coming now”.

In the concentration camps, some of the men spoke of God, his mysterious ways and the sins of Jewish people.

According to Akiba Drummer, “God is testing us; he wants to see whether we are capable of overcoming our base instincts and killing the Satan within ourselves. We have no right to despair. And if he punishes us mercilessly, it is a sign that he loves us that much more. (Wiesel, 45) Faith delayed the revolution that might have erupted in the camps. The younger people felt that it would be better to die fighting than to surrender like lambs for slaughter. They possessed knives and a strong will but their elders reminded them “You must never lose faith, even within swords hangs over your head. That teaching of our sages”. As long as the elders were willing to accept God’s will, the younger’s been willing to respect their faith. They still had faith that God had a greater purpose in mind and though they opposed the idea of suffering, they would suffer with pride as they felt they are part of the God’s larger framework. And so Eliezer and his town were indoctrinated without incidents into the camps, believing that if their faith endured they would be saved. Soon delusion faded and Eliezer began to doubt God. It was not easy for Eliezer to doubt in the existence of God or he would not have held on to his faith such tenacity. But, the meaningless violence inflicted upon the Jews was an enormous reason to shake his indomitable faith. In the face of crematory pit, Eliezer notes, “For the first time I first revolt rise up in me; why should I bless his name? The eternal, lord of the Universe, the All powerful and terrible was silent. What had to thank him for?”(Wiesel, 35). He awoke to the idea that he was terribly alone in the world without God. Lack of faith turned quickly to despair “If God would not save his children, who would?” No one believed the rumors of peace and safety. In the hospital at Auschwitz, Wiesel met a man who was consumed with despair. He said “I have got more faith in Hitler than in anyone else. He alone has kept his promises, all his promises to Jewish people.” It shows that he finds hard to believe in God and what he was allowing to happen.

Though not complete at that moment, Eliezer loss of faith contrasts with continued faith of devout prisoners like Akiba Drummer whose faith in divine redemption raises the spirit of the prisoners.

The tormenting scene when a child is murdered symbolizes the murder of God. Eliezer comes to believe that a just God must not exist in a world where an innocent child can be hanged on gallows, “where is he?” Eliezer asks rhetorically and then answers, “He is hanging, here on this gallows”. Upon witnessing the hanging of the child, Eliezer reaches a low point in his faith. The death of the innocent child represents the death of the Eliezer’s own innocence. In the camp, he has become an entirely different person from the child he was at the beginning of the Holocaust. He has not only lost his faith but is also beginning to lose his sense of morals and values. He now struggles to survive in a world in which survival has become Eliezer’s dominant goal. Eliezer who before his arrival in the concentration camps celebrated with zest every Jewish festival, who for years awaited the coming of Messiah. Now, the same Eliezer on the occasion of Yom Kippur decides to eat. The day on which Jews traditionally fast in order to atone their sins.

At the end of the summer of 1944, the Jewish high holidays arrive, Rosh Hassanah: the celebration of the New Year. Despite their imprisonment and in state of their great suffering and distress, the Jews of buna come together to celebrate Rosh Hassanah, praying together and praising God’s name on this Jewish holiday. Eliezer’s religion rebellion intensifies and he cannot find the reason to bless God in the midst of such extreme suffering.

Eliezer’s mocks the idea that Jews are God’s chosen people deciding that they have only been chosen to be massacred. He starts believing that men are stronger than God and is more spirited and more forgiving. His denial of faith leaves him alone.

In case of Akiba Drummer, having lost his faith, he loses his will to live and does not survive the selection.

Thus, other inmates are also beginning to lose their faith. Eliezer also tells of devout Rabbi who confesses that he can no longer believe in God after what he has seen in concentration camps.

In the Jewish tradition, the High Holidays are considered as the time of divine judgments. According to Siddur (Jewish Prayer Book), Jews pass before God on Rosh Hassanah and God determines that who will live and who will die in the coming year. Elizer believes that a role reversal has taken place. Soon after Rosh Hassanah, the SS performs a selection on the prisoners at Buna. Eliezer has decided that Nazi action means that God is not present in the concentration camps and praying to him is foolish.

Eliezer’s loss of faith comes to mean betrayal not just of God, but also on his fellow human beings and on his own humanity. Yet even in rejecting God, Eliezer and his fellow Jews cannot erase God from their consciousness. Although Akiba Drummer, loses his faith in God he requests Eliezer that he should recite the Kaddish on his behalf. It clearly shows religion still holds some power on him. Similarly, Eliezer having rejected his faith in God forever still refers to God’s existence while making his oath never to forget Holocaust “Even if I am condemned to live as long as God himself”. Eliezer accuses God who allow six crematories to devour Jews days and nights, Sunday and feast days” Why, but why should I bless him? How could I say to

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him? Blessed Art Thou! Eternal! Master of the Universe, who chose from us among the races to be tortured day and night to see our father, our mother, and our brother in the crematory?”

Along with Eliezer faith in God, his faith also shakes in the goodness of the world. His faith is equally shaken by the cruelty and selfishness he witnesses among the prisoners. Eliezer began to doubt on his own humanity, the beginning of loss of faith in man. When Kapo beats his father, Eliezer wonders at the transformation he had himself undergone. Only a day before he would have attacked the Kapo. Now, however he remains guilty silent.

Moral tragedy of Holocaust is not the death of faith of God but also death of faith in humankind. Not only does God fail to act justly and to save Jews from cruel Nazis. The Nazi’s also drive Jews into cruelty. He fears that inhumanity and brutality of concentration camps does not let him lose his filial responsibility and kindness that he may turn against his father to facilitate his survival, “I was a body perhaps less than that even the starved stomach. The stomach alone was aware of passage of time.”

In his autobiography,” All Rivers Run to the Sea”, Wiesel speaks at a far greater length about his religious feelings after Holocaust. ‘My anger rises up within Faith and not outside. I had seen too much suffering to break with the past and reject heritage of those who had offered.” Eliezer had been a witness to the ultimate evil; he has lost faith in God and in humanity. The final line in which Eliezer look at himself in the mirror and sees a ‘corpse’ suggests that Eliezer’s survival is luck and also shows his positive sprit and will to fight. It seems to Eliezer that without hope and faith, after having seen the unimaginable, he might as well be dead.

References [1].

Never Shall I Forget That Night, [http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/wiesel/]

[2].

Holocaust Index [http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/holocaust_index.htm]

[3]. JVL [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/#] [4].

Night by Elie Wiese

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IMPACT OF NUCLEAR FACTOR ON PEACE AND SECURITY IN SOUTH ASIA Neeraj Solanki Research Scholar Department of Defence Studies, M.D.U., Rohtak, Haryana, INDIA. GEOGRAPHICAL, South Asia comprises seven countries India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Maldives. Several perspectives on peace and security of this region have been put forward in the last few years but the situation in South Asia is still very fragile. It is now necessary to adopt new measures to solve various complex problems. The principal actors upon which the peace of this region depends are India and Pakistan. China is the only major power of Asia which can disturb the peace and security of this region at any time. The US, an extra-regional power has been a major actor that influences peace and security in the region substantially due to the mutuality of strategic and other kinds of interests in the region.1 India the geographical hub of South Asia is not only the biggest but also the oldest nation of the region.

Therefore very much like the eldest member of family, she shares the biggest responsibility to create an atmosphere of peace and security in the South Asian family of nations. For this, India has to keep herself strong and powerful commensurate to its size and capability in order not only to secure herself from , internal and external threats but also to secure the entire South Asia region from extra regional interference and intra regional, turbulence. India by virtue of being the central power of the region has to play a dominant but responsible, cautions as well as considerate role in producing more peace and security in South Asia. Though, the region whose political milieu is characterized by mistrust and misperceptions desperately demands synergic efforts towards the improvement of its security scenario, but India has to be in the leading role in any endeavor to lend abiding peace to the region. Improvement in the peace and security environment of South Asia largely depends on development and maintenance of good neighborly relations among the state her six neighbors are problematic and therefore not conducive to peace and security of South Asia. Barring the bilateral cases of India and Pakistan, Nepal and Bhutan, the states of South Asia do not evince much acrimony in their relations with each other. Hence the ameliorations of bilateral ties between India and her neighbors is key of South Asia peace, security and development.2 The two defacto South Asian countries who acquired their independence in August 1947, where facing a lot of economic and political problems. The immediate problem was the partition of the sub-continent, which passed engulfing lacs of population. To acquire Kashmir, Pakistan attacked in the grab of tribals and occupied one third of it, known as Pakistan occupied Kashmir (PDX) which has become a bone of contention between the two countries dragging them to the brink of nuclear exchange, which was clear by the revelations after the Margit war (1999).

After 1971 war contributed to Pakistan determination to 'acquire nuclear weapons an aim that was exposed in a secret January 1972 meeting convened by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto to launch the Pakistan nuclear weapon programme. Earlier in 1974 A.Q. Khan had written to P.M Bhutto altering his service to Pakistanas nuclear programmes.3 Dr. That was asked by Bhutto “to consider returning to Pakistan to contribute to nuclear programme”-and Khan came back to Pakistan, saying “I will see these Hindu bastards now”.4 Coming to Pakistan A.Q Khan brought with him the stolen designs from Uranium Enrichment Company Ultra Centrifuge Enrichment Plants.5 Now the most important element for making a nuclear bomb was designa neutron initiator, for which Pakistan designa approached China to provide help and ultimately China assisted in the area of fissile material production and possibly also nuclear device design. 6 On July 11, 1985 reported that Pakistan had successfully tested the non nuclear triggering package for a nuclear weapon. 7 This test represented a very important step towards making the nuclear weapon. Thus Pakistan achieved successfully the developmental components namely the implosion technology uranium enrichment capability and neutron initiator. What was now it went nuclear by 1987, putting the Indian political circle into a great embarrassing condition. Now the only option before India was to go ahead and build the bombs. 8 Between 1988 and 1990 it readied at least two dozen nuclear weapons for quick assembly and potential disposal. Yet notwithstanding the security threats around the state, India as leaders still chose not to assemble, test or deploy a nuclear arsenal.9 Here one can

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easily surmise that by 1990 both India and Pakistan where at screwdrivers distance away from making the bomb. Now it was the turn to develop the delivery system aircraft had been the primary platform for both India and Pakistan to deliver the nuclear weapons if need be on Feb. 1, 1989 Pakistan conducted the first test bunches of ballistic missile the half-1 and half-2 with ranges of 80 and 300 kilometers respectively and the reported capacity to carry pay loads of up to 500 kilograms. 10 On April 6, 1998 Gauri missile was tested by Pakistan with approximately 800 km range. This was a mobile medium range missile, which intended to carry a 700 kilogram load to a distance of 1500 kilometers. Since then Pakistan is going on testing its missile under whose cover are major Indian cities. Thus a nuclear weapon and missile equipped Pakistan has made its strategic programme India-centric.11 South Asian peace and security is also inter-weven with the proliferation of nuclear weapons, missile development and extra-regional indulgence Of nuclear powers in the Indian ocean regions particularly when nuclear weapons remain as currency of prestige, power and glory in the post-proliferation situation in South Asia due to nuclear programme of Pakistan and India as incessant and unwavering stand to keep its nuclear options open.12 There are mainly three dimensions of maintaining peace and security in South Asia. First, acquiring minimal nuclear weapon based deterrence to restrain a conventional war between India and Pakistan.

Second, nuclear weapons free region with and increased likelihood a conventional war but no chance of a nuclear weapon based catastrophe. Third, elimination of both the conventional war and the nuclear weapon based disaster by increased co-operation supported by mutual restraint.13 REFERENCES:1.

2.

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4.

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6.

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Dr. Had Saran,Peace and Security in South Asian Region Though Cooperative Approches, 19, 1997. xiith N.C.D.5, October 17, 18, Dr. S.H. Singh, South Asian Security: An India-Centric View, xiih N.C.D.S, October 17, 18, Dr. 13.N Pandey, Pakistani Nuclearization: Implication for India, Strategic Viewpoint, pp. 7-8.

Malik Zahisi, Dr. A.Q. Khan and Islamic Bumb, Hurmai,Istamabad, p. 62.

Dr. R.N. Pandey, Pakistani Nuclearization: Implication for India, Strategic Viewpoint, p. 8., U.S. State Department, The Pakistan Nuclear Programme, June 23, 1983 FOIA files, Pakistan, National Security Archive, Washington DC China provided Pakistan the Design of the Nuclear Bomb used in China's forth Nuclear Test.

Spector, Nuclear Ambition p. 332, n-25.

Dilip Bobb and Raminder Singh, Pakistan's Nuclear Bomb Shell India Today March 31, 1987, p. 75., Perkovich George, radios Nuclear Bomb: The Impacl on Global Proliferation, Oxford University Press, New Delhi 1999, pp.

293-294.

Dixit, Anatomy of a flawed inheritance, p. 1 25.

Dr. B.N. Pandcy, Pakistani Nuclearization: Implication for India, Strategic Viewpoint, p. 9., Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Peace and Security. in South Asia: Issues and Responses, xiith N.C.D.S, October 17, 18 and 19, 1997 Goraldtpur (U.P), Dr. K.S. Sidhu, Peace and Security in South Asia-Nuclear Factor, xiith N.C.D.S. October 17, 18 and 19, 1997 Corakhpur (1LP)

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

J.Krishnamurti’s Notion of Freedom from the Known: an Observation Dr. Prantika Sarmah Guwahati.781026 Abstract: It cannot be denied that philosophers of different ages have grappled with the problem of freedom from various perspectives, and like any philosophical problem, the problem of freedom has continued to perplex us to the present day. Freedom from the experience of the sensory world, freedom from gross materiality and freedom from fear and anxieties are aimed naturally by man. It appears through the pages of history that man has aimed to attain perfect inward peace, which is difficult to be expressed. Jiddu Krishnamurti who is a leading spiritual teacher in our century belongs to no tradition of Indian or Western negates any attempt to discover freedom. The debate on the controversial issue over the means of attaining freedom from Krishnamurti’s perspective is the main focus of these pages. Choiceless awareness, stillness of mind, mutation of brain cells etc. are the topics presented in the following pages from Krishnamurti’s outlook.

Key Words: Freedom, Krishnamurti, choiceless awareness, mutation.

I. Introduction The quest for freedom is forever new. From Socrates to Strawson, from Samkara to Krishnamurti, both east and west have produced thinkers who have contributed to a greater or a lesser extent to the understanding of this concept of freedom. In its simplest meaning freedom refers to the absence of compulsion or restraint or constraint by any external power. The slave is not free because other men constrain him. A caged bird is not free because the bars restrain it. The bird released from the cage and back in the open air is free to live out the life of its kind, and this is what freedom means for it.

As freedom is a multidimensional concept, the concept of freedom is endued by various definitions of the thinkers of different times. The western philosophers concern of moral freedom is undoubtedly very important. However, man is a multidimensional phenomena, apart from his social and moral aspect man has the most important aspect of his reality and that is spiritual. The Indian philosophers are concerned with the moral, social as well as the ontological aspect of human freedom. It cannot be denied that like any philosophical problem, the problem of freedom has continued to perplex us to the present day. Traditional Indian philosophy insists of the conception of ‘freedom’, which is mostly ‘spiritual freedom’. It refers only to the highest expressive type of freedom.

Contemporary philosophers are concerned with diverse types of freedom. They put importance equally on social freedom, economic freedom, political freedom etc. these philosophers believe that freedom does not belong to the soul. Jiddu Krishnamurti who is a leading spiritual teacher in our century belongs to no tradition of Indian or Western. There are other contemporary thinkers like B.G.Tilak, M.K.Gandhi, R.N.Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, Radhakrishnan etc., and all are more or less concerned with human freedom in its spiritual and moral context.

Applying the Vedantic truth Vivekananda mentioned that man has freedom already; he will have to discover it.

But while the sages attempt to discover it consciously, the ignorant men do it unconsciously. In this context Krishnamurti negates any attempt to discover freedom. R.N.Tagore was not completely unmindful of the spiritual freedom of man as he stated that freedom represents the essence of the soul. Gandhi also classified freedom in two ways, - as empirical and spiritual. While empirical freedom includes political, social, economic and personal freedom, the spiritual freedom used in the sense of self-realization. Krishnamurti, is, comparing to his contemporaries is more concerned with the man made crisis that arises out of the tremendous development of science and technology. All other contemporary thinkers have similar views to offer with respect to the notion of human freedom. Regarding their notion B.K.Lal mentioned, according to these thinkers “man is potentially free, but certain obstacles that he has ignorantly put around himself appear to limit his freedom. He makes efforts to remove these obstacles, because only then the ideal of fully manifested freedom will be realized.” 1 This is in contrast to the notion of freedom expressed by Krishnamurti as he does not recommend any ‘effort’ on the part of the individual. For him freedom is an effortless and spontaneous achievement, which is not to be attained over a period of time.

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II. Freedom is an effortless achievement Regarding the notion of freedom Krishnamurti occupies totally a different position compared to other thinkers, as he denies the role of religious organization, guru-disciple relationship, scriptures, dogmas, rituals or any philosophical knowledge or psychological technique to attain freedom. The whole thrust of his teaching is about freedom from conditioning. Freedom from parent’s voice that lies buried in us, and in which we sometimes speak, freedom from the forces of society that push us in to a pattern. It is the new paradigm of freedom for Krishnamurti.

Like Buddha Krishnamurti also repeats in the same tone- ‘be a light unto yourself’. To become a light unto self we have to work through or silence these voices from the past. The conflict between the idealized images of the self acquired from family and society, and the reality of ‘what is’ divides the self. To be loyal to society or any external authority is to lose freedom, as authority and tradition gives priority only to a constructed self, but not the real.

When the nature of the so-called ‘self’ is realized and it is dissolved, there is a psychological mutation and it is freedom. . Krishnamurti is very original in the point that the very desire and effort to be free is a hindrance to freedom. Fear and sorrow that are associated with religion, cast, and creed or others are obstacles in the path of freedom. Suffering is one of the biggest burdens that man carries, for the solution of which Krishnamurti’s approach is very original. We never seem to be free of it at any time in our life. We want to run away from sorrow and suffering or to invent ideas and images to cover them. Most of the thinkers of our century offer us various processes to overcome sorrow. We can point out the traditional thinker Buddha who indicates the eight-fold path as a solution of unending human suffering. Again Jainism maintains that suffering can be removed and freedom can be attained through the three ‘Jewels’ Samyak darsana, Samyak jnana and Samyak carita. In contemporary philosophy, a philosopher like Dr. Radhakrishnan is realistic enough to be impressed by the present day condition of man. But unlike Krishnamurti he believes in law of karma and rebirth and states that man is determined by the past karma. Regarding the notion of suffering and being liberated from it, Radhakrishnan conceives more or less in a traditional manner. However, for thousands of years we have been told of the causes of suffering and the way of its cessation, and yet we are where we are today. Krishnamurti expresses wonder that how much should we try to understand our suffering? It is his original approach to understand suffering that is more important than to know how to overcome suffering. Making effort to escape from sorrow is similar with making effort to sleep. By repeating again and again that ‘I have to sleep’ if one tries to get in to sleep, it is nothing but a futile exercise. In the same way making effort to overcome sorrow is also futile. Krishnamurti emphatically declares that any effort to attain freedom leads to conflict and contradiction. However, SamkhyaYoga, Mimamsa-Vedanta believe in making effort in order to make spiritual progress. Yoga suggests repetitive actions as a means to produce the good habits that seem to play an equally essential role in both social and spiritual formation. This school accepts the process of purification that is continuous, rather than opposing effort. The final cessation (nirodha) of the activity of the mind (citta) is set to derive from a form of activity. This suggests that the key to the cessation of action is action itself, properly carried out.

The concept of freedom has great significance in J. Krishnamurti’s philosophy. It is perhaps Krishnamurti’s outstanding contribution to humanity that he considers man to be his own liberator and no savior, no guru, no tradition; no external help can truly free man from his self-imposed bondage. As Ludowie Rehault observes, -“We cannot thank Krishnamurti enough for having taught us- man is his own liberator that the glory of man consisting in saving himself that in man exist the beginning, the end, the life, the whole. Man is not conscious of life, it is his task to become it without self consciousness.”2 Krishnamurti cuts away symbols and false associations in the search for pure truth and perfect freedom. For him perfect freedom will not be achieved by means of systematic limitation. But we must achieve “freedom from the known” freedom from the unanalyzed postulates in terms of which we do our second hand experiencing, freedom from our conventional thoughts and sentiments, freedom from our stereo-typed notions about inner and outer reality. In order to fulfill the search for pure truth and perfect freedom a person doesn’t have to become a member of any religious sect. Krishnamurti asks us why we have certain fears, why are some of us so dependent upon others for fulfillment. The insights presented within his talks are not ‘teaching’ in the sense of providing a system for the listener to follow. Instead he asks us to question tradition and certain forms of dogmatism. In the true sense Krishnamurti felt that men are reluctant to accept what is easy to grasp, he refuses to acknowledge his own god-given rights. Man demands deliverance or salvation by and through an intermediary. Regarding this context Henry Miller stated, -“…he seeks guides, counselors, leaders, systems, rituals. He looks for solutions, which are in his own breast. He puts learning above wisdom, power above the art of discrimination. But above all, he refuses to work for his own liberation, pretending that first ‘the world’ must be liberated.” 3 Expressing Krishnamurti’s way of speaking Miller states in another place, -“Truth is ever present, Eternity is here and now. And salvation? What is it. O man,that you wish to save? Your petty ego? Your soul? Your identity? Lose it and you will find yourself. Don’t worry about god- god knows how to take care of

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himself. Cultivate your doubts; embrace every kind of experience, keep on desiring, strive neither to forget nor to remember, but assimilate and integrate what you have experienced.” 4 Krishnamurti’s main object is to set us free from everything that prevents us from discovering truth for ourselves.

To come upon truth the mind must be completely free, without a spot of distortion. Freedom has two expressions.

We generally understand freedom as an idea, and as an actuality. We want to be free to think what we like to do, what we want, to express ourselves in different ways. This is the outward expression of freedom. The country where outward freedom is possible one seeks more and more pleasure, more and more possessions. So in such countries, where there is monarchy, outward freedom seems to be extraordinarily important. On the other hand the inward freedom implies complete and total freedom, which expresses itself outwardly in society, in relationship.

The question about the possibility of freedom, whether inwardly or outwardly, is a perplexing one. So, one sees that for mind, there is no possibility of freedom on this earth either inwardly or outwardly. As a result one begins to invent freedom in another world such as heaven.

III. Freedom and Choiceless Awareness If we want to be completely free we must first understand the nature and structure of freedom. Sometimes we feel freedom from something like pain, anxiety, jealously or from any dogma. We can be free from dogma by analyzing it or from nationalism by accepting internationalism. But the motive for such freedom has its own reaction, because the desire to be free from such a dogma may be that it is no longer convenient. So when we say that we are free from something, it is a reaction, which will become another reaction, which will bring about conformity or another form of domination. In this way we can have a chain of reaction and we accept each reaction as freedom. But freedom for Krishnamurti is not revolt or reaction, either collective or personal. It is a state of mind and it is in this state of mind that goodness can flourish. Keeping aside all the theoretical, ideological concepts of freedom we can inquire whether human mind can ever be actually free from dependency, free from fear, anxiety, and free from the enumerable problems both the conscious as well as the deeper layers of the unconscious. Can human mind be completely psychologically be free so that it can come upon something beyond time and thought, yet is not an escape from the actual realities of daily existence?

Krishnamurti opined that to solve a problem whether it is created by fear, sorrow or suffering, or anything else one must have to understand the problem. The ending of any problem lies in the observation of the whole problem choicelessly, objectively. The sensitivity of awareness of the outer as well as of the inner and self-observation cannot be separated from the attainment of freedom. Conflict can only end where there is the understanding of the contradiction in one self. This contradiction will always exist if there is no freedom from the known – the known that is the past, from our conceptions of the world based upon that knowledge, from the chain of cause and effect, from time and measurement. By ‘freedom from the known’ Krishnamurti means living in the ‘now’ which is not of time, in which there is only this movement of freedom, untouched by the past, by the known. The past is all our accumulated memories, which act in the present and create our hopes and fears of the future. So the present is the action of the past and the mind is this movement of the past. As Krishnamurti poses the question, ‘how are we going to be free of such movement’ he replies that to be aware of such movement without choice, it is necessary to observe the past in action. Choice again turns to the movement of the past. So to observe without the image of thought is action in which the past has ended. To observe the action of the past is again action without the past.

The state of seeing is more important than what is seen. To be aware of the past in that choiceless observation is not only to act differently, but also to be different. In this awareness memory acts without impediment, and efficiently. So freedom from the known does not imply to wipe out the known but to enter a different dimension altogether from which the known is observed.

Krishnamurti stated that there is a great beauty in observation, in seeing thing as they are, psychologically, inwardly which does not mean that one rejects or wants to do something about ‘what is’; the very perception of ‘ what is’ brings about its own mutation. But one must know the art of ‘looking’, which is just observing without any choice. Choiceless awareness cannot be attained through the mind, which functions in choice. Only when the mind realizing the conditioning nature and the limitation of its action becomes quiet out of understanding, not automatically but intelligently, through self knowledge that it can find itself in the state of awareness and free from conflict. In Krishnamurti’s word- “we open the door in to the hidden, which becomes the known; but to find the unknown, we must go beyond the door- surely, that is our difficulty.”5 So Krishnamurti felt in true sense that, freedom is found in the choiceless awareness of our daily existence and activity. It is only man’s pretence that because he has choice, he is free. Regarding this ‘freedom from known’; which is not the accumulation of the past; Krishnamurti talks about mutation of brain cells.

IV. Mutation of Brain cells: According to Krishnamurti our brain, which is amazingly free in one direction, is psychologically a cripple. Is it impossible for the brain of an individual, which is broken up its own functioning, to be free from the whole field of

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idea or aware of the whole field of consciousness? Is the mutation of brain cell possible? According to him our brain, which is amazingly free in one direction, is psychologically a cripple. Brain cell are the storehouse of memories, experience, knowledge, which is the past. It is the old brain that is full of past stored images. This brain has its continuity in time. Without this continuity the brain becomes schizophrenic and unbalanced. We are used to responding with the old brain. So though our problems are always new, our responses are always old. With the continuity of time the brain can never find anything new. Because there is something new only when something ends. New is not the rearrangement of the old. Krishnamurti opines that perception is not related to the old brain.

Perception is the interval between old response and the response that is new. In that interval there is no time. One may raise doubt that in perception if the old brain does not respond, then what happens to the brain cell in the process of seeing? Krishnamurti replies that in the process of seeing the brain cells hold themselves back in abeyance without the past. Our brain needs security, safety in order to survive and so attaches itself to a guru, to socialism, to nationalism and so on. But if the brain is completely secure in itself it rejects security at the price of illusion. Discarding security through family, through God such a brain can perceive. The brain can operate out of the attention in silence. It is the complete attention of the body, psyche, of the cells. In that state there is no time in terms of past, no observer as the ‘me’. The ‘me’, which is a part of the brain cell, is wiped out. It is the mutation of brain cell without which freedom cannot take place.

V. Conclusion Krishnamurti embarked on a mission to set human beings absolutely unconditionally free. What is striking about Krishnamurti’s approach is that even while addressing contemporary issues, his answers are rooted in timeless vision of life and truth. He considers the possibility of freedom through self-knowledge or understanding of reality. Hereby he does not mean that it can be brought about by any isolated activity like concentration or practicing meditation. In this regard he talks about the mutation of brain cells, which is another new idea in spiritual field. The idea of complete sterility of all deliberate effort forms an essential part of Krishnamurti’s teaching and has been expressed by him with great clarity in his talks. He felt, it is the truth that sets one free and not one’s effort to be free. In the same tone Christ also says ‘seek truth and truth will make you free’. All conscious and deliberate effort, all self compulsion by which we hope to reach some kind of perfection is merely an attempt to shape ourselves according to a pattern and shows a complete misunderstanding of our real nature.

However, it is difficult for one to understand that he was totally free from the influences of traditional teachings.

Krishnamurti’s teachings regarding freedom is however unique cannot remove the doubts of common people about the applicability of choiceless awareness, self observation etc. To recapitulate, Krishnamurti’s observation and exploration of modern man’s state are penetrating and profound.

References: [1] Lal, B.K., (1973) Contemporary Indian Philosophy, N. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas Publishers Private Ltd. [2] Shringy, R.K., (1977) Philosophy of J.Krishnamurti: A Systematic Study, N.Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.pvt.ltd. P.356.

[3] Miller, Henry (1968) My Life. London: Peter Owen limited.

[4] Miller, Henry (1968) My Life. London: Peter Owen limited.

[5] Krishnamurti, Jiddu (2001) The First and Last Freedom, Chennai: Krishnamurti Foundation India.

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ANALYSIS OF TERRORISM BETWEEN INDO-PAK RELATIONSHIP AND SUGGESTIONS Neeraj Solanki Research Scholar Department of Defence Studies, M.D.U., Rohtak, Haryana, INDIA. I. INTRODUCTION Under the Indian Independence Act of 1947 of the British Parliament, two dominion states, to be known as India and Pakistan, were to come into being upon British withdraw in mid- August 1947. The border drawn between India and Pakistan on August 14, 1947, Pakistan came into existence on the basis of Two Nation Theory viz.

Muslims and Hindus are two separate nations mainly divided by religion. In terms of this theory, Pakistan emerged as a nation-state with Islam as its state religion. The 1945-46 rapidly communalist election campaign conducted by the Muslim league and the bloody division of colonial India have in the post-independence period served as the back drop and compulsive reference for the discussion on the nation-state project. Three different interpretations of relationship between Islam, state and nation were present among the Muslim league leaders who received power and authority in Pakistan. The first was the contradictory position of the supreme leader of the Pakistan movement Mohammad All Jinnah. who, on the one hand advocated a separation between religion and the state and advanced the idea of a Pakistan nation consisting of all citizens in his oft-quoted 11 August 1947 address to the Pakistan constituent assembly, but who on the other hand had played a pivotal role in ascribing credibility and legitimacy to the religious basis of nation hood and on that basis brought about partition. The secular, position of Jinnah never received much attention in real politics of Pakistan as the Islamic dimension became a central feature of the political discourse. The second interpretation was a middle position held by most of the top leaders of the Muslim league, with Liaqat Ali Khan, who, spoke in favour of an Islamic democracy. It has remained consistently the position of the modern-educated state elite and main stream politicians, but has defied translation into a coherent constitutional and legal formula. The third was a candidly theocratic position upheld by the large body of ‘Ulema’ and ‘Peers’ who had been co-opted by the Muslim league into its election campaign for 1945-46 elections. After Independence the religious experts were eclipsed by the modernist elite, but gradually they gained political clout and influenced, and started pre-empting the ideological space. In a political sense, this could occur because of the opportunism and- machinations of politicians, who began exploiting Islam for conducting negative politics. Government in power would resort to some Islamic principle to denounce the opposition's demands for elections and regional autonomy as secessionist; centrist politicians out of power could equally invoke Islam to assail the government for alleged un-Islamic conduct. The third position was also strengthened because many Pakistanis were sincerely convinced that the classical Islamic political heritage was superior to the western democratic model.1 In spite of the Hindu cultural factor the Indian leaders of the congress party decided to make the national identity on a secular territorial basis. This was consistent with the Ideology of the anti-colonial freedom movement it had led. As multi-class party, congress had developed during the freedom struggle the tradition of accommodating different shades of nationalist opinion and conflicting interests. Three strands of thinking on nation building existed among the congress high command. The first concerned a western-secular approach personified by Nehru, which envisaged integration and in the longer run assimilation of the diverse cultural elements into a grand Indian nation. The scientific state, consisting of a strong centre, was to serve as the vehicle for the dissemination of secular rational political culture. Secondly an idyllic approach deriving from philosophical Hinduism which Gandhi stood for. In the Gandhian model, a pluralist society based on spiritual rather than material development could bring about national integration. The third involved a Hindu nationalist approach which shifted between moderate orthodoxy and militancy. It was represented by the party boss Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, and majority of congress leaders. It assumed an interdependent and mutually reinforcing relationship between Hinduism and the Indian nation. It can be said that despite the three different strands, the trauma of partition made central elite overly sensitive the question of unity.2 Thus India was founded on the basis of secularism, Ancient Hindu myths, Vedas, Upnishads and cosmopolitan ideology, while Pakistan emerged as a nation-state with Islam as its state religion. It is created on the basis of Muslim leagues two nation theory. The two-nation theory sowed the seeds of in-tolerance, violent sectarianism

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and Islamic terrorism in Pakistan. Jinnah's sudden, unexpected advocacy of secularism after riding on the wave of Muslims' anti-Hindus passions could have been prompted by his later realization that once these passions subsided the militant Muslims could turn against their own co-religionists in the new born country.

II. THE KASHMIR ISSUE AND CLAIMS OF THE TWO NATIONS The Indian Independence Act 1947 recognised the right of 500 odd states, ruled by the king to merge with any dominions (India and Pakistan) or remain free. 3 At the time of partition the state of Jammu and Kashmir was ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh, the descendent of Gulab Singh. The state of Jammu and Kashmir didn't accede to either India or Pakistan when the British Paramountcy lapsed. Pakistan was interested in this area from beginning. She started pressurising the ruler to accede to her. But the state over came the Pakistan's economic pressures. Failing economic pressure Pakistan conspired to send the armed tribesmen together with her army to invade the state of Jammu and Kashmir in September 1947. The forces of the Maharaja Had Singh were utterly inadequate to meet the large scale offensive. At the instance of Sheikh Abdullah he requested the Indian Government to meet the situation. He agreed to accede to India without any preconditions. The Indian Government sent her army on 27th October 1947 and succeeded in driving out the invaders to Uri along the Jhelum valley road. India appealed to the Security Council on December 30, 1947, against Pakistan for aiding and instigating the raid on Kashmir. Pakistan on the other hand pleaded that the accession of Kashmir to India was done under duress. Hence it was not permanent Pakistan argued that Lord Mountbatten had specifically mentioned in his letter to Maharaja Hari Singh that a plebiscite would be held to know the feelings of the people. The accession of Kashmir to India was voluntary. At no stage force was used to compel the Maharaja. In 1951 people of Kashmir elected a constituent Assembly and declared through it their desire to remain a selfgoverning state within the Republic of India. This was sufficient evidence to prove that Kashmir was an integral part of India and any interference in the affairs of Kashmir added to interference in internal affairs which India would not tolerate.4 On January 1, 1948 the Indian Government decided to take the Kashmir dispute to the United Nations. India asserted that Pakistan army was fighting in Kashmir and that they should be expelled. India assured the UN that the accession of Kashmir was only provisional and the Ultimate status of Kashmir was to be determined through a universal plebiscite. However, both India and Pakistan took the position that Kashmiris could choose to join either India or Pakistan. The idea of a separate Kashmir state was overruled by both sides. The resolution recognized India's legal presence in Kashmir resulting from the signing of the accession Bill. Pakistan had to withdraw from the territories of the state before the plebiscite could be held. However, armed clashes between India and Pakistan continued and their troops remained in the state. Gradually attitudes hardened both sides.

Finally a cease fire was arranged by the United Nations which came into effect on January 1, 1949. By that onethird of the Kashmir state had come under control of Pakistan. In July 1949 agreement was reached on the ceasefire line and United Nations observers were stayed oil both sides of LOC(Line of Control) to monitor it.5 In 1954, Pakistan joined western military alliance. The inclination of western countries towards Pakistan completely changed the picture.

The interference of western power in Kashmir dispute complicated the situation. They criticized India's stand on the plebiscite and started to help Pakistan with arms. The Soviet Union which had been neutral on this question could see through the game of western powers. When Bulganin and Khrushev came to India in 1955, they promised unqualified support to India in Kashmir issue.At that time, the instability of Pakistan's political institutions tempted the armed forces to capture power in that country. The military rulers, in order to divert the attention of the Pakistani people pursued a policy of expansionism. On August 1965 Pakistan mounted a large scale attack on Chamb-Jaurian area violating the international border. The Indian army baffled the attempt of Pakistan to penetrate further in Western Sector. The Security Council succeeded in imposing ceasefire on 23rd September.

In 1971 the events moved fast towards the Balkanistan of Pakistan. In the general elections, the National Awami Party led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman achieved great victory in east Pakistan. The NAP stood for complete autonomy. This demand aroused in West Pakistan a resentment against Mujib. The military rulers of Pakistan arrested the Awami leaders and suppressed the popular movement. About 3 million Bengalis were massacred and one crore were forced to leave their home to India where they, became refugees. The Indian Government protested against this genocide. She also tried to muster world public opinion in support of the refugees. On 3rd December 1971 Pakistan launched a massive air attack on India. India had to go to war for her security. By 17th December Pakistan's military might dwindled and India liberated East Bengal and helped her to install her own Government. Disputes over territory and sharing of the assets of British India and the religious tension between Hindus and Muslim which accompanied the partition of the Indian subcontinent into India and Pakistan kept the relationship between the two states charged with tension. Wars in 1948, 1965, 1971 and recurring intermittent Skirmishes along their borders has meant that states have directed enormous to brace their military machines.

The two states have thus actively followed a policy of hostility and confrontation against each other.

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III. TOWARDS TERRORISM Islamic extremism has become a global threat, Jehad, as a concept was almost forgotten for about a thousand years until it was revived after the soviet military intervention in Afghanistan, a neighbouring country of India.

Islamic militants were trained and equipped by Pakistan with the help from the USA during ten years of USS R's. military occupation of Afghanistan, Islamic militants were trained and equipped by Pakistan with the help of United States of America. They did not constitute a global threat then. They only threatened the soviet Communists who militarily occupied the Islamic country of Afghanistan and put a godless regime in power in Kabul.

India the second largest Muslim Country in the world, did not face any threat from Islamic extremism for decades after its independence. Millions of Muslims stayed back in India after the partition of the country and the creation of Islamic Pakistan. Massive majority of them championed the cause of secularism and accepted and actively participated in the democratic system of governance in the country. 6 The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the decision of the US to turn Pakistan into a frontline state in waging a military struggle against the Soviet troops came as a golden opportunity for the ISI to expend its Capabilities in covert and semimilitary operations. As money and sophisticated weapons poured into Pakistan for training the anti-Soviet Afghan Mujahideens, the ISI according to an estimate, “trained about 83,000 Afghan Mujahideen between 1983 to 1997 and dispatched them to Afghanistan”. In the aftermath of the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan and the subsequent end of the cold war with the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Pakistan made full use of the ISI to engineer the rise to power of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and simultaneously ISI wanted to re-enact Kabul in Kashmir. It is not a coincidence that the insurgency in Kashmir backed by Pakistan originated soon after the Soviet troops' withdrawal from Afghanistan. However, Pakistan had actually ,begun to train Kashmiris in 1990s by funding madrassas and its perceived victory against the Soviet troops in Afghanistan encouraged it to remove Indian control over Kashmir. It was not easy for Pakistan to influence recruit the Sufi Muslims of Kashmir to wage jehad. Consequently Pakistan resorted to cross-border terrorism by Pakistan based jehadi groups, such as Lashkar-e-taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad. More ever, there was an incursion of multi-national Jehadis from Afghanistan in to Kashmir.

IV. EXPORT OF TERRORISM IN INDIA Terrorism in India can be attributed to India's many low intensity conflicts within its borders. If terrorism can be defined as peacetime equivalent of war crime, then these sites of low intensity conflicts are prime flash spots for terrorism in India. Infact India has been facing terrorism since more than six decades but the terrorism due to radical Islam can be traced from the 1990. The regions with long term terrorist and extremist activities today are in Jammu and Kashmir, and a few parts of north eastern states of the Country both regions having international borders. In addition, there are 13 naxalite infested states threatening the sovereignty of the country. The terrorist activities have increased significantly after 1980, following the involvement and direct encouragement of Pakistan government under the cover of its intelligence agency ISI and Islamic militant groups armed, trained and financed by Pakistan in the plea of supporting 'freedom movement. More recently these groups have been getting active support from Islamic fundamentalist groups from the neighbouring Bangladesh too. The issue of Kashmir wherein India is portrayed as an aggressor by Pakistan is cited as one of the main cause of terrorist attacks. Their objective relating to India is to liberate the Muslims of not only Kashmir but also destroy the secular fabric of India. Later the radical Islamic fundamentalist organizations of Pakistan, Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia and now Bangladesh too.7 Terrorism in India has emerged as a hydra headed monster; operating trans-nationally dealing with organized drug cartels operating worldwide controlling Hawala Operations, having nexus with international mafias like Dawood Ibrahim and that of Albania and having a huge resource of gathering arms through large scale smuggling. One can say at this point of history that by striking roots at local level, networking with international mafias. Till 9/11, India's case of terrorism was not taken seriously by the international community. India had been raising voice against Pakistan's role in abetting terrorists and Separatists activities in India since 1990's in many international forums. In fact ever since 1989, Governments in Pakistan had been making distinction between terrorism in Jammu & Kashmir and the rest of India. Pakistan was never ready to accept that there was terrorism in J&K and rather it projected it as freedom struggle. Till 1995, the views carried out by the international community Infact they were not ready to accept that acts of violence in J&K were basically terrorism. It was only after the kidnapping of some western tourists in Kashmir by Harkat-Ul-Ansar (HUA) (subsequently renamed as Harkat-Ul-Mujahideen) under the name of Al Faran in 1995, which led to a change in attitude of the international Community. They began to accept the arguments of Indian Govt. that violence in J&K was basically terrorism in the name of Jehad supported by Pakistani terrorist outfits. This Changed perception led to the declaration of HUA as a terrorist organization by the United States in 1997. No Indian terrorist group is co-operating with the international Jehadi terrorist movement headed by Al Qaeda. However certain Pakistani Jehadi terrorist Organisation, which are members of bin Laden's International Islamic front (IIF) are being used by Pakistan's ISI for organising terrorist attacks in Jammu St Kashmir and other parts of

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India. These are the Harkat411- Mujahideen (HUM), the Harkat-Ul-Jehad-al-Islami (HUJI) the Lashkar-E-Taiba (LET) and the Jaish-E-Mohammad (JIM). All these organization except the HUJI have been designated by the US state department as foreign terrorist organisations (FT0s) and are subject to action under the UN Security Council Resolution No. 1373 against terrorism. Most of the terrorist organisation in India is based in Kashmir and an. backed by Pakistan and other rogue states which are eneiitica I to India. At present, Lashkar-E-Taiba, Jaish-E-Mohammad and local Islamic groups of India have spread its base all over India. The nation tops the lists of terrorists organizations fighting in the name of Jehad there are number other organisation also which has strong base in J&K region and operates from there. Although J&K is the worst affected states by terrorism, the terrorism in India is no longer Kashmir, specific and the strategy seems to destabilize India. The terrorists have spread their network to other parts of the country. Major terrorist attacks in India like the 1993 Mumbai blasts, the 1998, Coimbatoore bomb blast, the Akshardam temple attack, the Hijack of Air India Flight IC-182, the attack on Indian parliament in 2001, the terrorist attack on the American culture centre in Kolkata in 2002, the Indian Institute of science shooting in 2005, the bomb blast in Delhi on the eve of Diwali festival in 2005, the Varanasi bombings of 2006 and the recent attack on financial capital of the country on 11 July 2006 in which bombs were planted in seven trains in Mumbai killing more than 200 people and injuring more than 700 people and Malegaon blasts show that terrorists have acquired an all India reach and they are no longer confined to the valley. These terrorist attacks encompass a wider strategic objective of weakening India by targeting its stupendous economic growth and advancement in science and technology and creating communal disturbance by attacking temples.8 V. EMERGING SECURITY THREATS AND CHALLENGES FOR INDIA Since the beginning of 2001, a new dimension has been added due to the infiltration of terrorists from Bangladesh. In fact, Indian security planners are so obsessed with the Western border. The fact is that in post 9/11, Bangladesh has become a sanctuary for terrorists and also a "launching pad" for them to operate against India. The reports indicate that apart from Lashkar-E- Taiba operatives, leaders of several militant out fits operating in the North-East, such as Paresh Barua, were living in Bangladesh and aiding terrorism. According to some observers, Islamist fundamentalist groups in Bangladesh have come to the extent of influencing policy making in Bangladesh. Uttar Pradesh has emerged as one of the major centres of activities of the Pakistani Interservices Intelligence (ISI) in India and ISI-trained Indian sleeping modules had infiltrated into even small towns of the state. At least 200 youth in Uttar Pradesh had come back after getting training in ISI camps in the Balochistan Province of Pakistan. The ISI has now largely been banking on local trained youth to carry out operation and both the Jaish-E-Mohammad and Lashkar-E-Taiba had spread their tentacles in the state making Meerut, Baghpat, Phoolpur, and several other cities the hub of ISI network.9 The presence of the Taliban leadership in and around the Balochistan capital Quetta, has serious security implication for India, given the mutually reinforcing links between the Taliban, the ISI and Jehadi groups like the Jaish-E-Mohammad and Lashkar-E-Taiba. Instability and violence in Balochistan, where Pakistan gas pipe lines are attacked and damaged on a regular bases, make any talk of Iran-Pakistan-India pipe line no more than a pipe dream even if agreement is reaching on gas pricing the growing Chinese presence in Balochistan has far reaching implications of India's Martine security.

VI. INDIAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S POLICY TOWARDS TERRORISM India has been facing the problem of terrorism since last two decades. Though Govt. of India has taken many steps to counter terrorism but the terrorist attacks on the J&K Assembly and the Indian Parliament forced the government to take a hard look at events. An exceptional mobilization of Indian Armed Forces, Operation Prakaram, was the immediate Indian reaction of the attack on Parliament. Since then onwards the Indian response started getting hardened. The last three decades have witnessed a number of legislations being enacted to tackle various specific contingencies; Jammu & Kashmir, Public Safety Act (1978); Assam Prevention Detention Act (1980); National Security Act (1980, amended 1984 and 1987); Anti Hijacking Act (1982); Armed forces (Punjab and Chandigarh) Special Power Act (1983); Punjab Disturbed Areas Act (1983); Chandigarh Disturbed Areas Act (1983); Suppression of un lawful Act against safely of civil Aviation Act (1982); Terrorist affected Areas (Special Courts) Act (1984); National Security (Second Amendment) ordinance (1984); Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act (1985 amended in 1987) National Security Guard Act (1986)'Criminal Courts and Security Guard Court Rules (1987) and the Special Protection Group Act (1988). Although these laws were enacted to meet special situations, most of them were not directed against the larger menace of terrorism. The Terrorism and Disruptive Activities Act (TADA) and the Prevention of Terrorism Act (POTA) 2002 are the only Acts, which can correctly be termed anti-terrorism laws. The state, through these two laws, for the first time attempted to create legislative instruments to curb terrorist activities in India, recognizing the fact, the terrorism was a special crime that needed special laws for an effective response to be created.

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The enactment of the two anti-terrorist laws in India, TADA and the more recent POTA, was intended to patch over this chink in the state's armour in the battle against terrorism. Regrettably their impact has been far-from what was needed. Both anti-terror laws have come under sustained and substantial criticism on different grounds. Primarily they have been attacked as being 'draconian' oppressive, unconstitutional and against the principles of natural justice. As a result from time to time, the Indian judiciary, especially the Supreme Court has been petitioned to assess whether their various provisions are within the bounds of the constitutional frame work and the principles of natural justice. Several political parties and the Human Rights groups opposed the enactment of an anti-terrorist law. The TADA was allowed to lapse and there was no anti-terrorism law for about five years. The Government after great difficulty was able to pass the prevention of Terrorism Activities Act (POTA) but that too has been abolished.10 After 9/11 the Indian government offered its unqualified help to the U.S. even before a formal request came and it was a sort of invitation to the U.S. to come and join India's fight against terrorism. But the U.S. preferred the Pakistan; help because of obvious reasons that terrorism emanated from Pakistan and not India. Recently to counter terrorism Indian government has decided to tackle terrorism with the help of Pakistan and both the nations have agreed to setup a three member anti-terror mechanism to be headed by a person of the' rank of the additional secretary (international Organizations) from the Ministry of the External Affairs of India and the Additional Secretary (U.N. & E.C.) from Pakistan's Ministry of the Foreign Affairs. Its mandate would be counter-terrorism measures, including regular and timely sharing of information. But the experience of this Indo-Pak joint counter terrorism mechanism is a matter of concern as there have already been a number of mechanisms under the INTERPOL where India's CBI and Pakistan's HA are suppose to work in harmony and they have failed to yield requisite results.

Finally, the Government is coming up with counter-terrorism doctrine (CTD) which might help the agencies fighting terrorism but it would be premature to analyse its effectiveness at this juncture.

VII. SUGGESTIONS TO MITIGATE AND PREVENT TERRORISM â&#x20AC;&#x153;It has been proved that terrorism is today actively encouraged by a foreign power and its eradication demands state action on a wider front. This menace thrives because some other country instigates or encourages it.

Terrorism therefore cannot be combated without solid international cooperationâ&#x20AC;?.11 The perceived knee-jerk reaction to terrorist activities, the government needs to look for a long term solution to the problem of terrorism. This involves measures to revitalise and energise the state police forces and restructure the parliamentary forces and ensure their optimum utilization and speedy trial of the cases related to terrorism.

The Government needs to modernize its police forces since the weaponry of the terrorists is fast changing every day. Arsenals of police forces need to be updated and adequate funding for the purpose need to be given by the government. India should take some strict and solid actions against the terrorist organizations and the countries sponsoring or helping them to deal with the increasing number of terror attacks. India should put some international pressure on the countries like Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh to counter the cross border terrorism. All the peace talks should not be resumed as well as they should be waned of scrapping all present relations if those countries don't take any strict action against the organization operating from their grounds against India. The security should be tightened throughout the nation as well as new technology should be provided to the security personnel's to counter these terror attacks. Along with this communication system through CCTV cameras precautionary measure for the terrorist attacks to be indentified easily, rather than punishing the non-culprit's when the incidents occur. Awareness programmes should be organized in schools, colleges and other institutes to teach students the aspects of helping security bodies against these terrorist activities. Also, India should provide some restricatory powers to security forces to handle with these terrorist and their organizations. But for this all the political parties of India should get united to fight against terrorism because they are our representatives and their unity means the whole nation will get united. 12 It is necessary to strengthen the intelligence set up because the intelligence organizations have had an important role in combating terrorism. The Indian intelligence organization has been rated as one of the best in the world.

But to prevent terrorist activities there should be a federal intelligence agency so that integrated and centralized efforts can be made to counter terrorist activities occurring in different parts of the country As if now, the intelligence bureau has no authority over the state intelligence organizations. After every terrorist incident, usually allegations are made accusing the centre of not having informed the state about the possibility of the incidents. The intelligence service in India is not at all satisfactory there is a need at national level of a highlevel anti-terrorist squad, which should have its branch in every state. There is also a need for a trained group/task force for handling the situation, which arises after such blasts and strikes. It must consist of security personnel, doctors, nurses and they should always be on alert. Life can be saved if we have an expert team, rushing at the site of blast to assist the victims.

There should be a centralized system of information gathering and disbursement. There is a need for toll free telephone numbers, on which anybody can give and take information about terrorist activities. Fighting with terrorism should not only be the duty of government and a force, the role of civil society is equally significant to

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fight against terrorism. Firstly, strong movement is required against all fundamentalist ideologies. And secondly every true citizen should act as a police man in civil dress to overcome crime in country. It is noticed that police randomly pick people from minority community on false charges; this need to be condemned and should be avoided at any cost. No Indian citizen should feel insecure just for belonging to any religion, caste or sect. The spirit of secularism and unity in diversity must be championed by all and sundry. 13 The Indian government's initiative to tackle terrorism by cooperating with Pakistan raises serious questions. In fact before developing any strategy to deal with Pakistan, which has been sponsoring and abetting terrorism in India, the government must formulate its own strategy to deal with internal security. Instead of relying support from the United States or from the military rulers of Pakistan, India must rely on its own mechanism to deal with terrorism and other extremist outfits like the Naxal movements.

VIII. REFERENCES 1.

Ahmad, Ishtiaq; State, Nation and Ethnicity in contemporary South Asia, PINTER, London and New York 1996, P.171 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Ibid, P.102.

Shrivastava, Dr. L.S. & Prof. V.P. Joshi; Internal Relations, Goel Publishing house, Meerut, 1982-83, P.75.

Ibid, P. 78-79.

Ahmad, Ishtiaq: State Nation and Ethnicity in Contemporary South Asia, PINTER, London and New York, 1996, P.143.

Chintamani Maha Patra; Jehad: A Threat to India, World Focus, Nov.- Dec. 2006.

Kamboj, Anil; New Adventure in Afghanistan: The Pakistan Nexus, World Focus, July, 2006.

Sharma, Ashok; Terrorism in India: an Assessment, World Focus, Nov.- Dec. 2006.

Ibid Cherian, Saji; Terrorism & Legal Policy in India, http:// www.satporgtp/publication/faultlines/volume15/ Article.6.htm.

Maheswari, S.R., Comparative Government and Politics. Agra: Lakshmi Narain Agrawal, 1998, P.182.

Singla, Anish Kumar; Terrorism Needs a Newtons Second Law of Motion, dated February 22, 2007.

Purshotham and M.Veera Piasad; Addressing Frontier-Terrorism- INDIA NEEDS GLOBAL COUNTER-TERRORISM. SFRATEGY, The Indian Journal of Political Science, Volume LXX, No2, Apr-June, 2009.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Explaining the Relationship between Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing Dimension of Dynamic Capabilities (Case Study: Barid Samaneh Novin Company) 1

Gholamali Tabarsa, 2Akram Hadizadeh Moghadam, 3Mohammad Hamidian 1 Associate Professor, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran Iran 2 Associate Professor, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran 3 MA in Executive Master of Business Administration, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran Abstract: This research intends to study the relationship between Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities. Regarding the growing significance of Customer Knowledge Management and central role of customer in competitive environments mentioned in Delta theory on the one hand, and companies' endeavors to attain constant competitive advantage especially in dynamic and unruly environments grained in dynamic capabilities concept on the other hand ,It is expected that combined surveying of these two items -Dynamic Capabilities and Customer Knowledge Management - Could be the solving key for some of the existing problem locks in the world of competition. Since Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities is one of its key factors and refers to conscious, dynamic and continuous recognition of opportunities, threats and challenges an organization being confronted with ,investigating the relationship between Customer Knowledge Management and this dimension of Dynamic Capabilities has been considered as driving force of this study. This research has been conducted in Barid Samaneh Novin Company, one of the top leader companies in ICT industry of Iran. Due to high uncertainties surrounding the company and diversity of customer's choice, it's continuously facing different challenges. Research findings attained through questionnaire indicate a positive significant relationship between Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities. This result can be a good guidance for managers to improve quick response capacity of organization and adopt strategic solutions for gaining constant competitive advantage.

Keywords: Dynamic Capabilities; sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities; Customer Knowledge Management; Knowledge about Customer; Knowledge from Customer; Knowledge for Customer.

I. Introduction Becoming a leader in competitive environment requires in time response and reaction to market sagacity and also quick and flexible innovation in products and services. Improving and developing capacities for quick responding is a significant method of coping with competitive challenges by means of speed and flexibility. In case of facing a dynamic environment, company has to renovate its valuable resources in order to consolidate competitive advantage. Dynamic Capabilities lead companies to have influence on such kind of continuous changes. In the age known as knowledge era, we can hardly find any concept independent of knowledge.

Nonaka believes successful companies are those who constantly create knowledge for solving new problems, spread it through the whole company and change it quickly to new technology and products. In addition to the above, nowadays the importance of customer's role as one of the key elements of success in organizations is completely obvious for everyone and management scientists and specialists have brought up many theories about customer for achieving competitive advantage, among which we can mention the Delta theory by Arnold Hax and Nicolas Majluf from MIT University. These two have introduced customer as the main axis of business activities in their book. Delta model actually offers a strategic framework in which customer is the core of management system. This model examines the main strategic options and tries to establish a close connection with customer. Considering knowledge and information as most basic features of dynamic organizations, and accepting the truth that customers are one of the most critical and crucial elements for each company we conclude that keeping, seizing and attracting customers are among the most important goals of competitive organizations. Now the question is that how Customer Knowledge Management is related to Dynamic Capabilities?

Since Sensing dimension is one of the key factors of Dynamic Capabilities and refers to those organizational mechanisms of conscious, dynamic and continuous recognition of opportunities, threats and challenges, investigating the relation between this dimension and Customer Knowledge Management is the main topic of this research.[5-6-8-9]

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II. Literature Review Customer Knowledge Management: Customer Knowledge Management is a dynamic process of obtaining and improving valuable information about customers by means of different methods and approaches and also shares the customer knowledge in the organization. Davos defines the Customer Knowledge Management as using knowledge "for", "from "and "about" customer to increase abilities for customers by organization. [2-10] Knowledge about Customer: This knowledge is collected in order to understand customer motivations and take steps toward giving service in a personal way and includes customer's history, contacts, needs and expectations from a shopping. In addition to rare data and previous transactions, Knowledge about Customer also considers the present needs, future demands, contacts, purchasing activities and financial ability of customers. Knowledge about customer is being collected during the process of supporting and customer relationship management service and analyzed through the process of customer relationship management.[2-10] Knowledge from Customer: It's the knowledge customers have acquired from products, suppliers and markets and organization obtains it in an appropriate way. Acquiring this knowledge demands efficient system of communication between organization and customer. The acquired knowledge from customer should be used with the purpose of creating and offering services, products, ideas and products and service development.

However, methods of acquiring knowledge from customers are different and each company should recognize and choose appropriate solutions according to its conditions and capacities.[2-10] Knowledge for Customer: In order to support customers through their purchasing cycle a continuous flow of knowledge should be directed from organization to the customers (Knowledge for Customer) in a way that increases customer's trust and confidence in organization products and services. Knowledge for customers includes information about products, markets and suppliers. This dimension of knowledge will also affect customer perception of service quality. [2-10] Dynamic Capabilities: Dynamic capabilities term was first propounded by Pisano, Sheun, and Teece in the 90s (1990) and Helfat in 2007. In 1997 Teece defines Dynamic capabilities as: "The organization's ability to integrate, build, and re-configure the inner and outer capabilities to deal with rapidly changing environments."

Dynamic Capabilities enable business enterprises to create, develop and protect those intangible assets that lead to long-term survival and life of the organization. The foundation of Dynamic Capabilities is the distinct skills, processes, procedures, organizational structures, decision rules and principles that are needed to enhance the level of sensing, seizing and re-configuration of the organization's capacities .According to Teece Dynamic Capabilities can be divided into the following sections: 1 - Sensing the environmental opportunities and threats 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Seizing and taking advantage of opportunities 3 - Managing Threats and re- configuration Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities: Sensing refers to mechanisms, processes and capabilities that lead organization toward conscious, dynamic and continuous recognition of environmental opportunities, threats and challenges.[3-4-11] III. Research Methodology Research hypotheses: 1. There is a significant and positive relationship between "knowledge about customer" in Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities.

2. There is a significant and positive relationship between "knowledge from customer" in Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities.

3. There is a significant and positive relationship between "knowledge for customer" in Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities.

4. There is a significant and positive relationship between Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities.

Research Model and Variables: As it is shown in Figure 1, it is assumed that there is a relationship between dimensions of Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities.

Figure 1: Research Conceptual model for explaining the relation between dimensions of Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities.

Knowledge for Customer

Knowledge from Customer

Knowledge about Customer

Customer Knowledge Management

Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities

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Data Collection Tools: Collecting data for this study, the researcher- made questionnaires of Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities were used. Customer Knowledge Management questionnaire was designed according to Feng, T. and Tian, J. theory (2004) and also Bunches of Grapes frame work by Shami Zanjani.[7-10] Dynamic Capabilities questionnaire was designed according to Teece theories based on five-point Likert scale.[11] Answers have been rated up from a score of 1 (completely disagree) to score 5 (totally agree).

Population: Study sample included all staff members of Barid Samaneh Novin Company. The population size of this research was 71 people.

Sample Size and Calculation Method: Cochran's sample size formula was used to obtain the sample size which equaled to 61. After distribution and collection 62 questionnaires were available.

Reliability and Validity of the Research Tool: Assessing the reliability of the research, formal and content reliability was used in this study. To do so, questionnaire was given to 3 management professionals and 6 elite members of the research population. As a result, after editing and restoring the items of questionnaire according to its compliance with survey objectives, reliability of questionnaires was proven beside the content reliability.

To specify questionnaire validity, test and post-test method and Cronbach's alpha coefficient formula were used.

Validity ratio of the questionnaire was calculated via SPSS software using data obtained from 10 members of the research population. Test and re-test questionnaires Cronbach's alphas were respectively 0.879 and 0.960, that each were separately acceptable. To make sure of the reliability of the questionnaire, in the next step correlation of these two were measured.

Data Analysis: For classification and data analysis SPSS 20 and r 3.0.0 software are used. Based on objective, this research is practical.

IV. The Results of Hypotheses Testing 1 - Knowledge about customer in Customer Knowledge Management has a positive and significant relationship with Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities and the correlation coefficient value is 0.482. Spearman correlation coefficients value was 0.482 and Spearman correlation probability test value was 0.000 which is less than 0.05. Therefore in a significant level of 0.05 correlation between Knowledge about customer in Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities is positive and significant.

2 - Knowledge from customer in Customer Knowledge Management has a positive and significant relationship with Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities and the correlation coefficient value is 0.453. Spearman correlation coefficients value was 0.453 and Spearman correlation probability test value was 0.000 which is less than 0.05. Therefore in a significant level of 0.05 correlation between Knowledge from customer in Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities is positive and significant.

3 - Knowledge for customer in Customer Knowledge Management has no significant relationship with Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities.

4- Customer Knowledge Management has a positive and significant relationship with Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities and the correlation coefficient value is 0.369. Spearman correlation coefficients value was 0.369 and Spearman correlation probability test value was 0.003 which is less than 0.05. Therefore in a significant level of 0.05 correlation between Customer Knowledge Management and Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities is positive and significant.

Table 1: Research hypothesis test results Spearman correlation coefficients

Sensing dimension of Dynamic Capabilities

Knowledge about Customer

Knowledge from Customer

Knowledge for Customer

Customer Knowledge Management

The correlation coefficient

0.482

0.453

0.096

0.369

Sig. (2-tailed)

0.000

0.000

0.457

0.003

N

62

62

62

62

In terms of education, 12.9% of the sample had graduate degrees, 46.77% bachelor's degree and 40.32% master's degree. 4.84% of the sample had less than 2 years of work experience, 35.48% between 2 to 5 years, 40.32% between 5 to 10 years, 12.9% between 10 to 15 years and 6.45% had over 15 years of experience.

33.87% of the sample work in service unit, 12.9% in production unit, 12.9% in financial and administrative unit, 22.58% in sales and marketing department, 11.29% in systems and methods department and 6.45% were among organization top managers and board of directors.

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V. Conclusion and Recommendation Analysis of the research findings indicate that where an organization needs to identify environmental opportunities and threats, Customer Knowledge Management can play a crucial role in the process of detecting the target market needs, identifying changes in customer requirements, identifying applied innovation and some other items needed to enhance the dynamic capabilities of the organization during the "Sensing" stage . Also reinforcing Dynamic Capabilities in the field of sensing environmental opportunities and threats can have positive and significant effect on Customer Knowledge Management improvement and development in the organization as well. Results of this study show that knowledge about customer and knowledge from customer have higher priority than knowledge for customer. In other words, research findings indicate that in the case of using analytical systems to learn and understand, refine and assess the environmental opportunities and threats, sensing the existing and upcoming progresses made in technology and science ,processes of detecting target market sections, changes in customers' demands and innovation, processes of conducting research and development in the organization and choosing new technologies ,there is a significant correlation between knowledge" from" and " about "customer but not knowledge "for" customer. It could be possibly explicated that knowledge for customer has a flow from the inside out, while sensing environmental opportunities requires dynamic mechanisms of capturing valuable information from outside of the organization which has been proven by research findings demonstrating no correlation between knowledge "for" customer and Sensing dimension.

VI. References [1].

[2].

[3].

[4].

[5].

[6].

[7].

[8].

[9].

[10].

[11].

Adner, R. and Helfat, C.;"Corporate effects and dynamic managerial capabilities"; 2003.

Akhavan Peyman, Heidari Safanaz;" Customer Knowledge Management approach for achieving competitive advantage"; Modiriate Farda, 18, 2007.

Ambrosini, V and Bowman, C.; "What are dynamic capabilities and are they a useful construct in strategic management? ;"International Journal of Management Reviews; Vol 11; Issue 1 ; pp. 29-49; 2009.

Augier, M. and Teece, D.J.;"Dynamic capabilities and multinational enterprise: Penrosean insights and omissions"; Management International Review; 47; 175â&#x20AC;&#x201C;192; 2007.

Bani Asad Raza;"Strategic Management, with emphasis on economic jihad"; Imam Sadiq University Press; 2011.

Christoph Grimpe; Wolfgang Sofka and John Saee;" Managing innovation and learning in dynamic environments the role of rapid response capabilities"; 2007.

Feng T., Tian J.;" Customer Knowledge Management and Condition Analysis of Successful CKM Implementation"; Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Machine Learning and Cybernetics; Guanghou; 18-21; August, 2005.

Hax AC. 2010. The delta model : reinventing your business strategy.

Nonaka, N. Takeuchi H.;"The Knowledge Creating Company"; Oxford University Press; 1995.

Shami Zanjani Mehdi; Najaflou Fatemeh; "Presenting a conceptual framework for a typology of customer knowledge management"; information technology; Volume III; Number Nine; 163-189 ;Winter 2011.

Teece. David. J.;" Dynamic Capabilities & Strategic Management"; Oxford university press; First published 2009.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

The influence of R.W. Emerson, the modern philosopher and saint on secularism and his influence on American Society. The impact of the Bhagavad Gita on R.W. Emerson and Secularism 1

Shivadurga1, Prof. (Dr.) Anoop Gupta2 Asst. Professor, English Department, Institute of Applied Sciences and Humanities, GLA University, Mathura. U.P. India.

2 Director, I.A.H., GLA University, Mathura, U.P., India.

The term ‘Secularism’ was first used by the British writer, George Jacob Holyoake in 1851. 1 Holyoake stated that Secularism is independent of Christianity. “Secularism maintains that there is light and guidance in Secular truth, whose conditions and sanctions exists independently and acts forever. Secular knowledge is manifestly that kind of knowledge which is founded in this life, which relates to the conduct of this life, conduces to the welfare of this life, and is capable of being tested by the experience of this life.” 2 It is clear from the above that Holyoake’s views are based on his realization on the limitations of Christianity. This is a view he followed from the great American philosopher, R.W. Emerson, widely acknowledged as the originator of the Transcendental Movement and also called as the prophet of the American religion. In fact the influence of Emerson on Holyoake runs even deeper. “The independent and permanent concept of truth, the importance of the present and the present life and in view of this, conduct of life, experience and welfare of this life” are concepts developed by R.W. Emerson in the light of the Bhagavad Gita, as I have explained in my research paper “The Impact of the Bhagavad Gita on R.W.Emerson”. Holyoake further describes secularism, “Secularism is a code of duty pertaining to this life, founded on considerations purely human, and intended mainly for those who find theology indefinite or inadequate, unreliable or unbelievable. Its essential principles are three (1) The improvement of this life by material means. (2) That science is available providence of man. (3) That it is good to do good. Whether there be other good or not, the good of the present life is good, and it is good to seek that good.” 3 It is clear from the context that Holyoake is talking about Christian theology here. The influence of Emerson on his concept is also clear and definite. Emerson has developed and manifested “the improvement of life, the importance of science, the concept of providence and good of the present life” in his works. I have shown these concepts of Emerson were influenced by the Bhagavad Gita in my above mentioned research paper.

Thus Emerson developed and formed his concepts of secularism from the Bhagavad Gita and the Sanatan Dharm.

In governance, secularism does not support any particular religion. It replaces religious law such as Sharia with a common code. In the West there was a struggle between kings (by mandate of considering themselves divine) and Pope (By virtue of ultimate authority over the Church and by extension the state) to control the Church and the State. A lasting solution used down the ages was provided by Martin Luther who articulated separation of the Church and state with his “Doctrine of two Kingdoms”. 4 The views of Holyoake should be seen in this historical context which did not exist in India. In ancient India, Kings were expected to work for the wellbeing and good of all the people as a concept of Dharm. “Dharm denotes virtuous deeds”. 5 “A goal of Dharm is universal welfare”. 6 In fact free India looks up to its past. The symbols of Dharm Chakra and Saranath lions are National symbols. The concept of Secularism is seen in historical India much before it originated in the West.

There was harmonious development of Society with tolerance of different religions from the times of Maurya Empire to the Gupta Empire and to Akbar. All were influenced by Sanatan Vedic Dharm which is a concept different from Abrahamic religions. Here we see secularism contained in Sanatan Dharm and the concept of Dharm. Indian Vedic concepts also influenced East and South East Asia carrying the concepts of secularism there. However there were occasional forcible conversions and religious persecutions such as by Aurangazeb.

In fact Bhakti era Hindu Saints are ideal examples of Secularists since they resisted and desisted from forcible conversions. In contemporary India Secularism has deteriorated to pandering to and appeasement of religious sections. India has often taken a weak stand on encroachment of its territory, terrorism, communal disharmony to pander to religious sections. The creation of Pakistan on religious grounds is an assault on the idea of Secularism due to such an approach. Resultantly its soil has generated several terrorist organizations inflicting violence on their countrymen, Afghanistan, India and the World. This is contrasted by the largely peaceful Islamic populations of other Central Asian countries such as Kazakhstan, Uzvekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Krgyzstan. Recent Indian secularism is further questioned. In the Shah Bano case a legislative amendment

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was brought in the parliament to appease Muslim sections and minority. This over turned a Supreme Court judgment. The states denied a woman of 62 and mother of five her right on being divorced under the uniform code. Today a common civil code, a prime secular ideal, is only a mirage in India, showing how far we are from secularism. On the other hand R.W. Emerson, the philosopher stood influenced by Vedic ideals and the Bhagavad Gita. “I owed a magnificent day to the Bhagvad-Gita. It was as if an empire spoke to us, nothing small or unworthy, but large, serene, consistent, the voice of an old intelligence which in another age and climate had pondered and thus disposed of the same such as questions which exercise us”. 7 In view of this we shall see the Influence of Emerson and through him Sanatan Dharm and the Bhagavad Gita on American Society.

The comprehensive, permeating, all encompassing and inspiring influence Emerson had on the changing American society is eminent and central to it. It is undisputable that Emerson was the pre eminent leader of the transcendental movement of mid 19th century. In fact the philosophy of transcendentalism was delineated and its formulation started in his 1836 groundbreaking essay, “Nature”. It is further clearly stated in his essay “Transcendentalism”. His subsequent work, “The American scholar” (1837) lifted American thought to a new level-the independence and separateness of American individuality and identity. In the speech Emerson declared literary independence of the United States urging Americans to create a style of their own and free from Europe.

8 This is widely held so by American intellectuals. In fact Oliver Homes, Senior considered it to be America’s “intellectual declaration of independence” 9 so I think being on a higher, deeper and more pervasive level than the merely political declaration of independence. In fact a student then in Harvard, James Lowell could appreciate it correctly, stating it was “an event without former parallel in our literary annals” 10 However Reverend John Pierce, who was present in the audience stated it was “An apparently incoherent and unintelligible address”. 11 However this should be seen in the background of Emerson’s doubts and differences with Christianity which had cropped up long before. As such there was no reason for a member of the Ministry (Church) who attended Emerson’s address barring reactionary. The Church in order to defend its teachings and social position probably wanted to belittle R.W. Emerson. However the great character of Emerson could not be cloaked thus and shone like the Sun. So the prior view (of the impartial student) is one widely held correct by History, Literature, Culture and Intellectuals. The relevance and influence of the political declaration of Independence in American consciousness is well established by various commentators. Thus American Literary Independence was pervasively influenced and enormously uplifted by R.W. Emerson’s views and concepts. In fact they are one of the fundamental concepts of American thinking now. Literary independence helped him developing a new and united culture of Americans, apart from the culture of their European ethnic heritage. The largest group of white Americans then was ethnic Germans. Political power was dominated by Ethnic English and was Ethnic English oriented at the time of American war of Independence. This led to a repression of Ethnic German political Influence in America, which could have caused a backlash at a later stage. Political power changed after the American war of Independence with French Military support. However independent America continued with English as its cultural language and also the lingua franca. Due to Emerson at the time of the Civil War this multi Ethnic White America of European heritage united itself in an American cultural identity.

In my opinion due to the forging of a separate and inclusive United American intellectual identity, the plurality of German-ethnic people among White Americans were not swayed by Ethnic considerations into siding with Nazi Germany in the Second World War. This avoided a catastrophe on France and England during the Second World War. It also helped in the U.S. serving as a safe heaven for the Jews escaping genocide.

His mode of dissemination of his thoughts was through numerous essays which were published and freely distributed, along with his exhaustive and more than 1500 public lectures though out the country. This showed his belief in free dissemination and receiving of ideas, right of people to hold and spread opinions, and to participate in the country’s culture, all today’s basic human rights and essential unchangeable part of Modern America. All these are recognizable in the UN human rights declaration of 1948. The pre eminent position of US in early post World War 2 UN is well known. It shows the depth of influence exerted by Emerson in the world. Now we will see his influence on another prominent transcendental thinker, Thoreau. In 1837, Emerson asked Thoreau, "Do you keep a journal?" “The question had a permanent influence on Thoreau 12. Emerson's own journal is a vast corpus. In fact he worked out his concepts and ideas first in his journals later transplanting them in his essays. Some scholars consider the journal to be Emerson's key literary work’.13 So we see R.W. Emerson preached what he practiced. He freely shared his insight, learning and knowledge so that others and through them society may gain from it, instead of holding on to it merely to increase his own uniqueness and importance. This is similar to Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita imparting full knowledge to all through His disciple Arjun and the disciple of Rishi Vedvyas, Sanjay. 14 The Transcendentalist created a fountain of thought and originality and experimentation during the 1830s and 1840s. The writings produced by the movement endured and is today recognized as a corpus of American classics. They provided a powerful inspiration to later social reform movements such as the movement of Mahatma Gandhi and the American civil rights movements of 1960s. These incorporated or were similar to Thoreau’s principle of Non-violent resistance to oppressive and obdurate political authority. Thus these writings

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were relevant and applicable for later times. “Emerson was undoubtedly the towering personality and inspiration for the transcendentalist movement. Emerson became the leading light of American intellect and culture. He was nicknamed the Concord sage”. 15 Herman Melville was initially a critic of Emerson and thought he had “a defect in the region of the heart and a self conceit so intensely intellectual that at first one hesitates to call it by its right name”. Later Herman changed his views and stated that Emerson was “a great man”. 16 This shows opposition to R.W. Emerson ultimately through understanding evolved into admiration and inspiration. I cannot help noticing that Herman would have known that R.W. Emerson concluded that Jesus was “a great man but not a son of God”. Another transcendentalist and minister, Theodore Parker noticed Emerson’s inspirational qualities “the brilliant genius of Emerson rose in the winter nights, and hung over Boston, drawing the ingenuous young people to look up to that great new star, a beauty and a mystery which charmed for the moment, while it gave also perennial inspiration, as it led them forward along new paths, and towards new hopes”. 17 R.W. Emerson’s contemporaries such as Walt Whitman and Henry David Thoreau were greatly influenced by his work. It also influenced thinkers and writers in the entire world and for all time especially more so in the United States. It was not possible for any intellectual or thinker from this time to be either unaware or uninfluenced by the Transcendentalist movement. The Transcendentalist movement became universally known and acknowledged after sweeping through American thought and permeating its culture. Though R.W. Emerson may not have been referred to or evoked in some periods of American culture, but his concepts and ideas are the relevant subject matter in every period. The words of his junior contemporary Swami Vivekananda are especially pertinent since he is a universally established authority on the Bhagvad Gita. In fact he is a divine saintly authority. He said, “I would advice those of you who have not read that book (the Bhagvad Gita) to read it. If you only knew how much it has influenced your own country even! If you want to know the source of Emerson’s inspiration, it is this book, the Gita. He (Emerson) went to see Carlyle, and Carlyle made him a present of the Gita (Bhagvad Gita); and that little book is responsible for the Concord Movement. All the broad movements in America in one way or the other, are indebted to the Concord Party. The central figure of the Gita is Krishna.” 18 Apart from educating us on the influence of Emerson on American thought Vivekananda also educates us about the influence of the Bhagvad Gita on Emerson,an education imparted by his insight founded on his divine authority. Prominent thinkers who note Emerson’s vast influence are Nietzsche and William James who was Emerson’s godson. “There is little disagreement that R.W. Emerson was the most influential writer of 19th century America, though these days he is largely the concern of scholars. Walt Whitman, Henry David Thoreau and William James were all positive Emersonians, while Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Henry James were Emersonians in denial they set themselves in opposition to the sage,( but probably since Emerson’s works were so all pervading and comprehensive as to cover everything), there was no escaping his influence. To T.S. Eliot, Emerson’s essays were an “encumbrance” probably since they were so all pervading and comprehensive as to cover everything. Waldo the sage was not actively quoted from 1914 until 1965,when he returned to Shine, after surviving in the work of major American poets like Robert Frost, Wallace Stevens and Hartcrane”. 19 Harold Bloom in his book, the American Religion repeatedly describes Emerson as “the prophet of the American Religion”. The American religion here means, firstly, indigenous American religions such as Mormonism and Christian science, which arose contemporary to Emerson. Secondly it means mainline Protestant churches that as per Bloom have become more Gnostic in the United States as compared to Europe; an observation supported by modern scholarship. So here we can see how the Bhagavad Gita through Emerson has enriched the American Religion. In the “Western canon” Harold Bloom states, “The only equivalent reading experience that I know is to reread endlessly in the notebooks and journals of Ralph Waldo Emerson, the American version of Montaigne.” 20 Bloom thus implies that there are few equals of Emerson in the Literary world. Bloom’s “the best poems of the English Language” included several of Emerson’s poems. He also wrote that none of these poems are as outstanding as the best of Emerson’s essays, which Bloom stated as Self-Reliance, Circles, Experience and “nearly all of Conduct of Life”.

The U.S. Government in 1940 issued a posted stamp commemorating Emerson. It was a time of uncertainty and doubt during the Second World War when the US was looking for support towards its identity- support it found in the identity and influence of R.W. Emerson. Like Herman Harward Melvill the divinity School is also an Institution that first criticized Emerson’s views but later educated itself on his insight thereby changing their own views on Christianity by recognizing Emerson as a great man. This was also as with the passage of time Emerson’s all encompassing influence became evident. On May 2006, 168 years after Emerson delivered his “Divinity school Address”, which was criticized widely by the Harvard Divinity school, this Institution announced the establishment of Emerson Unitarian Universalist Association Professorship 21 Harvard Divinity School, May 2006 Harvard has also named a building , ‘Emerson Hall’ (1900) after him. Acknowledging the influence of Emerson’s Essays, The Ralph Waldo Emerson Prize is awarded annually to high school students for essays on historical subjects. 22 -a contemporary example of Emerson’s influence. In April 2012 edition of the “Atlantic”, the cover story “Is Face Book making us lonely?” was written by the novelist Stephen Marche. In his

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effort to convince the readers, Marche delves upon news reports of an individual’s death, opinion of a Chicago psychologist, data report, some prominent authors and finally U.S. cultural history, wherein he states “the great American essay is Emerson’s ‘Self-reliance’.” A critique of this article was written in the prominent and major American Newspaper, The Washington post, by the renowned Professor EricKlienberg. 23 It is telling and pertinent to note the following. In his eagerness to counter and repudiate Marche, Professor Eric finds defect in almost all the myriad opinions and findings of the novelist Marche in the Trans spectral fields he has referred to.

One of the few matters he does not oppose and repudiate, in fact agrees verbatim and also feels important enough to refer and quote in his own response is Marche’s opinion.“The Great American Essay is Emerson’s Self-reliance”. His partial opposition was that on the aspect of self reliance such as living alone and key forms of personal autonomy, Americans are behind West European countries and of Japan. Here I point out that living alone is not an aspect of self-reliance at all in isolation as conceived by Emerson. Emerson was a practitioner of his own ideals and was a family and social man not staying alone. Professor Eric offers no evidence whatsoever to back up his latter claim. In any case there is nothing to bar personal autonomy as a concept being present or taken up by other countries from the U.S., being inspired from it. At the same time comparative personal autonomy does not reduce its central influence in American culture. The only other work quoted as a reference to the U.S. cultural history by Marche and also his opinion acknowledged unconditionally again by Professor Eric is Whitman’s “Song of myself.” Marche opines that it is “The great American poem”. We can see even the title of this poem has the influence of R.W. Emerson’s central doctrine “The infinitude of the private man” 24, thus showing the pervasive influence of Emerson’s concepts on American culture and thought. In fact Emerson’s direct influence on Whitman himself has been covered earlier. Understanding the influence of Emerson on American society is essential to study secular development there.

References: 1.

2 3.

4.

5.

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R Holyoake, GJ(1896) the origin and nature of Secularism, London; Watts and co. page 51.

Secularism Catholic encyclopedia. newadvent.org Holyoake, George J.(1896) English secularism. Chicago: the open court publishing company.

R Madison to Schaeffer, 1821.Books.google.com.

Hindu Dharma. The Universal way of life , Sri Chandrasekar Saraswati Sankaracharya, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Mumbai. ISBN. 81-7276-055-8. Page 10.

Hindu Dharma. The Universal way of life , Sri Chandrasekar Saraswati Sankaracharya, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Mumbai. ISBN. 81-7276-055-8. Page 120.

Philosophy of Hinduism-An introduction by TC Galav-Universal science-Religion, P 65, Hinduism-By Linda Johnsen, P 42, Hindu scriptures and American Transcendentalists-Umesh Patri p22-23.

Watson, Peter . Ideas: A History of Thought and Invention, from Fire to Freud. New York: Harper Perennial, 2005: Pg 688.ISBN 978-0-06-093564-1 Richardson, Robert D. Jr. (1995), Emerson: The Mind on Fire. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. Pg- 263 ISBN 0-520-08808-5.

Mowat, R.B. The Victorian Age, London: Senate, 1995 Pg. 83 Menand, Louis. The Metaphysical Club: A story of Ideas in America.New York: Farrar, Straus and Girous, 2001: 18. ISBN 185958-161-8 Buell, Lawrence(2003). Emerson, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.pg.121, ISBN 0674-01139-2.

Rosenwald, Lawerence (1988), Emerson and the Art of the Diary, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505333-8.

Bhagavad Gita, chapter 18, shlok-18.73, 18.74, 18.75.

Buell, Lawrence(2003). Emerson, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-67401139-2 Pg 34 Sullivan, Wilson(1972), New England Men of Letters. New York: The Macmillan Company. ISBN 0027886808 pg 123.

Baker, Carlos(1990). Emerson Among the Eccentrics: A Group Portrait. Ney York: Viking Press. ISBN 0-670- 86675-X. Pg. 201.

The Complete works of Swami Vivekandna, Advaita Ashrama Publication Eighth Reprint of Subsidized Edition May 1999 6M3C ISBN 61-65301-46-8. Vol.4 p.90 October 12, 2008, the New York Times.

Bloom, Harold, The Western Canon, London Papermac. 147-148. http://www.hds.harvard.edu/news/pr/emerson_uu.html. http://www.ter.org/ter/emerson.htm 22 April 2012. Sunday Hindustan Times, New Delhi Edition Ward, Julius H. (1887). The Andover Review. Houghton Mifflin.p. 389

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

EMOTIONAL MATURITY, SELF CONFIDENCE AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF ADOLESCENTS IN RELATION TO THEIR GENDER AND URBAN-RURAL BACKGROUND Krishan Lal Assistant Professor Indus College of Education Delhi Road Rohtak, Haryana, INDIA. Abstract: In the light of the observations, analysis and interpretations of the data, the following recommendations are put forward for the betterment of young adolescents. To make them emotionally mature and self confident, they should be provided facilities of guidance and counseling with the help of counselors. They should be given more opportunities for better career enhancement. Reward for better work to students and congenial climate for academic betterment should be timely provided. The curriculum could be revamped and updated. Modern educational gadgets could be employed in teaching to enhance their academic performance. It will go a long way in updating the knowledge of the students and prepare them to face the future challenges with confidence and courage. Suitable and positive climate should be provided to the students which can further enhance their achievement. Co-curricular activities should be introduced to the adolescents that can lead them to become more self confident and mature person. Administrators in the field of education must ensure the congenial school environment for the students which motivate them to achieve their academic goals. Incentives and scholarships should be given to needy students. To develop better understanding among student and teachers, PTA meetings should be conducted frequently.

Continuous evaluation by conducting demonstration, provision for smart class (facilities of educational gadgets in the classrooms), quiz programmes and English language laboratories could be carried out for better achievement of the student.

I. INTRODUCTION Children are the future citizens of a country. They not only constitute a large group but also vulnerable or special risk groups of our community. Children are the greatest resource of the nation. The children are required to adopt certain behavioural standards for the integration of the society. These standards vary somewhat from culture to culture and society to society but generally they are the key regulators that guide the child towards the social and away from anti-social behaviour. Although adolescent period of child’s life is of great importance.

Adolescence is one of the important periods of life. It is characterized by innumerable and unique problems.

With the demands of globalization, the nature and number of challenges have become still more compared to the yesteryears. Family, which plays an important role in the personality development of adolescents, is undergoing structural, emotional and inter-actional transformations. Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and mental human development that occurs between childhood and adulthood. This transition involves biological (i.e. Pubertal), social, and psychological changes, shown in their personality traits. Adolescent period is associated with notable changes in mood sometimes known as mood swings. Cognitive, emotional and attitudinal changes which are characteristic of adolescence, often take place during this period, and this can be a cause of conflict, stress and depression on one hand and positive personality development on the other. Because the adolescents are experiencing various strong cognitive and physical changes, hence proper guidance at this crucial phase of life is all the more important for enhancing their positive self-concept, enriching their knowledge and skills in decision-making, conflict resolution and management of emotions. Researchers have proved that this is the most impressionable period of one’s life and it is during this time the vital foundation is laid for optimum development of an individual personality. The attitude which a child hold towards himself especially those dealing with self esteem and self worth play an important role in the development of his personality. It has been argued that the child’s self confidence and his educational achievement in school are not independent phenomenon. These are affected by some of the factors like school and family environments as well as level of parent involvement. Self confidence is an essential factor for achievement. It acts as a foundation for the development of human beings. Success in any field largely depends on degree of self confidence of a person. People having high self confidence faces the difficulties firmly and perform their work in positive manner.

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EMOTIONAL MATURITY: In the present circumstances, youth as well as children are facing difficulties in life. These difficulties are giving rise to many psycho-somatic problems such as anxiety, tentions, frustrations and emotional upsets in day to day life. So, the study of emotional life is now emerging as a descriptive science, comparable with anatomy. It deals with an interplay of forces with intensities and quantities. As emotions do play central role in the life of an individual, one is expected to have higher emotional maturity in order to lead a effective life. It is also true that our behavior is constantly influenced by the emotional maturity level that we possess. Especially, the adolescents who are observed to be highly emotional in their dealings need to be studied.

SELF CONFIDENCE: The personality pattern is a unified multidimensional structure in which the concept of self is the core or centre of gravity (Breckenridge & Vincent, 1965). The self is a composite of a person’s thoughts and feelings, strivings and hopes, fears and fantasies, his view of what he is, what he has been, what he might become, and his attitude pertaining to his worth. Self-Confidence is a positive attitude of oneself towards one’s self concept. It is an attribute of perceived self. Self-Confidence refers to a person’s perceived ability to tackle situations successfully without leaning on others and to have a positive self –evaluation. Self-Confidence is the conviction that one is generally capable of producing desired results. Increase in self-confidence helps to develop innate qualities of self worthy and competency by the reinforcement. Self-confidence is related with success. A confident attitude, a belief and a faith in oneself and one’s ideas are essential in getting ahead but it should also be remembered that self-confidence grows with success that means it is desirable to develop those qualities within oneself that makes for success. It has been found that the child who perceives himself to be able, confident, adequate and a person of worth has more energy to spend on academic achievement and will use his intelligence to be utmost on the other hand, the child who perceives himself as worthless incapable and less confident may not come up to the optimum level of attainment. In general, self confidence refers to an individual’s ability to act effectively in a situation to overcome obstacles and to get things to go alright. Self confidence is central to good psychological adjustment, personal happiness and effective functioning in children and adults. The term Self confidence is used to refer to individuals’ judgment about themselves. Children with over all high self concept are confident about their abilities to accomplish their goals, academic competence and relationship with parents and peers. Children with low Self confidence tend to be apprehensive about voicing unpopular or unusual ideas and avoid attractive attention (Mussen et al; 1979). The nature of Self confidence is to analyze ‘himself’ and this analysis helps the children in his development emotional maturity and achievement. A child has faith in himself is a child of self evidence. He takes challenges as motivation, struggle hard for getting success. Kumar (2003) found that high confident and low confident child differs significantly on adjustment.

ACHIEVEMENT: An achievement is all an obtaining for a exertion or an accomplishment of an effort.

Achievement is thus an attainment, a proficiency gained or an ability required. In the field of education an achievement is the amount of knowledge or skills that a child has learnt in a particular field or subject. It is an exposition of his present level of performance. Quality of performance has become the key factor for personal progress. Parents desire that their children climb the ladder of performance to as high a level as possible. In school, great emphasis is laid on achievement right from the beginning of formal education. So, lot of time and effort of the schools are used for helping students to achieve better in scholastic endeavours.

SIGNIFICANCE: The result of present study will provide a base which may help in strengthening or improving the achievement of the adolescents. The findings will also act as a linkage of emotional maturity and self confidence which in turn imparts a significant role in the development and achievements of adolescents.

This study correlates the emotional maturity with self confidence which may lead to greater achievements for prosperous and bright future of secondary school students. It will also give information to create favorable environment for greater development which may also help in the development of child educational programme.

After review of literature and researches done earlier related to this proposed study the investigator found that the number of researches specially on the study of emotional maturity, self confidence and academic achievement of adolescents are very less. Therefore the researcher undertook of this study of emotional maturity, self confidence and academic achievement of adolescents in relation to their gender and urban- rural background.

II. OBJECTIVES i.

To study and compare the emotional maturity of male and female adolescents. ii.

To study and compare the self confidence of male and female adolescents. iii.

To study and compare the academic achievement of male and female adolescents. iv.

III. HYPOTHESES i.

There exists no significant difference between male and female adolescents on emotional maturity. ii.

There exists no significant difference between male and female adolescents on self confidence. iii.

There exists no significant difference between male and female adolescents on academic achievement.

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DELIMITATIONS The present study being exploratory in nature has following delimitations: i.

The geographical area of the study was delimited to the senior secondary schools of Chandigarh city. ii.

Adolescents have been selected on stratified random bases. iii.

Sample for the study was delimited to adolescents of class XIth in the age range of 16 and above. iv.

The present study is delimited to five variables only.

SAMPLE: In the present study 200 Senior Secondary school students studying in Govt. Model Senior Secondary Schools and Govt. Senior Secondary Schools situated in the city of Chandigarh formed the sample.

For sample selection stratified random sampling technique was used. A list of Govt. Sr. Sec.Schools was obtained from Chandigarh Education Department, Chandigarh. Out of list, schools were picked up randomly, following the lottery technique. As soon as the investigator reached the school, all the students of 11 th class were got assembled and list of all such students who were found present, was prepared. Out of the list so prepared, twenty-five male and twenty- five female were picked up randomly. Similar method was adopted with other schools of city. Thus a sample of 200 students was taken into consideration.

TOOLS: The following tools were used for collecting data for the study: Sr. No. 1

Tool used

Variable

Emotional maturity scale by Km.Roma Pal(1984)

Emotional maturity

2

Agnohotri's Self-Confidence Inventory(ASCI) by Dr.Rekha Agnihotry(1987)

Self confidence

3

Achievement scores of the students were taken from their Xth class annual results.

Academic achievement

DATA COLLECTION: After the selection of tools, the investigator visited the selected schools of Chandigarh city. To ensure quick and complete return of questionnaire, they were personally given to the selected sample of students. Before giving the questionnaires, proper rapport was established with the subjects. Then the purpose of the questionnaires was explained to them. The students were told that these tests had nothing to do with their achievement in final examination. It was made clear to them that their results will be kept confidential and will be used for research purpose only. The data was collected by administering the tests in groups in two sessions.

After collection of data in this way, the work of scoring was done strictly according to the instruction given in the respective manuals of the various tools. The data so collected was subjected to statistical processing and results were obtained STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED: Mean: A measure of central tendency representing the average of a data set.

where

- Total of scores N - No. of sample/ students Standard Deviation: The extent to which data depart from mean symbolized as by where

S.D. or = - Sum total of square of the scores - Total of scores N - No. of sample/ students

SED

=

where

= Standard deviation of the first sample 2 = Standard deviation of the second sample N1 = Number of students in first sample N2 = Number of students in second sample

‘t’ test

‘t’ = Where M1 M2 SED

= Mean of first sample = Mean of second sample = Standard error difference IV. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA The essential step in the process of research, after the collection of data, is the organization, analysis and interpretation of the data and formulation of conclusions and generalization to get a meaningful picture out of the raw information thus collected. The mass of data collected needs to be systemized and organized, i.e., edited, classified and tabulated before it can serve the purpose. Data are meaningless heaps of material without analysis and interpretation. The purpose of analysis is to find out the relationship between the variables, which lead to the verification of hypothesis. This is achieved by logical organization of data and use of relevant statistical

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techniques. After analysis, interpretation has to be done carefully, logically and critically by examining the results obtained, keeping in view limitation of the sample chosen, tools selected and used in the study.

Objective (i): To study and compare the emotional maturity of male and female adolescents.

Hypothesis (i): There exists no significant difference between male and female adolescents on emotional maturity.

Table 1(A) Showing the Means, S.Ds., SED, ‘t’ Value and Level of Significance of 100 male and 100 female adolescents on Emotional Maturity.

Variable

Male

Emotional Maturity

Mean 131.28

Female

S.D. 16.730

Mean 136.02

S.D. 15.000

Standard Error Difference (SED)

‘t’ Value

2.247

2.110 (S)*

* Significant at 0.05 level of significance Male Mean

Male S.D.

Female Mean 136.02

131.28

150

Female S.D.

100 50

16.73

15

0 Emotional Maturity Figure 1: Showing Means, S.Ds. of Male and Female Adolescents on Emotional Maturity Interpretation: Table 1(A) shows that mean scores of male adolescents for emotional maturity is 131.28 ± 16.73 and female adolescents is 136.02 ± 15.00. The calculated t-value is 2.11 which is significant at 0.05 level of significance. It indicates that there is significant difference between the male and female adolescents of their level of emotional maturity. Thus our hypothesis that, “There exists no significant difference between male and female adolescents on emotional maturity” is REJECTED at 0.05 level of significance.

Flexibility and Adaptability

26.20

5.043

26.68

4.834

.699

0.687 (NS)**

* Significant at 0.05 level of significance ** Not significant at 0.05 level of significance Objective (ii): To study and compare the self confidence of male and female adolescents.

Hypothesis (ii): There exists no significant difference between male and female adolescents on self confidence.

Table 2 Showing the Means, S.Ds., SED,‘t’ Value and Level of Significance of 100 male and 100 female adolescent on Self Confidence.

Variable Self Confidence

Male Mean S.D. 24.25 7.217

Female Mean S.D. 26.61 6.471

Standard Error Difference (SED)

‘t’ Value

0.969

2.435 (S)*

* Significant at 0.05 level of significance Male Mean 30

Male S.D.

Female Mean

Female S.D.

26.61

24.25

20 10

7.217

6.471

0 Self Confidence Figure 2: Showing Means, S.Ds. of Male and Female Adolescents on Self Confidence

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Interpretation: Table 2 shows that mean scores of male adolescents for Self confidence is 24.25 ± 7.21 and female adolescents is 26.61 ± 6.47. The calculated t-value is 2.43 which is significant at 0.05 level of significance. It indicates that there is significant difference between the male and female adolescents on their level of self confidence. Thus our hypothesis that, “There exists no significant difference between male and female adolescents on self confidence” is REJECTED at 0.05 level of significance.

Objective (iii): To study and compare the academic achievement of male and female adolescents.

Hypothesis (iii): There exists no significant difference between male and female adolescents on academic achievement.

Table 3 Showing the Means, S.Ds., SED,‘t’ Value and Level of Significance of 100 male and 100 female adolescent on Academic Achievement.

Variable Mean

Academic Achievement

Male S.D.

53.21

Mean

9.420

56.19

Female S.D.

9.000

Standard Error Difference (SED) 1.303

‘t’ Value

2.287 (S)*

* Significant at 0.05 level of significance Male Mean 60

Male S.D.

53.21

Female Mean 56.19

Female S.D.

40

20

9.42

9

0 Academic Achievement Figure 4: Showing Means, S.Ds. of Male and Female Adolescents on Academic Achievement Interpretation: Table 3 shows that the mean scores of male adolescents for Academic achievement is 53.21 ± 9.42 and female adolescents is 56.19 ± 9.00. The calculated t-value is 2.28 which is significant at 0.05 level of significance. It indicates that there is significant difference between the male and female adolescents on their level of Academic achievement. Thus our hypothesis that, “There exists no significant difference between male and female adolescents on academic achievement” is REJECTED at 0.05 level of significance.

V. FINDINGS Major findings of the present study are as under:  There is significant difference between the male and female adolescents on emotional maturity.  There is significant difference between the male and female adolescents on self confidence.  There is significant difference between the male and female adolescents on Academic achievement.  VI. CONCLUSIONS From the above said findings we can conclude that the male adolescents are different on emotional maturity as compared to female adolescents. Female adolescents are higher on self confidence in comparison to male adolescents. The female adolescents show better academic achievement as compared to male adolescents. The urban and rural adolescents show similarity on emotional maturity but there is difference in self confidence, the rural adolescents showing higher self confidence. On the academic achievement front the urban adolescents stand better than the rural adolescents.The development of any country requires integrated personality of young generation. Based on the finding and discussions, it could be concluded that we must develop positive attitude, emotional stability and self confidence among adolescents and aspire them for good academic achievement. In the context of liberalization, privatization and globalization of education, a healthy, productive, creative and innovative education is the need of the hour. The education system relies on the future teachers. Teacher education is believed to be the only hope to make the society better. Teachers are the persons who could develop and mould the students as good citizen and make them emotionally matured and self confident to hold the responsibility on their shoulders for developing their nation. The young generation should be emotionally stable and confident to excel in their academic performance and enhance life skills to face the problems in future.

Moreover, it is the responsibility of the teachers and the school administrators to create a better learning environment that arouses students’ curiosity to achieve higher goals and they should ensure transfer of emotional intelligence into academic performance, critical and creative thinking.

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REFERENCES Dhall, Shikha & Thukral, Praveen (2009) Intelligence as Related to Self-confidence and Academic Achievement of School Students, Journal of All India Association for Educational Research, 21 (2), 80-83.

Garret, Henry E. (2007) Statistics in psychology and education, New Delhi: Paragon International Publishers.

Gill, R. & Saini, S. (2002) Emotional maturity among institutionalized and no-institutionalized aged in Punjab, Indian Psychological Review, 58 (3) 137-140.

Gupta, P. (1989) A comparative study between male and female adolescent school going students on emotional maturity and achievement in co and curricular activities, in 5th Survey of Research in Education by M.B. Buch (1988-1992) N.C.E.R.T., New Delhi.

Gurubasappa, H.D. (2009) Intelligence and self confidence as correlates of academic achievement of secondary school students, Edu. Tracks, 8-10, 42-43.

Hangal, Suneetha & Aminbhavi, V.A. (2007) Self- concept, emotional maturity and achievement motivation of the adolescent children of employed mothers and momemakers, Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 33 (1), 103-110.

Jha, P.K. (2002) The function of self confidence and emotional maturity in decision making style of the executives, Journal of Community Guidance and Research, 1, (3) 419-422.

Kaur, M. A Study of Emotional Maturity of Adolescents in relation to Intelligence, Academic Achievement and Environmental Catalysts.

Unpublished Ph.D. (Education) Thesis, Panjab University, 2001.

Krishnamurthy, S. (2003) Study of achievement as related to academic achievement motivation, Indian Psychological Review, 60 (2), 105112.

Mamta (2006) A comparative study of emotional maturity and anxiety of under graduate and post graduate science students in Rohtak city, Unpublished M.A. (Education) Dissertation, Department of Education, M.D. University, Rohtak, Haryana.

Pastery, G.S. & Aminbhavi, V.A. (2006) Impact of emotional maturity on stress and self confidence of adolescents, Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 32(1) 69-75.

Singaravelu, S. (2008) Emotional maturity: A significant predictor of academic success of postgraduate students, University News, 46 (25) 17-19.

Usha, P. & Lakshimi, S. (2008) Influence of parenting style and self confidence on mental health of secondary school pupils, Journal of All India Association for Educational Research, 20 (1-2).

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

PAIN MANAGEMENT, MENTAL HEALTH AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AMONG PATIENTS DIAGNOSE WITH CHRONIC PAIN IN NASARAWA STATE, NIGERIA Nalah Augustine Bala Behavioural Health Unit, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Nasarawa State University, Keffi-Nigeria Abstract: The study examined the relationship between acute and chronic pain on mental health and psychological well-being among diagnose patients in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Research samples of 350 participants drawn from three hospitals in Nasarawa State were used; 79 acute and 271 chronic patients were involved, their age range from 18 to 60 years. Simple random sampling technique was used to ensure equal representation. Brief Pain Inventory (BPI) and Mental Pain Assessment Card (MPAC) were used for the collection of data. Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) statistics was used at 0.05 significant level and analyzed thus: t.cal = 7.82; t.obs = 1.96; df =3; P<0.05; for pain and mental health, and t.cal = 4.02; t.obs = 0.195; df = 2; P<0.05 for pain and psychological well-being. The result showed that a statistical significant relationship exists between acute and chronic pain on mental health. A significant relationship exists between acute and chronic pain on psychological wellbeing of patients diagnosed in three selected hospitals in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Based on the findings, it was recommended that unresolved PTSD symptoms influence pain, depression and result to mental disorder. Therefore, hypnotherapy and gentle stretching exercises to focus on pain management and control will help the patients regain their mental and psychological fitness.

Keywords: pain management, acute pain, chronic pain, mental health, psychological wellbeing, hypnotherapy I. Introduction Pain management is the systematic study of clinical and basic science and its application for the reduction of pain and suffering. This emphasizes an approach to treatment, blending tools, techniques and principles taken for the reduction of pain and suffering [1]. Pain is a very complex issue and there is no uniform way of controlling it. Pain is the body's way of letting 'us' know when something or some part of the body needs attention or care. Obviously a medical doctor is going to be the first person to contact if you are in any discomfort, pain or are worried about your health or wellbeing. However some pain cannot always be diagnosed or fully treated with medicine; it’s psychosomatic - pertaining to a physical disorder that is caused by or notably influenced by emotional factors" [2]. Some patients started feeling constant pain with the onset of a trauma, such as a car accident or even emotional trauma, such as divorce or childhood abuse.

Pain management depends on the exact type of pain afflicting you, as well as its location on your body. The pain can be either acute or chronic, and this will affect how you manage it. Acute pain, for the most part, results from disease, inflammation, or injury to tissues. This type of pain generally comes on suddenly, for example, after trauma or surgery, and may be accompanied by anxiety or emotional distress. The cause of acute pain can usually be diagnosed and treated, and the pain is self-limiting, that is, it is confined to a given period of time and severity. In some rare instances, it can become chronic. Chronic pain is widely believed to represent disease of mental disorder itself [3]. It can be made much worse by environmental and psychological factors. Chronic pain persists over a longer period of time than acute pain and is resistant to most medical treatments. It can—and often does—cause severe mental health problems for patients [4]. A person may have two or more co-existing chronic pain conditions [5].

The study of pain management combines psychological integrative care method of psychotherapy [6], which involves not only the relationships between the patient and the healthcare provider(s), but also the relationship the patient has with his/her entire body and mind—a holistic approach [7]. Thus, people with pain need to take personal responsibility and be accountable for their own mental and physical health. They should speak knowledgeably with their healthcare professional in order to make decisions about their health and wellness.

Roth, Geisser and Bates (2011) argued that lack of proper interaction between the patient/client and the healthcare professional (psychologists) result to Post-Traumatic-Stress-Disorder (PTSD). Furthermore, patients with chronic pain often have additional symptoms - depression, anxiety, disturbed sleep, and impaired decision-

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making - that reduce their overall quality of life [9]. Brains of patients with chronic pain showed less deactivation in several key regions of the brain, and the researchers explained that this imbalance and the constant firing of neurons in highly active areas of the brain can cause permanent damage over time, including altered connections among neurons or even the death of affected neurons, which can lead to mental disorder or illness [10].

Mental health (or behavioral health) describes a level of psychological well-being, or an absence of a mental disorder. Mental health can also be defined as an expression of emotions, and as signifying a successful adaptation to a range of demands. The World Health Organization defines mental health as "a state of wellbeing in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community [11]. This state of well-being can be affected by chronic pain. Mental wellness is generally viewed as a positive attribute, such that a person can reach enhanced levels of mental health, even if the person does not have any diagnosed mental health condition. This definition of mental health highlights emotional well-being, the capacity to live a full and creative life, and the flexibility to deal with life's inevitable challenges.

Psychological well-being comes from life span developmental perspectives, which emphasize the deferring challenges confronted at various phases of life cycle. Managing chronic pain is one phase of challenge confronting patients diagnose with chronic pain. A good and positive criterion for mental health and psychological well-being is the absence of illness [12]. Psychological well-being leads to desirable outcomes, even economic ones, and does not necessarily follow from them. It is also found to be related to physical health.

Psychological well-being is therefore valuable not only because it assesses well-being more directly but it has beneficial consequences.

II. Objectives of the Study The objective of the study is to examine pain, mental health and psychological well-being among patients admitted in some selected hospitals in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. In order to achieve this aim, the study therefore posed the following hypotheses: H01: There will be no significant relationship between acute and chronic pain on patient’s mental health.

H02: There will be no association between acute and chronic pain and patient’s psychological well-being.

III. Method Research Design The study seeks to adopt correlation research design in order to examine the relationship between chronic pain, mental health and psychological well-being among patients admitted in some selected hospitals in Nasarawa State, Nigeria.

Population The target population comprises of male and female patients diagnosed to manifest symptoms of chronic pain and admitted by Dalhatu Arab Specialist Hospital Lafia, General Hospital Akwanga, and Federal Medical Center Keffi.

Sample The participants were randomly sampled 350 male and female patients diagnosed to manifest symptoms of chronic pain within these selected hospitals in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Their age ranges between 18 and 60 years.

Instrument Brief Pain Inventory (BPI): was designed by Charles Cleeland in 1991 for the purpose of assessing pain among patients working with Pain Research Group in United State with reliability of 0.92. It was restandardized

by Adeyemi Osu in 2008 for Nigerian sample with a reliability of 0.82. BPI is a 10-item scale with response options ranging from 1 to 10 describing pain from its minimal to the maximum level.

Mental Pain Assessment Card (MPAC): is a 60-item inventory developed by Elizabeth J. Narcessian in 2009 for the purpose of assessing mental health and psychological well-being of patients who have been diagnose with at least three of symptoms which include headache, sweating, constipation, nightmares, insomnia, tired, difficulty thinking, sweating, lack of appetite and sleeplessness, depression, anxiety, phobia. 30 questions assess mental health and remaining 30 questions assess psychological well-being. The reliability of the instruments was established at 0.89 and 0.74 for Western and Nigerian sample respectively.

Procedure Permission was obtained from the hospital management authorities. The administration of the two instruments was done after the participants have given their consent by filling the Informed Consent Form administered to them through the assistance of the hospital’s doctors. Participation was on voluntary basis and patients were assured of confidentiality of their responses.

Data Analysis

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The study used the Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) statistics in order to examine the relationship between acute and chronic pain on patient’s mental health and psychological well-being. The corresponding r-table values were obtained at the 0.05 level of significance to ascertain the significance or otherwise of the computed r-values.

IV. Result Table 1: Below are the Summary of the Pearson-r statistics on the relationship between Acute and Chronic Pain on Patient’s Mental Health.

Pain

N



Df

Mental Health t.Cal t.Obs

Acute Chronic

79 271

22.6 77.5

3

7.82

1.96

P

Remark

0.05

Significant

Summary and Interpretation Mean of Acute=22.6 and Mean of Chronic=77.4 t.cal = 7.82; t.obs = 1.96; df =3; P<0.05.

Hence, we agree to reject the null hypothesis (H02) Table 2: Below are the Summary of the Pearson-r statistics on the relationship between Acute and Chronic Pain on Patient’s Psychological Well-Being.

Psychological Well-Being Pain N



Acute

79

22.6

Chronic

271

77.4

Df

t.Cal

t.Obs

P

Remark

2

4.02

0.195

0.05

Significant

Summary and Interpretation Mean of Acute=22.6 and Mean of Chronic=77.4 t.cal = 4.02; t.obs = 0.195; df = 2; P<0.05.

Hence, we agree to reject the null hypothesis (H02) V. Conclusion The aim of present study examined the management of pain on mental health and psychological wellbeing among patients diagnosed with chronic pain in Nasarawa State. The result showed that chronic pain of diagnosed patients has relationship with their mental health status. This finding is aligned with researchers of [4], LeResche and Von-Korff (2009) and Baliki, Geha, Apkarian, Chialvo (2008). Also, it was found that acute and chronic pain is associated with patient’s psychological well-being among diagnosed patients in some selected hospitals in Nasarawa State. This finding also corresponds with research result of [3], [8], [9]. In buttressing these findings, it can be said that the patients diagnose with acute and chronic pain in the hospitals or healthcare units are vulnerable of becoming mental health patients in a psychiatric home. This also suggests that pain, whether acute or chronic, is accompanied by anxiety and emotional distress (psychological trauma), which is influence by environmental and psychological factors that can result to mental health problems [4].

Furthermore, Post-Traumatic-Stress-Disorder (PTSD) directly influenced the severity of depressive symptoms which, in turn, affected the intensity of pain and lead to mental disorder [13].

VI. Recommendations/Clinical Implications The study recommends that unresolved PTSD symptoms may influence the pain, depression, and disability experienced by patients with chronic pain following injury. It further encourages pain rehabilitation practitioners to focus on interventions that ameliorate PTSD symptoms as a way to improve pain management outcomes in this population of patients. Also recommend that patients should do gentle stretching exercises to keep their muscles and joints more limber and toned. This is an excellent idea and do not take more than a few minutes.

Another great suggestion is Massage Therapy or Hypnotherapy. Hypnotherapy can focus towards pain management and pain control and/or towards anxiety control and conditioning treatments. Helping clients create 'pain control dials' or creating glove-anaesthesia techniques. All pain management clients can regain control with practice and dedication.

References [1] [2] [3]

Spinhoven, P. and Linssen, A.C (1999). Education and Self-Hypnosis in the Management of Low Back Pain: A Component Analysis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2(8), 145–153.

Appel, P.R and Bleiberg, J (2006). Pain reduction is related to Hypnotizability but not to relaxation or to reduction of suffering: A preliminary investigation. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. 4(8), 153–161.

McCauley, J.D., Thelen, M.H., Frank, R.G., Willard, R.R. and Callen, K.E. (2010) Hypnosis compared to relaxation in the outpatient management of chronic low back pain. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 6(4), 548–552.

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[4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]

Patterson, D.R and Jensen MP (2011). Hypnosis and Clinical Pain: Patient and Healthcare Relationship. Psychological Bulletin.

12(9), 495–521.

LeResche, L and Von-Korff, M (2009). Epidemiology of Chronic Pain: Handbook of Pain Syndromes. Biopsychosocial Perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. pp. 3–22.

Jensen, M.P. and Patterson, D.R. (2006). Integrative Treatment of Chronic Pain. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2(9), 95–124.

Jensen, M.P, Barber, J. (2008). The Holistic Approach to Pain Management. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. 2(8), 150–168.

Roth, R.S, Geisser, M.E, Bates, R (2011). The relation of post-traumatic stress symptoms to mental illness and pain in patients with chronic Pain. Journal of Pain and Mental Health. 9(7), 588-596.

Turk, D.C (1996). Biopsychosocial Perspective on Chronic Pain. In: Gatchel, R.J., Turk, D.C., Editors. Psychological approaches to Pain Management: A practitioner's handbook. New York: Guilford. pp. 3–32.

Baliki, M.N., Geha, P.Y., Apkarian, A.V., Chialvo, D.R (2008). Beyond Feeling: Chronic Pain hurts the Brain, disrupting the default-mode network dynamics. Journal of Neurophysiology. 28(6), 1398-1403.

World Health Organisation-WHO (2004). "Mental Health: Strengthening Our Response (Fact sheet N°220)". World Health Organisation. Retrieved 3 February 2013.

Heidrich, S.M., Ryff, C.D. (1993). Physical and Mental Health in later Life: The Sample Case of relocation. Journal of Psychological Aging. 7(3), 407-517.

Elkins, G.R., Cheung, A., Marcus, J., Palamara, L., Rajab, H (2009). Hypnosis to reduce Pain and PTSD: A prospective study.

Journal of Integrative Psychology. 2(4), 167–172.

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Role of Non-Government Organizations in Confronting Trafficking In India Apeksha Kumari Abstract: NGOs have played important roles in the achievement of successful policy and implementation of programs run by the Government to combat trafficking of children and women into all intolerable forms of business. They have taken the lead and supported initiatives, and their constant demands have motivated and drawn state and public attention to children and women issues of all kinds.

I. Introduction As we all are aware of the term ‘trafficking’ which has taken a form of communicable disease and is spreading very rapidly in all parts of the World, leaving no land untouched whether it’s a developed country or developing , everyone is busy in making money quickly and smartly in an organised form. Thus, trafficking has taken the shape of organised crime, so rescue chances of individuals have diminished. Once an individual trapped into the trap of the traffickers by making one’s entry into the vicious circle through which one cannot come out until and unless its too late or some miracle happens. Unfortunately ,this miracle very often happened by our Government or police, every time, initiatives had to be taken by Non Government Organisations because police authorities want to wash off their hands from such activities generally. So the option is left with NGOs only for the welfare of the people and rescue individuals from the vicious circle of exploitation and abuse.

NGOs try to protect them from the violence at the hands of the traffickers and by the lateral users. NGOs have played important roles in the achievement of successful policy and implementation of programs run by the Government to combat trafficking of children and women into all intolerable forms of business. They have taken the lead and supported initiatives, and their constant demands have motivated and drawn state and public attention to children and women issues of all kinds. One important recent issue of concern and of interest in the cooperation has been to involve NGOs in the work process and as collaborators. Over the past decade many national, international organisations have taken initiatives and launched many studies and researches.

II. The scope of NGOs Despite their limited resources, funding, training, and access to information, most NGOs studied take the lead in combating trafficking in their respective countries. Their anti-trafficking activities, objectives, and orientation are linked to the social and cultural background of their respective countries and regions, and reflect local patterns of trafficking. NGO histories and relationships with governmental institutions vary, as does their scope to contribute to social change and development. For example NGOs like Bachpan Bachao Aandolan , Shakti Vahini, in India emerged as a path breaking total social instability in such conditions where the poverty, social change, economic restrictions, inflation and unemployment surrounded the scenario. Many NGOs faced difficulties dealing with the remains of the outdated and oppressive social system, and the absence of a legislative framework or administrative regulations to legitimise their work. A lack of experienced personnel and limited capacity constituted further challenges, with skills in project management, fundraising, and networking largely absent. These weaknesses and inexperience were manifested at a time when traffickers were becoming increasingly predatory and better at circumventing legal restraints. Eminent and credible role played

by NGOs in the field of trafficking to serve and save individuals are as: Prevention of Trafficking in Children National and international NGOs in different countries have established programs and projects to provide education and vocational training to at risk groups of populations in the country in which an organization is located. The programs are mostly expected to help preventing children from being deceived and trafficked, and decreasing problems related to illegal migration. Many programs are established to generate and secure jobs within the country. As in developing country like ours where poverty, unemployment and illiteracy has stricken to almost every state and chances of being send their children to work in towns and cities, there NGOs try to save them from being trafficked in lieu of employment. This is initiative undertaken by NGOs to provide all the facilities in their villages only. In our country NGOs are doing a commendable job in the field of spreading awareness, employment and literacy. Welfare is Government’s task but undertaken by NGOs within limited scenario of funds and space.

Coordinate with other NGOs and government agencies

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Coordination, cooperation, and support from government agencies of all levels is essentially needed in the process of rescuing and repatriating trafficked children. The process starts at coordination with judicial police officers for rescuing the children from abusive situations, and lawfully processing the case through Immigration Office, Public Welfare Department for social services, welfare and rehabilitation, and on to waiting for repatriating, finding out relevant information in order to best support each individual trafficked victim, preparing for repatriating expenses, and finally contacting related organizations in a sending country to ensure safe repatriation of a victim. Until recently, governments in the Mekong sub-region are not yet equipped to fully take such demanding responsibility and coordination. It has therefore been the responsibility and coordination NGOs undertake.

Conducting Research This is very important tool for awareness and welfare and to enlighten others on this grave issue of trafficking of children and moreover to find out the hidden aspects of trafficking in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s world as trafficking is increasing day by day and taking shape of organised crime activity. As conducting research on various needs and issues can supply intervention programs and policy development with significant information and understanding regarding trafficking in women and children. Although basic information as well as in-depth data regarding number of children trafficked, complicated issues related to the trafficking, trafficking networks, other forms of trafficking such as overseas friendship and marriage services, conditions of trafficked victims in receiving countries, and impacts on individual victims and their communities upon repatriation have been quite thoroughly researched and NGOs and governments have good amount of quality data, trafficking situations change rapidly. On-going research and completely well informed intervention programs and implementations are therefore needed.

Response to the AIDS Epidemics Many NGOs have programs on AIDS both as day care facilities for HIV infected persons and outreach activities to provide AIDS prevention education and to promote community-based care. NGO volunteers are mostly well trained and equipped with materials and information on HIV prevention and AIDS care to distribute to their different target populations. Some NGOs work primarily with populations currently living in a particular country where others may provide their services to populations living along border areas or in other places crossing their national borders .like PLAN India is a child-centred development organization that aims to promote child rights and improve the quality of life of vulnerable children. Plan works in 13 States in India and has directly impacted lives of over a million children and their families since 1979. The organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s child centred community development interventions focus on child protection and child participation, children in difficult circumstances, education, HIV/AIDS awareness, health, early childhood care and development.etc.

The role in providing support before repatriation Shelters supervised by NGOs have been known places which governmental organizations and citizens of a country refer to when trafficked children are rescued from abusive environments in households or at workplaces. The shelters have also provided necessary care for the children to rehabilitate their physical and mental health and well-being before the repatriating process begins.

Strategies adopted by NGOS in protecting migrant children Foreign children should be under protection of the Rights of Children. Although they are illegal immigrants, a government sometimes negate but due to NGOs efforts, such children are also being provided shelters before repatriation Migrant children who are induced, deceived, or abducted by children traffickers should receive emergency care as well as physical and mental rehabilitation. There should be a coordination to search for their families and return them back safely.

In case children voluntarily come for hawking and begging business, they should be primarily rehabilitated for mental and physical health. Moreover, there should be multi-level coordination to develop the repatriating process and to prevent their return.

Re-integrate children back to their families with the supportive process in both sending and receiving communities. This would be a guarantee that the children will be treated as humans and their rights are protected.

Adjust related regulations to eliminate possible obstacles in providing support to the trafficked children.

Credible tasks by NGOs in India, the situation of trafficking is very worst as states like Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and almost all North Eastern States are adversely affected by this disease due to poverty, lack of education, lack of facilities at their native place, lack of employment tends the parents to send their children to cities like Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai etc with the assurance of traffickers that their ward is safe and comfortable by earning handsome amounts but the situation is entirely different as children here at work is exploited, abused and under threat every time by the employers and traffickers. They just led a miserable and pathetic life as child labour in one way or the other but in slavery like practices only but, for many the life remains not in the

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same way as always because many NGOs are getting involved in liberating children from the clutches of the traffickers and their harsh employers. Few commendable NGOs in India are’ Shakti Vahini in Delhi ensures that the cases are investigated properly and exploitation happening from source, transit and destination are linked. , Since 2010, Shakti Vahini has intervened in 1270 cases and rescued 1300 victims. It has also been part of 462 court proceedings and trial and has achieved conviction in 26 cases till date. Shakti Vahini has been involved in various Public Interest Litigations on issues connecting to human trafficking and victim protection. , ARZ in Goa has been working against abuse and exploitation amongst the victims of commercial sexual exploitation. The organization has been collaborating with the Government, philanthropists, corporate houses and other NGOs to combat human trafficking related to commercial sexual exploitation.

Apne Aap in Delhi was founded in 2002 and from then, it has been giving its continuous efforts in framing a broad and proper definition and criminalizing of trafficking in the Indian Law, based on the standards of the UN Protocol to End Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children and enables marginalized women and girls to gain independence from prostitution by organizing and supporting small self-empowerment groups, called Mandals., Bachpan Bachao Andolan is a pioneering child rights movement working to end child trafficking, campaigning for the rights of children.. Between April 2011 and March 2012, BBA organised 107 raids across India rescuing 1,152 bonded child labourers. In the same period, 452 release certificates were also issued and 751 children were rehabilitated through Mukti Ashram (a short term rehabilitation facility in Delhi).

Impulse in Meghalaya, For more than 10 years, Impulse has been working with rural communities in Meghalaya and guiding them to sustainable living. The organisation focused on capacity building, design inputs and marketing linkages., ATSEC in Bihar and Jharkhand, SANLAAP in West Bengal, PLAN International worked in 13 states of India especially on awareness of HIV/AIDS programmes and policies and many more are there who always conducts rescue operations in India.

III. Conclusion The task of protecting children should be covered by the Government and its policies but in real it is not the case, the government only makes policy and no implementation in almost all the states of India but the real implementation is done by the NGOs at the risk of their lives either policies or their tasks. If NGOs would not be there then its difficult to imagine the worst happenings by police and Government. As in every country, in every culture, is violence against children, when children are violated, our anger should be seen and heard. We have to make the invisible visible as violence against children is too often seen but not heard, and reported.

References Marina Tzvetkova, NGO responses to trafficking in women, Gender and Development Vt ol.1 0, No. 1, March 2002,Taylor and Francis, UN report on ‘Current Status of Victim Service Providers and Criminal Justice Actors in India on Anti-Human Trafficking’, UNODC, 2013

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

IMPACT OF NATIONAL RURAL HEALTH MISSION (NRHM) ON THE HEALTH SECTOR IN HARYANA Pritam Research Scholar Department of Physical Education Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana, India.

Abstract: The main aim of the present study to find out the impact of National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) on the health sector in Haryana. The National Rural Mission (NHRM) was launched by the Hon’ble Prime Minister Dr. Man Mohan Singh on 12 th April 2005, to provide accessible, affordable, equitable and quality health services to the poorest households in the rural region of the country. The NRHM covers the entire country with special focus on 18 states where the challenges if strengthening poor public health system. National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) is not a first programme on rural health in independent India, even than the enthusiasm and attention of the heath personnel and people towards the programme is phenomenal. The attempts to improve rural health through various programmes were started as early as in 1940, when the British government in India set up ‘Bhore Committee’ to find out the way to improve the health of people. This was followed by a number of other committees and programme i.e.

Balwant Rai Mahta Committee, community Development programme and Basic need programme.

I. INTRODUCTION Health is necessity to the nation progress. Nothing could be greater significant than the health of people in terms of resources for socio-economic development. In spite of this realization, the people living in have little or no access to modern medical and health care. This results in high rate of morbidity and mortality from diseases (Goel, S.L., 1980). In India, the health care services and facilities available are highly haphazard in nature.

Some areas have more health facilities, available than the need of that particular area whereas majorities of areas have more demands for services. Thus, there exist disparities not only in rural and urban areas but also within rural and urban areas of different states of India (Mayer, I.A., 2008, p.133).The reality of easily accessible quality health care in rural India remains a myth. There are 74% of rural women are suffer from anemic even today. Only 21 percent of rural population has access of safe and sustained source of drinking water (Kumar, R., 2007, p.58). Development of health care sector is a great challenge to India, since this is a vital sector and faces several problems, which includes vast population, paucity of resources and non- availability of affordable health care to the poor. Improvement in health status of people has been one of the major thrust areas for the social development progress of the country. Article 47 of Indian Constitution states that the “the State shall regard raising the level of nutrition and standard of living of its people and improvement in public health among its primary duties.” (Article 47, Constitution of India, 1950).

Good health is a major resource for social, economic and personal development and an important dimension of quality of life (International Union for Health Promotion and Education, 2000). In recent years, there has been considerable concern about human development and among other factors; health is a vital indicator of human development. Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights unequivocally states that the preservation and promotion of health is one of the basic human rights. India, despite being a signatory the Alma Ata Declaration (1978), which aimed at “Health for All” by 2000. The Indian government started many programme to provide healthcare facility to all. The National Rural Health Mission is also one of them. The Government of India launched this programme National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) on 12 th April 2005; to provide comprehensive and effective primary health care to the unprivileged and vulnerable sections of the society especially women and children by improving access availability and quality of public health services.

The key strategies of the mission includes ensure intra and intersectoral convergence ,strengthening public health infrastructure , increasing community participation, creating a village level cadre of health workers, fastering public-private partnerships, emphasizing quality services and enhanced programme management inputs. The plan of action of the Rural Health Mission aims at reducing regional health imbalance in health outcomes by relating health to determinants of good health. Further the mission aims at increasing the outreach

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of the health system from the sub-centre level to village level by providing a trained and Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) per thousand population as in Anganwadi set up. The present system of health planning and management is uniform for state level. The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) seeks to provide effective health care to rural population throughout the country with special focus on 18 states, which have weak public health indicators weak infrastructure. These 18 states are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh.

II. Meaning and Definition of Health There is no agreed definition of health; In fact, there have been many definitions. To the laymen, health implies a sound mind in sound body, in a sound family, in a sound environment. The widely accepted definition of health is that given by the World Health Organization (1948) which states: “Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being not merely an absence of diseases or infirmity”. In 1986, the WHO, in the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, said that health is “a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasing social and personal resources, as well as physical resources”. The Health Survey and Development Committee (1946) rightly points out that “the term health implies more than absence of sickness in the individual and indicates a state of harmonious functioning of the body and mind in relation to his physical and social environment, so as to enable him to enjoy life to the fullest possible extent and to reach his maximum level of productive capacity”.

III. Commissions and Committees on Health in India Although a number of commissions and committees have been set up in India since the mid nineteenth century to survey the existing conditions and health organization and to make recommendations for their future development but up to what extent they have been succeeded in their tasks, can only be known by going through them. An attempt has been made to though some light on the major committees and commissions regarding the health care facility.

Health Survey and Development Committee (Bhore Committee) 1946: The Government of India appointed this committee in 1943 to survey the then existing health conditions and health organization in the country and to make recommendations for future development. It was Bhore committee also known as Health Survey and Development committee. The main recommendations of the Bhore committee were:(1) No individual should fail to serve adequate medical care because of his inability to pay for it.

(2) The health services when fully developed should provide facility necessary for the proper diagnosis and treatment of diseases and for its presentation.

(3) In order to provide widest possible integrated health services to the people, the committee put forward valuable recommendations on subject like environmental sanitation, personal health, community health, control of communicable diseases, mental health, vital statistics, professional education and research on health.

Mudaliar Committee (1962):In 1959, the Government of India instituted a “Health Survey and Planning Committee” collect the Mudaliar committee to survey the progress made in the field of health since submission of the Bhore committee’s report to make recommendations for future development and expansion of health services. The Mudaliar committee found that quality of services provided by primary health centres inadequate and stressed the need to strengthen the existing primary health centre’s before new centres are created. The main recommendations of the Mudaliar committee were:(1) Rural medical care problem cannot be solved by merely establishing primary health centre without proper staff and equipment.

(2) For control of communicable particularly water borne diseases.

(3) On the question of medical education emphasis should be more on the quality than the quantity.

Chadha Committee (1963): Chadha committee was appointed under chairmanship of Dr. M.S. Chadha the then Director General of Health Services, to advise about the necessary arrangement for the maintenance phase of National Malaria Eradication Programme. The committee suggest that the vigilance activity in the NMEP should be carried out by basic health worker (one per 10,000 population), who would function as multipurpose workers and would perform, in addition to malaria work, the duties of family planning and vital statistics data collection under supervision of family planning health assistants.

Mukherjee Committee (1965): The committee was appointed by the Government of India to review the strategy for the family planning programme. The major recommendations of the committee were:(1) There should be separate staff for family planning programme and the family planning assistants should look after planning work exclusively.

(2) The basic health worker should not be utilized for the family planning programme.

Jungalwalla Committee (1967): This committee known as “Committee on Integration of Health Services” was set up in 1964 under the chairmanship of Dr. N. Jungalwalla, the then Director of the National Institute of

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Health Administration and Education (currently NIHFW). It was asked to look into varies problem related to integration of health services, and the service condition of Doctors. The committee defined “Integrated health services” as:(1)A service with a unified approach for all problems instead of segment approach for difficult problems.

(2)Medical care and public health programme should be put under change of a single administrator at all level of hierarchy.

Following steps were recommended for the integration at all levels of health organization in the country.

(1) Unified Cadre (2) Common Seniority (3) Recognition of extra qualification (4) Equal pay for equal work (5) Special pay for special work (6) Abolition of private practice by government doctors (7) Improvement in their service condition.

Kartar Singh Committee (1973): Kartar Singh Committee popularly known as committee on Multipurpose workers under Health and Planning. The recommendations were:(1) The structure for integrated services at the peripheral level.

(2) Creation of multipurpose worker and supervisors both male and female to work at the peripheral level for providing integrated medical public health and family planning services to the people.

The Srivastava Committee (1975): This committee was appointed by Government of India in 1974 under the chairmanship of Dr. J.B. Srivastava, the then Director General of Health Services. The committee located the basic ills of our health policy and medical education. A major contribution of the Srivastava Committee was the involvement of community health workers. There were about 1.40 lakh community workers in the field as on 1 st April 1980; by 1985 the government of India expected to raise them to 3.60 lakh community health volunteers.

The Ramalingaswami Committee (1980): The Committee reports correctly note that in the last thirty years, the capacity for change and progress was wrongly equated in India without capacity to reproduce the western style of institutions services and values. The Committee suggested that health for all cannot be achieved through a liner expansion of the existing system and even by tinkering with it through minor reforms. The committee advocated nothing short of a radical change and called for a comprehensive national policy for health.

Bajaj committee (1986): An “Expert Committee for Health Manpower Planning, Production and Management” was constituted in 1985 under Dr. J.S. Bajaj, the then professor at AIIMS. Major recommendations were:a.

Formulation of national Medical & Health Education Policy. b.

Formulation of National Health Manpower Policy c.

Establishment of an Educational Commission for Health Sciences (ECHS) on the lines of UGC. d.

Establishment of Health Science Universities in various States and Union Territories. e.

Establishment of health manpower cells at Centre and in the States. f.

Vocationalisation of education at 10+2 levels as regards health related fields with appropriate incentives, so that good quality paramedical personnel may be available in adequate numbers. g.

Carrying out a realistic health manpower survey.

IV. STUDY AREA- HARYANA Haryana state is selected as a study area for research work. It is located between the 2737 North to 3055 Northern latitude and 74 28 East to 77 36 Eastern longitude. Haryana state was formed on 1 November 1966, on the recommendation of the Sardar Hukam Singh Parliamentary Committee. The formation of this committee was announced in the Parliament on 23 September 1965. On 23 April 1966, acting on the recommendation of the Hukam Singh Committee, the Indian government set up the Shah Commission under the chairmanship of Justice J. C. Shah, to divide and set up the boundaries of Punjab and Haryana giving consideration to the language spoken by the people. The commission gave its report on 31 May 1966. According to this report the then districts of Hissar, Mahendragarh, Gurgaon, Rohtak, and Karnal were to be a part of the new state of Haryana. Further, the tehsils of Jind (district Sangrur), Narwana (district Sangrur), Naraingarh, Ambala and Jagadhari were also to be included. . Geographically it is one of the smallest states of India spread over 44212 KM2 area and accounts 1.37 percent of country’s total area. According to 2001 census state account 21 million person populations. Both states share a common capital Chandigarh, which is a union territory also.

At present state have 21 districts, 47 sub divisions, 67 tehsil, 45 sub tehsil and 116 blocks. The state has 81 cities and 6759 villages.

V. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Health problem in a developing country like India is paramount. India is second most populous country of the world. In India, the majority of people living in rural areas, are poorly served and at best receive only

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rudimentary healthcare. Above 70 percent population of India is living in rural areas but about 75 percent of healthcare infrastructure, medical manpower and other health resources are concentrated in urban areas where 27 percent of population live. Contiguous, infections and waterborne disease such as diarrhoea, typhoid, infectious hepatitis, worm infestations measles, malaria, tuberculosis, whooping cough, respiratory infections, pneumonia and reproductive tract infections dominate the morbidity pattern, especially in rural areas. The health status of Indians, is still a cause for grave concern, especially that of rural population. This is reflected in the life expectancy (63 years), infant mortality rate (80/1000 live births), maternal motility rate (438/100000 live births).

According to the latest report of the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) 2005 report, three out of every thousand rural households do not get enough to eat. The report added that at all India level three rural households per thousand do not get enough to eat in any month of year (Ojha, 2006:29). There is also shortage of medical personnel in rural areas. A regional disparity in health institution is a big problem in rural India. Due to lack of health infrastructure in rural area, there is high infant mortality rate and high crude death rate in India compare to developed countries. In India, Public expenditure on health is low. Pandey (2007) pointed out that the government spending .9% of GDP on public health. This expenditure is fifth lowest in the world after Nigeria, Sudan, Indonesia and Myanmar.

Haryana state is also poor in terms to provide good health quality to rural areas. In Haryana 71 percent population is inhabited in rural areas. Infant mortality Rate (SRS 2008) is high in Haryana than the national average. Health infrastructure is not growing as requirement. According to RHS Bulletin March, 2008, there is shortfall in health Infrastructures like Sub-centre, Primary Health Centre, MPHW/ANM, Doctor at PHCs, Physicians, Pharmacist, mid-wife etc. Many programme and policy started to improve health quality of people those live in rural area. The Government of India launched the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) on 12 th April, 2005 to provide comprehensive and effective primary healthcare to the unprivileged and vulnerable section of the society especially women and children by improving access availability and quality of public health services. The significance of this study to improve health quality in rural area and remove the regional disparities of health care facilities in Haryana. Above review of literatures reveals that there is no research has been done on its merits and demerits of above mission at micro level, meso or macro level. However, an attempt has been made to analyse how NRHM has helped to improving health facility in rural Haryana.

Haryana state has a small size with 1.37 percent of area of the total geographical area of the country and it has 1.97 percent population of the country. It is located between the 27˚ 37’ north to 30˚ 55’ Northern latitude and 74˚ 28’ east to 77˚ 36’ Eastern longitude. The sex ratio recorded is 861 females per 1000 males, inhabited in 6,955 villages and 106 towns spread over 42,212 sq. km. The density of population recorded as 477 persons per sq. Km. There are 67.9 persons are literate. Nearly 122.25 lakh persons are literate and educated from 11,235 primary schools, 2,170 Middle schools, 4,494 Senior Secondary schools, 237 degree colleges and 5 Universities.

Haryana has mostly plain surface except some hills in northern part which is part of Shiwalik and some fragmented hills of Arawali range are found in southern part of state. The climate of the state is similar to other states of India which are situated in northern plain. The climate is arid to semi-arid monsoon type with the annual rainfall of 45 centimetres. In the south western part of the state semi deserted climate is also found.

Temperature in this region varies from season to season. In winter season December and January temperature is found very low, sometime it found below the freezing point. But in summer season region become very hot and sometime temperature found above 45˚ C. There is a large deposits of alluvial soil found in the region. But the sub-mountainous area is generally hilly in nature; the soil cover over hills is very thin. In the southern part of the state, soil is sandy and deserted topography. Sand dunes are found in the south-western districts of the state and in the middle part soil is very fertile. Economically Haryana state is very advanced; it is one of the highest per capita income’s states of the country. There is a general picture of National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) in India. This study discussed about the National Rural Health Mission on all India level. This study shows the categorization of the state under different category like; high focus non-North Eastern States, High focus North Eastern States, Non-focus Large States and Non-focus Small states and Union Territories. This study also discussed about the three tier system of health centre in rural areas of India like; Sub-centre (SC), Primary Health Centre (PHC), and Community Health Centre (CHC). This study also discussed about the objective of National Rural Health Mission in India and the coverage under National Rural Health Mission. National Rural Health Mission cover 74 crore population, approximately 14.8 crore households, 1, 75,000 sub-health centers,27,000 primary health centres, 7,000 community health centres, 1,800 sub- divisional hospitals, 600 district hospitals, 3.50 lakh auxiliary nurse midwifes (ANMs), 1,44,000 staff nurses and 4 to 5 lakh accredited social health activist (ASHAs). This chapter also describes about the strategies of National Rural Health Mission, Infrastructure under National Rural Health Mission, Financing of national Rural Health Mission.

VI. Objectives Objectives of present study are:(1) To find out difference in healthcare facilities before and after NRHM. (2) To find out the impact of NRHM on healthcare facilities.

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(3) To find out the present scenario of health care facilities.

(4) To find out the spatial pattern of healthcare facilities in Haryana.

VII. Hypothesis In present study there are two hypotheses which are as follows:(1) NRHM is directly related to health care improvement.

(2) Regional disparities of health care facilities are also directly related to the number.

VIII. DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY Present study is based on secondary data collected from various data sources. The official website of NRHM (www.mohfw.nic.in.) has served as main data sources, apart from this, various publication like statistical abstract of Haryana has also provide data related to various dimension of NRHM. Methodology is the backbone of any research work which helps in scientific descriptive and explanation of reality. A systematic approach has been followed. Various statistical techniques have been adopted to represent the data; mean, standard deviation and choropleth maps.

Major Findings: The major findings of the study are as follows: Arurvedic, Yoga, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathic (AYUSH) institution on per lakh population decrease from 2000-01 to 2008-09. Fatehabad was in the high category in 2000-01 but it came down in moderate category in 2008-09. There were 10.53 percent districts under low category of AYUSH Institution on per lakh population in 2000-01 but there are 20 percent districts under low category of AYUSH Institution on per lakh population in 2008-09. Thus there is no progress of AYUSH Institution under National Rural Health Mission.  Number of AYUSH Medical Personnel on per lakh population are slowly increasing from 2000-01 to 2008-09. There is increase of medical personnel on per lakh population in Rohtak and Panchkula district. There were 10.53 district were under high category of AYUSH medical personnel on per lakh population in 2000-01and now in 2008-09 there are 15 percent districts under the high category.  Doctors and specialist on per lakh population increase from 2000-01 to 2008-09. There were 84.21 districts under low category of doctors and specialists on per lakh population in 2000-01 and in 2008-09 only 20 percent district are under low category. On the other hand there were only 5.26 percent district in high category but in 2008-09 there are 15 percent districts under high category.

Thus, there is impact of National Rural Health Mission on doctors and specialists on per lakh population.  Staff nurses and auxiliary nurse midwives (ANMs) on per lakh population also increase from 200001 to 2008-09. There were 26.31 percent district under low category in 2000-01 and in 2008-09 there are only 10 percent districts under this category. On the other hand 36.84 percent districts were under the moderate category in 2000-01 and in 2008-09 there are 55 percent districts under this category.

So there is noticeable impact of NRHM on staff nurses and ANMs on per lakh population.  There is no improvement in beds on per lakh population from 2000-01 to 2008-09.There were 63.15 district were under low category of beds on per lakh population in 2000-01 and in 2008-09 there are 70 percent districts under this category . Districts also decrease from the high category of beds on per lakh population. There were 10.52districts under high category in 2000-01 but in 2008-09 there is only 5 percent district under this category. So, we can say that National Rural Health Mission has no significant impact on beds on per lakh population.  There is no progress in increase of medical institution on per lakh population from 2000-01 to 200809, rather it decrease from 2000-01 to 2008-09.There were 31.57 districts were under low category of medical institution on per lakh population in 2000-01 and in 2008-09 there are 40 percent district under low category .There were 47.36 percent districts under high category in 2000-01 and in 200809 but in 2008-09 there is only 10 percent district under high category of medical institution on per lakh population.  There is some progress in area covered by per institution from 2000-01 to 2008-09 .There were 36.84 percent district under low category of area covered by per institution in 2000-01 but there are 55 percent district are under this category in 2008-09 .Thus we can say that National Rural Health Mission has some impact on area covered by per institution.  Study found that National Rural Health Mission has significant impact on AYUSH medical personnel on per lakh population, doctors and specialist on per lakh population, staff nurses and ANMs on per lakh population and on area covered by per medical institution.  Study shows that NRHM has no impact on the AYUSH institution on per lakh population, Medical institution on per lakh population and Beds on per lakh population.  Study found that there is progress under National Rural Health Mission in man power in health sector like; doctors and specialist, staff nurse ANMs, and AYUSH medical personnel but there is no

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progress in construction of new medical institution , new AYUSH institution and no progress to facilitate new beds to medical institution.

Suggestion:  There should be more AYUSH Institution in rural area for good health care facilities in rural areas.  There should be more medical institution on per lakh population. Construction of new medical institution should be in progress.  To remove the regional disparities in health sector government should give good facility like road, doctor residents, and hospitals to backwards districts also.  Government should fill the vacant post of doctors and nurses in medical Institutions.  Districts like Mewat, Sirsa, Bhiwani and Mahendragarh have low facility of road, doctor residence, and medical institution; there should be constructed new medical institution and should fill up the vacant post of doctors and staff nurses.  There should also be a proper transfer system of doctors and nurses from developed district to backward district. Because of this, they (Doctors and Nurses) have to go in districts like Mewat, Bhiwani, Sirsa and Mahendragarh.  Government should assists who build medical institution/hospital in the district like Mewat, Bhiwani, Sirsa and Mahendragarh.  The problems of unavailability of doctors can be redressed if we depute doctors who are trained under Indian system of medicine.  Adequate funds should be allocated for the construction of residential quarter for doctors and other medical staff with basic minimum facilities.  Govt. should improve co-ordination with NGOs and private sector organisation.  Public expenditure on health should be increased to improve the health care facility.  Doctors should be encouraged to provide their services in rural areas by providing some incentives.  Priority should be given deprived districts to minimize regional imbalances in the health care services.

In the last it may be concluded that there is a little and marginal impact of National Rural Health Mission on health care facilities even after 5 years of implementation. It has also been noticed that there is some progress in manpower like; doctors, specialist, staff nurse, auxiliary nurse midwife (ANMs) and AYUSH medical personnel but there is no progress in construction of new medical institution and other facility like; beds, laboratory and residential quarters etc. under national Rural Health Mission.

Bibliography Akhter, R. (1982): The Geography of Health, Marwan Publication, New Delhi.

Akhtar, R and Nilofer, J. (1984): “Health Care Delivery in India”, the Indian Geographical Journal, Vol. 59, No. 2, p. 106.

Akhtar, R. and Nilofar, J. (1986): Distribution of Health Care in India, In Akthar, R and A.T.A. Learmonth (eds) Aspects of Health and diseases in India, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, pp. 437-461., Bates, L.M., Maselko, J. and Schuler, S.R. (2007): “Women’s Education and the Timing of Marriage and Childbearing in the Next Generation: Evidence from Rural Bangladesh” Studies in Family Planning, Vol. 38, No.2, pp. 101-112., Benerji, Debarar (2005): “Politics of Rural Health in India”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 40, No. 30, pp. 3253-3258.

Bhandari, l. and Dutta, S. (2007): Health Infrastructure in Rural India, pp.265-285., Chaudhri, S.R. (2005): “Nutrition Status of Tribals Population in Satpura Region of Madhya Pradesh”, Transactions, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 2529.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Explaining the Relationship between Meta-Cognitive Capability of Cultural Intelligence and Social Capital (A Case Study of National Iranian Oil Products Distribution Company) 1

Gholamali Tabarsa, 2Akram Hadizadeh Moghadam, 3Asal Basiji Associate Professor, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, IRAN 2 Associate Professor, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, IRAN 3 MA in Executive Master of Business Administration, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, IRAN 1

Abstract: This research intends to study the relationship between meta-cognitive capability of cultural intelligence and Social Capital. Since Social Capital is one of the most valuable assets of a company and could be one of the main tools for achieving competitive advantage, examining the associated factors seems necessary. Referring to conceptual frameworks and mental models of individuals, Meta-cognitive capability of cultural intelligence could be considered as one of the key capabilities of cultural intelligence that can affect the formation of interactions and interpersonal relationships. Countries such as Iran that enjoy cultural diversity could be appropriate options for implementing this research. For this purpose the staff of National Iranian Oil Products Distribution Company (NIOPDC) was studied as the population of our research and result attained through questionnaire suggested a positive meaningful relation between metacognitive capability of cultural intelligence and social capital. This conclusion can be a good guidance for managers in the field of human resource planning and help policymakers to find appropriate solutions for accumulating greater amount of social capital as a valuable asset regarding meta-cognitive aspect of cultural intelligence in organizations.

Keywords: Cultural Intelligence; meta-cognitive capability of Cultural intelligence; Social Capital; Structural dimension of Social Capital ; Cognitive dimension of Social Capital , Relational dimension of Social Capital I. Introduction Those who are every day working together in large companies and spending half of their life together, imagine that a suitable type of communication and cooperation is happening among them via using common language.

Although this type of communication is irrefutable, the question is that do they really have common opinions, thoughts and criteria as well? If the answer is yes, then why companies still suffer from internal conflicts, political behaviors and disagreement ?Is not it true that all the staff claim that they know each other well and can easily interact?

The main reason might originate from differences in people conceptual frameworks and mental models [15] determining the level of cultural flexibility or in other words their cultural intelligence. Since multiculturalism and cultural diversity are some of main characteristics of work environment in most organizations and countries hence one of the factors that mostly affects formation of trust based communications or in other words the amount of social capital of organizations, could be the level of cultural intelligence of staff. In Iran there are about 75 languages and dialects and ethnic groups in Iran are divided to Persian, Azeri, Guilaki and Mazandarani, Kurds, Sistani, Arab, Baloch, Turkmen and Ghashghaeian. Of course there are some other ethnic groups who are leaving together in the same places.

The importance of this research manifests in the way that it makes managers and organization planners become aware of the relation between social capital and meta-cognitive capability of cultural intelligence as two significant abilities for the most valuable asset of the organization, human resources, and also helps them finding best solutions to increase the amount of these two simultaneously in an organization. Results of this research can cause those companies in which human resources has crucial role benefit from more efficiency and productivity.

II. Literature Review Social Capital: Social Capital is the accumulation of actual and potential resources which corresponds to a relatively stable network of more or less institutionalized relationships based on mutual acquaintance or understanding. On the other hand joining a group provides a kind of qualification for all the members through supporting collective capital making them deserve a special credit [7].

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Putnam believes that Social Capital is a collection of concepts like trust, norms and networks creating optimal communication and participation of community members, and eventually will provide mutual benefits of all.

Members' trust and mutual communication in the network are resources embedded in actions of community members [5-16] .Social Capital could be simply defined as a certain collection of norms or informal values shared by the members allowed to cooperate with each other in a group. Norms producing Social Capital should essentially include temperaments such as honesty, commitment meeting and bilateral communication [12-13].

Social Capital Dimensions: Based on an organizational approach, Nahapiet and Ghoshal have put different aspects of Social Capital into three categories: the structural, cognitive, and relational that are briefly as follows.

Structural Dimension: Structural dimension refers to characteristics of the social system and network of relationships as a whole. This term describes the impersonal configuration of linkages between people or units.

Cognitive Dimension: Refers to individuals in the social network that have common understanding or point of view. Nahapiet and Ghoshal believe it specifically refers to the resources showing common images, interpretations, and systems of shared meaning among individuals .The most important aspects of this dimension are shared language and codes and shared anecdotes [14].

Relational Dimension: Describes a kind of personal relationships people have with each other based on their previous interactions. The relational dimension of social capital considers the nature of interpersonal relationships among people in each organization. In other words while structural dimension focuses on how the staff communicate, relational dimension highlights the nature or quality of these communications. Nahapiet and Ghoshal believe that in relational dimension the special relationship that people have, such as respect and friendly relations are emphasized and these relationships influence their behavior. According to their studies relational dimension of social capital is specified by high levels of trust, shared norms, and obligations of mutual understanding and sense of identity. Therefore the most important elements of this dimension are trust, norms, obligations and expectations, and identity [6-14].

Cultural Intelligence: Despite the differences in the definitions of intelligence, when it comes to cultural intelligence we find out more similarity. People or groups' ability of constructive social interactions with people or groups of different cultures, forms the main core of cultural intelligence [17-18]. For instance, if we consider two cities sharing common feature of multiculturalism, and in one we see lots of cultural, social and economic collaborations while in the other we notice lots of cultural, social and economic conflicts among people with different cultures, then the reasons for such differences could be relegated to difference in cultural intelligence of people forming the population of these two cities. Cultural intelligence refers to understanding of the interaction between cultural foundations, developing creative and flexible approaches for cross-cultural interactions and ultimately refers to creating coping skills and demonstrating behaviors that can be effective in cross-cultural situations [1-2].

Meta-Cognitive Capability of Cultural Intelligence: The term Metacognitive cultural intelligence implies a conscious awareness based on knowledge and understanding during intercultural interactions. Those with high level of meta-cognitive capability consciously question their defaults about other cultures, show it during the interactions and adjust and adapt their cultural knowledge to the others [3-4].

III. Research Methodology Research Model and Variables: As it is shown in Figure 1, it is assumed that there is a relationship between meta-cognitive capability of cultural intelligence and dimensions of social capital.

Figure 1: Research Conceptual model for explaining the relation between meta-cognitive capacity of Cultural Intelligence and Social Capital dimensions Meta-Cognitive Capability

Relational Dimension

Cognitive Dimension

Cultural Intelligence

Structural Dimension

Social Capital

Research Tools, Population and Sample Size: For classification and data analysis SPSS software are used. Based on objective, this research is practical.

20

and r

3.0.0

Data Collection Tools: Collecting data for this study, the researcher- made questionnaires of meta-cognitive cultural intelligence and social capital were used. Social Capital questionnaire was designed according to

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Ghoshal and Nahapiet three-factor model and cultural intelligence questionnaire was designed according to Ang and co-workers' model [8-9-10-11] based on five-point Likert scale. Answers have been rated up from a score of 1 (completely disagree) to score 5 (totally agree).

Population: Study sample included all staff members of National Iranian Oil Productions Distribution Company. The population size of this research was 736 people. After identifying the target population, systematic stratified random sampling method was used.

Sample Size and Calculation Method: Cochran's sample size formula was used to obtain the sample size which equaled to 253. It should be noted that to increase the results of the survey a sample of 400 participants was chosen.

Reliability and Validity of the Research Tool: Assessing the reliability of the research, formal and content reliability was used in this study. To do so, questionnaire was given to 8 elite and expert members of the research population. As a result, after editing and restoring the items of questionnaire according to its compliance with survey objectives, reliability of questionnaires was proven beside the content reliability. To specify questionnaire validity, test and post-test method and Cronbach's alpha coefficient formula were used.

Validity ratio of the questionnaire was calculated via SPSS software using data obtained from 30 members of the research population. Test and re-test questionnaires Cronbach's alphas were respectively 0.862 and 0.894, that each were separately acceptable. To make sure of the reliability of the questionnaire, in the next step correlation of these two were measured.

For all indicators, the probability of Spearman correlation test (0.0) was less than 0.05. Therefor in a significant level of 0.05 the correlation between indices of two samples is significant and Spearman correlation coefficient has a positive value. Finally questionnaire validity of the research was proven by test & retest method and calculation of Cronbach's alpha coefficient between the first and second sample.

IV. The Results of Hypotheses Testing 1 - Meta-cognitive capability of Cultural Intelligence has a positive and significant relationship with relational dimension of Social Capital and the correlation coefficient value is 0.233.

2 - Meta-cognitive capability of Cultural Intelligence has a positive and significant relationship with structural dimension of Social Capital and the correlation coefficient value is 0.174.

3 - Meta-cognitive capability of Cultural Intelligence has a positive and significant relationship with cognitive dimension of Social Capital and the correlation coefficient value is 0.269.

Assuming a significance level of 0.05 we conclude the research hypotheses are proven.

Table 1: Research hypothesis test results Spearman correlation coefficients Structural Dimension of Social Capital

Cognitive Dimension of Social Capital

Relational Dimension of Social Capital

The correlation coefficient

0.174

0.269

0.233

Sig. (2-tailed)

0.000

0.000

0.000

N

400

400

400

Meta-Cognitive Capability of Cultural Intelligence

For meta-cognitive capability of cultural intelligence and cognitive dimension of social capital indicators, metacognitive capability of cultural intelligence and structural dimension of social capital indicators, meta-cognitive capability of cultural intelligence and cognitive dimension of social capital indicators, the questionnaire Spearman correlation test (0.0) is less than 0.05. As a result at a significance level of 0.05, the correlation between these factors was significant and Spearman's correlation coefficient had a positive value. At the end, assumed correlation between the three dimensions of social capital and meta-cognitive capability of cultural intelligence was proved.

In National Iranian Oil Products Distribution Company 237 employees of the sample were male which equals to 60.9% of sample members, 152 employees of the sample were female which equals to 39.1% of the sample

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members. 2.3% of the sample members aged less than 25 years, 42.9% between 25 and 35 years, 23.1% between 35 to 45 years and 31.8% over 45 years. 14.1% of employees were high school graduates, 13.8% hold associates degree, 51.8% BA degree, 20.1% MA degree and 0.3% PhD. 6.4% of total staff had 1 to 5 years work experience, 33% between 5 to 10 years, 33% between 10 to 20 years and 35.9% had more than 20 years of work experience. 8.8% of employees work in the Smart Fuel System sector, 9.5% in secure management and distribution sector, 15.5% in the Department of Management and Administration, 4.3% in the staff operations management sector, 13.8% in the commercial sector, 17.5% in the plans management and engineering sector, 9.5% in planning management sector, 13% in the financial sector, 1.8% in the public sector, 2.3% in the inspection sector, 1.8% in the Legal Affairs Division and 2.5% in the Health and Safety at work department.

Analyzing the findings related to the main hypothesis of the study showed that the correlation coefficient between the National Oil Products Distribution Company employees meta-cognitive capability of Cultural Intelligence and Social Capital of the organization at error level of P â&#x2030;¤0.05 Was significant.

V. Conclusion and Recommendation When the number of individuals with high meta-cognitive cultural intelligence in an organization is high, then the relationships are based on respect, trust and cooperation. And in other words, in addition to having a critical spirit these people also have friendly relations with each other along with their labor relations. When employees of a Social network within an organization have high meta-cognitive capability of cultural intelligence, their perspectives and interpretations of different stimulus will be the same. In other words, they would have common vision and values in the organization as well as understanding and interacting with each other in line with entire organization interests. People, who enjoy high levels of cultural awareness, are always pay attention to behavior and reactions of people around themselves and at the same time are able to review, revise and adapt their own strategies and mental frameworks to the environment. These people certainly would play the main roles in the social networks that are members in and they are able to help their colleagues to learn new skills, knowledge and experiences. They are also people with high capacity in dual- loop learning.

It's highly recommended to organization directors to track and find people with high meta- cognitive capacity of cultural intelligence in their organization to develop and improve their human resources through them. These resources can consequently strengthen the network of communication and trust and accelerate the process of knowledge and information smooth transition in organizations.

VI. References [1].

[2].

[3].

[4].

[5].

[6].

[7].

[8].

[9].

[10].

[11].

[12].

[13].

[14].

[15].

[16].

[17].

[18].

Ang, Soon and Linn Van, Dyne; "Handbook of Cultural Intelligence: Theory, Measurement, and Applications, M.E. Sharoe, Inc.; 2008.

Ang,S.;Dyne,V.;L. Koh,C. ;Personality correlates of the four factor Model of Cultural Intelligence-Group and Organization Management,Vol.31,No.1,100-123,2006.

Ang,Soon,Dyne,Van,Linn,Koh, Christine and Chandraskar N.Annand; Cultural Intelligence: Its Measurement and Effects on Cultural Judgement and Decision Making, Cultural adaption, and Task Performance. Michigan state University and Nanyang Technological University; Singapore; 2007.

Ang, Soon-Ink pen; Andrew, C.;" Cultural Intelligence and offshore Outsourcing success: A Framework of Firm-Level Intercultural Capability;Decision Atlanta: Vol.39 ;No.3,337;2008.

Azdanlo, H. "Understanding the basic concepts of sociology", Ney publication; Tehran; 2005.

Bolino, M.C; Turnley, W.H. and Bloodgood, J.M; "Citizenship behavior and creation of social capital in organizations", Academy of Management Review, 27:4,505-522; 2002.

Bourdieu, p. ;"the forms of capital in Education, Culture, Economy and Society ";Edited by Halsey, A.H.; Lauder, H.; Brown, P. and Stuart Wells, A. ;Oxford University Press; Oxford; 1998.

Earley, P.C.and Ang,S.; Cultural Intelligence: individual Interactions across Cultures; Stanford. CA: Stanford Business Books; 2003.

Earley,P.C.;Masakowski,E.;"Cultural Intelligence;" Harvard Business Review ,Vol 22, No.10, 139-146; 2005.

Earley, P.C.; Peterson, R.;The Elusive Cultural Chamelon:Cultural Intelligence as a New Approach to Intercultural Training for the Global Manager ;Academy of Management Learning and Education;Vol.3;No.1,99-126;2004.

Early,P.C; Ang,Soon;SengTan,Joo; " CQ: Developing Cultural Intelligence at work"; Stanford University Press;217-227;2006.

Fukuyama,F.; Trust: Social virtues and the creation of prosperity; Hamish Hamilton;London;1995.

Fukuyama, F.; The end of order, Social Market Foundation; London; 1997.

Nahapiet, J.; Ghoshal, S.;" Social Capital, Intellectual Capital and the Organizational Advantage"; Academy of Management Review; 23:2; 242-266; 1998.

Piaget, J.; "Psychology of Intelligence"(translation Habibullah Rabbani); Safi Ali Shah publication; Tehran; 1978.

Putman, R.D; "The prosperous Community: Social capital and public life", American Prospect, 4:13, 35-42; 1993.

Van Dyne, L. (2005-2010).Cultural Intelligence CQ).East Lansing: Michigan State University; Available from http://www.Innvandyne.com/cq.html.

Van Dyne, Lin; Ang, Soon;"Cultural Intelligence: An Essential Capability for Individuals in Contemporary Organization"; Global Edge.MSu.Edu; 2005.

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Effect of entrepreneurship development through cashew processing on socio-economic status of villagers S. K. Nag, S. K. Patil, S. Patel, A. Pradhan, R. S. Netam, M. S. Paikra and D. P. Singh .

S. G. College of Agriculture & Research Station, IGKVV, Jagdalpur 494 005, INDIA. Abstract: Improvement of livelihood security through sustainable integrated farming system model and allied enterprises in Bastar Region of Chhattisgarh under National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) which involved the members of self help group (SHGs) they were trained in the field of cashew processing along with marketing .SHGs were formed one village of Turenar cluster and get trained on promotion of cashew business in 2009-10. The group had president & secretary of self help group along Secretary runs the processing of cashew which was done by members by following method involved. The group first surveyed and bargaining then purchasing of raw cashew was done. The purchased cashew was subjected towards sun drying, steam treatment then ultimately cooling, cutting along cleaning was done in next processing. After getting kernel cooling, the brown covering over edible portion was the last stage of processing. The present demand of clean and quality cashew made inclusion of grading and packing. The cost of seed Rs.50, 000/-which had been funded by project (NAIP-3) whereas labour from group. The whole cashew was sold out Rs.1, 01,500/-(2 qtl.) with Rs.38, 000/- net profit.

Keyword: entrepreneurship, cashew processing, socio-economics status I.

INTRODUCTION

Cashew industry provides employment for more than 5 lakh people in farms and factories in all over the India, most of them in the rural areas. In the cashew processing factories over 95 per cent of the workers are women from the weaker section of the society. Thus apart from its economic significance the cashew industry plays a leading role in social and financial upliftment of the rural poor of the country (D’Souza, 2007).

Chhattisgarh has good scope for cashew cultivation having large wasteland and climate is suitable for cashew cultivation. Cashew plantation was started in Bastar from 1960’s and at present Chhattisgarh state has about six lakh hectare wasteland area. Bastar plateau is southern part of Chhattisgarh and mainly covered with forest area and having five tribal predominant districts with around 40,000 hectares land suitable for cashew plantation (GIS Survey, GOI-2002-03). In Chhattisgarh 16.05 thousand hectares under cashew cultivation, out of which 6.89 thousand hectares in Baster plateau (Chhattisgarh Directorate of Horticulture Reports, 2007-08). The increased area clearly indicates the adoptability of the crop in the state.

Cashew cultivation has mainly concentrated in two districts viz., Jagdalpur and Raigarh, However cashew cultivation will be extended other districts of the state. The majority of the cashew plantations raised by the Forest Department and Horticulture Departments of Chhattisgarh are from seedling origin. Some of the plantations are as old as 20–30 years. Therefore, there is a possibility of locating high yielding types and other diverse types, particularly the types suitable for growing in waste lands/degraded lands. Considerable variability is being observed in the existing populations, hence there is systematic collection and conservation is needed.

Now the cashew is cultivated in Bastar, Kanker, Narayanpur, Dantewara, Jashpur, Raigarh and Rajnandgaon districts of the state. Farmers of these districts are tuned to grow this crop.

II.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study was started from 2009-10 providing 50,000 to group in adopted village under National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP), component-3. To study the impact on entrepreneurship linking to minor forest products of forest comprising bhataguda with 12 members of one group.

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Mode of work President Survey and bargaining Secretary Purchasing of raw materials SHGs Water

Sun drying

Steamer

Steam treatment

Heat

Cooling for 8 hrs

Cutting and cleaning Drying (with dryer) 600 C C Cooling of kernel Peeling of brown cover Brown cover Grading Weighing Packing

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION On the basis of one year data, the results were discussed in different aspect of economic analysis led to for villages for adopting this process in continuous to run the livelihood of those involved in this security process. It was observed that 714 kg raw material was purchased at rate of Rs.70/- per kg from local market which had been converted in 200 kg of kernel and sold at Rs.1, 00,000/- with net return Rs.38, 000/- by self help group formed under NAIP (Component-III).Hence, the upliftment and directional entrepreneurship was tremendously changed the vision of new adoption to drive existing livelihood. Similar work has been quoted by many workers. The investment of initial cost of procuring and processing of cashew among SHGs was provided through Agricultural Innovation Project(NAIP).The work running amount of 50,000/- was given to SHGs to purchase cashew and they sold the cashew after processing in net profit Rs.38, 000/-.

Table: 2 Cost analysis of the group of 2009-10 S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Particulars Qty.of cashew collected (qtl.)

Cost of cashew A After processing Rate/kg Income from kernel By -product Rate/kg

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Amount/Qty. 714 kg 50000 200 kg 500.00 1,00,000.00 500 3.00

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Income from nutshell Gross income Net Benefit Processing cost B Total Rs. A+B

1500.00 1,01,500.00 38000 13500 63500

REFERENCES Bhattacharya, P.K., Bal, S. and Mukharji, R.K. (1994) Studies on the characteristics of some products from tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) kernels. Journal of food science and Technology (India), Puranaik, J., Nagalashmi, S., Balasubrahmanyam, N. and Sakaracharya, N.B. (2004) Packaging and storage studies on Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) pulp. Journal of food Science and Technology, 14(3):348-351 Sharankumar, H., Ramakumar, M.V. and Ranganna, B. (2001) A comparison of traditional and mechanical processing of tamarind fruit.

Current Research-University of agricultural Science (Bangalore), 30(11/12):193-194 Cashew nut Board of Tanzania (CBT). Annual Reports 1990 to 2001. Mtwara, Tanzania.

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HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT IN INFORMATION TECHNICAL INDUSTRY Surender Kumar Assistant Professor (Guest Faculty) Department of Commerce Indira Gandhi University, Meerpur (Rewari), Haryana, India Abstract: Success of every business enterprise depends on its human resource. Money, material and machines are inert factors; but man with his ability to feel, think, conscience and plan is the most valuable resource. At the same time human elements are most difficult to be inspired, controlled and motivated. The upcoming competition in India will demand high motivational level of its employees. Growth of an enterprise is vital for the economic development of the country. This is possible only by maintaining the enthusiasm and motivation of the employees, which is vital for carrying out the operations in most efficient manner. The most successful companies, all over the world have designed their business policies to achieve higher productivity by using potentiality and strength of people. The basic aim of human policies is the genuine concern for the people. Proper design of human policies is based on the higher responsibilities, personal and positive approach in the total perspective of organizational interest. The world's best companies have established their strength with their people. The employees identify themselves with the company they are working for. This also help in building up their spirit, morale and spirit-de-cops which becomes strength of the company. The culture of excellence thus nurtured contributes to growth with stability and continuous improvement in productivity. Finding the right man for the job and developing him into a valuable resource is an indispensable requirement of every organisation. Human resources are capable of enlargement i.e. capable of providing an output that is greater than the sum of the inputs. Proper recruitment helps the line managers to work most effectively in accomplishing the primary objective of the enterprise. In order to harness the human energies in the service or organisational goals, every manager is expected to pay proper attention to recruitment, selection, training, development activities in an organisation. Proper promotional avenues must also be created so as to motivate employees to peak performance. Thus, personnel functions such as manpower planning recruitment, selection and training, when carried out properly, would enable the organisation to hire and retain the services of the best brains in the market. The human resource management is very crucial in respect of information technology services than other manufacturing or marketing enterprises. The IT services are technical in nature and at every stage the human touch is involved. Hence it is well motivated and devoted manpower which is very much essential for the success of IT industry.

I. INTRODUCTION Human Resource Management (HRM) is the function within an organization that focuses on recruitment of, management of, and providing direction for the people who work in the organization. Human Resource Management can also be performed by line managers.

Human Resource Management is the organizational function that deals with issues related to people such as compensation, hiring, performance management, organization development, safety, wellness, benefits, employee motivation, communication, administration, and training. Administrative activities associated with human resources planning, recruitment, selection, orientation, training, appraisal, motivation, remuneration, etc.

HRM aims at developing people through work, Human resource management (HRM) is the strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organization’s most valued assets - the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the business. The terms "human resource management" and "human resources" (HR) have largely replaced the term "personnel management" as a description of the processes involved in managing people in organization in simple sense, HRM means employing people, developing their resources, utilizing, maintaining and compensating their services in tune with the job and organizational requirement.

Its features include:  Organizational management  Personnel administration

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 Personnel management  Manpower management  Industrial management But these traditional expressions are becoming less common for the theoretical discipline. Sometimes even industrial relations and employee relations are confusingly listed as synonyms, although these normally refer to the relationship between management and workers and the behavior of workers in companies. The theoretical discipline is based primarily on the assumption that employees are individuals with varying goals and needs, and as such should not be thought of as basic business resources, such as trucks and filing cabinets. The field takes a positive view of workers, assuming that virtually all wish to contribute to the enterprise productively, and that the main obstacles to their endeavors are lack of knowledge, insufficient training, and failures of process. HRM is seen by practitioners in the field as a more innovative view of workplace management than the traditional approach. Its techniques force the managers of an enterprise to express their goals with specificity so that they can be understood and undertaken by the workforce and to provide the resources needed for them to successfully accomplish their assignments. As such, HRM techniques, when properly practiced, are expressive of the goals and operating practices of the enterprise overall. HRM is also seen by many to have a key role in risk reduction within organizations.

Human Resource Management System (HRMS, EHRMS), Human Resource Information System (HRIS), HR Technology or also called HR modules, refers to the systems and processes at the intersection between human resource management (HRM) and information technology. It merges HRM as a discipline and in particular its basic HR activities and processes with the information technology field, whereas the programming of data processing systems evolved into standardized routines and packages of enterprise resource planning (ERP) software. On the whole, these ERP systems have their origin on software that integrates information from different applications into one universal database. The linkage of its financial and human resource modules through one database is the most important distinction to the individually and proprietary developed predecessors, which makes this software application both rigid and flexible.

II. HR IT SCENARIO The web is altering the HRD landscape beyond recognition. The key to corporate success in the fast changing information era is ‘thinking on your knees’. What is this thinking on your knees? Normally as the HR person you know what the situation is and operate from there. A repositioning is required in your decision process with questions like why, how and when and not just what. At this point you operate on your knee i.e. with far more dynamism and with a lot more effectiveness than thinking on your feet. The employees are like gypsies, on the move all the time. They camp at some location, enhance their skills, responsibility levels and move on. This is particularly true of the professional from Software Industry. Opportunities are plenty and the next job opening is only a mouse click away. The question is not about what else you can do to retain an employee but it is about making him productive, while he is with you. The value addition will then happen for both the employee as well as the employer resulting in a win-win situation. This means that the new strategy calls for the recognition that no employee is expected to be permanently with you. Normal tenure in any organization is likely to be between two to three years.

III. EMPLOYEE STOCK PURCHASE PLANS (ESPPS) Employee stock purchase plans (ESPPs) include both tax-qualified "423 plans," which about 2,400 companies offer, and nonqualified plans, which about 1,500 companies offer. Our estimates are based on data from ShareData's Equity Compensation Trends in America (1991), Hewitt Associates' On Employee Stock Ownership (1996), Hewitt Associates' Survey Findings: Employee Stock Purchase Plans (1998), and the National Association for Stock Plan Professionals' Stock Plan Design and Administration Survey (1998), especially the more recent studies. To estimate the number of employees covered under the plans, we took the total number of companies offering plans, multiplied those numbers by the average number of employees in the companies (13,207 for 423 plans and 17,790 for nonqualified plans), and multiplied that number by the average percentage of participation in the plans (34% for 423 plans and 17% for nonqualified ESPPs). Almost all companies with ESPPs are public.

Multiple Plans: Many companies offer multiple e plans, and many employees participate in more than one plan. For example, many ESPP participants are also in 401(k), stock option, or other equity compensation plans.

Hence, the total number of participants in all these plans is definitely not the total of the numbers in the "Number of participants" column.

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT SERVES THESE KEY FUNCTIONS: 1. Recruitment & Selection 2. Training and Development 3. Performance Evaluation and Management 4. Promotions

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5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Redundancy Industrial and Employee Relations Record keeping of all personal data.

Compensation, pensions, bonuses etc in liaison with Payroll Confidential advice to internal 'customers' in relation to problems at work Career development 4 R’s of HR in IT Recruiting Signing bonus Finders Fee Alumni connections Non-techs Students Interns

Retaining Retention bonus Project pay Reduct FTE/same pay Telecommuting Externs Job sharing Recognition programs

Retraining Job rotation Team assignments Skill inventories Competency development Certification

Restructuring Broad job descriptions Flexible compensation programs Flexible jobs Positive problem-solving spirit

IV. RESEARCH PROBLEM The main job of HRM is to manage the retention rate of employees in a company. The situation of employees in IT sector is not lies in the line of satisfaction. New innovations and promotional schemes decide the career platform of employees. It is quiet very important to understand the trend of human resource management. So my main research problem is identifying and analyzing of Emerging Trends of HR in Information Technology.

V. SIGINFICANCE Human resource is vital power of an it organization. It is quiet very important to monitor the change in human resource methods, factors, procedure and technique, plan of recruitment and selection in IT industry it is the platform where technology is change with passing if time the plan, principle of HR which are being followed by few decades are not valid in the complete environment. this research describe the relationship between employee as well as the tendency of HR people towards their job profile. This research is helpful for IT companies to monitor the lacking area about their people.

VI. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research in a layman language means a search of knowledge. One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search of potential information on a specific topic. In fact research is an art of scientific investigation.

The dictionary meaning of research is a “careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge”. Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge’. Some people consider research as a movement from known to unknown. Research is an academic activity and as such the term must be used in a technical sense. Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of the knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation and experiment. The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of systematic procedure. The main aim of research is to find out the truth, which has not been discovered.        

VII. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The 54% of the were Male and 46 per cent of the respondents were Female. It was observed that IT industry is dominated by the software professionals (46%), computer hardware and marketing services of IT are sharing the other half.

The majority of respondents (69%) view that HR needs of IT industry are different from old economy sector and HR managers in IT industry has to keep this into mind..

As per 48% of the respondents IT organization has more concern for profit motive than employee’s welfare. While 43% were not agree to this proposition 51 percent of the respondents strongly agree/agree to the statement that grievance are handled properly in the Indian IT industry. While 33% think otherwise.

Majority of the respondents view that the top management's are not aware or little aware about the employees working conditions in the IT organizations .

Cordial employee employer relationship is very essential in the upcoming highly competitive economy.

The state of employee employer relationship in Indian IT Industry was measured through the questionnaire.

Existing Indian labour Laws/Rules are not strictly applicable to Indian IT Industry as IT sector employees are quite different from general factory workers and are well educated and trained.

Whether excessive competition in Indian IT sector is harming the overall long term prospects of employees in this sector.

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

The largest percent of the respondent’s view that there should be only welfare association in Indian IT industry.

VIII. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

RECOMMENDATIONS

These fastnesses of services and higher level of education/training standards are not easy to manage by the organizations’ concerned. As we already know that Human Resource Management of the organization deals with the individuals putting their hardwork to meet the organizations’ goals.

Managing people is the toughest element of any organization than land, machinery or finances. Every human being has its own degree of preferences, likings and attitude. So, an HR manager has to take care of all these things in mind while dealing with the number of people working in the organization.

But, emerging HR trends of Information Technology industry can not be managed properly by the old traditional HR techniques. As it is commonly known that man learns by experience. 50 years of introduction of computers has provided us the areas to be additionally addressed by the HR managers in IT sector. Indian IT industry is not an exception. Moreover, due to existence of old conservative .and protective labour laws it is not possible to meet the ever-growing international competition in the IT services The IT industry has been devising newer Personnel Management/ HR techniques which specifically meet the needs of IT industry. The main reason for this is high standards of education and professional training required for this industry. Secondly, there are excessive job demands for developed countries in this sector and high wage standards. So, HR managers mainly in developing countries like India find it very difficult to retain and recruit their manpower.

Despite having abundant English-speaking skilled workforce, an acute shortage of skilled workforce will affect the country’s software exports in the long run, if remedial actions are not taken immediately.

‘Knowledge workers’ has become a buzzword in today’s IT scenario. And if we look at the top software exporters, they have been growing phenomenally in workforce strength. To make it big in the global software market, India needs to increase its mass of knowledge workers.

IX. CONCLUSION Hence, it can be concluded that Emerging HR trends of Indian It industry are quite different from the old economy industry. India is considered one of Super Power in Information Technology and allied fields. Majority of world leaders in IT sector are outsourcing their requirements from Indian IT Industry and recruiting Indian IT professionals. Hence, the Indian Government must allow the Industry to meet international competition and desired environment in respect of Labour Laws and financial rules must be liberalized for this Indian IT Industry. Moreover, HR managers in Indian IT Industry must keep the sensitive nature of IT professionals and state of greater opportunities outside in mind for devising HR policies for their organizations’ China is also entering this area vigorously and Government of India must help Indian It industry to meet this challenge.

BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS AND REFERENCES  ‘Kothari, C.R’.,’ Research Methodology’,New Delhi Vikas publishing housePvt. Ltd.2005.  ‘Robert L.Mathis’,. Johan H. Jackson ‘Human Resource Management’, 11th edition.  ‘Alan Price’ ‘Human Resource Management in a Business Context’, 3rd edition (April2007)  ‘Chhabara T.N.’ ‘Human Resource Management’Delhi Dhanpat Rai & Co.2008 MAGAZINES  HRM and IT Review  Manages emerging review of human resources.

JOURNALS Aggarwal Ajay “Niche Recruiting Sites Attract Attention” December 2001, (76-119) Ridsdale .N, “Journal on IT used by HRM” June 2000 (37-112) Taylor, H. (2000b, July 5). “Journal on Many people with disabilities feel in IT” April 2004 (P36-98) WEB SITES  www.wikipedia.com  www.google.co.in  www.hcl.com  www.tcs.com  www.infosys.com

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Analysis of Urban Land Use Changes: A Case Study of Sonipat City in Haryana, India Dr. Sneh Sangwan1 Balwan Singh2 Mahima3 Kuldeep Singh Suhag4 Associate Professor, Department of Geography, BPS Institute of Higher Learning, Khanpur Kalan (Sonipat), Haryana, India 2 Asst. Prof., Department of Geography, Govt. College, Matak Majri, Haryana, India 3 Asst. Prof., Department of Geography, Jat College, Rohtak, Haryana, India 4 Asst. Prof., Department of Geography, Govt. College, Gharaunda, Haryana. India 1

Abstract: Analysis of land use/land cover change of Sonipat city within the last 20 years is observed in the present study which represents the staged change in land use pattern. The change was based on satellite imagery of Town Directory map 1991, LANDSAT TM Image 1989 and Google Earth Image 2002 and 2011, toposheet at a scale of 1:50000. A number of factors such as socio-economic and political are responsible for the economic development and land use changes. Study reveals that that city has experienced rapid changes in land use, particularly in terms of unplanned residential area and agricultural land.

Key Words: Land Use/Land Cover, HUDA and Google Earth Image.

I. Introduction The land use/land cover pattern of a region is an outcome of natural and socio-economic factors and their utilization by man in time and space. Land is becoming a scarce resource due to immense agricultural and demographic pressure (Sundara, 2012). Land use change is one of the most important fields of human induced environmental transformation, with an extensive history dating back to antiquity (Wolman and Fournier; 1987). Urbanization is the causes of land use changes. Urbanization is a gift to the human society if it is controlled, coordinated and planed. However, unplanned urbanization is a curse. In 2008 more than half of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population was urban dwellers and the urban population is expected to reach 81% by 2030 (UNPF; 2007). Due to the acceleration of the global urbanization in both intensity and area, there is a growing interest in understanding its implications with respect to a broad set of environmental factors including loss of agricultural and arable land decline in natural vegetation cover and climate at local, regional, and global level. The conversion of rural areas into urban areas through development is currently occurring at an unprecedented rate in recent human history and is having a marked effect on the natural functioning of ecosystems (Turner; 1994).

Since ecosystems in urban areas are strongly influenced by anthropogenic activities, considerably more attention is currently being directed towards monitoring changes in urban land use/ land cover (Stow and Chen; 2002).

Land Use/land Cover change due to human activities is currently proceeding more quickly in developing countries than in the developed world. Present time, changes in land use, especially in developing countries, has involved a decrease in the area of rural land use and an increase in the area of urban land use through urbanization (Dewan and Yamaguchi 2009). Geographic Information Systems within remote sensing have been useful as powerful and cost-effective tools for detecting and analyzing the spatio-temporal dynamics of processes and patterns of urban growth and land use/land cover change at local, regional, and global scales.

II. Data Source and Methodology The study is mainly based on secondary data. Erdas9.0 and Arc GIS 9.3 software have been used for the preparation of different thematic layer at second level. High resolution satellite image is best appropriate for mapping urban land use/land cover information on explanation of high geometric reliability, clearness of objects, features in their true shape and size, better appropriate clarity within close proximity to the real world (NUIS, 2008).

Table: 1 Land Use Classification of Sonipat, Municipal Corporation . No.

Level I

1

Built-up Area

Level- II Unplanned Residential Area Planned Residential Area Public & Semi-Public Area

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Recreational Area Commercial Area Industrial Area Plotted Area 2

Non Built-up Area

Open/Vacant Land Plantation Area Agricultural Land Waste/Scrub land Water Body

Source: Modified from NUIS Manual, 2008 Hence, town directory map of Sonipat city 1991 and satellite data has been used in this study which has been downloaded from Google Earth, Pro, 2002 and 2011. Other spatial and non-spatial data also have been used for present study which includes; Topographic sheet No. H43Q16, H43R4, H43W13 and H43X1 at scale of 1:50,000 (Survey of India, Dehradun) 2005-2006, Municipal Corporation map of Sonipat city 2011. The georeferenced municipal corporation boundary (2011) overlaid on the satellite data communicates the spatial extent of the Sonipat city. Two level land use classification has been used in this study modified from NUIS manual, 2008 (Table 1). Google map was used for better analysis of visual interpretation and GPS survey was conduct of doubtful points and accuracy evaluation.

III. Study Area Sonipat city came in the light as a District Headquarter in 1972 comprising the tehsils of Sonipat, Gohana and Ganaur. Sonipat town is linked with Delhi, Uttar-Pradesh and Haryana with Rail and Figure: 1 Location Map of Study Area

Road Links.The name of the Sonipat town was formed of the name of Raja Soni or a town called Swaran Prastha during Mahabharta time. This city is conveniently linked with Delhi and Chandigarh by rail but the interiors of Haryana by roads only. Sonipat town is located at a distance of 52 kilometers by road and 44 kilometers by rail from delhi. National Highway No.1 lies 8 kilometers away in the east from the main city. The

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city is well linked with the National and State Capital by road and rail links. The city has also well connectivity with the interior of the State as well as the neighboring state of Utter Pradesh Objectives:  To analysis the land use change during 1991 -2011.  To identify the direction of urban growth.

Analyses of land use/land cover 1991 The total area of Sonipat city has been divided in twelve categories depending up to prevalent type of land uses (Table: 1).The broad categorization into two types; built up and non built up has further been subdivided. In the non built up categories agriculture, plantation, vacant, water bodies and waste/scrub land has been included. In 1991, agricultural land was a dominant land use i.e. 66.08 percent of the total study area followed by public semipublic, industrial, planned residential, unplanned residential i.e. 5.13, 3.65, 1.27 and 20.47 percent respectively. Water bodies have been recorded 0.31 percent on the form of ponds and water works. Commercial area has been observed 1.35 percent followed by recreational area, waste/scrub land and plantation i.e. 0.21, 1.44 and 0.11 percent respectively (Figure 2 and Table 2).

Figure: 2 Land Use/Land Cover 1991

Source: Based on Town Directory Map 1991 and TM Image 1989 Table: 2 Areas under Different Land Use/ Land Cover in 1991 Sr. No.

1991

Land Use Categories Area in Sq. m.

Area in Percent

1

Public and Semi Public Area

1692803.63

5.13

2

Industrial Area

1203824.32

3.65

3

Planned Residence Area

418547.26

1.27

4

Un Planned Residence Area

6760551.09

20.47

5

Water bodies

101117.66

0.31

6

Agricultural Land

21820417.99

66.08

7

Open/Vacant Land

-----

-----

8

Plotted Land

-----

-----

9

Commercial Area

444786.43

1.35

10

Recreational area

69644.42

0.21

11

Waste/Scrub Land

475856.38

1.44

12

Plantation

35811.9

0.11

33023361.08

100

Total

Source: Calculate from Town Directory Map 1991 and TM Image 1989

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Analysis of Land use/Land Cover in 2002: The land use/land cover map of 2002 shows major change which occur in the city during the period of 1991 to 2002. The significant change has observed and spread from central part towards the peripheral part of the city.

In 2002, agricultural land was recorded 39.05 percent of the study area. It was reduced 27.02 percent. It was shifted agricultural to planned residential, unplanned residential, industrial area and public and semipublic utilities during 1991 to 2002. Public and semipublic area has been recorded 6.04 percent whereas it was 5.13 percent in 1991. It was increased 0.91 percent during these periods. Industrial area has been observed 4.45 percent of total study area whereas it was 3.65 percent in 1991. It was increased 0.80 percent during 1991 to 2002. Planned residential area and unplanned residential area also increased 4.28 and 12.28 percent during 1991 to 2002. It was the impact of economic development and population pressure. Water bodies have been observed 0.25 percent in 2002 whereas it was 0.31 percent in 1991. It was reduced 0.6 percent. Open land and plotted land has been recorded 0.02 and 7.44 percent of the total study area. Commercial area has been observed 1.78 percent while it was 1.35 percent in 1991. It was increased 0.43 percent within transport network. Recreational area also increased 0.21 to 0.85 percent during these eleven years. Waste and scrub land increased due to industrial activities i.e. 0.17 percent of the total area. Plantation has been observed 0.15 percent in 2002 whereas it was 0.11 percent in 1991. It was increased due to planned development by Haryana Urban Development Authority (Figure 3 and Table 3).

Figure: 2 Land Use/Land Cover 2002

Source: Based on Google Earth Image 2002 Table: 3 Areas under Different Land Use/ Land Cover in 2002 Sr. No.

2002

Land Use Categories Area in Sq. m.

Area in Percent

1

Public and Semi Public Area

1994396.96

6.04

2

Industrial Area

1469467.16

4.45

3

Planned Residence Area

1830463.3

5.54

4

Un Planned Residence Area

10816789.02

32.75

5

Water bodies

82547.29

0.25

6

Agricultural Land

12896779.69

39.05

7

Open/Vacant Land

7438.04

0.02

8

Plotted Land

2458082.19

7.44

9

Commercial Area

586313.92

1.78

10

Recreational area

280132.71

0.85

11

Waste/Scrub Land

551986.15

1.67

12

Plantation

48964.65

0.15

33023361.08

100

Total

Source: Calculate from Google Earth Image 2002

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Analysis of Land use/Land Cover in 2011: In 2011, agricultural land has been recorded 32.55 percent of the total study area whereas it was 66.08 and 39.05 percent in 1991 and 2002. It was decreased due to urbanization and economic development. Unplanned residential area has been emerged as a dominant land use category. It has been recorded 35.62 percent in 2011 whereas it was 20.47 and 32.75 percent in 1991 and 2002. It was the impact of migration of people from adjoining villages to search of employment and good education.

Planned residential area has been observed 8.35 percent in 2011 whereas it was 1.27 and 5.54 percent in 1991 and 2002. It was increased due to Haryana Urban Development Authority on the cost of agriculture land. Water bodies have been observed 0.31 percent in 2011 whereas it was 0.25 percent in 2002. It was increased 0.6 percent on the form of water works. In 2011, plotted land has been recorded 5.63 percent followed by commercial area, recreational, waste/scrub land and plantation i.e. 0.94, 2.11 and 0.18 percent respectively.

Figure: 3 Land Use/Land Cover 2011 Table: 4 Areas under Different Land Use/ Land Cover in 2011 Sr. No.

2011

Land Use Categories Area in Sq. m.

Area in Percent

1

Public and Semi Public Area

2465802.91

7.47

2

Industrial Area

1469467.16

4.45

3

Planned Residence Area

2756068.23

8.35

4

Un Planned Residence Area

11761512.83

35.62

5

Water bodies

6

Agricultural Land

7 8

101117.66

0.31

10749814.52

32.55

Open/Vacant Land

106725.77

0.32

Plotted Land

1860685.67

5.63

9

Commercial Area

682070.36

2.07

10

Recreational area

311567.16

0.94

11

Waste/Scrub Land

698164.62

2.11

12

Plantation

60364.19

0.18

33023361.08

100

Total

Source: Calculate from GeoEye Image 2011

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IV. Conclusion Present study reveals multi-temporal remote sensing image interpretation and GIS spatial analysis to land use/land cover change in Sonipat city during the 1991-2011. The result reveals that city has knowledgeable rapid changes in land use categories, particularly in terms of unplanned residential area and agricultural land.

Unplanned residential area which is increased 20.47 to 35.62 percent over the past 20 years, resulting in a large reduction in the area of agricultural land from 66.08 to 32.55 percent during the study period. Due to development of Industries, education institutions, new residential complexes and good quality of transport network has contributed the rapid urban development and land use changes in study area. Productive agricultural land is changed into planned residential, unplanned residential, plotted land, public and semipublic utilities, commercial and industrial uses.

References 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Sundara, K. K. et. al. (2012) Land Use And Land Cover Change Detection And Urban Sprawl Analysis of Vijayawada City Using Multi-temporal Landsat Data”, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 01. pp 170-178.

Wolman, M. G. and F. G. A. Fournier (editors), Land Transformation in Agriculture, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK,.

1987.

United Nations Population Fund “The State of World Population 2007: Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth,” United Nations Publications.

Turner B. L. “Local Faces, Global Flows: The Role of Land Use and Land Cover in Global Environmental Change,” Land Degradation and Development, Vol. 5, pp. 71-78, 1994.

Stow D. A. and Chen, D. M. “Sensitivity of Multi-Temporal NOAA AVHRR Data of an Urbanizing Region to Land Use/Cover Changes and Misregistration,” Remote Sensing of Environment, Vol. 80, pp. 297-307, 2002.

Dewan, A. and Yamaguchi, Y. “Using Remote Sensing and GIS to Detect and Monitor Land Use/Land Cover Changes in Dhaka Metropolitan of Bangladesh during 1960 to 2005,” Environ Monit Assess, 150, pp. 37-249. 2009.

National Urban Information System Manual for Thematic Mapping: Using High Resolution Satellite Data and Geospatial Techniques, National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad, 110 pp, 2008.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Profile of Cognitive Styles of High School English Teachers 1

D. Srinivas Kumar, 2M. Siva Kumar Professor & Chairman-BOS, Dept of Education & HRD, Dravidian University, Srinivasavanam, Kuppam – 517 426 (A.P.), INDIA. 2 Principal, Sri Srinivasa Teacher Training Institute, Ramasamudram Mandal, Chittoor District (A.P.), INDIA

1

Abstract: The main purpose of the current investigation is to profile the cognitive styles of high school English teachers. This study is based on data collected from 60 high school English teachers. Simple random sampling technique has been used to collect the sample. The Cognitive Style Inventory (CSI) has been used as tool to collect the data. Results from the investigation reveal that the high school English teachers possess three types of cognitive styles, namely, integrated cognitive style, undifferentiated cognitive style, and split cognitive style. It has also been found that there exists difference in cognitive styles of teachers based on their age and religion.

Keywords: Cognitive Style, Systematic cognitive style, Intuitive cognitive style, Integrated cognitive style, Undifferentiated cognitive style, Split cognitive style, high school English teacher.

I. Introduction The term cognition is used to describe the mental activity through which human beings acquire, remember and learn to use knowledge. Cognition refers to a division for processing of information, application of knowledge, and modifying preferences. Cognition is a combination of mental processes that includes awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment. Cognitive style is described as a personality dimension which influences attitudes, values and social interaction. It is need-based. Herman Witkin (1950) introduced the term ‘cognitive style’ to describe the concept that individuals consistently exhibit stylistic preferences for the ways in which they organize stimuli and construct meanings for themselves out of their experiences and further suggested that these styles include variables within single dichotomy like global-holistic versus focus-detailed, field dependent versus field independent. It is a fact that these two styles have gained lots of popularity in terms of perceptual processes of persons. Paivio (1971) indicated that cognitive style assesses whether an individual tends to think in verbal terms, using sequential processing of information, or in visual terms, using parallel processing. Cornett (1983) described cognitive style as a predictable pattern of behaviour within a range of individual variability.

Messick (1984) indicated that cognitive style deals with the manner in which people prefer to make sense out of their world by collecting, analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting data. Srinivas Kumar (2011) defined that cognitive style has to be considered as a wholistic process of cognition that begins with the perception, and mediated by information processing, and the resultant retrieval; it varies from person to person and it is affected by various personality factors, such as, previous information, heredity and environment, interest, thinking, attitude, value system, intelligence, creativity, social and economic status and so on.

It is a fact that human beings are curious about themselves and their environment – right from birth to death.

There exist individual variations among persons in the context of their ways of perception, understanding, and retrieval etc processes. Teachers form an important part of the human population. They form the backbone of any nation. Their role is significant as transmitters of culture and agents of social change to the new members of the society. Another notable aspect is that the English language is a foreign language for Indians. It is taught as second language in some secondary schools and as first language in English medium schools. It is well known fact that the ‘cognition’ is incidental and the ‘learning’ is goal-directed. These are complementary to each other.

Hence, an attempt is made in the current investigation to prepare a profile of cognitive styles of high school English teachers for facilitating better learning for themselves and for the students. By exploring the cognitive styles of English teachers, it is presumed that their thought processes could be gauged. Societal-specific and culture-specific terms need to be embedded in sentence construction for bringing nativity in usage of a particular language. This aspect is applicable to the usage of scientific terms also. Thinking in mother language (any Indian language) and putting such ideas into a different language (for example, English) may not communicate the same meaning which it is intended to give. Keeping in view all these aspects, the objectives of the current research are stated as under.

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II. Objectives To explore the patterns of cognitive styles that exists among secondary school English Teachers.

To find out the cognitive styles among secondary school English teachers due to variation in their age, gender, place of living, type of family, and religion.

Keeping in view the objectives of the investigation, the following hypotheses have been formulated.

1.

2.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

There is no significant difference variation in their gender.

There is no significant difference variation in their age.

There is no significant difference variation in their place of living.

There is no significant difference variation in their type of family.

There is no significant difference variation in their religion.

III. Hypotheses in cognitive styles of secondary school English teachers due to in cognitive styles of secondary school English teachers due to in cognitive styles of secondary school English teachers due to in cognitive styles of secondary school English teachers due to in cognitive styles of secondary school English teachers due to

IV. Method Survey method has been used in the present investigation to describe the features of the English teachers. The ‘simple random sampling technique’ has been used for selection of sample of 60 English teachers working in high schools located in Kuppam and Gudupalli mandals located in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh State.

The Cognitive Styles Inventory (CSI) has been used as a tool in this investigation. The CSI is standardized for Indian population by Praveen Kumar Jha (2001). It is a self-report measure of the ways of thinking, judging, remembering, storing information, decision making, and believing in interpersonal relationships. The CSI comprises 40 statements from which 20 statements are related to Systematic Style and the other 20 statements to Intuitive Style and are to be responded on five-point scale running from ‘Strongly Agree’ to ‘Strongly Disagree’ with three middle responses of ‘Agree’, ‘Undecided’, and ‘Disagree’. It enables to assess the five styles, namely, systematic style, intuitive style, integrated style, undifferentiated style, and split style.  Systematic Style: An individual who typically operates with a systematic style uses a well defined step-by-step approach while solving a problem; looks for an overall method or pragmatic approach; and then makes wholistic plan for problem solving.  Intuitive Style: An individual with intuitive style uses an unpredictable ordering of analytical steps when solving a problem, depends on experience pattern characterized by universalized areas or hunches and explores and abandons alternatives quickly.  Integrated Style: A person with an integrated style is able to change styles quickly and easily. Such style changes seem to be unconscious and take place in a matter of seconds. The result of this ‘rapid fire’ ability is that it appears to generate energy and a proactive approach to problem-solving. In fact, integrated people are often referred to as ‘problem-seekers’ because they consistently attempt to identify potential problems as well as opportunities in order to find better ways of doing things.  Undifferentiated Style: A person with such style appears not to distinguish or differentiate between the two style extremes, that is, systematic and intuitive, and therefore, appears not to display a style. In a problem-solving situation, he/she looks for instructions or guidelines from outside sources.

Undifferentiated individuals tend to be withdrawn, passive and reflective and often look to others for problem-solving strategies.  Split Style: A person with split style shows fairly equal degrees of systematic and intuitive characteristics. However, persons with split-style do not possess an integrated behavioural response; instead they exhibit each separate dimension in completely different settings using only one style at a time based on the nature of the tasks. In other words, they consciously respond to problem-solving by selecting the most appropriate style.

V. Results and Discussion Upon analyses of the data gathered from the said sample of English teachers, it has been noticed that the high school English teachers appears in a major way to possess the Split Cognitive Style (61.66%). It is also interesting to note that another chunk of high school English teachers possess Integrated Cognitive Style (29.98%). Small portion of said teachers fall under Undifferentiated Cognitive Style category (8.33%).

Further, the following results have been obtained in respect of cognitive styles, in terms of Systematic Style, Intuitive Style, Integrated Style, Un-differentiated Style, and Split Style, due to variation in gender, age, place of living, type of family, and religion. Chi-square test has been used for testing the hypotheses set for the study.

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Table 1: Showing the Chi-square test value for the Cognitive Styles among High School English Teachers (N=60) due to variation in Gender.

Sex Male Female

N 30 30

Systematic Style 0 0

Intuitive Style 0 0

Integrated Style 8 10

Undifferentiated Style 1 4

Split Style 21 16

Chi-square test value 2.68@

The table value is 9.488 at 0.05 level for df = 4 @ not significant The chi-square value from table-1 indicates that it is not significant. It reveals that there is no influence of gender on cognitive styles of English teachers. Education might have shown some effect on this feature, that is, all English teachers possess similar qualifications irrespective of their gender. It appears that education played a key role in this regard.

Table 2: Showing the Chi-square test value for the Cognitive Styles among High School English Teachers (N=60) due to variation in Age Age (in years) Above 35 Below 35

N

Systematic Style

Intuitive Style

Integrated Style

Undifferentiated Style

Split Style

Chi-square test value

28 32

0 0

0 0

5 13

5 0

18 19

9.85*

The table value is 9.488 at 0.05 level for df = 4

* significant at 0.05 level

As could be seen from the above table (table-2) that the chi-square value is significant at 0.05 level. Such feature may be attributed to the factor of age difference between English teachers working in high schools. As is observed from the said table, the English teachers having below 35 years age are greater in number (13) than that in the group of above 35 years of age (5). It may be concluded that the English teachers possessing less that 35 years seem to have both Intuitive and Systematic features which made them to fall under the Integrated style category.

Table 3: Showing the Chi-square test value for the Cognitive Styles among High School English Teachers (N=60) due to variation in their Place of Living Place of Living Rural Urban

N 45 15

Systematic Style 0 0

Intuitive Style 0 0

Integrated Style 9 9

The table value is 9.488 at 0.05 level for df = 4

Undifferentiated Style 4 1

Split Style 32 5

Chi-square test value 8.92@

@ not significant

Chi-square value shown in the above table (table-3) is not significant as per the standard chi-square table value.

The reason for such happening points towards the aspect that there is no variation in cognitive styles due to variation in place of living of the English teachers. It is a fact that English is a foreign language for Indians. It is usual that the family members communicate in their own native language including the families of English teachers. It is similar in case of the families in the neighbourhood. In view of this factor, there may not be any apparent effect of place of living on cognitive styles of high school English teachers.

Table 4: Showing the Chi-square test value for the Cognitive Styles among High School English Teachers (N=60) due to variation in their Type of Family Type of Family Nuclear Joint

N 41 19

Systematic Style 0 0

Intuitive Style 0 0

Integrated Style 13 5

Undifferentiated Style 3 2

Split Style 25 12

Chi-square test value 0.53@

The table value is 9.488 at 0.05 level for df = 4 @ not significant From the chi-square value indicated in the above table (table-4), there is no influence of type of family on high school English teachers. Neither nuclear family nor joint family has any significant influence on cognitive styles of English teachers.

Table 5: Showing the Chi-square test value for the Cognitive Styles among High School English Teachers (N=60) due to variation in their Religion Religion

N

Hindu Muslim

56 4

Systematic Style 0 0

Intuitive Style 0 0

The table value is 9.488 at 0.05 level for df = 4

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Integrated Style 14 4

Undifferentiated Style 5 0

Split Style 37 0

Chi-square test value 9.97*

*significant at 0.05 level

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Chi-square test value from table-5 indicates that the religion has shown effect on the cognitive styles of English teachers. This may be attributed to the English teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; religious beliefs, practices, perceptions, thinking processes etc in teaching-learning of English.

VI. Conclusion The study provides interesting results. It may concluded that the high school English teachers possesses three cognitive styles, that is, split cognitive style, integrated cognitive style, and undifferentiated cognitive style. It is dramatic that systematic and intuitive styles are not found among high school English teachers. In a major way these teachers are found to possess split cognitive style which is indicative of a combination of intuitive and systematic style qualities among them. This feature points towards their ability to perceive and operate in a situation-based manner either systematic or intuitive. Another interesting aspect is the presence of integrated cognitive style among next major portion of English teachers. It shows that certain English teachers who possess such style have the ability to change the styles very rapidly between systematic and intuitive. It also indicates their problem-seeking and problem-solving ability. A small chunk of English teachers are categorized under the undifferentiated cognitive style.

References Cornett, C. E. (1983). What you should know about teaching and learning styles. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

Messick, S. (1984). The nature of Cognitive Styles: problems and promise in educational practice. Educational Psychologist, 19,59-74.

Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and Verbal Processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart.

Praveen Kumar Jha. (2001). The Cognitive Styles Inventory. Agra: Rakhi Prakashan.

Srinivas Kumar, D. (2011). Introduction to Cognitive Styles and Learning Styles. Kuppam: Prasaranga (Publications Bureau), Dravidian University.

Witkin, Herman A. "Individual Differences in Case of Perception of Embedded Figures." Journal of Personality 19 (1950):1-15.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

SEXUAL HARASSMENT OF WOMEN Krishan Lal Assistant Professor, Indus College of Education Delhi Road Rohtak- 124001 Haryana, INDIA. Abstract: The setting up of a complaints committee and an anti-sexual harassment policy lays a strong foundation for a sexual harassment free workplace. However, effective training programmes are essential to sensitise/train all their staff members, men and women, to recognize sexual harassment, deal with it when it occurs and prevent it. The training programme is the best way to ensure proper understanding and implementation of your policy. It is the best forum to communicate to employees what behaviour is acceptable and what is not, in a non-threatening atmosphere of mutual learning. Training for the members of the Complaints committee and others who are going to be instrumental in implementing the policy, is very essential.

Their training should include a component of gender sensitization, along with the procedures for taking complaints, and for enquiry, etc. Conduct yearly meetings with your supervisors to review the sexual harassment policy, and to make sure that they understand that an employee does not need to suffer negative consequences in order to make a complaint of sexual harassment. Inform the supervisors that even mild to moderate sexual jokes or statements can create an atmosphere of hostility that will make some employees uncomfortable, and could lead to the creation of a hostile work environment. Sexual harassment training for all employees should address perceptions and understanding of sexual harassment, impact of sexual harassment on individuals and workplace, understanding the policy and complaints mechanism. The training for Complaints Committee should address, in addition to these, the procedures of investigation, skills necessary for enquiries, documenting the procedures. Setting up a mechanism does not mean that there is sexual harassment in your workplace.

Prevention is always better than cure, and being pro-active always helps. Along with performance, change in employees’ behaviour patterns also deserves employer’s close scrutiny. Conducting Surveys – Conducting timeto-time surveys is helpful to identify and prevent factors/situation leading to incidence of sexual harassment. The survey can be done anonymously and should be distributed with a copy of the company’s sexual harassment policy. The survey can simply ask the employees (male and female) if they have experienced any form of sexual harassment during the past year. The survey also helps to show that the organization is actively engaged in preventing and correcting sexual harassment. The best way to prevent sexual harassment is to adopt a comprehensive sexual harassment policy. The aim is to ensure that sexual harassment does not occur and, where it does occur, to ensure that adequate procedures are readily available to deal with the problem and prevent its recurrence.

I. INTRODUCTION Sexual harassment is one of the most common forms of violence against women. Sexual harassment is defined as receiving any unwanted conduct of a sexual nature including sexual comments, fondling, lewd gestures, jokes, Emails, smses, pornographic pictures, coercion and more. Women are sexually harassed habitually in public and especially at the workplace. In the workplace, sexual harassment is seldom recognized or linked to the broader issue of Violence against Women and discrimination.

Fast Facts:  A 2002 study conducted by AWAM and Women’s Development Collective (WDC) found that 35% of respondents in Malaysia had experienced one or more forms of sexual harassment.

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     

Sexual harassment consists of a wide range of behaviours and actions, most common of these are verbal forms of harassment such as jokes, obscene language and suggestive remarks. Many consider these harmless’ and victims are often accused of over-reacting.

Studies show that survivors of sexual harassment are more likely to be in the lower rungs of the company i.e. in subordinate positions.

Studies show that survivors are mostly likely to not take any action due to fear of reprisal.

There is currently no Malaysian law criminalizing sexual harassment. There is only a Code of Practice on the Prevention and Eradication of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace, launched in 1999 by the Ministry of Human Resources.

Legal action can be taken under other provisions in the Penal Code, Employment Act 1955, and the Industrial Relations Act 1967.

Sexual harassment can be very traumatizing for women resulting in emotional stress, low productivity and damaged self-esteem.

WHAT TO DO IF YOU HAVE BEEN OR ARE BEING SEXUALLY HARASSED?  Tell the harasser that you don’t like his actions and that you want him to stop.  If the harassment continues, tell your Human Resources Department or your Union representative.  Keep all evidence of the harassment for e.g. e-mails, smses etc.  Keeps a written account of the harassment including date, time, the harasser’s name and how the incident(s) happened?  If no action is taken or there is no one you can report this to within your organization or company, you may lodge a report with the Labour Department or the Police.  Tell a trusted colleague who can give you emotional support.  Call us or a women’s NGO for help and guidance.

II.

SEXUAL HARASSMENT CAMPAIGNS

Together with the Joint Action Group for Gender Equality (JAG) AWAM campaigns for the enactment of a Sexual Harassment Act. We were only one of two NGOs on the Government’s Technical Working Committee that produced the Code of Practice on the Prevention and Eradication of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace that was introduced in 1999. The Code has been an important addition to anti-sexual harassment efforts in this country but is insufficient particularly since it is not compulsory for private sector entities to implement it. In 2001, AWAM supported a petition drive coordinated by the Women’s Centre for Change which received 12000 signatures – including from more than 60 organisations – backing this legislation. Lobbying work for the enactment of the Sexual Harassment Act is still in progress as we seek for adequate, timely and effective redress mechanisms for victims, and for the promotion of a healthy and respectful working. 85, Jalan 21/1, Sea Park, 46300 Petaling Jaya, Selagor, Malaysia Sexual Harassment is any unwanted conduct of sexual nature having the effect of verbal, non-verbal, visual, psychological of physical harassment. – Code of Practice On The Prevention and Eradication of Sexual Harassment In the Workplace – Ministry of Human Resources, 1999. Sexual harassment is any deliberate verbal comments, gestures or behaviour of a sexual nature that is unwanted, unwelcomed and unsolicited. It can hurt a woman emotionally physically and socially. The majority of people who are sexually harassed are women.    

III. SEXUAL HARASSMENT CAN INCLUDE Unwanted touching, patting, pinching, stroking or brushing up against a person, hugging, kissing, fondling, sexual assault.

Comments about your body, leering, wolf-whistling, catcalls, insults of a sexual nature, persistently pestering for a date.

Displaying or circulating pornographic pictures, drawing sex-based sketches or writing sex based letters, sexual exposure.

Workplace blackmail – i.e. suggestions that sexual favours may further your career (or refusal may hinder it). The majority of people who are harassed are women. However a small percentage of men do get harassed as well.

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SEXUAL HARASSMENT IS A VIOLATION OF A PERSON’S RIGHTS AND IS NOT A SMALL MATTER. WHAT PEOPLE SAY ABOUT SEXUAL HARASSMENT: If a woman dresses or behaves in a sexy way, she is asking to be sexually harassed. When a businessman gets robbed, we do not blame him for being well dressed. We blame the robber. Yet when a woman is sexually harassed, we blame her for the way she looks! There is no excuse for harassment regardless of how the woman looks. Anyone can control their sexual feelings and are entirely responsible for their own actions.

IT IS A SMALL MATTER AND A BIT OF FUN AND FLIRTING; ANYWAY, WOMEN ENJOY IT EVEN IF THEY PRETEND NOT TO! Women who are harassed definitely do not agree with this! Sexual harassment is not the same as flirting. Sexual harassment is about being disrespectful! If a person is interested in another person, they show it in a respectful way – not by sexually harassing the person.

ONLY YOUNG WOMEN GET HARASSED: Sexual harassment happens to all women at some time in their lives, regardless of their age, physical appearance or marital status. Sexual harassment is about the abuse of power – those who feel and are more powerful, harass and intimidate those who are not.

WOMEN SHOULD JUST IGNORE SEXUAL HARASSMENT: Many are forced to ignore it, but often feel bad about it. In the workplace especially, research shows that if sexual harassment is ignored, most of the time, it continues or gets worse!

V. FORMS OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT  VERBAL HARASSMENT: e.g. offensive or suggestive remarks, comments, jokes, jesting, kidding, sounds, questioning.  NON-VERBAL/GESTURAL HARASSMENT: e.g. leering or ogling with suggestive overtones, licking lips or holding or eating food provocatively, hand signal or sign language denoting sexual activity, persistent flirting.  VISUAL HARASSMENT: e.g. showing pornographic materials, drawing sex-based sketches or writing sex-based letters, sexual exposure.  PSYCHOLOGICAL: e.g. repeated unwanted social invitations, relentless proposals for dates or physical intimacy.  PHYSICAL HARASSMENT: e.g. inappropriate touching, patting, pinching, stroking, brushing up against the body, hugging, kissing, fondling, sexual assault.

IV.

WHAT IS THE RATIONALE? Sexual harassment problem arises out of general workplace relationships involving personal behaviour of people within the enterprise. - Code of Practice On The Prevention and Eradication of Sexual Harassment In the Workplace – Ministry of Human Resources, 1999.

WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT? Sexual Harassment affects you:  Emotionally – I.E. depression, at times helpless, strong fear reactions, loss of job motivation, loss of control.  Physically – i.e. headache, sleep disturbances, disordered eating, nausea, weight loss or gain, crying spells. You may feel that it is something that you have to face alone, especially if other people make you feel that something you did or did not do, caused it.You are not at fault and should not feel that you have to quit your job. You do not have to face it alone. Talk to someone – your friends, colleagues, family members, personnel officers, union representatives or women’s organizations.  Health Effects: In a summary of two studies of sexual harassment completed in 1998 covering 16 European countries, the EU Commission reported that almost all people suffering sexual harassment reported negative consequences both in their private lives and relating to their job. As regards the former, psychosomatic symptoms, loss of self-esteem, and interference with private life are the most commonly reported consequences. As regards the latter, it appears that harassed employees experience a negative impact on their career more often than the harassers.  Financial Effects: The financial effects of sexual harassment are potentially severe, especially when the employer does not have adequate policies and complaint procedures in place. Financial harms to victims of sexual harassment include loss of wages because of taking sick leave or leave without pay from work or as a result of the termination or transfer of employment.

Global Costs of Sexual Harassment: The costs of sexual harassment suffered by employers and consequently the global economy are high. These costs result from absenteeism, reduced job satisfaction and productivity, premature ill health and retirement, higher rates of staff turnover and insurance costs, legal defense and liability for sexual harassment claims.

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   



VI. OTHER THINGS THE COMPLAINTS COMMITTEE NEED TO DO Encourage the woman to note details of each incident of harassment and monitor any changes in work patterns or attitude on the part of the alleged harasser so as to avoid as far as possible attempts at victimization or accusations of poor work performance, etc.

Make discreet enquiries as to whether other workers have experienced similar problems and if so, ask them details of any harassment, which has occurred.

If the problem should involve transfer of one of the people involved, try to ensure that the harasser-rather than the victim-is the person required to move. (Adopted from? Sexual harassment is not joke? By SIPTU, a trade union in Germany) Always document the results of any sexual harassment complaint or investigation. Not only document the results, but also document any corrective action that you asked the employee or supervisor to take. Follow up on any corrective action so you can document if the employee fails to take advantage of your company’s policies/procedures or any corrective action that your company takes to prevent the sexual harassment from occurring again in the future.

Inform all employees that it is their obligation to report sexual harassment that they either experience or witness.

VII. SEXUAL HARASSMENT POLICY ADOPTING SEXUAL HARASSMENT POLICY: What should be included in an anti-harassment policy? A basic policy should set forth the following:  An express commitment to eradicate and prevent sexual harassment and express prohibition of sexual harassment;  A definition of sexual harassment including both quid pro quo and hostile work environment giving examples;  An explanation of penalties (including termination) the employer will impose for substantiated sexual harassment conduct;  A detailed outline of the grievance procedure employees should use;  A clear statement that anyone found guilty of harassment after investigation will be subject to immediate and appropriate disciplinary action.  A clear understanding and strict rules regarding harassment of or by third parties like clients, customers etc.  Additional resource or contact persons available for support and consultation;  An express commitment to keep all sexual harassment complaints and procedures confidential and time bound;  Provisions for training of employees at all levels.  An anti retaliation policy providing protection against retaliation to complainants, witnesses, Complaints Committee members and other employees involved in prevention and complaints resolution.

Policies and procedures should be adopted after consultation or negotiation with employee representatives.

Experience suggests that strategies to create and maintain a working environment in which the dignity of employees is respected are most likely to be effective where they are jointly agreed.

1.

2.

3.

COMMUNICATE POLICY: Issuing a strong policy from the top authority against sexual harassment taking a “zero tolerance” approach Make sure it gets out to all your employees either through the employee handbook or in memo form or with pay packets or with appointment letter. Have the employees sign it to acknowledge that they received and read the policy. The policy can also be posted in the workplace. If you have employees whose primary language is not English, have your sexual harassment policy translated or communicate to them in their primary language. Discuss the policy with all new employees Ensure that third-party such as suppliers and customers are aware of your sexual harassment policy Review the policy with your employees on a regular basis.

ENFORCE POLICY: Take complaints of sexual harassment seriously and investigate all sexual harassment charges quickly and thoroughly and professionally maintain accurate records of the investigation and the findings make sure employees who bring charges do not face retaliation Ensure confidentiality and time bound response to complaints. Take immediate action when sexual harassment is discovered or suspected Discipline appropriately any employee found to have engaged in sexual harassment Safeguard your employees from third-party work-related sexual harassment.

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VIII. CONCLUSION Commitment is shown through enforcement and action by the responsible authorities. Even the most comprehensive sexual harassment policies and procedures are bound to fail if a company does not enforce them quickly, consistently, and aggressively. To be effective, organisations must take sexual harassment seriously. They need to make certain that personnel responsible for enforcement conduct prompt, through, and documented investigations of all complaints, even those that appear trivial. Organisations should take action that is reasonably calculated to end the harassment. Such action must be direct toward the harasser, and may include verbal warnings, written warnings, job transfers, suspension of employment, and, if necessary, termination. Employers should also keep tabs on their supervisors. This can be accomplished by means of monthly meetings with higher management, unscheduled spot checks, or periodic sexual harassment training sessions with the implementing authorities.

IX. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11 12.

REFERENCES

International Journal of Criminology and Sociological Theory, Vol. 2 No. 2, December 2009, 292-302.

Ahuja, Ram 2007. Crime against Women. Rawat Publications Jaipure, Social Problems in India. Rawat Publications Jaipure.

Crime in India. 2007 National Crime Record Bureau.

Kumar, J.L. 1998 Women and Crime. New Delhi. Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. Radford, L. and Tsutsumi, K 2004. Globalization and Violence against Women, Bristol, U.K. Women’s Aid Federation of England.

Singh Indira Jai 2007. Law Domestic Violence. New Delhi; Universal law Publishing Co. Pvt. Women and the politics of violence. Har-Anand Publications, pp. 277-279.

Pinki Virani (2001-03-04). “Long wait for justice”., Smriti Ananth (2001-12-28). “A film album supervised by VishwamohanBhatt”.

“Sexual harassment at workplace”. Indian express “Sexual harassment: Batling unwelcome sexual attention”. Info Change India.

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

THE PROLIFERATION OF ARMS AND ITS EFFECT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF DEMOCRACY IN NIGERIA 1

Aver, Tyavwase Theophilus, 2 Nnorom, Kingsley C, 3Ilim Moses Msughter 1,2 Department of Sociology, Kwararafa University Wukari, PMB 1019 Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria 3 Department of Sociology, Federal University, Dutsi-ma, Katsina State, Nigeria.

Abstract: The proliferation of arms and weapons is among the social problems retarding the development of democracy in Nigeria today. This particular social problem came into being as a result of the greediness of contemporary politicians. In this discourse, attempt is made to identify how proliferation of arms and weapons has affected the development of democracy today in Nigeria using the conflict theoretical perspective. This is premised on the background that proliferation of arms and weapons (which most politicians acquire during elections) has brought a lot of social vices to the Nigerian society. An increase in this trend has led to military take over severally and also led to the emergence of armed conflicts and civil strifes in Nigeria. This often brings about death of innocent citizens in the country Nigeria, because victims of these armed conflicts and civil strifes are innocent people. The paper recommends that strengthening the national legislation and controls for the possession, use, transfer of arms and weapons in the country. Arms and weapons holders should not exceed requirements for legitimate defence and security forces needs.

Nigeria should develop partnerships with other countries especially in Africa where conflicts have become volatile to assist and strengthen the capacity of monitoring, control, arms accumulations and flows should be advocated. Nigerians should shun politics of violence in Nigeria so that democracy can develop among the strategies recommended.

Key Words: Proliferation, Arms, Weapons, Effects, Development, and Democracy.

I. Introduction One of the greatest threats to democracy in Nigeria today, just as in many developing countries in the world, is the proliferation of illicit arms and weapons. Although there is no reliable and accurate data on the number of arms and weapons in the country, security experts reckon that there is a large quantity of infantry weapons and civilian style rifles including pistols and revolvers in the hands of private citizens which are used during elections. To put it bluntly, Nigeria is currently awash with illegal acquired fire arms by politicians (Emeh 2012). No doubt arms and weapons have become the principal driving force of most elections in the country Nigeria. The linkages between the arms and weapons have greatly subverted the development of democracy. Hazen and Horner (2007) maintained that politicians have in the past provided arms and weapons to privately funded militias who wield these arms and weapons as tools to intimidate the politicians and supporters.

The major challenge facing Nigerian democracy is linked to proliferation of arms and weapons that lead to internal strifes like political assassinations, religious riots, communal, ethnic and sectarian conflicts among others. All these threaten the development of democracy and weaken the consciousness of the people to partake in the democratic process. It may also lead to wide spread distrust, fear and apathy, due to the popular notion of “win at all costs” the use of violence intimidation and vote rigging (Bekoe, 2007). This trend has produced a number of challenges to democracy (World Bank Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit 2013).

The irony of the arms and weapon proliferation in Nigeria is that in 2007 former president Olusegun Obasanjo famously declared that election was a “do or die affair” a comment largely seen to urge his supporters to use the acquired arms and weapons so as to obtain victory (Peace Brief 2011). Adullahi and Rauf (2012) linked arms and weapons to action of violence engaged by people and government toward delivering goals. He further explained that violence has become a prominent part of the political culture of Africa. Indeed, governance and violence have become an integrated entity. As indicated, the availability and use of more sophisticated arms and weapons have contributed to the erosion of state authority. This has become particularly evident in the escalation of crime. It is rooted in inept structural forms that create or sustain human insecurity in

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its broad sense. It is clear that proliferation of arms and weapons is, in part a response to demand for personal security when normative social relations collapse or are seen to be on the brink of collapse. These arms and weapons however accelerate and aggravate dysfunctional trends. The proliferation of arms and weapons can be traced to the 1964 general elections which was the first after the departure of the British colonialists and the 1965 region into a protracted civil disturbance and heralded the military into power in 1966.

The reality on ground is that a huge chunk of arms and weapons are in the hands of politicians and the politicians use them during electioneering which is marred by widespread rigging and violent killings. This often subverted the development of democracy in Nigeria despite efforts to sustain it. It is in the light of these prevailing situations that this paper is designed to highlights the proliferation of arms and its effects on the development of democracy in Nigeria. The paper is segmented into six parts, the introduction, conceptual terrain, theoretical framework, and the effects of arms and weapons proliferation on the development of democracy, recommendations and conclusion.

II. Conceptual Terrain The concept proliferation of arms and weapons: Proliferation of arms and weapons is defined as a method in which arms and weapons are sold to private citizens especially in the conflict zones (Kofi Annan in Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia 2013). Hazan and Horner (2007) defined proliferation as the growth or numerous multiplications of illegal arms and weapons in the country. In the context of this paper arm proliferation is defined as sudden increase in the number of arms and weapons beyond those need for legitimate national security. This means when state supplier recipient, does not exercise restraint in the production, transfer and acquisition of such arms and weapons beyond those needed. This act is done by unidentified groups either for economic or political purposes. This arms and weapons get easily in the hands of private individuals especially politicians.

Development: The concept of development is tested both theoretically and politically, and it does not have universally accepted definition. The definition of development has been controversial and unstable over time. As Thomas (2004) argues, development is “contested … complex, and ambiguous. Gore (2004) notes that in the 1950s and 1960s a ‘vision of the liberation of people and peoples’ dominated, based the definition or understanding of the concept on structural transformation’. This perception has tended to ‘slip from view’ for many contributors to the literature development. The second perspective is the definition embraced by international development donor agencies that Thomas notes. This is a definition of development which is directly linked to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that is eradication of unemployment, poverty and inequality. In regards to this paper development connotes the qualitative of changes in the structure and framework of society that help the society to better realize its aims and objectives. Development is a process of social change, not merely a set of policies and programs instituted for some specific results.

Democracy: Democracy also is a word that is familiar to most people but it is a concept that is still misunderstood and misused at all times. For instance when dictators, single party regimes and military coup leaders alike assert popular support by claiming the mantle of of leadership they called democracy. It is a concept that is derives from the Greek word “demos”, or “People” it is defined, simply, as government in which the supreme power is vested in the hands of people. In the memorable phrase of President Abraham Licoln, democracy is government of the people, by the people, and for the people”. Johari (1982) viewed as a political system in which democracy or “the rule of people” prevails to make the regime legitimate” in the real sense of the term. The machinery of government is run by the chosen representatives of the people who are accountable to them for their policies and actions. Freedom of speech, discussion and expression of views, universal adult franchise and free and fair periodic elections among others all entails a continuous test of the legitimacy of this government. Sergent (1975) viewed democracy with the following options citizen’s involvement in political decision making, some degree of equality among citizens, some degree of liberty, freedom granted or retained by citizenry, as a system of representation and an electoral system of majority rule. Regarding this work democracy is defined as a set of ideas and principles about freedom, but also consists of practices and procedures that have been molded through a long, often tortuous history which is an institutionalization of freedom.

III. Theoretical Framework There are a number of theories explaining the origin of proliferation of arms and weapons some are conflicts and functionalist theories. The conflict theory, therefore stresses that the wealthy could acquire arms and weapons to use them during electoral process as this however affects the development of democracy in Nigeria.

IV. Conflict Theory Conflict theory emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order. This perspective is derived from the works of Karl Marx (1818-1883) who saw society as fragmented into groups that compete for social and economic resources. Social order is maintained by domination, with power in the hands of those

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with the greatest political, economic, and social resources. When consensus exists, it is attributable to people being united around common interests, often in opposition to other groups (Anderson and Taylor, 2009).

According to conflict theory, inequality exists because those in control of a disproportionate share of societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s resources actively defend their advantages. The masses are not bound to society by their shared values, but by coercion at the hands of those in power (Anderson and Taylor, 2009). This perspective emphasizes social control, not consensus and conformity. Groups and individuals advance their own interests, struggling over control of societal resources. Those with the most resources exercise power over others with inequality and power struggles resulting. There is great attention paid to class, race, and gender in this perspective because they are seen as the grounds of the most pertinent and enduring struggles in society.

In Millâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s view, social structures are created through conflict between people with differing interests and resources. Individuals and resources in turn, are influenced by these structures and by the "unequal distribution of power and resources in the society" (Knapp, 1994). The powerful elite in society has "emerged from the fusion of the corporate elite, the Pentagon, and the executive branch of government." Mills argued that the interests of these elite were opposed to those of the people. He theorized that the policies of the power elite would result in "increased escalation of conflict, production of arms and weapons of mass destruction, and possibly the annihilation of the human race"(Knapp, 1994).

Conflict Theorists believed that Societies are defined by inequalities that produce conflict, rather than those produce order and consensus. This conflict based on inequality can only be overcome through a fundamental transformation of the existing relations in the society, and is a product of new social relations. The disadvantaged have structural interests that run counter to the status quo, which, once they are assumed, will lead to social change. Thus, they are viewed as agents of change rather than objects one should have sympathy for (Sears, 2008). Sears (2008) further maintained that human potential (e.g., capacity for creativity) is suppressed by conditions of exploitation and oppression, which are necessary in any society with an unequal division of labour. These and other qualities do not necessarily have to be stunted due to the requirements of the so-called "civilizing process," or "functional necessity": creativity is actually an engine for economic development. The role of theory is in realizing human potential and transforming society, rather than maintaining the power structure. The opposite aim of theory would be the objectivity and detachment associated with positivism where theory is a neutral, explanatory tool. Consensus is a euphemism for ideology. Genuine consensus is not achieved, rather the more powerful societies are able to impose their conceptions on others and have them accept their discourses. Consensus does not preserve social order, it entrenches stratification, e.g., the Nigerian dream for political powers deluded by proliferation of arms and weapons. The State serves the particular interest of the most powerful while claiming to represent the interests of all. Representation of disadvantaged groups in democratic processes may cultivate the notion of full participation, but this is an illusion/ideology. Inequality on a global level is characterized by the purposeful underdevelopment of Developing Countries like Nigeria, both during colonization and after national independence. The global system (i.e., development agencies such as World Bank and International Monetary Fund) benefits the most powerful countries and multi-national corporations, rather than the subjects of development, through economic, political, and military actions. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups in which the potential for inequality exists: racial, gender, religious, political, economic, and so on. Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agenda, causing them to compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing nature of society (Sears, 2008). Power provides the mechanism for the violent control of the rest of the population. In the course of the struggles, politicians use money to acquire arms and weapons and at the same time buy the agents of the social control such as police, prosecutors, judges and other agencies of social control in order to allow them use the arms and weapons during electoral process.

From the above theoretical perspective, one will deduce that, conflict theory is of the view that politicians are regarded as enemy of progress in the society. This is because the phenomenon of democracy in Nigeria has become multidimensional and multifaceted to the extent that the right people are not allowed to take part in the system. According to the theory, this situation makes the control of the menace arms and weapons proliferation a very difficult task by the appropriate authority. Since members of the public cannot understand the complex nature of arms and weapons proliferations, they do not give the needed vital information to the appropriate authority saddled with the responsibility of controlling the phenomenon.

It is observed further from the theoretical perspective that, politicians can muster enough resources not only to bribe the appropriate law enforcement agencies but also to frustrate their investigation aimed at curbing the menace in the society. Similarly, the organized social structure in Nigeria which attaches more importance to wealth acquisition with less attention given to the approved means of acquiring such wealth by the society provide grounds for increase in electoral violence in the country Nigeria. Almost every member of the society wants to belong to the ruling class without minding how he/she climbs the ladder. This situation has rather made the control of arms, weapons and other vices in the society very difficult.

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Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly negative view of society. The theory ultimately attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive aspects of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent interests in preserving society and social order. The strength of the theory lies in its recognition that arms and weapons proliferation is a violent crime against democracy and humanity generally. It hinders the effective utilization of human capital for national development. Based on the foregoing assumptions the theory has been adopted as a theoretical guide for the study.

V.

The Effects of Arms and Weapons Proliferation on the Development of Democracy in Nigeria The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and Nigerian Law provide citizens with the right to change their government peacefully through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Politicians however, abridge citizens’ right to change of government in Nigeria, during national, state and local government elections, which were conducted amid widespread fraud and numerous incidents of violence (Bureau of Democracy Human Rights Practices 2009). The story of elections in contemporary Nigeria especially since Nigeria transited from military to its peculiar clone of civilian rule in 1999 has been that of one violence, and fraudulent election after another (Ohanele 2011).

It is very unfortunate that in Nigeria, most election victories are not determined by the number of vote received by the political parties and their candidates, but by the ability of the political party to acquire, use arms and weapons to intimidate opponents and rigged elections. Adeyemi and Adeyemi (2003) express concern over the situation of politics in Nigeria when they observe that during the ward congress of the People’s Democratic Party (an intra-party affair) many politicians went to the congress venue armed with assault rifles and acid containers for possible use on opponents. This act is also witnessed at the federal, state, and local elections as well as intra-party elections. The South Africa based Institute for Democracy claimed that as many as 280 persons were killed in the country Nigeria between February and March 2007 (Bureau of Democracy Human Rights Practices 2009). For example there were bloody clashes in many parts of the country in 2011 general elections. There was massive loss of lives and property across the Country Nigeria. Ten National Youth Service Corps member employed as ad-hoc staff by independent National Electoral Commission to execute the election exercise lost their lives in Bauchi State. The fact remains that it was not only the ten corps members that were brutally killed by the hoodlums, both Muslims and Christians in the state lost their lives, while others lost valuables that may not be easily replaced or quantified. In Niger, Kano, Kaduna, and Borno states and other areas were cases of political crisis were reported and the inhabitants, both the indigene and genes” live was at stake (Adullahi and Rauf 2012). In Akwa-Ibo state violence, bribery, rigging the election as domestic observers and voters were attacked for refusing to receive bribe to allow unfavour candidate win (Abubakar and Ibrahim 2011). More intriguing was the alleged collaboration between the security agencies and Independent National Electoral Commission officials particularly as seen in Ido Osi. The security agent was believed to have literally provided cover for Independent National Electoral Commission officials to perpetuate fraud for instance as the People’s Democratic Party thugs set fire on INEC building in Ido Ekiti, Ekiti State the Security agents watched on in ecstasy (Kayode 2012). Support Human Rights (2007) also asserted that Nigeria’s security services played a controversial role in the underdevelopment of democracy in the country. For instance police officials were widely accused of failing to do enough to protect voters from violence and safeguard the integrity of the process.

In Gombe local government area of Gombe State Independence National Electoral Commission office, three police officers watched while People’s Democratic Party agents intimidated an Independence National Electoral Commission official into changing a result sheet. A People’s Democratic Party cabinet member of the state government assaulted a candidate of the All Nigerian People’s Party while in a police station in Deba, Gombe State and the policemen/officers present simply watched. Support Human Rights (2007) further maintained that the country’s human rights record remains disastrous, fueled in large measure by the near-total impunity enjoyed by those in political offices and in the security forces. Government at all levels remains hobbled by corruption and this has kept majority of Nigeria citizens mired in poverty and deprived of basic health and education services.

The government made little effort to investigate or bring charges in any of these cases of political violence. This act of killings normally resorts to wide spread distrust, fear and apathy to the democratic process in Nigeria. Our elections are always characterized by violence, killings, destruction of properties and bribery that could have been used for some developmental projects. In contrast, arms and weapons proliferation destroy human lives and physical assets and reduces social welfare of Nigerians. Arms and weapons proliferation is like “development in regress”. There were over one million illegal arms and weapons reportedly in circulation in Nigeria as at 2011 (http://www.cdi.org/friendlyversion/printversion.cfm?documentID=2225). These arms and weapons perpetuate violent conflict and create new cycles of violence and crime and as such, creating an antidemocratic atmosphere in the country. The arms and weapons also undermine the work of humanitarian and relief organizations and militate against sustainable development. Aribisala (2004) also avers that “…above all,

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arms and weapons threaten peace, development, democracy and human rights.” These arms and weapons proliferation not only make democratic development difficult, but also polarizes communal groups and leads to the erosion of respect for human rights and dignity. Arms and weapons proliferation leads to collapse of government in 1959, 1964, 1965, 1979 and 1983 elections that led to military overthrow of civilian governments in Nigeria several times. This trend of arms and weapons proliferation has continued to perpetrate in a variable manner in successive elections like 1999, 2003, 2007 and 2011.

Furthermore, as result of the proliferation of arms and weapons, most leaders in Nigeria do not believe in gaining political power through submission of mandates by their people rather they prefer to use arms and weapons. Arms and weapons proliferation has affected democratic development in Nigeria and other African countries as many countries in the continent are still struggling with democratic government. Most of leaders believe in what is regarded as sit-tight syndrome which has become a phenomenon in Nigeria and most African countries. Sit-tight syndrome by definition is a situation in which an individual tries to hold on to power too long for personal aggrandizement or gains. In an attempt to hang on to power, Nigeria and indeed African leaders often create a regime of violence, repression and bloodshed. They organize political thugs, hooligans and scavengers to sing their praises, intimidate opponents and kill them if they become intransigent (Karl 1968).

This sit-tight syndrome is witnessed in many countries in Africa like Mali, Sudan, Ivory Coast, Tunisia, Egypt, Morocco, Libya, Zimbabwe and Nigeria among others. These countries have suffered violent loss of lives and properties as a result of sit-tight syndrome. When the sit-tight syndrome power is acquired, it will surely be maintained by arms and weapons. The issue under consideration can be seen in the case of former president Laurent Gbagbo verses Allassane Quatara of Ivory Coast, Laurent Gbagbo lost election but violently insisted to remain in power. He used his powers, controlled the armed forces to shield him since he did not get the mandate legitimately (Adullahi and Rauf 2012). Nigeria for instance had their share in attempts to consolidate democratic systems. Example includes June 12 1993 experience in her Nigeria and the attempt by General Sanni Abacha to succeed himself (Oche, 2004). However, due to the strong commitment of Nigerian to the development of democracy thousands of people were killed, maimed, detained and some others have at one time or the other, gone on exile to escape the long hands of being arrested by overzealous democratic leaders who firmly hold unto powers because of their illicit acquired arms and weapons (Salui, 2004).

Other people that contributed to underdevelopment of democracy in Africa include political megalomania like Mobutu in Zaire (now Democratic republic of Congo (DRC)), Samuel Doe in Liberia; Siad Barre in Somalia created themselves “Political fiefdom in their respective countries (Abdullahi and Rauf 2012).

The Miscreantly peculated national wealth devalued the lives of the people and destroyed the fabric of democracy in these countries. Mobutu’s case in Democratic Republic of Congo is a good example. Democratic Republic of Congo is one of the largest and richly endowed countries in Africa, yet, it is a country that lay bare in ruins. He used this endowment to demand the democratic future of Democratic Republic of Congo through his misdemeanor. Some African countries like Zimbabwe, Dafur, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Niger, Syria, Yemen, Bahrain among others experience episodes of arms and weapons as a result of change in government and this led to the killing of innocent people. This act seriously hindered the development of democracy in these countries.

VI. How to Tackle Arms or weapons Proliferations and Promote Democracy in Nigeria The government should strengthen the national legislation and controls the possession, use, transfer of arms and weapons in the country. It should ensure that arms and weapons holders do not exceed requirements for legitimate defence and security needs. The government should develop partnerships with other countries especially in Africa where conflicts have become volatile to assist and strengthen the capacity of monitoring, control, arms accumulations and flows should be advocated. In recognition of the extent of illicit arms and weapons smuggling, Nigeria should sign a crime-combating agreement with developed nations. The agreement should allow the security of the countries to undertake joint operations in response to common safety and security problems especially in the area of intelligent sharing. Due to the porous nature of Nigerian boundaries only people with valid documents should be allowed to come into the country. The Interpol should be properly equipped and their mandate enlarged to cover prohibition of arms and weapons smuggling across national borders. Nigeria’s international partners should be robust in pressuring the federal government to combat the patterns of corruption, violence and impunity that have undermined democratic development in the country, especially at the national, state and local elections. The government should not interfere with the court cases in considering the likelihood of legal challenges to follow these deeply flawed elections, and should respect any court verdict. The government should also prosecute politicians who acquired illegal arms and weapons in the country. Penalty should be death by hanging or firing squad in order to deter other potential politicians who may want to engage in this criminal act.

The national assembly on their part should make laws that will strictly prevent production, importation, exportation and acquisition of arms by individuals in Nigeria especially politicians. Nigerian in the Diaspora should seriously partner with the government of Nigeria; they must apply real pressure on the government to

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correct the country’s broader human right issues and deep-seated problems of democracy in the country.

Nigerians should report to the security operatives individual who acquired arms and weapons around them in order to make our society a better place to stay and allow democracy to develop so that we can enjoy its dividends. There is need to shun politics of violence in Nigeria so that democracy can develop. The government should also be pressed to direct the Independent National Electoral Commission to release detailed breakdowns of the results at every polling station as soon as possible to allow greater scrutiny of the process in areas where abuses were rife.

VII. Conclusion The study has been concerned with the investigation and explanations of the arms and weapons proliferation and its effects on the development of democracy in Nigeria. Conflict theoretical perspective was adopted in investigating and explaining how arms and weapons proliferations have affected democratic development in Nigeria. The study reveals that politicians acquire arms and weapons, use them during election periods in Nigeria. This trend has led to military takeover in the country on several occasions. The effects of arms and weapons proliferation is that democracy cannot develop and development generally will be retarded when there is no democracy. Finally, the study recommends that Nigeria should strengthen the national legislation and control for the possession of firearms. The agreement should allow the security of the countries to undertake joint operations in response to common safety and security problems especially in the area of intelligent sharing, use and transfer of arms and weapons in the country, Nigeria’s international partners should be robust in pressuring the federal government to combat the patterns of corruption, violence and impunity that have undermined democratic development in the country, especially at the national, state and local elections and the government should also be pressed to direct the Independent National Electoral Commission to release detailed breakdowns of the results at every polling station as soon as possible to allow for greater scrutiny of the process in areas where abuses were rife.

VIII. References Abubakar, A and Ibrahim, L (2011) Nigerian 2011 General Elections Characterized by Massive Rigging, violence Attacks and Bribery; Daily Trust April 18, 2011 Abdullahi, A and Rauf, S (2012) African Democracy and the Challenges of Insecurity, Journal of African Politics and Society Anyigba, JAPS, Department of History and International Studies, Kogi State University: 1 (2) December 2012.

Adeyimi, E and Adeyimi M (2003) "Effect of Political Crises on Women: Towards the Management and Peaceful Resolution of Conflicts," in Kwanashie. M. (ed) Politics and Political Power Relations in Nigeria, Lagos Dat and Partners Logistics Ltd. Anderson, M.L. and Taylor, H.F. (2009) Sociology: The Essentials. Belmont, C A: Thomson Wadsworth, CliffsNotes.com. Three Major Perspectives in Sociology, 22 Jun 2011. http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26837.html. Retrieved: February, 25 2013 Aribisala, O (2004) http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/204/42588.html Retrieved: February, 25 2013 Bekoe, D (2005) Strategies for Peace in the Niger Delta. USIPeace Briefing Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace. December Bureau of Democracy, Human Right, and Labour (2009) Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, March 11, 2010. Retrieved: February, 25 2013 Emeh, O (2012) Small Arms and Nigeria’s Security dilemma: Opinion-Columnist. Retrieved: February, 25 2013 Gore, C (2004) “The Rise and fall of the Washington Consensus as a Paradigm for Developing Countries; World Development, 28 (5) 789804 Hazen, J. M and Horner, J (2007) Small Arms, Armed Violence, and Insecurity in Nigeria: The Nigeria Delta in Perspective, an Occasional Paper of Small Arms Survey, Geneva Switzerland, Graduate Institute of International Studies.

Human Right Watch (2004) Nigeria’s 2003 Elections: The unacknowledged Violence June: http://hrw.org/reports/2004/nigeria0604/nigeria0604.pdf. Retrieved: February, 25 2013 http://www.cdi.org/friendlyversion/printversion.cfm?documentID=2225. Retrieved: February, 25 2013 Johari, J.C (1982) Comparative Politics, Revised and Enlarged Edition. India: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.

Karl S. (1968) The Politics of Violence, Engle wood Cliffs N. J. Prentice Hall Inc. Kayode F (2012) Challenges of Free and Fair Elections towards 2011 General Elections. www.election-towards-2011-generalelections.htm.feb 05, 2012: Retrieved: February, 25 2013 Kofi Annan in Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia (2013) the Small Arms Proliferation. Retrieved: February, 25 2013 Knapp, P. (1994) One World – Many Worlds: Contemporary Sociological Theory Harpercollins College Div, pp. 228–246. Online Summary ISBN 978-0-06-501218-7. Retrieved: February, 25 2013 Oche, O (2004) Democracy: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues in Saliu H. A (2004) (ed), Nigeria Under Democratic Rule (1999-2003, Ibadan: Kenbim Press Ltd. Ohanele, C, J (2011) Money and Electoral Fraud in Nigeria, the Sun November 20, 2011. www.thesunonline.gov.ng. Retrieved: February, 25 2013 Peace Brief (2011) Nigeria’s 2011 Elections: Best Run, but Most Violent, United States Institute of Peace. www.usip.org August 15, 2011 pp2. Retrieved: February, 25 2013 Sears, A (2008) A Good Book, In Theory: A Guide to Theoretical Thinking. North York: Higher Education University of Toronto Press, pg.

34-6.

Support Human Rights (2007) Nigeria: Presidential Election Marred by Fraud, Violence Government Should Respect Challenges to Failed Polls April 26, 2007 http://secure.hrw.org/site/c.nllwIgN2JwE/b.837049/k.259/k. Retrieved: February, 25 2013 Sergent, I. T (1975) Contemporary Political Ideologies; The Dorsey Press, Home Ward Ulinios.

Thomas, A (2004) the Study of Development, Paper Prepared for DSA Annual Conference, November 6, 2004, Church House, London.

Weber, T (2004) Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

World Bank Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit (2013) Nigeria Strategic Conflict Assessment; Methodology, Key Findings and Lesson Learnt.

Dissemination Note No 11.

Washington, DC: World Bank.

May http://siteresources.worldbank.org.INTRANETSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/214578-111166118o8o7/20488o33/SDN83CPR11.pdf; Retrieved: February, 25 2013

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Spatial Patterns of Skewed Child Sex Ratio in Rural Haryana Dr. Sneh Sangwan Associate Professor, Department of Geography BPS Institute of Higher Learning Khanpur Kalan, Sonipat, Haryana, India Dr. Balwan Singh Assistant Professor, Department of Geography Govt. College Matak Majri, Karnal, Haryana, India Ms. Mahima Assistant Professor, Department of Geography A.I. Jat H.M. College, Rohtak, Haryana, India Dr. Randhir Singh Sangwan ProfessorDepartment of Geography M.D. University, Rohtak, Haryana, India Abstract: The low and declining juvenile sex ratio in the country is a matter of grave policy concern, not only because it violates the human rights of unborn and infant girls but also because it deprives the country of the potential economic and social contribution of these “missing women”.As per provisional population figures of Census 2011, the developed states and union territories of India, particularly in its north-western part, such as Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh and Delhi now have fewer than 900 girls per 1,000 boys. The child sex ratio in Haryana is 830 female children per 1000 male children, which is the lowest amongst all states of India, despite the fact that the state has experienced an increase of 10 points as against 820 in 2001.

The present paper aims to study the trends and patterns of child sex ratio in rural Haryana and to examine the causes for deficiency of girl children in 0-6 age group resulting into imbalances in child sex ratio in the state.Haryana has witnessed a decline by 91 points in child sex ratio during the period from 1961 to 2001.

The rate of decline has been even more conspicuous since 1981. Between 1981 and 2001, child sex ratio in the state has gone down from 902 to 819, a decline by 83 points. However, an increase of 11 points has been noticed in CSR during the decade 2001 to 2011. Despite this increase, Haryana is at the lowest rung of ladder amongst all states of India.Viewed in its regional perspective, the child sex ratio in Haryana varies greatly from one part of the state to another. Out of the total of 74 tehsils, 33 tehsils of the state are attributed with child sex ratio above the state’s average (830 female children per 1000 male children).

Amongst them, Punahana tehsil of Mewat district in southern Haryana has the highest child sex ratio of 917 female children per 1000 male children. It is followed by Ferozepur Jhirka (912) of the same district and Siwani tehsil (902) of Bhiwani district. At the other end of the scale, Kosli tehsil of southern Haryana has got the distinction of having lowest child sex ratio of 760 female children per 1000 male children not only in the state but also in the country as a whole. It is followed by the tehsils of Beri (768) in Jhajjar district, Mahendragarh (770) in the district of same name, Bahadurgarh (770) in Jhajjar district, and Naraingarh tehsil (770) of Ambala district in the north of Haryana. It shows that practice of female foeticide is more prevalent in these tehsils because of easy access to sex-selective technology found in various parts of the state.

Kew Words: Female Foeticide, Juvenile Sex Ratio, Missing Women, Sex-Selective Technology, Unborn Girls I. Introduction A key and unusual demographic feature of India is an imbalance in the sex ratio. The ratio of females to males has been steadily declining for much of the last century. The juvenile sex ratio—the ratio of females to males aged 0–6 years (or the number of female children per 1000 male children in the age group of 0-6 years)— has been declining even more sharply. While most countries around the world have a small imbalance in their juvenile sex ratios for biological reasons (i.e., there is a biological tendency for more male than female babies to be born to compensate for the slightly higher risk of mortality among newborn boys), the imbalance in India is acute, and is indicative of prenatal selection and excess female infant and child mortality. Both in turn reflect a strong cultural preference for sons over daughters. Some estimates put the number of “missing females” (i.e.,

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unborn girls) in India as high as 37 million (Sen, 2003). The low and declining juvenile sex ratio in the country is a matter of grave policy concern, not only because it violates the human rights of unborn and infant girls but also because it deprives the country of the potential economic and social contribution of these “missing women” (Deolalikar et al., 2009).

As per provisional population figures of Census 2011, the developed states and union territories of India, particularly in its north-western part, such as Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh and Delhi now have fewer than 900 girls per 1,000 boys.

Out of the total population (2,53,53,081) of Haryana, the population in 0-6 years age group is 32,97,724 and the sex ratio of this age group is 830 female children per 1000 male children, which is the lowest amongst all states of India, despite the fact that the state has experienced an increase of 10 points as against 820 in 2001.

II. Literature Cited On global scale, a number of studies have been documented by various scholars on patterns, trends, and determinants of declining child sex ratio in India (Chakraborty and Sinha, 2006; Deolalikar et al., 2009; Unisha, 2009, etc.). But on regional scale, especially in case of Haryana, only a few studies like Sangwan and Sangwan (2012) have focused their attention on declining child sex ratio and its aftereffects on the socio-cultural milieu of society. The present study has endeavoured, therefore, to examine the patterns, trends, and determinants of declining child sex ratio and its implications in the state.

III. Objective of the Study The present paper aims to study the trends and patterns of child sex ratio in rural Haryana and to examine the causes for deficiency of girl children in 0-6 age group resulting into imbalances in child sex ratio in the state.

IV. Data Sources and Methodology The study is mainly based on the secondary sources of data. Data, though provisional, have been obtained mainly from Paper-1 and Paper- 2 of 2011 published so far on Haryana by the Director of Census Operations, Haryana, Chandigarh along with the publications made by the Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, New Delhi. Some relevant data meant for the purpose have also been obtained from previous years’ publications of the Census of India. The reference year for the secondary data is 2011. The district has been chosen as the unit of analysis.

Both qualitative and quantitative methods have been applied for the data analysis. The most important among them are the choropleth method used for the preparation of maps. On calculating child sex ratio, the districts of Haryana have been classified into various categories (keeping in view the state average) and represented cartographically so as to present a regional perspective, showing spatial patterns of child sex ratio in Haryana. The census map of Haryana (2011) showing district boundaries has been adopted as the base map.

V. Trends of Child Sex Ratio The child sex ratio has been on a continuous decline with certain ups and downs since the formation of Haryana as separate state in 1966. The study of trends in child sex ratio will reveal the intensity of changes in it over a period of time. Table 1 furnishes the data on the trends of child sex ratio with decadal change in Haryana.

Table 1: Haryana: Trend of Child Sex Ratio, 1961-2011 Year

Female Children per 1000 Male Children

Decadal Change

Haryana

India

Haryana

India

1951

-

983

-

-

1961

910

976

-

-7

1971

898

964

-12

-12

1981

902

962

+4

-2

1991

879

945

-23

-17

2001

819

927

-60

-18

2011

830

914

+11

-13

Sources: i) Census of India Publications, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001. ii) Census of India (2011), Provisional Population Totals, Rural-Urban Distribution, Paper 2, Vol. 1 of 2011, Haryana, Series 7, Director of Census Operations, Haryana, p. 20.

Table 1 reveals that Haryana has witnessed a decline by 91 points in child sex ratio during the period from 1961 to 2001. A comparison with the trend at all India level is quite revealing. During 1961 and 2011, India’s population at the aggregate level has witnessed a decline in child sex ratio by 69 points. The rate of

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decline in child sex ratio in Haryana has been even more conspicuous since 1981. Between 1981 and 2001, child sex ratio in the state has gone down from 902 to 819, a decline by 83 points. But during the decade of 19912001 alone, the decline in this ratio has been more rapid, i.e. of 60 points. However, an increase of 11 points has been noticed in CSR during the decade 2001 to 2011. Despite this increase, Haryana is at the lowest rung of ladder amongst all states of India (Table 2).

At district level, out of 21 districts of Haryana, 16 districts have recorded an increase in the child sex ratio during the last decade. Maximum increase has been witnessed in Kurukshetra district from 771 in 2001 to 817 in 2011 (46 points), followed by Sirsa from 817 to 852 (35 points), Kaithal from 791 to 821 (30 points), Ambala from 782 to 807 (25 points) and Panipat from 809 to 833 (24 points).

Table 2: India: Child Sex Ratio by States in Descending Order, 2011 Country/State

Female Children per â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;000 Male Children

INDIA

914

Mizoram

971

Meghalaya

970

Chhattisgarh

964

Arunachal Pradesh

960

Kerala

959

Assam

957

Tripura

953

West Bengal

950

Tamil Nadu

946

Sikkim

944

Nagaland

944

Jharkhand

943

Andhra Pradesh

943

Karnataka

943

Manipur

934

Orissa

934

Bihar

933

Goa

920

Madhya Pradesh

912

Himachal Pradesh

906

Uttar Pradesh

899

Uttarakhand

886

Gujarat

886

Rajasthan

883

Maharashtra

883

Jammu & Kashmir

859

Punjab

846

Haryana

830

Source: Computed from Census of India (2011), Provisional Population Totals: Rural Urban Distribution, Paper 2, Vol. 1 of 2011, India, and Series 1, p. 24.

On the other hand, there are five districts in which child sex ratio has decreased from 2001 to 2011.

Maximum decrease has been observed in Mahendragarh from 818 in 2001 to 778 in 2011 (40 points), Jhajjar from 801 to 774 (27 points), Rewari from 811 to 784 (27 points), Bhiwani from 841 to 831 (10 points) and Faridabad from 847 to 842 (5 points).

VI. Regional Dimensions of Child Sex Ratio Viewed in its regional perspective, the child sex ratio in Haryana varies greatly from one part of the state to another. Out of the total of 21 districts, 10 districts display sex ratio more than the state average of 830 female children per 1000 male children. In other words, about half of the total districts recorded child sex ratio above

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the state’s average, but all the districts are having sex ratio below the national average of 914 female children per 1000 male children. It means the whole of Haryana is characterized with excessive deficiency of females.

The patterns of child sex ratio present a wide difference between the highest and the lowest values of child sex ratio. Keeping in view the average child sex ratio of the state, the districts of Haryana can be classified into two categories ((Table 1 and Map 1) : 1.

Regions having Child Sex Ratio above the State’s Average (Above 830 female children per 1000 male children) 2.

Regions having Child Sex Ratio Below the State’s Average (Below 830 female children per 1000 male children) Regions having Child Sex Ratio above the State’s Average (Above 830 female children per 1000 male children) Out of the total of 21 districts, about half of the districts (10 districts) of the state are attributed with child sex ratio above the state’s average (830 female children per 1000 male children). Amongst them, Mewat district of southern Haryana has the highest child sex ratio of 903 female children per 1000 male children.

Lowest literacy rate has been reported in Mewat district not only in terms of overall literacy rate ((56.14 per cent)), but also in case of both male ((72.98 per cent)) and female literacy rates (37.58 per cent). The lowest literacy rates are the outcome of social conservation of Meo-Muslim society which dominate the scene in the district. Because of low literacy, it seems that people are more rigid in their religious attitude and they do not want to interfere in Allah’s creations. Hence, they do not want to use family planning measures, despite the fact that these measures are being provided free of cost by the government through its anganwadi workers in each village of Haryana. The result is high child sex ratio Mewat district.

A.

Table 3: Haryana: Child Sex Ratio by Descending Order of Districts, 2011 State/ District Female Children Per 1000 Male Children Haryana

830

Mewat

903

Palwal

862

Sirsa

852

Panchkula

850

Hisar

849

Fatehabad

845

Faridabad

842

Jind

835

Panipat

833

Bhiwani

831

Gurgaon

826

Yamunanagar

825

Kaithal

821

Karnal

820

Kurukshetra

817

Ambala

807

Rohtak

807

Sonipat

790

Rewari

784

Mahendragarh

778

Jhajjar

774

Source: Census of India (2011), Provisional Population Totals, Rural-Urban Distribution, Paper 2011, Haryana, Series 7, Director of Census Operations, Haryana, p. 20.

2, Vol. 1 of

In southern Haryana, Palwal with 862 female children per 1000 male children and Faridabad (842) are the adjoining districts of Mewat where child sex ratio is higher than the state’s average. High child sex ratio in Palwal district is because of the dominance of Muslim population in Hathin tehsil and in Faridabad district because of the family migration to a large extent due to rapid industrial growth.

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The other districts are Sirsa (852), Hisar (849), Fatehabad (845), and Bhiwani (831) of western Haryana; Jind (835) of central Haryana; Panipat (833) of eastern Haryana; Panchkula (850) of northern Haryana. All these districts, except Panchkula (69.10 per cent), Panipat (62.97 per cent), Faridabad (61.97 per cent), and Bhiwani (62.21 per cent), have experienced female literacy rate in rural areas lower than the state’s average (60.97 per cent).

Low rural female literacy rate, low status given to women, high fertility rate because of early marriage of girls, poor say of female in family decision making with regard to number and sex of new-borne baby, consideration of children as asset for families to get more hands for earning especially in case of landless castes, requirement of more and more children as agricultural labourers in case of scheduled castes and poor families because of large size of land holdings are the factors responsible for comparatively higher child sex ratio especially in rural parts of western Haryana.

In Panchkula district, high child sex ratio in rural areas is the result of a large number of factors like strict compliance of PNDT Act either because of the impact of awareness programmes launched on the part of the state government, or because of the fear of punishment on the part of authorities concerned, increasing level of acceptance of son and daughter on equal footing, and more say of female in family decision making with regard to number and sex of new-borne baby because of high rural literacy rate (77.45 per cent) as well as overall literacy, especially among females. Female participation in workforce is also increasing which make her self-dependent and more confident to take decisions about her life and family. Changing mind-set of parents because of increasing incidences of crime by the sons against their own parents; and the incentives by the government to the families having only girls are the other causes for high child sex ratio in districts like Panchkula.

It is revealed from the analysis that in western and southern parts of the state the practice of female foeticide is less prevalent as compared to northern and eastern parts which are economically more developed, hence have easy access to sex-selective technologies resulting into skewed child sex ratio in favour of males.

It is disheartening to note that not even a single district of Haryana is having child sex ratio above the National average (914 female children per 1000 male children), which is also the lowest value experienced by the country ever since Independence (983 in 1951).

Regions having Child Sex Ratio Below the State’s Average (Below 830 female children per 1000 male children) Out of the total of 21 districts, about half of the districts (11 districts) of the state are having child sex ratio below the state’s average (830 female children per 1000 male children). Amongst them, Jhajjar district of central Haryana has got the distinction of having lowest child sex ratio of 774 female children per 1000 male children not only in the state but also in the country as a whole. It shows that practice of female foeticide is more prevalent in this district because of easy access to sex-selective technology found in various parts of the district.

Jhajjar district is followed by the adjoining districts of Rewari (784), Mahendragarh (778), and Gurgaon (826) in southern Haryana; Sonipat (790) and Karnal (820) of eastern Haryana; Rohtak (807) and Kaithal (821) of central Haryana; Ambala (807), Kurukshetra (817) and Yamunanagar (825) of northern Haryana.

On the one hand, prevalence of the practice of female foeticide due to illegal use of sex-selective technology, better economic conditions of people for easy access to the use of sex-selective technology, premature deliveries due to mal-nutrition, high infant mortality rate, high maternal mortality rate, impact of nearness to capital cities like New Delhi and Chandigarh are the factors responsible for low child sex ratio in these districts.

On the other hand, empowerment of women, because of the attainment of higher education and high work participation rate i.e. appointment against highly paid jobs, to take independent decision with regard to number and sex of new-borne baby is another possible cause for low sex ratio in the age group of 0-6 years. It is found that low child sex ratio is the result of our patriarchal society where a deep-seated mindset of son preference still exists for perpetuating the family name and performing the last rites and rituals (Sangwan and Sangwan, 2012). So, most of the families, even if they are educated, prefer to have a SON as their first child. If both the parents are working and have first child as boy, they do not try for second issue; if they have first baby as girl, only then they try for the second one. It has also been substantiated by a study made by Sangwan and Sangwan in 2012. The increasing age at marriage among literate females is the result of so many complications (i.e. complete bed rest, high blood pressure, excessive edema, etc.) faced by females during first pregnancy, particularly in the age group of 25-29 & above and majority of such females become the victim of fearpsychosis and avoid giving birth to second baby if the first child is a boy resulting into low child sex ratio.

VI I. Co n cl ud i ng R e ma r ks As per provisional population figures of Census 2011, the child sex ratio in Haryana is 830 female children per 1000 male children, which is the lowest amongst all states of India, despite the fact that the state has experienced an increase of 10 points as against 820 in 2001.

B.

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Haryana has witnessed a decline by 91 points in child sex ratio during the period from 1961 to 2001.

The rate of decline has been even more conspicuous since 1981. Between 1981 and 2001, child sex ratio in the state has gone down from 902 to 819, a decline by 83 points.

At district level, out of 21 districts of Haryana, 16 districts have recorded an increase in the child sex ratio during the last decade. Maximum increase has been witnessed in Kurukshetra district (46 points), followed

by Sirsa (35 points). On the other hand, there are five districts in which child sex ratio has decreased from 2001 to 2011. Maximum decrease has been observed in Mahendragarh (40 points), followed by Jhajjar (27 points) district.

Viewed in its regional perspective, the child sex ratio in Haryana varies greatly from one part of the state to another. Out of the total of 21 districts, about half of the districts (10 districts) of the state are attributed with child sex ratio above the state’s average (830 female children per 1000 male children). Amongst them, Mewat district of southern Haryana has the highest child sex ratio of 903 female children per 1000 male children.

Low rural female literacy rate, low status given to women, high fertility rate because of early marriage of girls, poor say of female in family decision making with regard to number and sex of new-borne baby, consideration of children as asset for families to get more hands for earning especially in case of landless castes, requirement of more and more children as agricultural labourers in case of scheduled castes and poor families because of large size of land holdings are the factors responsible for comparatively higher child sex ratio especially in rural parts of western Haryana.

At the other end of the scale, 11 districts of the state are having child sex ratio below the state’s average. Jhajjar district of central Haryana has got the distinction of having lowest child sex ratio of 774 female children per 1000 male children not only in the state but also in the country as a whole. It shows that practice of female foeticide is more prevalent in this district because of easy access to sex-selective technology found in various parts of the district.

Prevalence of the practice of female foeticide due to illegal use of sex-selective technology, better economic conditions of people for easy access to the use of sex-selective technology, pre-mature deliveries due to mal-nutrition, high infant mortality rate, high maternal mortality rate, impact of nearness to capital cities like New Delhi and Chandigarh are the factors responsible for low child sex ratio in these districts.

In nut shell, in western and southern parts of the state, the practice of female foeticide is less prevalent as compared to northern and eastern parts which are economically more developed hence have easy access to sex-selective technologies resulting into skewed child sex ratio in favour of males.

It is disheartening to note that not even a single district of Haryana is having child sex ratio above the National average (914 female children per 1000 male children), which is also the lowest value experienced by the country ever since Independence (983 in 1951).

VIII.

REFERENCES

Anil B. Deolalikar, Rana Hasan, and Rohini Somanathan (July 2009), “Public Goods Access and Juvenile Sex Ratios in Rural India: Evidence from the 1991 and 2001 Village Census Data”, ADB Economics Working Paper Series No. 167, Asian Development Bank, p.1.

Agarwal, Sutapa (2005), “Discrimination from Conception to Childhood: A Study of Girl Child in Rural Haryana”, India Draft Paper, pp.

3-27.

Census of India (2011), Provisional Population Totals, Paper-1 of 2011, Haryana, Series 7, Director of Census Operations, Haryana.

George, S.M. and Dahiya, R.S. (1998), “Female Foeticide in Rural Haryana”, Economic and Political Weekly, August 8, pp. 2191- 98.

Gill, M. S. (2000), “Sex Ratio Differentials in Northwest India”, Population Geography, 22, 1& 2, pp.71-86.

Hassan, M.I. (2000), ”Sex Composition of Haryana’s Population : Some Evidences of Persisting Gender Inequality”, Man and Development, XXII, 1, pp. 61-68.

Hassan, M.I. (2002), ”Sex Ratio in Haryana’s Population: A Disaggregated Spatial Analysis”, Geographical Review of India, 64,3, pp. 254261.

Krishan, G. and Chandna, R.C. (1973), “Sex Composition of Haryana’s Population”, Geographical Review of India, 35, 2, pp. 113-125.

Miller, Barbara D. (1978), “Changing Patterns of Juvenile Sex Ratios in Rural India: 1961 to 1981”, Economic and Political Weekly, 24, No. 22, pp. 1229- 35.

Miller, B.D. (1981), The Endangered Sex: Neglect of Female Children in Rural North India, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. Miller, B.D. (1989), “Changing Patterns of Juvenile Sex Ratios in Rural India, 1961- 1971”, Economic and Political Weekly, 22 (2) ,pp.1229-36.

Gopalakrishanan, S. and Khanna, M. (2008), A Socio-Cultural Study of the Declining Sex Ratio in Delhi and Haryana: A Report, National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development, pp. 1-141.

Sangwan, Sneh and Sangwan, R.S. (2003), Rural-Urban Divide: Changing Spatial Pattern of Social Variables, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, pp. 100-125.

Sangwan, R.S. and Sangwan, Sneh (2008), “ Unborn Girls in Haryana: Evidence from the Field”, Population Geography, Vol. 30, Nos. 1&2, pp. 91-101.

Siddiqui, N.A. and Ahmad, Q.M. (1971), “Regional Variation of the Sex-Ratio in the Population of Haryana”, The Geographer, 18, pp. 99114.

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Communicating Disaster Mitigation Literacy to Coastal Communities in Pacitan, Indonesia Gatut Priyowidodo & Jandy Luik Department of Communication Petra Christian University Jalan Siwalankerto 121-131, Surabaya, INDONESIA Abstract: National Disaster Management Agency has categorized Pacitan Regency, southern beach of East Java, as one potential area of tsunami. As the potential area, coastal communities in Pacitan should receive information about the risks of tsunami. People in that area should have the knowledge of tsunami mitigation for better disaster preparedness. Therefore, this research is conducted to provide initial information about the knowledge level and communication needs of coastal communities. This research is part of a larger body of effort to provide a proper communication method in disaster literacy. A survey has been conducted to various coastal communities such as fisherman, local seller, farmer, teacher, government officer, and youth. The finding shows people have gained knowledge about tsunami from mass media and socialization from the Agency. However, their level of knowledge remains in the level of what tsunami is. Respondents are saying the need of information about the symptoms and what should they do when tsunami is coming.

Respondents also stated the need of interactive-convergence medium to give them broader information about tsunami. As follow-up of this initial finding, researchers would like to provide a new media application to be used as part of disaster literacy.

Keywords: Mitigation, Disaster Communication, Coastal Communities, Disaster Literacy I. Introduction Indonesia hasWWW; experienced Tsunami in recentstyle; years.

Tsunami Banyuwangi Indonesia on1994), Keywords: component; formatting; styling; insertin(Minimum 5 to (East 8 key Java words) Tsunami in Papua (2002), and Tsunami in Aceh (2004) are the examples of this disaster. When Tsunami comes, the most vulnerable community is coastal communities in Indonesia [1]. One of the options to deal with disaster is mitigation strategy by communicating disaster risks to vulnerable community [2]. In 2001, Indonesia has established National Disaster Management Agency to deal with disasters, including tsunami. One of the Agency tasks is to focus on preventive action to the society [3], [4]. Preventive action requires active participation from people in coastal community. To reach the preventive behavior, people need to have improvement in cognitive aspect or knowledge transformation about tsunami. According to the agency, there are 27 provinces in Indonesia with high potential risk of tsunami [5]. Based on the data, 80% of provinces in Indonesia are potentially attacked by tsunami. Specifically, National Disaster Management Agency has categorized Pacitan Regency, southern beach of East Java, as one potential area of Disaster. As seen in the picture, ‘Sesar Grindulu’ is located in Pacitan (see the red circle) [6]. Pacitan also categorized as ‘high level’ in Risk Classes Index [5] Figure 1: Location of Pacitan in Java Island.

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II. Literature Review A. Communicating Risk and Mitigation As follow up from the facts above, a proper communication to coastal community in Pacitan would give adequate knowledge about tsunami. Previous research has shown efforts after the Tsunami happens such as disaster relief and initial response [1], the use of ICT in early warning system [7], media literacy on disaster event [8], and Disaster Risk Reduction [9]. Although there is an early warning system in the vulnerable area, we should not solely depend to the instrument. The further away from the vulnerable humans that the hazard detected by sensing equipment is, the more possible it is to convert the hazard information into an effective warning [7]. To improve the preparedness, the act of disaster literacy would equip the community to face disaster. Disaster literacy, especially in risk and mitigation, is a best starting point at this moment to involve the society. A research about capacity building for tsunami early warning system in Indonesia has been conducted [10]. However, there is lack of focus to the communication aspect. Therefore, this paper aims to describe cognitive aspect of coastal community and media of communication. Cognitive aspect of the communication element such as message, media and communicator may support disaster literacy. Furthermore, disaster communication expectation could be used to measure the communication needs of the respective community.

III. Method and Measurement A survey has been conducted to the coastal community in Pacitan. Respondents have different backgrounds such as fisherman, local seller, farmer, teacher, government officer, and youth. Total of 170 respondents filled the questionnaire. To measure level of knowledge and communication needs, researchers used 26 questions.

These questions are categorized as: cognitive aspect of Tsunami (five questions), initial information (three questions), National Disaster Management Agency (four questions), Disaster communication expectations of respondents (six questions), and potential actions of respondents (eight questions). This paper elaborates the elements: cognitive aspect of Tsunami and disaster communication expectation.

IV. Finding and Discussion A. Cognitive Aspect From five-Likert Scale, average of the knowledge score as seen in Table 1 is 3,47. In other words, respondent stated that they have 69% of the ideal knowledge of Tsunami. Cognitive aspect of thecommunity is in the level of moderate to high. This may happen because of the similar preference form respondents to each question. The data shows 31% gap of knowledge about Tsunami.

Table 1: Knowledge about Tsunami Knowledge about Tsunami

Score

I know about Tsunami

3.74

I know the effect of Tsunami

3.68

I know the symptoms of Tsunami

3.13

I know the risk of living in vulnerable area

3.54

I know the mitigation of Tsunami

3.28

Average

3.47

Findings in Table 1 show symptoms and mitigation of Tsunami as the lowest two. “I know the symptoms of Tsunami” has the lowest score means the respondent has inadequate knowledge about the symptoms of tsunami.

This situation may be problematic because when Tsunami hits coastal area, then there are particular signs about the Tsunami. Living in a vulnerable area requires awareness of the potential risks that may occurs. Based on the findings, respondents stated “I know aboutTsunami”. Further question about the effect and risk of living in vulnerable area, then respondents gave lower response. Decreasing of the score (3.74; 3.68; 3.54) indicates inadequate further knowledge about Tsunami. In cognitive aspect, the findings level of knowledge remains in the level of what tsunami is. Respondents stated the need of information about the symptoms and what should they do when tsunami comes.

B. Disaster Communication Expectations Respondents have high expectations in the content and media of disaster communication. As seen in Table 2, almost all of respondents stated the need of Tsunami content. The content would be the symptoms and mitigation. To easier understanding of the issue, respondent also expect interactive media. Interactive media in this point would be a simulation about the symptoms and mitigation of Tsunami come. Prior knowledge about Tsunami is mostly from mass media and the Agency’s presentation. By using computer simulation, the community may receive richer understanding about the symptoms; prepare themselves and how to reduce fatalities when disaster occurs. Simulation gives better understanding because it provides a model of real world

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situation [11]. Conceptually, the more the audience interacts with multi-sensory media, the more the perspective of the audience. McLuhan stated that television would improve the perspective of human because television requires interplay between eyes and ears [12]. When new media come with simulation, convergence and interactivity, then what would happen to human sensory and perspective? On communicator aspect, almost 40% of respondents would like to expand the involvement of other parties in disaster literacy. The finding would suggest involvement of other parties to share responsibilities among the society. Involvement of other parties becomes reasonable in relating to local capacity building [10]. Since the disaster would potentially attack everyone in the area, then the increase of local capacity would be an option. Also, by sharing responsibility would enrich the approach of disaster literacy. Involvement of other parties such as educational institution [13], non-government organization, local communities, and young people may improve the empowerment of society.

Increasing publicawareness in education institution and by education institution would be a starting point of involvement. One of the advantages is focusing on sustainable development by providing guidelines and tools [14].

Table II: Disaster Communication Expectation Disaster Communication Expectation Knowledge of Tsunami is important I need communication media about Tsunami I need old-media I need interactive media Disaster literacy is held by the Agency only Other parties may involve in disaster literacy

Yes 99% 88% 49% 88% 63% 61%

No 1% 12% 51% 12% 37% 39%

C. New Media to Communicate Risk and Mitigation of Tsunami The use of communication technology in disaster communication would give benefits to the preparedness of the people [15]. Preparedness means providing simulation or interactive media about the Tsunami event, symptoms, the potential risks. By giving this, audience or community receives broader information about the Tsunami.Another side effect of this kind of information is the potential of increase fear of the society. This is a challenge of giving ‘bad news’ to society. However, in a view of disaster communication, telling facts about potential risks is a must. What should be noted by the communicator is the way of telling facts. Focusing to the aspect of medium itself, interactive, convergence, and simulation are the three important aspects that should be included in new media application. One of the examples of new media application is microworld simulation for increasing awareness [16]. However, creating new media application to communicate risk and mitigation of Tsunami requires not only technical aspects but also the aspect of content. Content in this case is not a shovelware of a brochure, papers, and others information. Content should be managed to reduce redundancy and even more overloaded information. A well-designed content should have narration to let people receive information systematically and in a simple way [17].

V. Conclusion Communicating disaster risk and mitigation to vulnerable area such as coastal community in Pacitan, Indonesia is part of disaster risk reduction to the respective community. This paper describes an initial finding of a survey about cognitive aspects and communication needs from the people in the area. Level of knowledge of the community is in the level of what tsunami is. The finding also indicates inadequate further knowledge about Tsunami. Respondents stated the need of information about the symptoms and what should they do when tsunami occurs. Respondents also stated the need of interactive-convergence medium to give them richer information about tsunami. As follow-up of this initial finding, researchers would like to provide a new media application to be used as part of disaster literacy. Further analysis of this survey would be expanded to the level of media usage and social aspect of the community to improve the awareness of disaster.

References [1] [2]

[3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

V. J. Lee, E. Low, Y. Y. Ng, and C. Teo, “Disaster relief and initial response to the earthquake and tsunami in Meulaboh, Indonesia.,” Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore, vol. 34, no. 9, pp. 586-90, Oct. 2005.

D. P. Eisenman, K. M. Cordasco, S. Asch, J. F. Golden, and D. Glik, “Disaster planning and risk communication with vulnerable communities: lessons from Hurricane Katrina.,” American journal of public health, vol. 97 Suppl 1, pp. S109-15, Apr. 2007.

BNPB, “National Disaster Management Plan 2010-2014,” Jakarta, 2009.

BNPB, “Tupoksi - Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana,” 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.bnpb.go.id/website/asp/content.asp?id=27.

L. Kurniawan, Y. Kurniawan, M. R. Amri, and N. Pramudiarta, INDEKS RAWAN BENCANA INDONESIA. Jakarta: Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana, 2011.

H. Surahman, “Pacitan Paling Rawan Gempa Tektonik,” Kompas.Com, 2012.

R. Samarajiva, “Mobilizing information and communications technologies for effective disaster warning: lessons from the 2004 tsunami,” New Media & Society, vol.7, no. 6, pp. 731-747, Dec. 2005.

W. M. Adiputra, “Literasi Media dan Interpretasi atas Bencana.pdf,” Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, vol. 11, no. 3, pp.287414, 2008.

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[11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17]

E. U. Concern, “Approaches to Disaster Risk Reduction,” no. September. 2005.

H. Spahn, M. Hoppe, H. D. Vidiarina, and B. Usdianto, “Experience from three years of local capacity development for tsunami early warning in Indonesia: challenges, lessons and the way ahead,” Natural Hazards and Earth System Science, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 1411-1429, Jul. 2010.

M. Lister, J. Dovey, S. Giddings, K. Kelly, and I. Grant, New Media : a critical introduction, Second Edi. New York,: Routledge, 2009.

M. Mcluhan, Understanding Media: The extensions of man, First Edit. London, New York: McGraw Hill, 1964.

S. Ito, “Public Awareness of Disaster Risks through Education,” no. August. Regional Workshop on Total Disaster Risk Management, Japan, 2002.

L. Gregario, Scientific Literacy and Natural Disaster Preparedness. Bangkok: UNESCO, 2010.

S. Yodmani and D. Hollister, “Disasters and Communication Technology: Perspectives from Asia,” in Second Tampere Conference on Disaster Communications, 2001, no. May, pp. 28-30.

J. E. Luik, “New media bagi Keberlanjutan : Microworld simulation sebagai sebuah alternatif dalam mensinergikan kesadaran lingkungan kedalam kehidupan sehari-hari.,” in Konferensi Nasional Lingkungan Hidup, 2011.

J. E. Luik, “Media dan Perubahan Iklim: Aplikasi Medium Komunikasi Terkini dalam Mengkomunikasikan Mitigasi dan Adaptasi Perubahan Iklim.,” in Konferensi Nasional Lingkungan Hidup, 2009

Acknowledgments This research is possible by support Research Grant from Higher Education of Education Ministry of Republic of Indonesia. Therefore, researcher would like to acknowledge the support from respected institution. Researcher also would like to acknowledge Pacitan Regency in East Java Province for their support.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Panchayat and Economic empowerment of rural women by hands on Training NagaLaxmi M. Raman* and Neeru Dubey ** *Ph.D Research Scholars, Amity Institute of Social Sciences, **Assistant Professor, Amity International Centre for Post Harvest Technology and Cold Chain Management, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida Abstract: Panchayat Raj is deeply steeped in tradition and culture of rural India and is by no means a new concept. Panchayati Raj Institution is the grass-roots units of self-government – have been declared as the vehicles of socio-economic transformation in rural India. Effective and meaningful functioning of these bodies would depend on active involvement, contribution and participation of its citizens both male and female. A range of issues are affecting economics of social sectors in India since economic reforms began in mid‐1991.The impact of reforms depends on economic empowerment of women towards education, health and nutrition. For women, empowerment means that they gain the power to express and fulfil their needs, gain greater self-esteem and control over their own lives and relationships. Rural women entrepreneur succeeding as an entrepreneur in today’s world is vastly different from what it was earlier. Indian rural economy is also experiencing behavior of entrepreneurial.

Empowering women by enhancing their livelihood by adopting simple technology of post harvest management of fruits and vegetables, is a step forward in this direction. A case study at Bulandshahar district, encouraging the women to become an entrepreneur is not simply adoption of new technology but it is transformation of technology to rural sector.

Key words: Panchayat, women empowerment, post harvest technology, training I. Introduction Panchayat Raj Institutions is said to be the first formal democratic institution under the active principle in the Indian constitution. Panchayats are constituted considering their income, population and area. There is a provision for reservation of seats for women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. The panchayat has tenure of five years and is directly elected. It has income through taxes to perform its functions. To teach a man, you teach a person to teach a woman is to teach the whole family and the whole society. Our program is focused on teaching women entrepreneurs to learn the value addition technologies for horticultural produce, form self help groups and work towards their own economic empowerment and betterment of their families. With economic empowerment and better sources of income generation these women will be in better position to take decisions for their own family. India, as a country has grown considerably in terms of production of fruits (76.42 million tons) and vegetable (156.32 million tons). Unfortunately, a considerable amount of this valuable produce is lost due to improper post harvest management and lack of processing facilities. A large section of the rural people of India is deprived of food security, better nutritional status and economic welfare, which reflect a major deficiency in their quality of life.

• •

•

• •

II. Objectives of the training Train the identified women farmers/entrepreneurs in low cost post harvest and processing technologies.

Provide demonstrations, training programs and conduct adaptive research on innovative small-scale appropriate postharvest handling, food safety and food processing methods effective and appropriate for reducing losses and keeping perishable foods fresh longer as well as processing them into durable products to fetch better return.

To promote the well-being of the rural population as a whole in order to improve overall rural economy.

III. Benefits Adoption of simple low cost technology for reduction in post harvest losses and processing thus enhancing income of women farmers By use of these technologies farmers can successfully store produce for short time and potentially gain better price due to retained quality and availability.

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• • •

Both producers and consumers can be benefited; farmers by storing the product longer with less marketing problems means better price and consumers by getting maximum nutrient contents in the products.

Maximum utilization of the produce by proper handling and processing technology resulting into improved income Improvement of socioeconomic conditions of the rural community

IV. Methodology The hands on training was given by Amity International Centre for Post Harvest Technology and Cold Chain Management under the Project of Department of Biotechnology, to the farmers by establishing common facility centres in three selected districts of Uttar Pradesh (viz., Ghaziabad, Gautam Budh Nagar and Bulandshahr) in India. The post harvest management of fruits and vegetables training-besides being exposed to simple technologies of harvesting, sorting and grading of produce, proper packaging and cool storage of produce to extend shelf life, participants were given hands-on training in minimal processing of fruits and vegetables and their conversion into value-added products capable of generating extra income. Participants learnt the skills for pulp extraction of fruits, preparation of whole tomato concentrate, juices, squashes and nectars along with their bottling and corking, ready for the marketing. Training was also provided in 100% utilization of plant parts and preparation of blanched and dehydrated leaves of cauliflower to obtain valuable nutrients. This program aimed to help the women self-help groups to earn their livelihood by organizing them into cooperatives and working towards production of nutritive and value added products to be marketed.

A. Work done under the project, a few example of Post Harvest Management and Value Addition is as under: A1.

Minimal Processing Process of minimal processing in cauliflower and pomegranate was described to farmers so that they could get more benefit from their fresh produce. Process of minimal processing of cauliflower has been given in Fig 1.

Uprooted cauliflower

Cutting into medium pieces Removal of leaves and stalk Washing Wrapping of curd in cling film

Packing into polyethylene pouches

Marketting

Sealing

Fig. 1: Minimal processing of cauliflower A1.1. Benefits • Hygienically packed curds managed single handedly • Save on transportation cost • Less amount of waste in the market • Utilization of the nutritive produce at farm itself It is quite obvious that removal of leaves on-farm and wrapping of cauliflower curds in cling films will not only provide protection to the curd but also reduce the transport cost by 40%. The discarded leaves can be converted into value added product or serve as organic manure besides preventing accumulation of garbage in the wholesale yard /retail market.

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A2.

Preparation of Whole tomato Concentrate (WTC) In this part of training sorting and grading of tomatoes was described firstly. To prepare this product ripe tomatoes were cut into two or four parts (depending on size), crushed and then boiled to prepare WTC. The procedure adopted for preparation of WTC has been given below (Fig. 2).

Select fully ripe red tomatoes

Wash in running water

Cut into pieces (4-6 )

Crush and boil

Concentrate (to 1/3rd of its original volume /weight)

Add Acid (Acetic) 100 ml vinegar per kg/l- boil 4-5 min)

Cool to room temperature

Add 0.2 gm Sodium Benzoate & 0.4 gm of KMS per kg/liter Dissolved in water (boiled and cooled)

Mix thoroughly Packing in air tight container In cleaned and dried pet /glass bottles/pouches

Store in cool and dry place

A2.1 • •

Benefits Best substitute for tomato when the prices are high compared to puree as it also contain peel and seed which are the most nutritive portion.

Better market price.

A2.2 Blanching The process of blanching was demonstrated to the farmers. Benefits of blanching in processed products were also explained to them.

Green peas were peeled and kept in a sieve and dipped in the boiling water for 3-4 minutes followed by dipping in cold water.

Demonstration for making potato chips/French fries/wedges followed by blanching were given to the trainees. The difference in blanched and un-blanched samples was also shown to the trainees.

A2.3 • • • •

Benefits Colour retention Long shelf life Usage in off season Better market price

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Peel the shells Keeps the seeds in a sieve/muslin cloth Blanch in hot water for 3-4 minutes Immediately dip in cool water Pack the blanched peas in poly packs and seal it

Store in cool and dry place

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A3.

Sustainability of the Action The implementation of a set of postharvest technologies were cost effective and appropriate for reducing losses by keeping perishable produce fresh for longer period or processing them into durable products to fetch a better return. An integrated post harvest management approach helped in achieving, for the target population the following: (i) Better market access (ii) Nutrition Security (iii) Poverty alleviation (iv) Employment generation (v) Environment protection (vi) Economic transformation of rural population In fact, every farmer can utilize a substantial amount of fruits and vegetables by adopting simple techniques of storage, preservation and processing to uplift their livelihood.

V. Conclusion An innovative aspect involving development, demonstration and hands on training allowed for integration between the educational and organizational components of the learning process. Combining these two layers provided for coherent and meaningful organization of the education which meets both the individual and organizational needs. Panchayat Raj system gave significant progress in the fields of primary and secondary education, communication, agricultural extension, cooperation, health, etc. People could get drinking water. In some places people had protected water supply, Village streets, electric light provision, village sanitation, etc., had enough resources. Rural awakening was brought up among rural people; as a result villagers became conscious of their rights and improved their standard of living.

References [1].

[2].

[3].

[4].

SK Roy, N Dubey, Sk Dwivedi, NagaLaxmi Raman and N.Verma (Eds.) (2012). Training manual on Post Harvest Technology, and Cold Chain Management. Technically edited by Drs. Susanta K.Roy and Sunil Saran Sunil Saran, Susanta K. Roy, Shailendra K. Dwivedi, Neeru Dubey, Vigya Mishra Nagalaxmi Raman (2013) designed and compiled the Training Modules 1-13 on the topics “Importance of Post harvest technology and processing of fruits and vegetables ; Concept of harvesting of fruits and vegetables ; Importance of keeping fruits and vegetables under shade immediately after harvesting ; Sorting and grading of fresh fruits and vegetables ; Zero Energy Cool Chamber: A low cost technique of storage;. Packaging of fruits and vegetables ;Primary and minimal processing of vegetables ; Low cost drying of vegetables ; Extraction and preservation of juice and pulp from fruits and vegetables ; Whole tomato concentrate ; Utilization of Cauliflower leaves for value added products ;Safety and Quality Awareness” both in English and Hindi.

Proceedings of the Training Workshop on “Characterization of Fresh and Processed Fruit Quality” at Nong Lam University (NLU), Ho-chi-minh City, Vietnam (21-27 July 2012) presented a paper on "E-learning programme on post harvest technology" under a project entitled “International Network on Preserving safety and nutrition of indigenous fruits and their derivatives” funded by Leverhulme Trust UK. The other partners are from UK, France, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Cambodia and Vietnam.

Proceedings of Research Training workshop on “Facilitating uptake by SMEs of Research on New Processing Technologies for Underutilized Fruits” at University of Peradeniya, Kandy Sri Lanka: 12-16 May, 2013. Presented a paper on “Integrated elearning course for SMEs and trainers of Post Harvest Technology focused on improved marketability of indigenous tropical and subtropical, fruits and vegetables” under a project entitled “International Network on Preserving safety and nutrition of indigenous fruits and their derivatives” funded by Leverhulme Trust UK.

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