American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied and Natural Sciences issue 9 vol.1 by iasir journals

ISSN (Print): 2328-3777 ISSN (Online): 2328-3785 ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3793

Issue 9, Volume 1 December-2014 to February-2015

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied and Natural Sciences

International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR) (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

STEM International Scientific Online Media and Publishing House Head Office: 148, Summit Drive, Byron, Georgia-31008, United States. Offices Overseas: Germany, Australia, India, Netherlands, Canada. Website: www.iasir.net, E-mail (s): iasir.journals@iasir.net, iasir.journals@gmail.com, aijrfans@gmail.com

PREFACE We are delighted to welcome you to the ninth issue of the American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied and Natural Sciences (AIJRFANS). In recent years, advances in science, engineering, formal, applied and natural sciences have radically expanded the data available to researchers and professionals in a wide variety of domains. This unique combination of theory with data has the potential to have broad impact on educational research and practice. AIJRFANS is publishing high-quality, peer-reviewed papers covering topics such as Biotechnology, Cognitive neurosciences, Physics, Chemistry, Information coding and theory, Biology , Botany & Zoology, Logic & Systems, Earth and environmental sciences, Computer science, Applied and pure Mathematics, Decision Theory & Statistics, Medicine, Algorithms, Anatomy, Biomedical sciences, Biochemistry, Bioinformatics, Ecology & Ethology, Food & Health science, Genetics, Pharmacology, Geology, Astronomy & Geophysics, Oceanography, Space sciences, Criminology, Aerospace, Agricultural, Textile, Industrial, Mechanical, Dental sciences, Pharmaceutical sciences, Computational linguistics, Cybernetics, Forestry, Scientific modeling, Network sciences, Horticulture & Husbandry, Agricultural & Veterinary sciences, Robotics and Automation, Materials sciences and other relevant fields available in the vicinity of formal, applied and natural sciences.

The editorial board of AIJRFANS is composed of members of the Teachers & Researchers community who are actively involved in the systematic investigation into existing or new knowledge to discover new paths for the scientific discovery to provide new logic and design paradigms. Today, modern science respects objective and logical reasoning to determine the underlying natural laws of the universe to explore new scientific methods. These methods

are

quite

useful

develop

widespread

expansion

highâ&#x20AC;?quality common standards and assessments in the formal, applied and natural sciences. These fields are the pillars of growth in our modern society and have a wider impact on our daily lives with infinite opportunities in a global marketplace. In order to best serve our community, this Journal is available online as well as in hard-copy form. Because of the rapid advances in underlying technologies and the interdisciplinary nature of the field, we believe it is important to provide quality research articles promptly and to the widest possible audience.

We are happy that this Journal has continued to grow and develop. We have made every effort to evaluate and process submissions for reviews, and address queries from authors and the general public promptly. The Journal has strived to reflect the most recent and finest

researchers in the field of formal, applied and natural sciences. This Journal is completely refereed and indexed with major databases like: IndexCopernicus, Computer Science Directory,

GetCITED,

CRCnetBASE,

Google

DOAJ,

SSRN,

Scholar,

TGDScholar,

Microsoft

Academic

WorldWideScience, Search,

CiteSeerX,

INSPEC,

ProQuest,

ArnetMiner, Base, ChemXSeer, citebase, OpenJ-Gate, eLibrary, SafetyLit, SSRN, VADLO, OpenGrey, EBSCO, ProQuest, UlrichWeb, ISSUU, SPIE Digital Library, arXiv, ERIC, EasyBib, Infotopia, WorldCat, .docstoc JURN, Mendeley, ResearchGate, cogprints, OCLC, iSEEK, Scribd, LOCKSS, CASSI, E-PrintNetwork, intute, and some other databases.

We are grateful to all of the individuals and agencies whose work and support made the Journal's success possible. We want to thank the executive board and core committee members of the AIJRFANS for entrusting us with the important job. We are thankful to the members of the AIJRFANS editorial board who have contributed energy and time to the Journal with their steadfast support, constructive advice, as well as reviews of submissions. We are deeply indebted to the numerous anonymous reviewers who have contributed expertly evaluations of the submissions to help maintain the quality of the Journal. For this ninth issue, we received 57 research papers and out of which only 15 research papers are published in one volume as per the reviewersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; recommendations. We have highest respect to all the authors who have submitted articles to the Journal for their intellectual energy and creativity, and for their dedication to the field of formal, applied and natural sciences.

This issue of the AIJRFANS has attracted a large number of authors and researchers across worldwide and would provide an effective platform to all the intellectuals of different streams to put forth their suggestions and ideas which might prove beneficial for the accelerated pace of development of emerging technologies in formal, applied and natural sciences and may open new area for research and development. We hope you will enjoy this ninth issue of the American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied and Natural Sciences and are looking forward to hearing your feedback and receiving your contributions.

(Administrative Chief)

(Managing Director)

(Editorial Head)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied and Natural Sciences (AIJRFANS), ISSN (Print): 2328-3777, ISSN (Online): 2328-3785, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3793 (December-2014 to February-2015, Issue 9, Volume 1). ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BOARD MEMBERS

        

                 

EDITOR IN CHIEF Prof. (Dr.) Waressara Weerawat, Director of Logistics Innovation Center, Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Thailand. Prof. (Dr.) Yen-Chun Lin, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Jung Christian University, Kway Jen, Tainan, Taiwan. Divya Sethi, GM Conferencing & VSAT Solutions, Enterprise Services, Bharti Airtel, Gurgaon, India. CHIEF EDITOR (TECHNICAL) Prof. (Dr.) Atul K. Raturi, Head School of Engineering and Physics, Faculty of Science, Technology and Environment, The University of the South Pacific, Laucala campus, Suva, Fiji Islands. Prof. (Dr.) Hadi Suwastio, College of Applied Science, Department of Information Technology, The Sultanate of Oman and Director of IETI-Research Institute-Bandung, Indonesia. Dr. Nitin Jindal, Vice President, Max Coreth, North America Gas & Power Trading, New York, United States. CHIEF EDITOR (GENERAL) Prof. (Dr.) Thanakorn Naenna, Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Thailand. Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Huiyun Liu, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London. ADVISORY BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Kimberly A. Freeman, Professor & Director of Undergraduate Programs, Stetson School of Business and Economics, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Klaus G. Troitzsch, Professor, Institute for IS Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany. Prof. (Dr.) T. Anthony Choi, Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Fabrizio Gerli, Department of Management, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, Italy. Prof. (Dr.) Jen-Wei Hsieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Jose C. Martinez, Dept. Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Panayiotis Vafeas, Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Patras, Greece. Prof. (Dr.) Soib Taib, School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Vit Vozenilek, Department of Geoinformatics, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic. Prof. (Dr.) Sim Kwan Hua, School of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Rafael Ignacio Alvarez Sanchez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Praneel Chand, Ph.D., M.IEEEC/O School of Engineering & Physics Faculty of Science & Technology The University of the South Pacific (USP) Laucala Campus, Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji. Prof. (Dr.) Francisco Miguel Martinez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Antonio Zamora Gomez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Leandro Tortosa, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Samir Ananou, Department of Microbiology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain. Dr. Miguel Angel Bautista, Department de Matematica Aplicada y Analisis, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de Barcelona, Spain.

           

                  

Prof. (Dr.) Prof. Adam Baharum, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Universiti Sains, Malaysia, Malaysia. Dr. Cathryn J. Peoples, Faculty of Computing and Engineering, School of Computing and Information Engineering, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom. Prof. (Dr.) Pavel Lafata, Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, 166 27, Czech Republic. Prof. (Dr.) P. Bhanu Prasad, Vision Specialist, Matrix vision GmbH, Germany, Consultant, TIFACCORE for Machine Vision, Advisor, Kelenn Technology, France Advisor, Shubham Automation & Services, Ahmedabad, and Professor of C.S.E, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India. Prof. (Dr.) Anis Zarrad, Department of Computer Science and Information System, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammed Ali Hussain, Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India. Dr. Cristiano De Magalhaes Barros, Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil. Prof. (Dr.) Md. Rizwan Beg, Professor & Head, Dean, Faculty of Computer Applications, Deptt. of Computer Sc. & Engg. & Information Technology, Integral University Kursi Road, Dasauli, Lucknow, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vishnu Narayan Mishra, Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Ichchhanath Mahadev Road, Surat, Surat-395007, Gujarat, India. Dr. Jia Hu, Member Research Staff, Philips Research North America, New York Area, NY. Prof. Shashikant Shantilal Patil SVKM, MPSTME Shirpur Campus, NMIMS University Vile Parle Mumbai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bindhya Chal Yadav, Assistant Professor in Botany, Govt. Post Graduate College, Fatehabad, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. REVIEW BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Kimberly A. Freeman, Professor & Director of Undergraduate Programs, Stetson School of Business and Economics, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Klaus G. Troitzsch, Professor, Institute for IS Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany. Prof. (Dr.) T. Anthony Choi, Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Yen-Chun Lin, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Jung Christian University, Kway Jen, Tainan, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Jen-Wei Hsieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan. Prof. (Dr.) Jose C. Martinez, Dept. Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Joel Saltz, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States. Prof. (Dr.) Panayiotis Vafeas, Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Patras, Greece. Prof. (Dr.) Soib Taib, School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Sim Kwan Hua, School of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Rafael Ignacio Alvarez Sanchez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Francisco Miguel Martinez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Antonio Zamora Gomez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Leandro Tortosa, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Samir Ananou, Department of Microbiology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain. Dr. Miguel Angel Bautista, Department de Matematica Aplicada y Analisis, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de Barcelona, Spain. Prof. (Dr.) Prof. Adam Baharum, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Universiti Sains, Malaysia, Malaysia. Prof. (Dr.) Huiyun Liu, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London.

                                

Dr. Cristiano De Magalhaes Barros, Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil. Prof. (Dr.) Pravin G. Ingole, Senior Researcher, Greenhouse Gas Research Center, Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER), 152 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-343, KOREA Prof. (Dr.) Dilum Bandara, Dept. Computer Science & Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka. Prof. (Dr.) Faudziah Ahmad, School of Computing, UUM College of Arts and Sciences, University Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman Prof. (Dr.) G. Manoj Someswar, Principal, Dept. of CSE at Anwar-ul-uloom College of Engineering & Technology, Yennepally, Vikarabad, RR District., A.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Abdelghni Lakehal, Applied Mathematics, Rue 10 no 6 cite des fonctionnaires dokkarat 30010 Fes Marocco. Dr. Kamal Kulshreshtha, Associate Professor & Head, Deptt. of Computer Sc. & Applications, Modi Institute of Management & Technology, Kota-324 009, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Anukrati Sharma, Associate Professor, Faculty of Commerce and Management, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) S. Natarajan, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SSM College of Engineering, NH 47, Salem Main Road, Komarapalayam, Namakkal District, Tamilnadu 638183, India. Prof. (Dr.) J. Sadhik Basha, Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Prof. (Dr.) G. SAVITHRI, Department of Sericulture, S.P. Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati517502, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shweta jain, Tolani College of Commerce, Andheri, Mumbai. 400001, India Prof. (Dr.) Abdullah M. Abdul-Jabbar, Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Salahaddin-Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Prof. (Dr.) P.Sujathamma, Department of Sericulture, S.P.Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati517502, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India. Prof. (Dr.) Manjulatha, Dept of Biochemistry,School of Life Sciences,University of Hyderabad,Gachibowli, Hyderabad, India. Prof. (Dr.) Upasani Dhananjay Eknath Advisor & Chief Coordinator, ALUMNI Association, Sinhgad Institute of Technology & Science, Narhe, Pune- 411 041, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sudhindra Bhat, Professor & Finance Area Chair, School of Business, Alliance University Bangalore-562106. Prof. Prasenjit Chatterjee , Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MCKV Institute of Engineering West Bengal, India. Prof. Rajesh Murukesan, Deptt. of Automobile Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering college, Chennai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Parmil Kumar, Department of Statistics, University of Jammu, Jammu, India Prof. (Dr.) M.N. Shesha Prakash, Vice Principal, Professor & Head of Civil Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Alanahally, Mysore-570 028 Prof. (Dr.) Piyush Singhal, Mechanical Engineering Deptt., GLA University, India. Prof. M. Mahbubur Rahman, School of Engineering & Information Technology, Murdoch University, Perth Western Australia 6150, Australia. Prof. Nawaraj Chaulagain, Department of Religion, Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington, IL. Prof. Hassan Jafari, Faculty of Maritime Economics & Management, Khoramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, khoramshahr, Khuzestan province, Iran Prof. (Dr.) Kantipudi MVV Prasad , Dept of EC, School of Engg, R.K.University,Kast urbhadham, Tramba, Rajkot-360020, India. Prof. (Mrs.) P.Sujathamma, Department of Sericulture, S.P.Mahila Visvavidyalayam, ( Women's University), Tirupati-517502, India. Prof. (Dr.) M A Rizvi, Dept. of Computer Engineering and Applications, National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Bhopal M.P. India Prof. (Dr.) Mohsen Shafiei Nikabadi, Faculty of Economics and Management, Industrial Management Department, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran. Prof. P.R.SivaSankar, Head, Dept. of Commerce, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post Graduate Centre, KAVALI - 524201, A.P. India. Prof. (Dr.) Bhawna Dubey, Institute of Environmental Science( AIES), Amity University, Noida, India. Prof. Manoj Chouhan, Deptt. of Information Technology, SVITS Indore, India.

                                

Prof. Yupal S Shukla, V M Patel College of Management Studies, Ganpat University, KhervaMehsana, India. Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kohli, Head of the Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering, D.A.V.Institute of Engg. and Technology, Kabir Nagar, Jalandhar, Punjab(India) Prof. (Dr.) Kumar Irayya Maddani, and Head of the Department of Physics in SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dhavalagiri, Dharwad, State: Karnataka (INDIA). Prof. (Dr.) Shafi Phaniband, SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad, INDIA. Prof. M H Annaiah, Head, Department of Automobile Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Soladevana Halli, Bangalore -560107, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shriram K V, Faculty Computer Science and Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidhyapeetham University, Coimbatore, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sohail Ayub, Department of Civil Engineering, Z.H College of Engineering & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. 202002 UP-India Prof. (Dr.) Santosh Kumar Behera, Department of Education, Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University, Purulia, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Urmila Shrawankar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, G H Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur (MS), India. Prof. Anbu Kumar. S, Deptt. of Civil Engg., Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering) Delhi, India. Prof. (Dr.) Meenakshi Sood, Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, Mysore, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot, Karnataka (India) Prof. (Dr.) Prof. R. R. Patil, Director School Of Earth Science, Solapur University, Solapur, India. Prof. (Dr.) Manoj Khandelwal, Dept. of Mining Engg, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur-313 001 (Rajasthan), India Prof. (Dr.) Kishor Chandra Satpathy, Librarian, National Institute of Technology, Silchar-788010, Assam, India. Prof. (Dr.) Juhana Jaafar, Gas Engineering Department, Faculty of Petroleum and Renewable Energy Engineering (FPREE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor. Prof. (Dr.) Rita Khare, Assistant Professor in chemistry, Govt. Women,s College, Gardanibagh, Patna, Bihar, India. Prof. (Dr.) Raviraj Kusanur, Dept of Chemistry, R V College of Engineering, Bangalore-59, India. Prof. (Dr.) Hameem Shanavas .I, M.V.J College of Engineering, Bangalore, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sandhya Mehrotra, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Sciences, Pilani, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Dr. Ravindra Jilte, Head of the Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering,VCET, Thane-401202, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay Kumar, JKL University, Ajmer Road, Jaipur Prof. (Dr.) Pushp Lata Faculty of English and Communication, Department of Humanities and Languages, Nucleus Member, Publications and Media Relations Unit Editor, BITScan, BITS, PilaniIndia Prof. Arun Agarwal, Faculty of ECE Dept., ITER College, Siksha 'O' Anusandhan University Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Prof. (Dr.) Pratima Tripathi, Department of Biosciences, SSSIHL, Anantapur Campus Anantapur515001 (A.P.) India. Prof. (Dr.) Sudip Das, Department of Biotechnology, Haldia Institute of Technology, I.C.A.R.E. Complex, H.I.T. Campus, P.O. Hit, Haldia; Dist: Puba Medinipur, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) ABHIJIT MITRA , Associate Professor and former Head, Department of Marine Science, University of Calcutta , India. Prof. (Dr.) N.Ramu , Associate Professor , Department of Commerce, Annamalai University, AnnamalaiNadar-608 002, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu , India. Prof. (Dr.) Saber Mohamed Abd-Allah, Assistant Professor of Theriogenology , Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Beni-Suef University , Egypt. Prof. (Dr.) Ramel D. Tomaquin, Dean, College of Arts and Sciences Surigao Del Sur State University (SDSSU), Tandag City Surigao Del Sur, Philippines. Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India. Prof. (Dr.) R.K.Tiwari, Professor, S.O.S. in Physics, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, M.P.-474011, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sandeep Gupta, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Gr.Noida, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammad Akram, Jazan University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

                               

Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay Sharma, Dept. of Mathematics, BIT, Durg(C.G.), India. Prof. (Dr.) Manas R. Panigrahi, Department of Physics, School of Applied Sciences, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India. Prof. (Dr.) P.Kiran Sree, Dept of CSE, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, India Prof. (Dr.) Suvroma Gupta, Department of Biotechnology in Haldia Institute of Technology, Haldia, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) SREEKANTH. K. J., Department of Mechanical Engineering at Mar Baselios College of Engineering & Technology, University of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala, India Prof. Bhubneshwar Sharma, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Eternal University (H.P), India. Prof. Love Kumar, Electronics and Communication Engineering, DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar (Punjab), India. Prof. S.KANNAN, Department of History, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar- 608002, Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Hasrinah Hasbullah, Faculty of Petroleum & Renewable Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia. Prof. Rajesh Duvvuru, Dept. of Computer Sc. & Engg., N.I.T. Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bhargavi H. Goswami, Department of MCA, Sunshine Group of Institutes, Nr. Rangoli Park, Kalawad Road, Rajkot, Gujarat, India. Prof. (Dr.) Essam H. Houssein, Computer Science Department, Faculty of Computers & Informatics, Benha University, Benha 13518, Qalyubia Governorate, Egypt. Arash Shaghaghi, University College London, University of London, Great Britain. Prof. Rajesh Duvvuru, Dept. of Computer Sc. & Engg., N.I.T. Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) Anand Kumar, Head, Department of MCA, M.S. Engineering College, Navarathna Agrahara, Sadahalli Post, Bangalore, PIN 562110, Karnataka, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) Venkata Raghavendra Miriampally, Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept, Adama Science & Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia. Prof. (Dr.) Jatinderkumar R. Saini, Director (I.T.), GTU's Ankleshwar-Bharuch Innovation Sankul &Director I/C & Associate Professor, Narmada College of Computer Application, Zadeshwar, Bharuch, Gujarat, India. Prof. Jaswinder Singh, Mechanical Engineering Department, University Institute Of Engineering & Technology, Panjab University SSG Regional Centre, Hoshiarpur, Punjab, India- 146001. Prof. (Dr.) S.Kadhiravan, Head i/c, Department of Psychology, Periyar University, Salem- 636 011,Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammad Israr, Principal, Balaji Engineering College,Junagadh, Gujarat-362014, India. Prof. (Dr.) VENKATESWARLU B., Director of MCA in Sreenivasa Institute of Technology and Management Studies (SITAMS), Chittoor. Prof. (Dr.) Deepak Paliwal, Faculty of Sociology, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani-Nainital Prof. (Dr.) Dr. Anil K Dwivedi, Faculty of Pollution & Environmental Assay Research Laboratory (PEARL), Department of Botany,DDU Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur-273009, India. Prof. R. Ravikumar, Department of Agricultural and Rural Management, TamilNadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003,Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) R.Raman, Professor of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai university, Annamalai Nagar 608 002Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ahmed Khalafallah, Coordinator of the CM Degree Program, Department of Architectural and Manufacturing Sciences, Ogden College of Sciences and Engineering Western Kentucky University 1906 College Heights Blvd Bowling Green, KY 42103-1066 Prof. (Dr.) Asmita Das , Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Shahbad, Daulatpur, Delhi 110042, India. Prof. (Dr.)Aniruddha Bhattacharjya, Assistant Professor (Senior Grade), CSE Department, Amrita School of Engineering , Amrita Vishwa VidyaPeetham (University), Kasavanahalli, Carmelaram P.O., Bangalore 560035, Karnataka, India Prof. (Dr.) S. Rama Krishna Pisipaty, Prof & Geoarchaeologist, Head of the Department of Sanskrit & Indian Culture, SCSVMV University, Enathur, Kanchipuram 631561, India Prof. (Dr.) Shubhasheesh Bhattacharya, Professor & HOD(HR), Symbiosis Institute of International Business (SIIB), Hinjewadi, Phase-I, Pune- 411 057 Prof. (Dr.) Vijay Kothari, Institute of Science, Nirma University, S-G Highway, Ahmedabad 382481, India. Prof. (Dr.) Raja Sekhar Mamillapalli, Department of Civil Engineering at Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur, India.

                             

Prof. (Dr.)B. M. Kunar, Department of Mining Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad 826004, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) Prabir Sarkar, Assistant Professor, School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Room 307, Academic Block, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar, Nangal Road, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India. Prof. (Dr.) K.Srinivasmoorthy, Associate Professor, Department of Earth Sciences, School of Physical,Chemical and Applied Sciences, Pondicherry university, R.Venkataraman Nagar, Kalapet, Puducherry 605014, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bhawna Dubey, Institute of Environmental Science (AIES), Amity University, Noida, India. Prof. (Dr.) P. Bhanu Prasad, Vision Specialist, Matrix vision GmbH, Germany, Consultant, TIFACCORE for Machine Vision, Advisor, Kelenn Technology, France Advisor, Shubham Automation & Services, Ahmedabad, and Professor of C.S.E, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India. Prof. (Dr.)P.Raviraj, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, Kalaignar Karunanidhi, Institute of Technology, Coimbatore 641402,Tamilnadu,India. Prof. (Dr.) Damodar Reddy Edla, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004, India. Prof. (Dr.) T.C. Manjunath, Principal in HKBK College of Engg., Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Prof. (Dr.) Pankaj Bhambri, I.T. Deptt., Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana 141006, Punjab, India . Prof. Shashikant Shantilal Patil SVKM, MPSTME Shirpur Campus, NMIMS University Vile Parle Mumbai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shambhu Nath Choudhary, Department of Physics, T.M. Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur 81200, Bihar, India. Prof. (Dr.) Venkateshwarlu Sonnati, Professor & Head of EEED, Department of EEE, Sreenidhi Institute of Science & Technology, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Saurabh Dalela, Department of Pure & Applied Physics, University of Kota, KOTA 324010, Rajasthan, India. Prof. S. Arman Hashemi Monfared, Department of Civil Eng, University of Sistan & Baluchestan, Daneshgah St.,Zahedan, IRAN, P.C. 98155-987 Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Chanda, Dept. of Jute & Fibre Tech., University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, West Bengal, India. Prof. V.S.VAKULA, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, JNTUK, University College of Engg., Vizianagaram5 35003, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Nehal Gitesh Chitaliya, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology, Vasad 388 306, Gujarat, India. Prof. (Dr.) D.R. Prajapati, Department of Mechanical Engineering, PEC University of Technology,Chandigarh 160012, India. Dr. A. SENTHIL KUMAR, Postdoctoral Researcher, Centre for Energy and Electrical Power, Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0001, South Africa. Prof. (Dr.)Vijay Harishchandra Mankar, Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Mangalwari Bazar, Besa Road, Nagpur- 440027, India. Prof. Varun.G.Menon, Department Of C.S.E, S.C.M.S School of Engineering, Karukutty, Ernakulam, Kerala 683544, India. Prof. (Dr.) U C Srivastava, Department of Physics, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, U.P-203301.India. Prof. (Dr.) Surendra Yadav, Professor and Head (Computer Science & Engineering Department), Maharashi Arvind College of Engineering and Research Centre (MACERC), Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Kumar, H.O.D. Applied Sciences & Humanities Dehradun Institute of Technology, (D.I.T. School of Engineering), 48 A K.P-3 Gr. Noida (U.P.) 201308 Prof. Naveen Jain, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, College of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur-313 001, India. Prof. Veera Jyothi.B, CBIT ,Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. Aritra Ghosh, Global Institute of Management and Technology, Krishnagar, Nadia, W.B. India Prof. Anuj K. Gupta, Head, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RIMT Group of Institutions, Sirhind Mandi Gobindgarh, Punajb, India. Prof. (Dr.) Varala Ravi, Head, Department of Chemistry, IIIT Basar Campus, Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Mudhole, Adilabad, Andhra Pradesh- 504 107, India Prof. (Dr.) Ravikumar C Baratakke, faculty of Biology,Govt. College, Saundatti - 591 126, India.

                              

Prof. (Dr.) NALIN BHARTI, School of Humanities and Social Science, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, India. Prof. (Dr.) Shivanand S.Gornale, Head, Department of Studies in Computer Science, Government College (Autonomous), Mandya, Mandya-571 401-Karanataka Prof. (Dr.) Naveen.P.Badiger, Dept.Of Chemistry, S.D.M.College of Engg. & Technology, Dharwad-580002, Karnataka State, India. Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India. Prof. (Dr.) Tauqeer Ahmad Usmani, Faculty of IT, Salalah College of Technology, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman, Prof. (Dr.) Naresh Kr. Vats, Chairman, Department of Law, BGC Trust University Bangladesh Prof. (Dr.) Papita Das (Saha), Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India Prof. (Dr.) Rekha Govindan , Dept of Biotechnology, Aarupadai Veedu Institute of technology , Vinayaka Missions University , Paiyanoor , Kanchipuram Dt, Tamilnadu , India Prof. (Dr.) Lawrence Abraham Gojeh, Department of Information Science, Jimma University, P.o.Box 378, Jimma, Ethiopia Prof. (Dr.) M.N. Kalasad, Department of Physics, SDM College of Engineering & Technology, Dharwad, Karnataka, India Prof. Rab Nawaz Lodhi, Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology Sahiwal Prof. (Dr.) Masoud Hajarian, Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, General Campus, Evin, Tehran 19839,Iran Prof. (Dr.) Chandra Kala Singh, Associate professor, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India Prof. (Dr.) J.Babu, Professor & Dean of research, St.Joseph's College of Engineering & Technology, Choondacherry, Palai,Kerala. Prof. (Dr.) Pradip Kumar Roy, Department of Applied Mechanics, Birla Institute of Technology (BIT) Mesra, Ranchi-835215, Jharkhand, India. Prof. (Dr.) P. Sanjeevi kumar, School of Electrical Engineering (SELECT), Vandalur Kelambakkam Road, VIT University, Chennai, India. Prof. (Dr.) Debasis Patnaik, BITS-Pilani, Goa Campus, India. Prof. (Dr.) SANDEEP BANSAL, Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, I.G.N. College, Haryana, India. Dr. Radhakrishnan S V S, Department of Pharmacognosy, Faser Hall, The University of Mississippi Oxford, MS-38655, USA Prof. (Dr.) Megha Mittal, Faculty of Chemistry, Manav Rachna College of Engineering, Faridabad (HR), 121001, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mihaela Simionescu (BRATU), BUCHAREST, District no. 6, Romania, member of the Romanian Society of Econometrics, Romanian Regional Science Association and General Association of Economists from Romania Prof. (Dr.) Atmani Hassan, Director Regional of Organization Entraide Nationale Prof. (Dr.) Deepshikha Gupta, Dept. of Chemistry, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences,Amity University, Sec.125, Noida, India Prof. (Dr.) Muhammad Kamruzzaman, Deaprtment of Infectious Diseases, The University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW-2145. Prof. (Dr.) Meghshyam K. Patil , Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Chemistry,Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,Sub-Campus, Osmanabad- 413 501, Maharashtra, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kr. Dargar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur (Raj.) Prof. (Dr.) Sudarson Jena, Dept. of Information Technology, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India Prof. (Dr.) Jai Prakash Jaiswal, Department of Mathematics, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal-India Prof. (Dr.) S.Amutha, Dept. of Educational Technology, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli620 023, Tamil Nadu-India Prof. (Dr.) R. HEMA KRISHNA, Environmental chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada. Prof. (Dr.) B.Swaminathan, Dept. of Agrl.Economics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India.

                             

Prof. (Dr.) Meghshyam K. Patil, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Sub-Campus, Osmanabad- 413 501, Maharashtra, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) K. Ramesh, Department of Chemistry, C .B . I. T, Gandipet, Hyderabad-500075 Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Kumar, H.O.D. Applied Sciences &Humanities, JIMS Technical campus,(I.P. University,New Delhi), 48/4 ,K.P.-3,Gr.Noida (U.P.) Prof. (Dr.) G.V.S.R.Anjaneyulu, CHAIRMAN - P.G. BOS in Statistics & Deputy Coordinator UGC DRS-I Project, Executive Member ISPS-2013, Department of Statistics, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar-522510, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Sribas Goswami, Department of Sociology, Serampore College, Serampore 712201, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunanda Sharma, Department of Veterinary Obstetrics Y Gynecology, College of Veterinary & Animal Science,Rajasthan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences,Bikaner334001, India. Prof. (Dr.) S.K. Tiwari, Department of Zoology, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur-273009 U.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Praveena Kuruva, Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore560012, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) Rajesh Kumar, Department Of Applied Physics , Bhilai Institute Of Technology, Durg (C.G.) 491001 Prof. (Dr.) Y.P.Singh, (Director), Somany (PG) Institute of Technology and Management, Garhi Bolni Road, Delhi-Jaipur Highway No. 8, Beside 3 km from City Rewari, Rewari-123401, India. Prof. (Dr.) MIR IQBAL FAHEEM, VICE PRINCIPAL &HEAD- Department of Civil Engineering & Professor of Civil Engineering, Deccan College of Engineering & Technology, Dar-us-Salam, Aghapura, Hyderabad (AP) 500 036. Prof. (Dr.) Jitendra Gupta, Regional Head, Co-ordinator(U.P. State Representative)& Asstt. Prof., (Pharmaceutics), Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura. Prof. (Dr.) N. Sakthivel, Scientist - C,Research Extension Center,Central Silk Board, Government of India, Inam Karisal Kulam (Post), Srivilliputtur - 626 125,Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Omprakash Srivastav, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202 001, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) K.V.L.N.Acharyulu, Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, Bapatla Engineering college, Bapatla-522101, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) Fateh Mebarek-Oudina, Assoc. Prof., Sciences Faculty,20 aout 1955-Skikda University, B.P 26 Route El-Hadaiek, 21000,Skikda, Algeria. NagaLaxmi M. Raman, Project Support Officer, Amity International Centre for Postharvest, Technology & Cold Chain Management, Amity University Campus, Sector-125, Expressway, Noida Prof. (Dr.) V.SIVASANKAR, Associate Professor, Department Of Chemistry, Thiagarajar College Of Engineering (Autonomous), Madurai 625015, Tamil Nadu, India (Dr.) Ramkrishna Singh Solanki, School of Studies in Statistics, Vikram University, Ujjain, India Prof. (Dr.) M.A.Rabbani, Professor/Computer Applications, School of Computer, Information and Mathematical Sciences, B.S.Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India Prof. (Dr.) P.P.Satya Paul Kumar, Associate Professor, Physical Education & Sports Sciences, University College of Physical Education & Sports, Sciences, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur. Prof. (Dr.) Fazal Shirazi, PostDoctoral Fellow, Infectious Disease, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA Prof. (Dr.) Omprakash Srivastav, Department of Museology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh202 001, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) Mandeep Singh walia, A.P. E.C.E., Panjab University SSG Regional Centre Hoshiarpur, Una Road, V.P.O. Allahabad, Bajwara, Hoshiarpur Prof. (Dr.) Ho Soon Min, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Applied Sciences, INTI International University, Persiaran Perdana BBN, Putra Nilai, 71800 Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia Prof. (Dr.) L.Ganesamoorthy, Assistant Professor in Commerce, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar-608002, Chidambaram, Tamilnadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vuda Sreenivasarao, Professor, School of Computing and Electrical Engineering, Bahir Dar University, Bahirdar,Ethiopia Prof. (Dr.) Umesh Sharma, Professor & HOD Applied Sciences & Humanities, Eshan college of Engineering, Mathura, India. Prof. (Dr.) K. John Singh, School of Information Technology and Engineering, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sita Ram Pal (Asst.Prof.), Dept. of Special Education, Dr.BAOU, Ahmedabad, India.

                                 

Prof. Vishal S.Rana, H.O.D, Department of Business Administration, S.S.B.T'S College of Engineering & Technology, Bambhori,Jalgaon (M.S), India. Prof. (Dr.) Chandrakant Badgaiyan, Department of Mechatronics and Engineering, Chhattisgarh. Dr. (Mrs.) Shubhrata Gupta, Prof. (Electrical), NIT Raipur, India. Prof. (Dr.) Usha Rani. Nelakuditi, Assoc. Prof., ECE Deptt., Vignan’s Engineering College, Vignan University, India. Prof. (Dr.) S. Swathi, Asst. Professor, Department of Information Technology, Vardhaman college of Engineering(Autonomous) , Shamshabad, R.R District, India. Prof. (Dr.) Raja Chakraverty, M Pharm (Pharmacology), BCPSR, Durgapur, West Bengal, India Prof. (Dr.) P. Sanjeevi Kumar, Electrical & Electronics Engineering, National Institute of Technology (NIT-Puducherry), An Institute of National Importance under MHRD (Govt. of India), Karaikal- 609 605, India. Prof. (Dr.) Amitava Ghosh, Professor & Principal, Bengal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, B.R.B. Sarani, Bidhannagar, Durgapur, West Bengal- 713212. Prof. (Dr.) Om Kumar Harsh, Group Director, Amritsar College of Engineering and Technology, Amritsar 143001 (Punjab), India. Prof. (Dr.) Mansoor Maitah, Department of International Relations, Faculty of Economics and Management, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 21 Praha 6 Suchdol, Czech Republic. Prof. (Dr.) Zahid Mahmood, Department of Management Sciences (Graduate Studies), Bahria University, Naval Complex, Sector, E-9, Islamabad, Pakistan. Prof. (Dr.) N. Sandeep, Faculty Division of Fluid Dynamics, VIT University, Vellore-632 014. Mr. Jiban Shrestha, Scientist (Plant Breeding and Genetics), Nepal Agricultural Research Council, National Maize Research Program, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal. Prof. (Dr.) Rakhi Garg, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ramakant Pandey. Dept. of Biochemistry. Patna University Patna (Bihar)-India. Prof. (Dr.) Nalah Augustine Bala, Behavioural Health Unit, Psychology Department, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, P.M.B. 1022 Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Prof. (Dr.) Mehdi Babaei, Department of Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Zanjan, Iran. Prof. (Dr.) A. SENTHIL KUMAR., Professor/EEE, VELAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI Prof. (Dr.) Gudikandhula Narasimha Rao, Dept. of Computer Sc. & Engg., KKR & KSR Inst Of Tech & Sciences, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Dhanesh singh, Department of Chemistry, K.G. Arts & Science College, Raigarh (C.G.) India. Prof. (Dr.) Syed Umar , Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Guntur, A.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Rachna Goswami, Faculty in Bio-Science Department, IIIT Nuzvid (RGUKT), DistrictKrishna , Andhra Pradesh - 521201 Prof. (Dr.) Ahsas Goyal, FSRHCP, Founder & Vice president of Society of Researchers and Health Care Professionals Prof. (Dr.) Gagan Singh, School of Management Studies and Commerce, Department of Commerce, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani-Nainital, Uttarakhand (UK)-263139 (India) Prof. (Dr.) Solomon A. O. Iyekekpolor, Mathematics and Statistics, Federal University, WukariNigeria. Prof. (Dr.) S. Saiganesh, Faculty of Marketing, Dayananda Sagar Business School, Bangalore, India. Dr. K.C.Sivabalan, Field Enumerator and Data Analyst, Asian Vegetable Research Centre, The World Vegetable Centre, Taiwan Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kumar Mishra, Department of Environmntal Science and Energy Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel Prof. (Dr.) Manisha N. Paliwal, Sinhgad Institute of Management, Vadgaon (Bk), Pune, India Prof. (Dr.) M. S. HIREMATH, Principal, K.L.ESOCIETY’S SCHOOL, ATHANI, India Prof. Manoj Dhawan, Department of Information Technology, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Technology & Science, Indore, (M. P.), India Prof. (Dr.) V.R.Naik, Professor & Head of Department, Mechancal Engineering , Textile & Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji (Dist. Kolhapur), Maharashatra, India Prof. (Dr.) Jyotindra C. Prajapati,Head, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa Anand -388421, Gujarat, India Prof. (Dr.) Sarbjit Singh, Head, Department of Industrial & Production Engineering, Dr BR Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab,India

                                

Prof. (Dr.) Professor Braja Gopal Bag, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Vidyasagar University, West Midnapore Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kumar Chandra, Department of Management, Bhilai Institute of Technology, Bhilai House, Durg (C.G.) Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kumar, Assistant Professor, School of Chemistry, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) L. Suresh Kumar, Mechanical Department, Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India. Scientist Sheeraz Saleem Bhat, Lac Production Division, Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums, Namkum, Ranchi, Jharkhand Prof. C.Divya , Centre for Information Technology and Engineering, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli - 627012, Tamilnadu , India Prof. T.D.Subash, Infant Jesus College Of Engineering and Technology, Thoothukudi Tamilnadu, India Prof. (Dr.) Vinay Nassa, Prof. E.C.E Deptt., Dronacharya.Engg. College, Gurgaon India. Prof. Sunny Narayan, university of Roma Tre, Italy. Prof. (Dr.) Sanjoy Deb, Dept. of ECE, BIT Sathy, Sathyamangalam, Tamilnadu-638401, India. Prof. (Dr.) Reena Gupta, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura-India Prof. (Dr.) P.R.SivaSankar, Head Dept. of Commerce, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post Graduate Centre, KAVALI - 524201, A.P., India Prof. (Dr.) Mohsen Shafiei Nikabadi, Faculty of Economics and Management, Industrial Management Department, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran. Prof. (Dr.) Praveen Kumar Rai, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, U.P. India Prof. (Dr.) Christine Jeyaseelan, Dept of Chemistry, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, India Prof. (Dr.) M A Rizvi, Dept. of Computer Engineering and Applications , National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Bhopal M.P. India Prof. (Dr.) K.V.N.R.Sai Krishna, H O D in Computer Science, S.V.R.M.College,(Autonomous), Nagaram, Guntur(DT), Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kr. Dargar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur (Raj.) Prof. (Dr.) Asim Kumar Sen, Principal , ST.Francis Institute of Technology (Engineering College) under University of Mumbai , MT. Poinsur, S.V.P Road, Borivali (W), Mumbai, 400103, India, Prof. (Dr.) Rahmathulla Noufal.E, Civil Engineering Department, Govt.Engg.College-Kozhikode Prof. (Dr.) N.Rajesh, Department of Agronomy, TamilNadu Agricultural University -Coimbatore, TamilNadu, India Prof. (Dr.) Har Mohan Rai, Professor, Electronics and Communication Engineering, N.I.T. Kurukshetra 136131,India Prof. (Dr.) Eng. Sutasn Thipprakmas from King Mongkut, University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand Prof. (Dr.) Kantipudi MVV Prasad, EC Department, RK University, Rajkot. Prof. (Dr.) Jitendra Gupta,Faculty of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura. Prof. (Dr.) Swapnali Borah, HOD, Dept of Family Resource Management, College of Home Science, Central Agricultural University, Tura, Meghalaya, India Prof. (Dr.) N.Nazar Khan, Professor in Chemistry, BTK Institute of Technology, Dwarahat-263653 (Almora), Uttarakhand-India Prof. (Dr.) Rajiv Sharma, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai (TN) - 600 036, India. Prof. (Dr.) Aparna Sarkar, PH.D. Physiology, AIPT, Amity University , F 1 Block, LGF, Sector125,Noida-201303, UP, India. Prof. (Dr.) Manpreet Singh, Professor and Head, Department of Computer Engineering, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Haryana, India. Prof. (Dr.) Sukumar Senthilkumar, Senior Researcher, Advanced Education Center of Jeonbuk for Electronics and Information Technology, Chon Buk National University, Chon Buk, 561-756, SOUTH KOREA. . Prof. (Dr.) Hari Singh Dhillon, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar (Punjab), INDIA. . Prof. (Dr.) Poonkuzhali, G., Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Chennai, INDIA. .

                                 

Prof. (Dr.) Bharath K N, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, GM Institute of Technology, PB Road, Davangere 577006, Karnataka, India. Prof. (Dr.) F.Alipanahi, Assistant Professor, Islamic Azad University, Zanjan Branch, Atemadeyeh, Moalem Street, Zanjan IRAN. Prof. Yogesh Rathore, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RITEE, Raipur, India Prof. (Dr.) Ratneshwer, Department of Computer Science (MMV),Banaras Hindu University Varanasi-221005, India. Prof. Pramod Kumar Pandey, Assistant Professor, Department Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering, ITM University, Gwalior, M.P., India. Prof. (Dr.)Sudarson Jena, Associate Professor, Dept.of IT, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India Prof. (Dr.) Binod Kumar, PhD(CS), M.Phil(CS), MIEEE,MIAENG, Dean & Professor( MCA), Jayawant Technical Campus(JSPM's), Pune, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohan Singh Mehata, (JSPS fellow), Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Physics, Delhi Technological University, Delhi Prof. Ajay Kumar Agarwal, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Mech. Engg., Royal Institute of Management & Technology, Sonipat (Haryana), India. Prof. (Dr.) Siddharth Sharma, University School of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Satish Chandra Dixit, Department of Chemistry, D.B.S.College, Govind Nagar,Kanpur208006, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ajay Solkhe, Department of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Neeraj Sharma, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Chemistry, GLA University, Mathura, India. Prof. (Dr.) Basant Lal, Department of Chemistry, G.L.A. University, Mathura, India. Prof. (Dr.) T Venkat Narayana Rao, C.S.E, Guru Nanak Engineering College, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) Rajanarender Reddy Pingili, S.R. International Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. Prof. (Dr.) V.S.Vairale, Department of Computer Engineering, All India Shri Shivaji Memorial Society College of Engineering, Kennedy Road, Pune-411 001, Maharashtra, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vasavi Bande, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Netaji Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Hardeep Anand, Department of Chemistry, Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra, Haryana, India. Prof. Aasheesh shukla, Asst Professor, Dept. of EC, GLA University, Mathura, India. Prof. S.P.Anandaraj., CSE Dept, SREC, Warangal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Chitranjan Agrawal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur- 313001, Rajasthan, India. Prof. (Dr.) Rangnath Aher, Principal, New Arts, Commerce and Science College, Parner, DistAhmednagar, M.S. India. Prof. (Dr.) Chandan Kumar Panda, Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Tripura, Lembucherra-799210 Prof. (Dr.) Latika Kharb, IP Faculty (MCA Deptt), Jagan Institute of Management Studies (JIMS), Sector-5, Rohini, Delhi, India. Raj Mohan Raja Muthiah, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts. Prof. (Dr.) Chhanda Chatterjee, Dept of Philosophy, Balurghat College, West Bengal, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mihir Kumar Shome , H.O.D of Mathematics, Management and Humanities, National Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Muthukumar .Subramanyam, Registrar (I/C), Faculty, Computer Science and Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Puducherry, India. Prof. (Dr.) Vinay Saxena, Department of Mathematics, Kisan Postgraduate College, Bahraich â€“ 271801 UP, India. Satya Rishi Takyar, Senior ISO Consultant, New Delhi, India. Prof. Anuj K. Gupta, Head, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RIMT Group of Institutions, Mandi Gobindgarh (PB) Prof. (Dr.) Harish Kumar, Department of Sports Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India. Prof. (Dr.) Mohammed Ali Hussain, Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India.

                                           

Prof. (Dr.) Manish Gupta, Department of Mechanical Engineering, GJU, Haryana, India. Prof. Mridul Chawla, Department of Elect. and Comm. Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India. Prof. Seema Chawla, Department of Bio-medical Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India. Prof. (Dr.) Atul M. Gosai, Department of Computer Science, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India. Prof. (Dr.) Ajit Kr. Bansal, Department of Management, Shoolini University, H.P., India. Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Vasistha, Mody Institute of Tecnology and Science, Sikar, Rajasthan, India. Prof. Vivekta Singh, GNIT Girls Institute of Technology, Greater Noida, India. Prof. Ajay Loura, Assistant Professor at Thapar University, Patiala, India. Prof. Sushil Sharma, Department of Computer Science and Applications, Govt. P. G. College, Ambala Cantt., Haryana, India. Prof. Sube Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Narnaul, Haryana, India. Prof. Himanshu Arora, Delhi Institute of Technology and Management, New Delhi, India. Dr. Sabina Amporful, Bibb Family Practice Association, Macon, Georgia, USA. Dr. Pawan K. Monga, Jindal Institute of Medical Sciences, Hisar, Haryana, India. Dr. Sam Ampoful, Bibb Family Practice Association, Macon, Georgia, USA. Dr. Nagender Sangra, Director of Sangra Technologies, Chandigarh, India. Vipin Gujral, CPA, New Jersey, USA. Sarfo Baffour, University of Ghana, Ghana. Monique Vincon, Hype Softwaretechnik GmbH, Bonn, Germany. Natasha Sigmund, Atlanta, USA. Marta Trochimowicz, Rhein-Zeitung, Koblenz, Germany. Kamalesh Desai, Atlanta, USA. Vijay Attri, Software Developer Google, San Jose, California, USA. Neeraj Khillan, Wipro Technologies, Boston, USA. Ruchir Sachdeva, Software Engineer at Infosys, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Anadi Charan, Senior Software Consultant at Capgemini, Mumbai, Maharashtra. Pawan Monga, Senior Product Manager, LG Electronics India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India. Sunil Kumar, Senior Information Developer, Honeywell Technology Solutions, Inc., Bangalore, India. Bharat Gambhir, Technical Architect, Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Noida, India. Vinay Chopra, Team Leader, Access Infotech Pvt Ltd. Chandigarh, India. Sumit Sharma, Team Lead, American Express, New Delhi, India. Vivek Gautam, Senior Software Engineer, Wipro, Noida, India. Anirudh Trehan, Nagarro Software Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Manjot Singh, Senior Software Engineer, HCL Technologies Delhi, India. Rajat Adlakha, Senior Software Engineer, Tech Mahindra Ltd, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. Mohit Bhayana, Senior Software Engineer, Nagarro Software Pvt. Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Dheeraj Sardana, Tech. Head, Nagarro Software, Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Naresh Setia, Senior Software Engineer, Infogain, Noida, India. Raj Agarwal Megh, Idhasoft Limited, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Shrikant Bhardwaj, Senior Software Engineer, Mphasis an HP Company, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Vikas Chawla, Technical Lead, Xavient Software Solutions, Noida, India. Kapoor Singh, Sr. Executive at IBM, Gurgaon, Haryana, India. Ashwani Rohilla, Senior SAP Consultant at TCS, Mumbai, India. Anuj Chhabra, Sr. Software Engineer, McKinsey & Company, Faridabad, Haryana, India. Jaspreet Singh, Business Analyst at HCL Technologies, Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

TOPICS OF INTEREST Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:  Biotechnology  Cognitive neurosciences  Physics  Information coding and theory  Chemistry  Biology , Botany & Zoology  Logic & Systems  Earth science  Computer science  Applied and pure Mathematics  Decision Theory  Statistics  Medicine  Algorithms, and formal semantics  Anatomy  Biomedical sciences  Biochemistry  Bioinformatics  Ecology  Ethology  Food science  Genetics  Health sciences  Pharmacology  Geology  Surface sciences  Astronomy  Geophysics  Oceanography  Space sciences  Criminology  Aerospace  Agricultural  Chemical  Textile  Industrial, Mechanical  Military science  Operations research  Healthcare sciences  Dental sciences  Pharmaceutical sciences  Biostatistics  Computational linguistics  Cybernetics  Forestry  Scientific modeling  Network sciences  Horticulture & Husbandry  Agricultural & Veterinary sciences  Neural and fuzzy systems  Robotics and Automation  Materials sciences

TABLE OF CONTENTS American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied and Natural Sciences (AIJRFANS) ISSN (Print): 2328-3777, ISSN(Online): 2328-3785, ISSN(CD-ROM): 2328-3793

(December 2014 to February 2015, Issue 9, Volume 1) Issue 9, Volume 1 Paper Code

Paper Title

Page No.

AIJRFANS 15-108

Fate of mitosporic soil fungi in cold deserts: A review Skarma Nonzom and Geeta Sumbali

01-09

AIJRFANS 15-109

Growth and characterization of the ZnSe thin films grown on different substrates by electrodeposition Shail Sharma and P. Rajaram

10-13

AIJRFANS 15-114

Medicinal plants, a gold mine of anticancer compounds Asmita Das and Jaspreet Kaur Dhanjal

14-23

AIJRFANS 15-119

Popularization of small millets based food products in Bastar region of Chhattisgarh S. K. Nag, A. Pradhan, S.Patel, N.K.Mishra, S.C.Mukherjee and Rahul Sahu

24-25

AIJRFANS 15-123

Potentiometric study of binary complexes of transition metal ions with β-diketone ligands Dr. S. R. Vaidya, Dr. M. R. Bagal, Dr. V. A. Shelke, Dr. S. M. Jadhav, Dr. T. K. Chondhekar

26-29

AIJRFANS 15-124

To Study the suitable period of wedge grafting in guava under different condition of Chitrakoot Region Mahendra Jadia, Yogesh Sahu, S.S. Singh and S.P. Mishra

30-32

AIJRFANS 15-128

Performance of Front Line Demonstrations on Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) in Ambala District, Haryana, India Rupesh Kumar Arora

33-35

AIJRFANS 15-129

Productivity and Economic of aerobic rice and soil bulk density under conservation tillage Seema, D.K. Singh, P.C. Pandey

36-40

AIJRFANS 15-136

Fructooligosacharide Intake- A Potential Means to Reduce Undernutrition in Children Sheth Mini, Parnami Swati, Gupta Neha and Mandali Janki

41-45

AIJRFANS 15-138

Preparation of Undoped and Sb Doped Tin Oxide Films by Spray Pyrolysis for Gas Sensing Studies Archana Gupta, M.C. Bhatnagar, P. Rajaram

46-50

AIJRFANS 15-139

Quantitative Analysis of Serum Level Alanine and Aspartate Aminotransferases, ΓGlutamyl Transferase and Alkaline Phospatase as Predictor of Liver Diseases Debasish Sahoo, M. Rukmini, Ravitosh Ray

51-55

AIJRFANS 15-143

Study the Effect of Thermally stimulated discharge current on polar Polysulfone and Multiwall Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite Singh Rekha and Tiwari R. K.

56-59

AIJRFANS 15-148

Physical Development of School Children and Some Personal Social Variable Dr. Anisa M. Durrani

60-63

AIJRFANS 15-153

IRON FORTIFICATION OF GREEN GRAM DHAL FLOUR AND ITS INVITRO BIOAVAILABILITY AS A PREVENTIVE MEASURE OF ANAEMIA Tania Biswas, Dr. Binata Nayak

64-66

AIJRFANS 15-154

Sun-climate connection: an overview S.C. Dubey, D.S. Raghuvansi, D.S. Chauhan and S.K. Pandey

66-68

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3777, ISSN (Online): 2328-3785, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3793 AIJRFANS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Fate of mitosporic soil fungi in cold deserts: A review 1,2

Skarma Nonzom1 and Geeta Sumbali2 Department of Botany, University of Jammu, B.R. Ambedkar Road, Jammu-180006 (J&K), INDIA.

Abstract: Deserts are apparently lifeless. Yet, they may consist of numerous minute and microscopic habitats and microenvironments that are inhabited by many microorganisms. These may adopt different lifestyles, for example saprotrophs, symbionts or parasites. Some species are cosmopolitan with a wide distribution, while others due to their ecological plasticity may adapt to harsh environments precluded to most of life forms. Since stress allows only the tolerant forms to grow, the microorganisms not only dominate such habitat but also grow sufficiently to impart special visible features to the habitat. In stressing conditions, their role is even more crucial for the recycling of organic matter and uptake of nutrients. When the conditions become extreme and competition is low, fungi focus on extremotolerance and evolve peculiar competences to exploit natural or xenobiotic resources in the particular constrains imposed by the environment. The study of fungi in the natural extreme environments may be of valuable biotechnological potential for the production of extremozymes, specific metabolites and for their exploitation in bioremediation programmes. Key words: mitosporic soil fungi, cold desert, adaptations, importance I. Introduction Mitosporic fungi represent more than half of the Ascomycota and are very important as parasites and saprophytes. This group of fungi produce their spores asexually (conidia or oidia) or by budding and generally fall in two groups: species that lack the morphology of sex altogether and make only mitospores or no spores at all, and those that can make sexual structures with meiospores, but only rarely. In nature, both groups are usually encountered only in their mitosporic states. They are commonly known as imperfect fungi (Deuteromycetes) because they do not fit into the commonly established taxonomic classifications of fungi that are based on biological species concepts or morphological characteristics of sexual structures. The Deuteromycota (Greek for "second fungi") was once considered as a formal phylum of the Kingdom Fungi. However, now it is used informally to denote species of fungi that are asexually reproducing members of the fungal Phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Initially, these organisms were segregated in the Fungi Imperfecti or Deuteromycota and generally assumed to be clonal with very widespread distribution. In the last decade, analysis of nucleic acid has shown that mitosporic fungi can be classified with their meiosporic relatives and can recombine in nature and show genetic differentiation and isolation as do meiosporic fungi. There are about 25,000 species that have been classified in the Deuteromycota and many of them are Basidiomycota or Ascomycota anamorphs. Mitosporic fungi are generally easily dispersed and are able to colonize a wide variety of substrates and can withstand many different environmental conditions. They are particularly skilled in colonizing as they persist in novel environments, use novel resources and form novel associations, taking advantage of the suites of traits that they carry at the time of encountering new conditions. This process known as ecological fitting works very well with fungi due to their ecological, biological and morphological plasticity [1]. Fungi have many different functions in soils, which include both active roles, such as, degradation of dead plant material, and inactive roles where propagules are present in the soil as resting states. Fungi also play an important role in biogeochemical cycling of the elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, etc.), which is interlinked with their ability to adopt a variety of growth, metabolic and morphological strategies, their adaptive capabilities to environmental extremes and their mutualistic associations with animals, plants, algae and cyanobacteria [2]. The saprobic fungi represent the largest proportion of fungal species in soil and they perform a crucial role in the decomposition of plant structural polymers, such as, cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin, thus contributing to the maintenance of global carbon cycle [3]. Fungi are also major biodeteriorating agents of stone, wood, plaster, cement and other building materials, and it is now realized that they are important components of rockinhabiting microbial communities with significant roles in mineral dissolution and secondary mineral formation [2]. In semidesert and desert environments, where primary production is greatly reduced, soil microorganisms experience not only physical stress, but also the harsh oligotrophic conditions. However, it is known that fungi are not only able to survive but are also able to propagate in various environmental extremes [4].

Page 1

Skarma Nonzom et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 01-09

II. Exploration of extreme environments by fungi Most of the fungi exhibit a filamentous growth habit, which provides the ability to adopt both explorative and exploitative growth strategies and the formation of linear organs of aggregated hyphae for protected fungal translocation [2]. Some fungi are polymorphic, occurring as both filamentous mycelium and yeast-like cells, as in black meristematic or microcolonial fungi colonizing rocks [5-6]. Fungi can also grow inside their own parental hyphae, utilizing dead parts of the colony under the protection of parental cell walls [6]. This unique ability of fungi to translocate nutrients through the mycelial network is an important feature for exploring extreme environments [7-8]. Fungi may thrive in unusual environments, which range from extremely dry and cold deserts in the Antarctic and other very cold areas worldwide [9], highest mountain peaks [10] to deep permafrost soils [11-12], geothermal and humid soils in volcanic areas [13], acid mine drainages with sulphuric acid [10-14] or in the highly alkaline sites [15]. An extreme environment is defined as “one that differs considerably from the range of culture conditions that we believe is normal, either in natural settings or in the laboratory” [16]. Instead of calling these environments extreme, they preferred to call them “stressful” where certain abiotic factor(s) imposed a condition that restricts or prevents growth of most organisms. Environments with extreme physicochemical parameters were thought of as being hostile until microbiologists discovered that they are actually inhabited by a wide diversity of microorganisms [17]. Organisms that survive and thrive under conditions that are detrimental to the majority of other species have become a focus of increasing scientific attention over the last few years, with some ground breaking discoveries of stress tolerating mechanisms [17]. Extremophiles are promising models to further strengthen our understanding of the functional evolution of stress adaptation. Their biology widens our views on the diversity of terrestrial life and it has come as a surprise that not only prokaryotes but also eukaryotes have a great capacity to adapt to extreme conditions [17]. III. Mitosporic fungi from cold deserts Ice in nature has long been considered as only enclosing those microorganisms, which have been randomly deposited on its surface [18]. However, it is now known that different types of ice such as snow, glacial ice and sea ice provide environments that can support active microbial growth and reproduction [19-22]. In particular, several fungal species have been isolated in considerable numbers from subglacial ice of polythermal glaciers [4]. In cold deserts, for example, in the dry valleys of Antarctica, fungi are widely distributed in the soil but with low abundance [23]. Endemic fungi have been found associated with wood of historic expedition huts on Ross Island [24]. Similarly, in the dry polar desert soils, only yeasts have been found as endemic species [25]. In these extreme and isolated areas, endemic species showing physiological and morphological adaptations have locally evolved. It has been observed that 0oC is not in itself an extreme condition and that cold environments may be considered extreme only if another factor creates adverse conditions, for example, low water activity in arid Antarctic soil, low nutrient availability and high pressure in the deep sea [26]. Low temperature is the major stress factor that exerts a strong direct and indirect effect on microbial life processes by inducing different adaptation strategies and the establishment of psychrotrophic and psychrophilic forms. A psychrophile is defined as an organism capable of growth at or below 0°C but unable to grow above 20°C, whereas a psychrotolerant (also termed psychrotrophic) organism is capable of growth at around 0°C and can also grow above 20°C [27]. Under low temperature environments, the importance and distinction between psychrophiles and psychrotrophs or psychrotolerants have also been recognized [28]. Psychrotolerant microbes are important in high-altitude agroecosystems since they survive and retain their functionality at low temperature conditions, while growing optimally at warmer temperatures [29]. Low temperature creates other stress conditions, for example, water is biologically unavailable when frozen. It is also assumed that due to prevailing low nutrient conditions, fungi live in soil as dormant propagules that become active when fresh organic matter enters the ecosystem. Extremely low temperatures not only restrict microbial enzyme activity and membrane integrity [30-31], but also constrain the availability of liquid water for the hydration of biomolecules and as a medium for biochemical processes [32]. True psychrophillic microorganisms are restricted to permanently cold habitats, such as oceans, polar areas, alpine soils and lakes, snow and ice fields and caves as they have optimum temperatures of 16oC and a maximum growth temperature of 20oC, but they can also grow at 0oC. Psychrotolerant microorganisms, in contrast, have maximum growth temperatures above 20 oC, although they can grow at 10oC. Well known psychrophilic and psychrotolerant fungi are found in genera such as Alternaria, Cladosporium, Keratinomyces, Leptomitus, Penicillium, etc [26]. In polar regions, the occurrence of fungi is coupled to water availability, just like that in the warm desert ecosystems. Yeasts tend to predominate in the undisturbed areas of dry interior valleys of Antarctica. Cryptococcus albidus is one of the most prevalent psychrophillic species [33]. However, as research activity has increased at the poles, some previously unknown fungi have been detected. For example, Cameron [33] listed two species of Phycomycetes; two species of Ascomycetes; 27 species of mitosporic Ascomycetes, of which Chrysosporium, Penicillium and Phialophora represented the majority of the taxa. In addition, they also found 10 species of yeasts from the Antarctic soils. Species diversity of fungi isolated from

Page 2

Skarma Nonzom et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 01-09

dry Arctic soils was similar to that from dry regions of Antarctica [34]. Onofri [35] reported that in Antarctica, 0.6% of the known fungal species were water molds (Kingdom Chromista) and 99.4% were composed of true fungi including yeasts (unicellular organisms) and filamentous fungi from the Phyla Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. A key study that included Dry Valley sites revealed that some locations (e.g., Mt Fleming and Allan Hills) supported cultivable free living soil fungi including Cryptococcus antarcticus, C. friedmannii, C. vishniacii and Candida parapsilosis [36]. Most of the fungi recorded in the Antarctic continent are anamorphic forms. This may be attributed to the fact that the fungi gave up sexual reproduction as this simplification means that life cycles can be concluded in a shorter time and without metabolic costs. There is evidence that as temperature falls, the changing strengths of different types of molecular interactions can cause proteins to denature [37] and even the enzymes that remain properly folded, may slow or halt the release of reaction products [38-39]. Many microbes exhibit optimization of turnover rate relative to substrate binding and increased thermolability, such as, lower denaturing temperatures [39]. There is also evidence that different extracellular enzymes with lower thermal maxima are expressed when fungal cells are chilled [40-41] and that membrane composition is altered at low temperature [42-44]. However, the physiological and ecological mechanisms in cold-tolerant fungi that permit low temperature growth are still not fully understood [30-46]. IV. Mitosporic fungi from cold desert soils of India The cold desert area in India covers 12 out of 131 desert blocks in India and is spreaded over an approximate area of 74, 809 sq. kms. This includes regions of Leh and Kargil districts of Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir and Lahaul and Spiti along with some parts of Chamba and Kinnaur districts of Himachal Pradesh. Only few studies have been conducted on the soil mycoflora in the cold deserts in India. Sagar [48] isolated 45 species of fungi from the rhizosphere of various plants of the cold desert areas of Himachal Pradesh. Also, Deshmukh [49] and Kotwal [50] isolated keratinophillic from selected soils of Ladakh. Recently, Nonzom [51] isolated 32 mitosporic fungi from the cold arid base soil of Moonland landscape, Ladakh. It must be emphasized that it is impossible to accomplish an exhaustive survey of the soil mycoflora. Due to different growth rates, it is very difficult to recover some of the fungal species. It is well known that the dilution plate method, which is widely used in soil mycological investigations, favours isolation of heavily sporulating fungi [52]. But in the highly stressful habitats, some fungi lose their dominant position, and the contribution of slower-reproducing but stress-selected micromycetes (such as most of melanin-containing species) in the community structure becomes much more significant. V. Role of melanins in the survival of fungi inhabiting extreme environment Sometimes single strategies are not specific for single stress factors but may allow the microorganisms to cope with more than one unfavourable condition. Many fungi constitutively synthesize melanin [53], which is likely to confer a survival advantage in the environment [54] by protecting against UV and solar radiation [55]. In fungi, melanin is an important protective factor against the adverse effects of environmental stresses, such as UV radiation, drying, high concentrations of salts, heavy metals, and radionuclides. The presence of melanin allows fungi to exist under the influence of high electromagnetic radiation, for example, in high mountain regions, desert soils, and on plant surfaces. Recently, the dominance of melanised fungi such as Ulocladium, Alternaria, Cladosporium, Drechslera, Humicola was observed in the cold deserts of moonland landscape, Ladakh [51]. Under extreme conditions, the proportion of melanized fungi in mycobiota usually increases, for example, in ecotopes contaminated with radionuclides [56-59]. It has been shown experimentally those dark colored spores of many fungi are resistant to UV irradiation [60-61]. The presence of melanin pigments ensures a high survival rate during high levels of UV radiation, while non-pigmented forms die within a few minutes. Melanised fungi also exhibit improved resistance to high concentrations of salts. Hortaea werneckii, Phaeotheca triangularis, Trimmatostroma salinum, Aureobasidium pullulans, and Cladosporium species live in salterns and are able to tolerate high (close to saturation) salt concentrations [62]. For some types of these fungi (Hortaea werneckii, Phaeotheca triangularis and Trimmatostroma salinum), hypertonic sodium chloride solutions are their natural environment [63]. Further, it has been suggested that the presence of melanin in the cell wall of H. werneckii reduces the flow of salt into the cell [63]. The presence of melanin also ensures the survival of microscopic fungi under the conditions of technogenic pollution. In industrial and roadside areas, an increase in the proportion of dark colored melanin containing fungi, which were more resistant to contamination in urban areas by heavy metals and unsaturated hydrocarbons, was observed [64-65]. Similarly, in the air and snow samples of urban areas, representatives of the genera Cladosporium and Alternaria were dominant [66]. Radionuclide contamination led to a change in fungal communities, an increased proportion of melanised fungi, and a reduced diversity of species [58-67]. Most common in contaminated zones were the species of Cladosporium, Ulocladium, Stachybotris and Humicola. Some of the widely available species included Cladosporium sphaerospermum, C. herbarum, C.

Page 3

Skarma Nonzom et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 01-09

cladosporioides, Alternaria alternata, and Aureobasidium pullulans [58-68]. Melanized fungi (mainly Cladosporium spp., A. alternata, A. pululans, and Hormoconis resinae) have been found even in environs of destroyed reactor in Chernobyl [68]. The distribution of melanized fungi in areas with high levels of radiation undoubtedly reflects their advantage over light colored fungal species. However, a majority of the basic mechanisms of radiation resistance of living organisms are not currently established [69]. There are three main types of melanins: eumelanins (black and dark colored polymers), pheomelanins (yellow and red polymers), and the most heterogeneous group of allomelanins, including soluble piomelanins [70]. In fungi, there are melanins of all three types [70-71]. Despite the difference in their origins, melanin pigments have a number of common characteristics that allow them to fulfill their protective function. Melanins are chemically stable compounds that are not soluble in water and organic solvents. They can form a solution in an alkaline medium and are discolored in the presence of strong oxidants. The presence of quinoid groups explains the presence of paramagnetic centers and the ability of melanin pigments to deactivate free radicals and peroxides and absorb heavy metals and toxic electrophilic metabolites. These pigments exhibit strong antioxidant properties [72-74]. Melanin containing cells are more resistant to H2O2 and NO [75]. The gene expression of melanin synthesis enzymes increases the resistance of fungi to oxidants [76]. A hypothesis that melanins trap free radicals formed during the radiolysis of water by radiation was suggested for the mechanism of radioprotective action [77-78]. It was also assumed that melanin pigments participating in redox reactions are able to perceive the energy of radiation (UV, visible light, and radiation) and make it available for metabolic processes [58, 79-80]. Probably, this explains the activation of metabolic processes and the growth of fungal hyphae under the influence of different types of radiation, found in melanin containing fungi [79, 81]. It was also shown that irradiating melanin caused its oxidation, which was more expressed in the presence of reducing agents, such as ascorbate [82]. This confirms the possibility of participation of melanin inactive electron transfer in living cells and the existence of a hypothetical mechanism of transfer of radiation energy for the maintenance of metabolic processes. Further research in this area can provide a better understanding of the nature of the radio and UV protective effect of melanin. Melanized microorganisms inhabit some remarkably extreme environments including high altitude, Arctic and Antarctic regions with the latter habitats being characterized by the naturally occurring higher radiation levels than those at lower altitudes [83]. First reports on black fungi with aggregated micro-colonies in cold deserts of Antarctica were published by Friedmann [84] and Friedmann [85]. Black fungi share a number of universally present characters such as strong melanization, thick and multi-layered cell walls and production of exopolysaccharides, which result in an extraordinary ability to tolerate chemical and physical stress [86]. It is likely that such strategies allow fungi of both cold and hot deserts to withstand strong shifting in environmental conditions [87]. According to Ma [88], black fungi have a worldwide distribution especially in places where environmental conditions are extreme due to extreme temperature, low nutrient availability, high radiation and lack of water. Rocks inhabiting black fungi together with some lichens are today assumed to be the most stress resistant eukaryotic organisms known on the Earth [89]. Experiments have shown that their stress resistance against solar radiation, radioactivity, desiccation and oligotrophic conditions even allows them to survive in space [90]. For this reason, black fungi are now model organisms for Astrobiology [90]. The most extensive work on diversity and taxonomy of microcolonial fungi from the Antarctic environment was done by Onofri [91] and Selbmann [9] who isolated and described black fungal species from the Antarctic desert. Melanin is more prevalent in aerial fungi living on the leaves and rocks [92-93]. Infact, melanins produced by Cladosporium and Oidiodendron species protect against UV and gamma radiation [94] and also against artificial solar irradiation [95]. Similarly, Ursi [93] noted preponderance of black fungi on and within rocks sampled in Europe and proposed that this was because of the protective effects of melanin against UV, sunlight and desiccation. Melanin is also known to protect certain fungi against lysis in natural soils. For example, cell wall melanin of the conidia of Cochliobolus sativus is known to protect them against lysis in natural soils and by lytic enzyme preparations [96]. There are also some reports, which indicate that microbial melanin protects against extremes of temperature [97-98]. VI. Soil factors affecting mitosporic fungi inhabiting cold deserts The number and kind of microorganisms present in the soil depend on many environmental factors, such as, amount and type of available nutrients, available moisture, degree of aeration, pH, temperature, etc. Microorganisms respond to nitrogen [99-100], organic matter [101-102] and soil moisture [100-103]. Their abundance in soil varies spatially as well as temporally, and this pattern is related to temporal and spatial variations in the quantity and quality of nutrients [100, 104]. Among the various nutrients, organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are very important for fungi. In the absence of any one of these, the growth and sporulation of fungi and other microorganisms gets hampered. Magnesium, manganese and iron though needed in very small quantities, are also essential [05]. The availability of other micro nutrients such as, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn in 1â&#x20AC;&#x201C;25 ppm concentration is also essential [106]. In addition, soil temperature, pH and moisture are some of the major factors affecting fungal population and diversity [107]. Onofri [108] observed a

Page 4

Skarma Nonzom et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 01-09

strong influence of the amount of carbon source on the growth and antibiotic activity of fungi in Antarctic rocks and soil. Fernandez [109] showed temperature and moisture to be the dominant abiotic controls of soil respiration in the cold desert of southeastern Utah. In a recent study, Nonzom [110] observed that the soil physico-chemical properties such as electrical conductivity, texture, pH, also affect the soil mitosporic diversity in the cold desert of Ladakh. In addition, they also observed the influence of macronutrients such as nitrogen, carbon, organic matter, etc and micronutrients such as iron, zinc, manganese and copper on the diversity and distribution of mitosporic fungi [110]. VII. Importance of mitosporic fungi inhabiting extreme cold environments The beneficial effects of soil microorganisms are manifold and range from nitrogen fixation and organic matter decomposition to breakdown of metabolic byproducts and agrochemicals enhancing the bioavailability of nitrates, sulphates, phosphates and essential metals [111]. Fungi, together with bacteria, are responsible for most of the recycling, which returns dead material to the soil in a form in which it can be reused. Fungi are considered general manager in nutrient recycling department of nature without which the recycling activities would be seriously reduced. The fungal populations are correlated with the nitrogen levels and moisture of the soil [112]. Fungi have 40–55% carbon use efficiency so they store and recycle more carbon (C) compared to bacteria and help recycle both nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) to plants. Due to their smaller size and much greater surface area, fungi can efficiently scavenge for N and P better than plant root hairs and greatly increase the plant root nutrient extraction efficiency. Fungi perform enormous functions in various fields including ecological, pharmaceutical, industrial, agricultural, food and beverage industries, biocontrol, bioremediation, etc. Apart from their disease causing nature [113], soil fungi have many beneficial effects including their role in the industrial area [114-116]. Fungi perform important services related to water dynamics, nutrient cycling and disease suppression. Along with bacteria, fungi are important as decomposers (Nature’s recyclers) in the soil food web, converting hard to digest organic material into usable forms. As decomposers, they play most important role in our economy because fertility of soil greatly depends on microbial activity. Fungi, particularly mitosporic fungi, are important producers of biologically active molecules, including cyclosporin A, the immune-suppressant drug used in organ transplant operations, lavastatin the cholesterolreducing substance and a group of antibiotics, which include cephalosporin, griseofulvin, sordarin, fusidic acid, etc., that possess several antibacterial and antifungal activities. Fungi serve as the source of commercially important enzymes and natural products ranging from abscisic acid to zymosterol that result in a billion dollar industry [117-118]. Therefore, fungal fementation processes for a variety of enzymes such as protease, pectinase, cellulase, lipolase, amylase, etc., have been standardized on a large scale and several commercial scale plants established for their manufacture. They are increasingly used to ferment solid organic waste substrates into usable products such a methane and fertilizers [119] and are invaluable as substitutes for chemicals in the pulp and paper industry [120]. Fungal species screened for secondary metabolites using modern techniques are less than 1% of those that may exist [121]. Thus, the potential is enormous for the discovery of valuable natural products resulting from a directed search and screening of fungi from unexplored habitats. VIII. Conclusion These findings provide important insights that aid our understanding of the diversity and distribution of mitospoic fungi in natural ecosystems and their adaptations in these extreme habitats. Information on fungal diversity and functions in extreme habitats might provide scope for bioprospecting of new source of drugs and other industrially important biomolecules and enzymes. Due to their enormous stress tolerance, desert fungi could also be a promising source for new biotechnological and medical adaptations, as for example protective agents against oxidative stress. Despite the severe conditions of cold deserts, the overall portrait shows a relatively rich mycoflora, more diversified than one might expect. They show a range of morphological and physiological adaptations, similar to those adopted by other taxa from different extreme environments. One such adaptation of considerable importance is melanisation, which confers significant survival advantage in such hostile environments. It is probable that these fungi have been possibly selected among a highly diversified mycoflora, originally present in such environments. These positively selected microfungi appear as the predominant group in these environments because they are benefited by their extremotolerance ability and the absence of faster growing competitors. Acknowledgements The first author is grateful to University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi for the financial assistance in the form of Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship (RGNF), which facilitated the study. References [1]. [2].

Agosta SJ and Klemens JA (2008). Ecological fitting by phenotypically flexible genotypes: Implications for species associations, community assembly and evolution. Ecological Letters, 11: 1123–1134. Fomina M, Burford EP and Gadd GM (2005). Toxic metals and fungal communities. In: “The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem.” (Eds: Dighton J, White JF and Oudemans P), CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 733–758.

Page 5

Skarma Nonzom et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 01-09 [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [15]. [16]. [17]. [18]. [19]. [20]. [21]. [22]. [23]. [24]. [25]. [26]. [27]. [28]. [29]. [30]. [31]. [32]. [33].

[34]. [35]. [36]. [37]. [38]. [39]. [40]. [41]. [42].

Saravanakumar K and Kaviyarasan K (2010). Seasonal distribution of soil fungi and chemical properties of Montane wet temperate forest types of Tamil Nadu. African Journal of Plant Science, 4: 190-196. Gunde-Cimerman N, Sonjak S, Zalar P, Frisvad JC, Diderichsen B and Plemenitas A (2003). Extremophilic fungi in Arctic ice: a relationship between adaptation to low temperature and water activity. Physics and Chemistry of Earth, 28: 1273-1278. Sterflinger K (2000). Fungi as geologic agents. Geomicrobiology Journal, 17: 97-124. Gorbushina AA, Whitehead K, Dornieden T, Niesse A, Schulte A and Hedges JI (2003). Black fungal colonies as units of survival: hyphal mycosporines synthesized by rock-dwelling microcolonial fungi. Canadian Journal of Botany, 81: 131–138. Boswell GP, Jacobs H, Davidson FA, Gadd GM and Ritz K (2003). Growth and function of fungal mycelia in heterogeneous environments. Bulletin of Mathematical Biology, 65: 447–477. Jacobs H, Boswell GP, Scrimgeour CM, Davidson FA, Gadd GM and Ritz K (2004). Translocation of carbon by Rhizoctonia solani in nutritionally-heterogeneous environments. Mycological Research, 108: 453–462. Selbmann L, de Hoog GS, Mazzaglia A, Friedmann EI and Onofri S (2005). Fungi at the edge of life: Cryptoendolithic black fungi from Antarctic deserts. Studies in Mycology, 51: 1-32. Selbmann L, de Hoog GS, Zucconi L, Isola D, Ruisi S and Gerrits van den Ende AHG (2008). Drought meets acid: Three new genera in a dothidealean clade of extremotolerant fungi. Studies in Mycology, 61: 1–20. Gilichinsky DA, Wilson GS, Friedmann EI, Mckay CP, Sletten RS and Rivkina EM (2007). Microbial populations in Antarctic permafrost: Biodiversity, state, age, and implication for astrobiology. Astrobiology, 7: 275–311. Zucconi L, Selbmann L, Buzzini P, Turchetti B, Guglielmin M and Frisvad JC (2011). Searching for eukaryotic life preserved in Antarctic permafrost. Polar Biology, 5: 749-757. Appoloni S, Lekberg Y, Tercek MT, Zabinski CA and Redecker D (2008). Molecular community analysis of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in roots of geothermal soils in Yellowstone National Park (USA). Microbial Ecology, 56: 649–659. Baker BJ, Lutz MA, Dawson SC, Bond PL and Banfield JF (2004). Metabolically active eukaryotic communities in extremely acidic mine drainage. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70: 6264–6271. Nagai K, Suzuki K and Okada G (1998). Studies on the distribution of alkalophilic and alkali-tolerant soil fungi II: Fungal flora in two limestone caves in Japan. Mycoscience, 39: 293–298. Zak JC and Wildman HG (2004). Fungi in stressful environments. In: “Biodiversity of fungi: inventory and monitoring methods.” (Eds: Mueller GM, Bills GF and Foster MS), New York: Elsevier Academic Press, pp. 303–315. Gostincar C, Grube M, De Hoog S, Zalar P, Gunde-Cimerman N (2009). Extremotolerance in fungi: Evolution on the edge. Fems microbiology ecology, 71 (2-11). Ma LJ, Rogers SO, Catranis CM and Starmer WT (2000). Detection and characterization of ancient fungi entrapped in glacial ice. Mycologia, 92: 286–295. Christner BC, Mosley-Thompson E, Thompson LG, Zagorodnov V, Sandman K and Reeve JN (2000). Recovery and identification of viable bacteria immured in glacial ice. Icarus, 144: 479–485. Price PB and Sowers T (2004). Temperature dependence of metabolic rates for microbial growth, maintenance, and survival. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 101: 4631–4636. Rohde RA and Price PB (2007). Diffusion-controlled metabolism for long-term survival of single isolated microorganisms trapped within ice crystals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 104: 16592–16597. Price PB (2009). Microbial genesis, life and death in glacial ice. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 55: 1–11. Vishniac HS (1996). Biodiversity of yeasts and filamentous microfungi in terrestrial Antarctic ecosystems. Biodiversity and Conservation, 5: 1365–1378. Blanchette RA, Held BW, Jurgens JA, Mcnew DL, Harrington TC, Duncan SM and Farrell RL (2004). Wood-destroying soft rot fungi in historic expedition huts of Antarctica. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70: 1328–1335. Vishniac HS (1993). The microbiology of Antarctic soils. In: “Antarctic Microbiology.” (Ed: Friedmann EI), Wiley-Liss Inc, New York, USA, pp. 297–342. Gounot AM (1986). Psychrophillic and psychrotrophic microorganisms. Experientia, 42: 1192-1197. Cavicchioli RK, Siddiqui S, Andrews D and Sowers KR (2002). Low temperature extremophiles and applications. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 13: 1-9. Margesin R (2009). Effect of temperature on growth parameters of psychrophilic bacteria and yeasts. Extremophiles, 13: 257–262. Mishra PK, Bisht SC, Bisht JK and Bhatt JC (2012). Cold-tolerant PGPRs as bioinoculants for stress management,” In: “Bacteria in Agrobiology: Stress Management.” (Ed: Maheshwari DK), Springer, Berlin, Germany, pp. 95–118. Russell NJ (1990). Cold adaptation of microorganisms. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London B, 326: 595– 611. Crowe JH, Hoekstra FA, Crowe LM (1992). Anhydrobiosis. Annual Review of Physiology, 54:579-599 Wynn-Williams DD and Edwards HGM (2000). Antarctic ecosystems as models for extraterrestrial surface habitats. Planet Space Science, 48:1065-1075. Cameron RE, Honour RC and Morelli FA (1976). Antaractic microbiology- preparation for Mars life detection, quarantine and back contamination. In: “Extreme Environments: Mechanisms of Microbial Adaptation.” (Ed: Heinrich MR), Academic Press, New York, pp. 57-84. Bergero R, Girlanda M, Varese GC, Intili D and Luppi AM (1999). Psychrooligotrophic fungi from Arctic soils of Franz Joseph Land. Polar Biology, 21: 361-368. Onofri S, Selbmann L, Zucconi L and Pagano S (2004). Antarctic microfungi as models for exobiology. Planetary and Space Science, 52: 229-237. Arenz BE, Held BW, Jurgens JA, Farrell RL and Blanchette RA (2006). Fungal diversity in soils and historic wood from the Ross sea region of Antarctica. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 38: 3057-3064. Franks F, Mathias SF, Hatley RHM, Baust JG, Hvidt A, Chapman D and Jaenicke R (1990). Water, temperature and life (and discussion). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 326: 517-533. Feller G, Arpigny JL, Narinx E and Gerday C (1997). Molecular adaptations of enzymes from psychrophilic organisms. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology, 118: 495-499. Gerday C, Aittaleb M, Arpigny JL, Baise E, Chessa JP, Garsoux G, Petrescu I and Feller G (1997). Psychrophilic enzymes: a thermodynamic challenge. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1342: 119-131. Tibbett M, Grantham K, Sanders FE, Cairney JWG, 1998. Induction of cold active acid phosphomonoesterase activity at low temperature in psychrotrophic ectomycorrhizal Hebeloma spp. Mycological Research 102: 15330-1539. Tibbett M, Sanders FE, Cairney JWG, Leake JR, 1999. Temperature regulation of extracellular proteases in ectomycorrhizal fungi (Hebeloma spp.) grown in axenic culture. Mycological Research 103: 707-714. Kerekes R and Nagy G (1980). Membrane lipid composition of a mesophilic and psychrophilic yeast. Acta Alimentaria, 9: 93-98.

Page 6

Skarma Nonzom et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 01-09 [43]. [44]. [45]. [46]. [47]. [48]. [49]. [50]. [51]. [52]. [53]. [54].

[55]. [56]. [57]. [58]. [59]. [60]. [61]. [62]. [63]. [64]. [65]. [66]. [67]. [68]. [69]. [70]. [71]. [72]. [73]. [74]. [75]. [76].

[77]. [78]. [79]. [80].

Hammonds P and Smith SN (1986). Lipid composition of a psychrophilic, a mesophilic and a thermophilic Mucor species. Transactions of the British Mycological Society, 86: 551-560. Weinstein RN, Montiel PO and Johnstone K (2000). Influence of growth temperature on lipid and soluble carbohydrate synthesis by fungi isolated from fellfield soil in the maritime Antarctic. Mycologia, 92: 222-229. Smith D (1993). Tolerance to freezing and thawing. In: “Stress Tolerance of Fungi.” (Ed: Jennings DH). Marcel Dekker Inc, New York, USA, pp. 145–171. Cairns AJ, Howarth CJ and Pollock CJ (1995). Submerged batch culture of the psychrophile Monographella nivalis in a deﬁned medium, growth, carbohydrate utilisation and responses to temperature. New Phytologist, 129: 299–308. Snider CS, Hsiang T, Zhao G and Grifﬁth M (2000). Role of ice nucleation and antifreeze activities in pathogenesis and growth of snow molds. Phytopathology, 90: 354–361. Sagar A, Raghwa S, Bhallan T and Lakhanpal T (2007). Studies on the mycoflora of cold desert area of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Phytopatholgy, 60: 35-41. Deshmukh SK, Verekar SA and Shrivastav A (2010). The occurrence of keratinophilic fungi in selected soils of Ladakh (India). Natural Science, 2: 1247-1252. Kotwal S and Sumbali G (2011). Incidence of myco-keratinophiles in cold arid soil at high altitude khardung village of Ladakh, India. Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology, 41: 72-76. Nonzom S and Sumbali G (2015). Incidence and diversity spectrum of mitosporic fungi from the cold arid base soil of Moonland landscape (Ladakh), India. International Journal of Pharma and Biosciences, 6: 252-261. Andrews JH (1992). Fungal life-history strategies. In: “The fungal community, its organization and role in the ecosystem.” (Eds: Carroll GW and Wicklow DT), Marcell Dekker, New York, pp. 119-145. Jacobson ES (2000). Pathogenic roles for fungal melanins. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 13: 708–717. Steenbergen JN, Shuman HA and Casadevall A (2001). Cryptococcus neoformans interactions with amoebae suggest an explanation for its virulence and intracellular pathogenic strategy in macrophages. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 98: 15245–15250. Nosanchuk JD, and Casadevall A (2003). The contribution of melanin to microbial pathogenesis. Cell Microbiology, 5: 203–223. Zhdanova NN and Vasilevskaya AI (1988). Melanin Containing Fungi under Extreme Conditions, Kiev: Naukova Dumka. Zhdanova NN, Zakharchenko VA and Hasel Wandter K (2005). In: “The Fungal Community, Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem.” (Eds: Dighton J, White JF and Oudemans P), Baton Rouge: CRC Press, pp. 759–768. Dighton J, Tugay T and Zhdanova, N (2008). Fungi and ionizing radiation from radionuclides, FEMS Microbiology Letters, 2: 109-120. Grishkan I (2011). Ecological stress: Melanization as a response in fungi to radiation. In: “Extremophiles Handbook.” (Ed: Horikoshi K), Tokyo: Springer Verlag, pp. 1135-1146. Rast DM, Stussi H, Hegnauer H and Nyhlen LE (1981). In: The Fungal Spore: Morphogenetic Controls. (Eds: Turian G and Hohl HR), London: Academic Press, pp. 507–531. Mirchink TG (1988). Pochvennaya mikologiya (Soil Mycology), Moscow: Izd. Mosk. Gos. Univ. Gunde Cimerman N, Zalar P, de Hoog S and Plemenitas (2000). Hypersaline waters in salterns-natural ecological niches for halophilic black yeasts. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 32: 235-240. Kogej T, Stein M, Volkmann M and Gorbushina AA, Galinski EA and Gunde Cimerman N (2007). Osmotic adaptation of the halophilic fungus Hortaea werneckii: role of osmolytes and melanization. Microbiology, 153: 4261–4273. Kul’ko AB and Marfenina OE (2001). The distribution of microscopic fungi along Moscow roads. Microbiology (Moscow), 70: 709-713. Marfenina OE, Kul’ko, AB, Ivanova AE and Sogonov MV (2002). Fungi in Urban Environments. Mikologia Fitopatologia, 36: 22-32. Kul’ko AB and Marfenina OE (1998). Microbiology (Moscow), vol. 67, no. 4, pp. 470–472. Zhdanova NN, Tugay T, Dighton J, Zheltonozhsky V and McDermott P (2004). Ionizing radiation attracts soil fungi. Mycological Research, 108: 1089-1096. Karpenko YuV, Pavlichenko AK, and Zhdanova NN (2006). In: “Uspekhi meditsinskoi mikologii (Advances in Medical Mycology)”. (Ed: Sergeev YuV) Moscow: Nats. Akad. Mikol. 7: 46–47. Gwin KR and Battista JR (2012). Extremophiles: Microbiology and Biotechnology. (Ed: Anitori RP) Norfolk: Caister Academic Press, pp. 25-52. Plonka PM and Grabacka M (2006). Melanin synthesis in microorganisms-biotechnological and medical aspects. Acta Biochimica Polonica, 53: 429-443. Singh S, Malhotra AG, Pandey, A, and Pandey KM (2013). Computational model for pathway reconstruction to unravel the evolutionary significance of melanin synthesis. Bioinformation, 9: 94–100. Korytowski W, Kalyanaraman B, Menon IA, Sarna T and Sealy RC (1986). Reaction of superoxide anions with melanins: electron spin resonance and spin trapping studies Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 882: 145-153. Rozanowska M, Sarna T, Land E and Truscott T (1999). Free radical scavenging properties of melanin interaction of eu and pheomelanin models with reducing and oxidising radicals. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 26: 518–525. De Cassia R and Pombeiro Sponchiado SR (2005). Antioxidant activity of the melanin pigment extracted from Aspergillus nidulans. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 28: 1129–1131. Cunha MM, Franzen AJ, Seabra SH, Herbst MH Vugman NV, Borba LP, de Souza W and Rozental, S (2010). Melanin in Fonsecaea pedrosoi: a trap for oxidative radicals. BMC Microbiology, 10: 80. Yang Y, Fan F, Zhuo R, Ma F, Gong Y, Wan X, Jiang M and Zhang X (2012). Expression of the laccase gene from a white rot fungus in Pichia pastoris can enhance the resistance of this yeast to H2O2-mediated oxidative stress by stimulating the glutathionebased antioxidative system. Appied and Environmental Microbiology, 78: 5845-5854. Mosse I, Kostrova L, Subbot S, Maksimenya I and Molophei V (2000). Melanin decreases clastogenic effects of ionizing radiation in human and mouse somatic cells and modifies the radioadaptive response. Radiation and Environmental Biophysics, 39: 47–52. Kudryashov YB (2004). Radiatsionnaya biofizika (ioniziruyushchie izlucheniya) (Radiation Biophysics (Ionizing Radiation)), Moscow: FIZMATLIT. Dadachova E, Bryan RA, Huang X, Moadel T, Schweitzer AD, Aisen, P, Nosanchuk JD and Casadevall A (2007). Ionizing radiation changes the electronic properties of melanin and enhances the growth of melanized fungi. Plos One, 2: 457. Dadachova E and Casadevall A (2008). Ionizing radiation: how fungi cope, adapt and exploit with the help of melanin Current Opinion in Microbiology, 11: 525–531.

Page 7

Skarma Nonzom et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 01-09 [81].

[82]. [83]. [84]. [85]. [86].

[87].

[88]. [89]. [90]. [91]. [92]. [93].

[94]. [95]. [96]. [97]. [98]. [99]. [100]. [101]. [102]. [103]. [104]. [105]. [106]. [107]. [108]. [109]. [110]. [111]. [112].

[113]. [114]. [115].

[116]. [117]. [118].

Tugai TI, Zhdanova NN, Zheltonozhskii VA and Sadovnikov LV (2007). Development of radioadaptive properties for microscopic fungi, long time located on terrains with a heightened background radiation after emergency on Chernobyl NPP. Radiatsionnaia Biologiia Radioecologia, 47: 543-549. Turick CE, Ekechukwu AA, Milliken CE, Casadevall A and Dadachova E (2011). Gamma radiation interacts with melanin to alter its oxidation-reduction potential and results in electric current production Bioelectrochemistry, 82: 69-73. Robinson CH (2001). Cold adaptation in Arctic and Antarctic fungi. New phytologist, 151: 341-353. Friedmann EI (1982). Endolithic microorganisms in the Antarctic cold desert. Science, 215: 1045-1053. Friedmann EI, McKay CP and Nienow JA (1987). The crypto endolithic microbial environment in the Ross Desert of Antarctica: satellite-transmitted continuous nano-climate data. Polar Biology, 7: 273-287. Sterﬂinger K (2005). Black yeasts and meristematic fungi: ecology, diversity and identiﬁcation. In: “The Yeast Handbook. Biodiversity and Ecophysiology of Yeasts.” (Ed: Seckbach J), Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH and Co, pp. 501514. Gorbushina AA and Krumbein WE (1999). Poikilotroph response of micro-organisms to shifting alkalinity, salinity, temperature and water potential. In: “Microbiology and biogeochemistry of hypersaline environments”. (Ed: Oren A). Boca Raton, FL CRC Press, LLC, pp. 75–86. De Hoog GS and Grube M (2008). Black fungal extremes. Studies in Mycology, 61: 198. Onofri S, Barreca D, Selbmann L, Isola D, Rabbow E, Horneck G, Vera JPP, de Hatton JL (2008). Resistance of Antarctic black fungi and cryptoendolithic communities to simulated space and Mars conditions. Studies in Mycology, 61: 99-109. Ma LJ, Rogers SO, Catranis CM and Starmer WT (2000). Detection and characterization of ancient fungi entrapped in glacial ice. Mycologia, 92: 286–295. Onofri S, Pagano S, Zucconi L and Tosi L (1999). Friedmanniomyces endolithicus (Fungi, Hyphomycetes), anam. gen. and sp. nov., from continental Antarctica. Nova Hedwigia, 68: 175-181. Mirchink TG Kashinka GB and Abaturov YD (1968). Resistance of the dark coloured fungi Stemphylium botryosum (WALLR) and Cladosporium cladosporoides (Fries) de Vries to gamma irradiation. Mikrobiologiya, 37: 865–869. Ursi C, Wollenzien U, Criseo G and Krumbein WE (1997). Biodiversity of the rock inhabiting microbiota with special reference to black fungi and black yeasts. In: “Microbial diversity and ecosystem function.” (Eds: Allsopp D, Colwell RR, and Hawkszworth DL), CAB International Publishers, Wallingford, Oxon, U.K, pp. 289–302. Zhdanova NN, Gavryushina AL and VasilevskayaAI (1973). Effect of gamma and UV-irradiation on survival of Cladosporium sp., and Oidiodendron cerealis. Mikrobiologicheskii Zhurnal (Kiev), 35: 449-452. Zhdanova NN, Vasilevskaya AI, Antonenko AL and Udobenko VF (1981). Resistance of some melanin containing hyphal fungi to artificial solar light. Mikrobiologicheskii Zhurnal (Kiev), 43:178–182. Old KM and Robertson WM (1970). Effects of lytic enzymes and natural soil on the fine structure of conidia of Cochliobolus sativus. Transactions of the British Mycological Society, 54: 343–350. Zhdanova NN, Melezhik AV and Vasilevskaya AI (1980). Thermostability of some melanin-containing fungi. Biology Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 7: 305–310. Rosas AL and Casadevall A (1997). Melanization affects susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans to heat and cold. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 153: 265–272. Jenkins MB, Virginia RA and Jarrel WM (1988). Depth distribution and seasonal populations of mesquite-nodulating rhizobia in warm desert ecosystems. Soil Science of Society American Journal, 52: 1644–1650. Wardle DA (1992). A comparative assessment of factors which influence microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen levels in soil. Biological Review, 67: 321- 358. Hussey MR, Skinner QD, Adams JC and Harvey AJ (1985). Denitrification and bacterial numbers in riparian soils of a Wyoming mountain watershed. Journal of Range Management, 38: 492-496. Lynch JM and Whipps JM (1990). Substrate flow in the rhizosphere. Plant and soil, 128: 1-10. Botterner P (1985). Response of microbial biomass to alternate moist and dry conditions in a soil incubated with 14C- and 15N labeled plant material. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 17: 329-337. Nedwell DB and Gray TRC (1987). Soils and sediments as matrices for microbial growth. In: “Ecology of microbials, communities.” (Eds: Fletcher M, Gray TRG and Jones JG), Cambridge. University press, Cambridge, pp. 21-54. Saksena SB (1955). Ecological factors governing the distribution of soil microfungi in some forest soils of Sagar. Journal of Indian Botanical Science, 34: 267-297. Alexander M (1986). Soil Microbiology. Johnn Wiley and Sons Publishers, New York. Song FQ, Tian XJ, Li ZQ, Yang CL, Chen B, Hao JJ and Zhu J (2004). Diversity of filamentous fungi in organic layers of two forests in Zijin Mountain. Journal of Forest Research, 15: 273-279. Onofri S (2000). Ecology and biology of microfungi from Antarctic rocks and rocks and soils. Ital. J. Zool, Supplement: 163-167 Fernandez DP, Neff JC, Belnap J and Reynolds RL (2006). Soil respiration in the cold desert environment of Colorado Plateau (USA): abiotic regulators and threshold. Biogeochemistry, 78: 247-267. Nonzom S and Sumbali G (2014). Impact of some ecological factors on the occurrence and distribution of mitosporic fungi in the cold deserts of Ladakh (India). International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention, 3: 32-40. Bridge P and Spooner B (2001). Soil fungi: diversity and detection. Plant and Soil, 232: 147-154. Lorgio EA, Julio RG and Peter LM (1999). Variation in soil organisms and nutrients underneath and outside the canopy of Adesimia bedwilli (papilionaceae) shrubs in arid coastal Chile following drought and above average rainfall. Journal of Arid Environments, 42: 61-70. Wainwright M (1995). An Introduction to Fungal Biotechnology. Wiley, Chichester. Henriksson G, Johansson G and Pettersson G (2000). A critical review of cellobiose dehydrogenases. Journal of Biotechnology, 78: 93-113. Bergquist P, Te’o V, Gibbs M, Curach N and Nevalainen K (2003). Recombinant bleaching enzymes from thermophiles expressed in fungal hosts. In: “Applications of Enzymes to Lignocellulosics.” (Eds: Mansfield SD and Saddler JN), American Chemical Society Symposium Series, 855: 435-445. Nevalainen H and Te’o VSJ (2003). Enzyme production in industrial fungi- role of molecular genetics. In: “Applied Mycology and Biotechnology Vol. 3.” (Ed: Arora DK), Elsevier Science, pp. 241-259. Lambert PW (1983). Industrial enzyme production and recovery from filamentous fungi. In: “The Filamentous Fungi.” (Eds: Smith JE, Berry DR, and Kristiansen B), Fungal Technology Arnold, London, 4: 210-237. Edwards MJ (1988). ATCC microbes and cells at work. An index to ATCC strains with special applications. American Type Culture Collection, Rockville, Maryland.

Page 8

Skarma Nonzom et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 01-09 [119]. [120]. [121].

Fox FM (1993). Tropical fungi: their commercial potential. In: “Aspects of Tropical Mycology.” (Eds: Isaac S, Frankland JC, Watling R and Whalley AJS), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 253-263. Kirk TK, Burgess RR and Koning JW Jr (1993). Use of fungi in pulping wood: an overview of biopulping research. In: “Frontiers in Industrial Mycology.”(Ed: Leatham GF), Chapman and Hall, New York. pp. 99-111. Nisbet LJ and Fox FM (1991). The importance of microbial biodiversity to biotechnology. In: “The biodiversity of microorganisms and invertebrates: its role in sustainable Agriculture.” (Ed: Hawksworth DL), CAB International., Wallingford, pp. 224-229.

Page 9

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Growth and characterization of the ZnSe thin films grown on different substrates by electrodeposition Shail Sharma and P. Rajaram School of Studies in Physics, Jiwaji University, Gwalior (M.P.), INDIA Abstract: Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) thin films were deposited on three different substrates, fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) coated conducting glass, Copper sheets and Stainless steel using the electrodeposition method. The deposited films were characterized using XRD, SEM, EDAX, AFM and optical transmission spectra. XRD studies show that films deposited on conducting glass (FTO) substrates crystallize in the cubic structure while films deposited on the copper and Stainless Steel substrates crystallize in the wurzite (hexagonal) structure. EDAX analyses show that ZnSe thin films of good stiochiometry can easily be electrodeposited on copper substrates but not on FTO or Steel. Keywords: ZnSe, electrodeposition, XRD, thin films, substrate. I. Introduction In recent years, synthesis of materials, thin films, has attracted great interest. Also these materials have been widely studied for their unique properties, both physical and chemical. The preparation of materials with controlled sizes, morphologies and size distribution is always potentially important in the synthesis of materials suitable for optoelectronics and luminescent applications [1-3]. As one of the most important II – V group semiconductors, Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) with a room temperature bulk band gap of 2.7eV, is a good candidate for short wavelength lasers and other photo electronics devices such as blue-green diode lasers and tunable mid–IR laser sources [1,3-5]. Dimensionality, size and size distribution are known to play important roles in determining the physical and chemical properties of ZnSe thin film materials [6]. Within direct wide-band semiconductor materials, the zinc chalcogenides compounds have been the objects of numerous studies concerning thin film electrodeposition from aqueous solutions [7-9]. In this paper, we report on the potentiostatic electrodeposition of ZnSe thin films from an aqueous solution bath containing ZnSO 4 and SeO2. The influence of substrate on the crystallinity and composition of the films was studied. II. Experimental Details The three electrode system consisting of counter electrode, working electrode and reference electrode, was used to study the electrochemical bath and also to electrodeposit the compound ZnSe. Platinum electrodes were used as the Anode (counter electrode) in our experiments. Fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) coated onto glass slides with sheet resistance less than 10 Ω/□, copper and stainless steel sheets were separately used as the Cathode (working electrode) (for obtaining CV voltammograms and for depositing the ZnSe films). An AgCl electrode was used as the reference electrode in these experiments.. This electrode was purchased from "pH products" a subsidiary of Elico Pvt. Ltd India. X-ray diffraction (XRD) were performed (X’Pert-pro) employing Cu-Kα radiation of wavelength 1.5406 Å. The particle morphology and grain size of nano-crystals was studied using (SEM) Scanning Electron microscopy (SEM) ( Philips FE-SEM/EDAX modal- Quanta 200 FEG ) and Optical transmission spectra were obtained using a UV-VIS-spectrometer (Shimadzu UV-2450). Deposition of ZnSe on Fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) coated conducting glass, Copper substrate and Stainless steel was carried out using the electrodeposition technique. Equal volumes of 0.2M ZnSO4.7H2O, and 0.005M SeO2 were poured into a 100 ml beaker and stirred to achieve uniformity and the resultant solution was used for the deposition. The substrate (FTO, copper and stainless steel were separately used as the cathode while a Platinum electrode was used as the anode. The deposition was done at a potential of - 0.8 V versus AgCl, at room temperature, for aduration of 10 minutes. At the end of deposition, the coated substrates were washed well with distilled water and air dried at room temperature. The possible reactions are shown below: Zn2+ +2e = Zn SeO2 + H2O = H2SeO3 H2SeO3 + 4H+ + 4e- = Se +3H2O

Page 10

Shail Sharma et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 10-13

Zn + Se = ZnSe III. Results and discussion Figures 1, 2, and 3 show the X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of the films deposited on Tin Oxide (FTO), Copper, Stainless steel substrates at potential -0.8 V. The observed XRD data was compared with the calculated XRD data and data published in the literature, and was found to match thus confirming the formation of the ZnSe compound [10].

Figure 1: X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the films deposited on Tin Oxide substrate

Figure 2: X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the films deposited on Copper substrate

Figure 3: X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the films deposited on Stainless Steel substrate For the samples deposited on FTO the prominent planes of reflection are indexed to cubic (111), (113), (400) while the samples deposited on copper and stainless steel substrates shows two prominent planes of reflection indexed to Wurzite (102), (210). The peaks not indexed in Figures 1, 2, 3 are those of the substrates FTO, copper and stainless steel.

Page 11

Shail Sharma et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 10-13

Figure 4: SEM micrograph of a ZnSe thin film grown on Tin Oxide, Copper and Stainless Steel substrate Figures 4, are SEM images of ZnSe thin films grown on FTO, copper and stainless steel substrates for 15 minutes. ZnSe thin films grown on FTO exhibit dense flakes on the surface, as can be seen in Fig. 4. ZnSe thin films grown on copper substrates have a homogeneous surface covered with spherically shaped particles. The layers adhere very well to the substrate and no cracks appear, as shown in Figure 4. EDAX studies which were performed to obtain the composition of the deposited material showed that the ZnSe films grown on FTO and stainless steel were in general deficient in Zinc, irrespective of the bath composition. However, there are no peaks in the XRD patterns indicating the presence of crystalline selenium, which suggests that the excess Se may be in amorphous form.

Figure 5: EDAX image of a ZnSe thin film grown on Copper substrate The best stoichiometry of the ZnSe films was observed for the samples grown on Copper substrates. EDAX results (see Fig. 5), show that the Zn/Se ratio in the films is close to 1:1. The SEM image of the ZnSe thin film deposited on stainless steel substrate (Fig. 4) shows that the surface morphology is a bit similar to that of the film grown on copper. The particles are almost spherical in both the cases. Atomic Force Microcopy an important tool to observe the surface morphology was also used to study the surfaces of the films (Fig.6) shows the two dimensional and three dimensional images of ZnSe thin films deposited on a copper substrate. The films deposited on copper substrate contain sphere like surface with smooth and regular surfaces. The root mean square roughness (Rq) and the average roughness (Ra) were found to be 58.7 and 42.8 nm respectively.

Page 12

Shail Sharma et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 10-13

Figure 6: AFM micrographs of ZnSe thin film grown on Copper substrate

Figure 7: Transmission Spectra of ZnSe thin film on Figure 8: (ahν)2 versus hν plot of ZnSe films Tin Oxide substrate on Tin Oxide Optical transmission spectra of the films were analyzed in order to obtain the spectral nature of the optical absorption and the nature and magnitude of the band gap. Fig. 7 shows the transmission spectractum of a ZnSe film grown on an FTO substrate. Fig. 8 shows the (ahν)2 versus hν plot whose intercept on the x-axis gives the direct band gap value. The band gap of the films grown on tin oxide substrate as seen in the figure is around 2.65 eV which is close to the reported value of 2.7 eV IV. Conclusions ZnSe thin films were deposited by potentiostatic electrodeposition on three different substrates like Fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) coated conducting glass, copper sheets and stainless steel sheets at a potential of -0.8V versus Ag/AgCl. XRD studies show that the films deposited on conducting glass (FTO) crystallize having f.c.c. zincblende structure and while those grown on copper and stainless steel have the wurzite (hexagonal) crystal structure. EDAX analysis confirms that the ZnSe thin films electrodeposited on copper substrates are of good stiochiometry. Optical studies show that the band gap of the films grown on FTO is around 2.65 eV. VI. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [ 5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

Yang J., Wang G., Liu H., Park J., and Chen X. (2009). Mater. Chem. Phys. 115, 204-208. Zawani E.L. and Shabani E.L. (2004). J. Solids. 27, 223-232. Jana S., Baek I.C., Lim M.A., and Seoki S.I. (2008). J. Colloid interface Sci. 322, 437 – 477. Cheng C.L. and Chen Y.F. (2009). Chem. Physics. 115, 158-160. Jiang C, Zhang W., Zou G., Yu W., and Qian Y. (2005). Nanotechnol. 16, 551-554. Monajjemi M. Khaleghian M., Tadayonpour M., and Mollaamin F. (2010). Int. J. Nanosci. 9, 517-529. I. M. Dharmadasa, A. P. Samantilleke, J. Young and M. H.Boyle, R. Bacewicz and A. Wolska, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron.10, 441 (1999) C. Natarajan, M. Sharon, C. Levy Clement and M. Neumann Spallart, Thin Solid Films 237, 118 (1994) G. Riveros, H. Gomez, R. Henriquez, R. Schrebler, R. E. Matrotti and E. A. Dalchiele Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 70, 255 (2001). P.K.R. Kalita, B.K. Sarma and H.L. Das, Bull. Mater. Sci., 23(2000) 313-317.

V. Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to Prof. Ramesh Chandra, Mr. S.D.Sharma and Mr. Shiv Kumar, Intitute Instrumentation Centre (IIC), Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Roorkee for the SEM/EDAX and XRD facilities .

Page 13

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Medicinal plants, a gold mine of anticancer compounds Asmita Das* and Jaspreet Kaur Dhanjal Department of Biotechnology Delhi Technological University Shahbad Daultpur, Bawana Road, Delhi-110042, India Abstract: Cancer is one of the leading causes of adult deaths worldwide. Chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgical removal of tumors are the most common clinical approaches being used for the treatment of cancer. Today, there are more than 100 FDA approved drugs in the markets for cancer therapy. Unfortunately, the chemotherapy treatment is almost always accompanied by a varied range of short and long term adverse effects. Also the cancerous cells evolve and develop resistance against these drugs during the course of treatment to escape the process of cell death and sustain their survival. Hence, the need arises to explicate the various molecular mechanisms which get altered and support the survival of transformed cells. This would help us find novel targets highly specific to tumor cells and design drugs against them. Since natural compounds offer a potentially infinite source of chemical diversity which cannot be matched by any synthetic chemical collection or combinatorial chemistry approach, we have here discussed various possible molecular mechanisms underlying the cause of cancer and the role of various medicinal plants with anti-proliferative and chemopreventive activity. Keywords: Natural compound, cancer, anticancer, antiproliferative, chemopreventive, molecular target I. Introduction Cancer is an umbrella term used to describe a variety of diseases in which cells start dividing abnormally. These cells then spread through blood and lymph system to invade other tissues of the body. There exist more than 100 different types of cancer. Depending upon the site of origin, cancer can be grouped as carcinoma (starting in the skin or tissue lining of internal organs), sarcoma (cancer of connective and supportive tissue), leukemia (staring in the blood forming tissue), lymphoma or myeloma (beginning in the immune cells) and central nervous system cancer (originating in brain or spinal cord) [1]. Cancer is one of the leading causes of adult deaths worldwide. One in every four deaths in United States is due to cancer. American Cancer Society projected an estimate of about 1,638,910 new cancer cases and 577,190 deaths from cancer in US for the year 2012. Prostate cancer is the most prevalent one among the males whereas in females breast cancer tops the chart [2]. In India the most common fatal cancers include oral, stomach and lung cancer in males and cervical, stomach and breast cancer in females [3]. The effective therapies for completely removing the cause of cancer are not yet available but efficient measures can be taken to control the growth of cancer. The traditional treatment options available for controlling cancer include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, childhood hematopoietic cell transplantation, bone marrow transplantation, surgical procedures and biological therapies for cancer. The newer technologies include hyperthermia, photodynamic therapy, gene therapy and targeted cancer therapies [1]. Chemotherapy (also described by the terms antineoplastic or cytotoxitic therapy) is a treatment that involves the use of drugs for destroying the transformed cells or slowing the growth of rapidly dividing cancerous cells. Unlike radiation and surgery, which are considered to be local treatments, chemotherapy has a systemic effect as the drug enters the circulation to encounter the cancer cells wherever they are present. More than 100 FDA approved drugs are available today to be used for the treatment of cancer. But most of the drugs have some side effects associated with their long term administration which limits their use. For example, alkylating agents used to treat various cancers including leukemia, sarcoma, multiple myloma, lymphoma, breast cancer, etc. can cause long term damage to bone marrow eventually leading to acute leukemia. Alkyl sulfonates, Triazines, Ethylenimines and Nitrosoureas are some families of drugs which belong to this category. The use of high dosages of antitumor antibiotics, another group of drugs that interfere with the enzymes essential for the process of DNA replication may cause permanent damage to the heart. Daunorubicin, Doxorubicin (AdriamycinÂŽ), Actinomycin-D and Mitomycin-C are some of the prominent antitumor antibiotics being used. Specific topoisomerase inhibitors including topotecan, irinotecan (CPT-11), etoposide (VP-16) and teniposide are also being used for the treatment of certain leukemias along with many other cancers like lung, gastrointestinal and

Page 14

Asmita Das et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December-2014 to February2015, pp. 14-23

ovarian. Administration of inhibitors targeting topoisomerase II increases the chances of acute myelogenous leukemia (AML). This secondary leukemia may arise within 2-3 years from the time of administration. Antimitotic agents targeting the cell cycle may lead to peripheral nerve damage. Examples include Taxanes, Epothilones and vinorelbine (Navelbine®) [4]. Along with the drug specific side effect, chemotherapy is almost always accompanied by a varied range of adverse effects. Normal cells of the body which divide more rapidly like bone marrow/blood cells, cells comprising the hair follicles and the ones lining the reproductive tract and digestive tract are most likely to get damaged. The other common side effects include low RBC, WBC and platelet count, nausea and vomiting, appetite loss, constipation, diarrhea, mouth or throat sores, fatigue, heart damage, reproductive and sexual problems, damage to liver, kidney, urinary system, and much more. Permanent damage to organs, delay in development of children, nervous damage, elevated risk of secondary cancer are some of the long term adverse effects associated with the administration of these drugs [4]. Owing to the severe side effects associated with the use of these chemotherapeutic agents, the focus of the ongoing research is shifting from the drugs which have a systemic effect on the body to the therapies targeting molecules which either over express or differentially express in specific tumor or cancer cells and hence use the therapies which differentiate cancerous cells from normal cells of healthy tissues. Since these are more target specific, they often have lesser side effects as compared to the conventional chemotherapy drugs. Examples of targeted therapies include gefitinib (Iressa®), sunitinib (Sutent®), imatinib (Gleevec®) and bortezomib (Velcade®). Estrogen receptor became the first molecule of interest for molecular targeted therapy. Selective estrogen modulators (SEMs) including tamoxifen and toremifene (Fareston®) interfere with the binding of estrogen to its receptor (in ER-positive breast cancer cells) thus making it an effective approach to retard cancerous growth and proliferation. Other potential biomolecules for targeted therapies include aromatases, tyrosine kinases, serine/threonine kinases, growth factor receptors and many more enzymes which are specific for cancer cells or tissues [4]. Hormonal and immunotherapy are two more options available for cancer treatment. Hormonal therapy is generally used for the treatment of breast, prostate, and endometrial (uterine) cancers, which show growth in response to hormones found in the body. Hormonal therapy makes use of sex hormones or hormone like drugs to either prevents the body from producing the hormone or prevents the cancer cells from using the synthesized hormone. Leuprolide (Lupron®), bicalutamide (Casodex®), megestrol acetate (Megace®) and exemestane (Aromasin®) are some of the drugs which best fall in this category. Immunotherapy uses drugs which stimulate the natural immune system of a patient to recognize and attack the transformed cells. It uses two approaches: potentiating the body’s own immune system (Active Immunotherapy) or using ex vivo created immune system components to be inserted into the patient’s body to strengthen its defense mechanism (Passive Immunotherapy). Monoclonal antibody therapy such as rituximab (Rituxan®) and alemtuzumab (Campath®), Immunomodulatory drugs like thalidomide and lenalidomide (Revlimid®), the first FDA approved cancer vaccine, the Provenge® (in 2010), for instance are the examples for this group of drugs [4]. Cancer is a very active area of research. Since most of the proposed synthetic inhibitors fail to clear preclinical or clinical trial because of the drug related or drug induced toxicities, the need arises for finding natural products or their derivatives having the potential to act as inhibitors against the cancer molecular targets. Most of the natural products follow the lipinski’s rule of five. Even the exceptions with high molecular weight, rotatable bonds and more stereogenic centers retain relatively low log P values. Thus, these have a higher tendency to get absorbed as compared to the conventional synthetic drugs. With the availability of more number of chiral centers [5] along with a wider distribution of molecular attributes like octanol-water partition coefficient, molecular mass and diversity of ring system, make natural products more suitable to be used as drugs [6]. Thus this review summarizes the experimental evidences of plant products being helpful in the treatment of cancer. II. Plant Products Affecting the Molecular Basis for Cancer, the Key to New Age Cancer Therapy The knowledge about molecular mechanism of cancer initiation, progression andmetastasis is increasing rapidly. Different signaling pathways, transcription and translationregulating factors and post-translational modification state of proteins can be developed intotherapeutic targets to treat cancer. Here we will explore various processes involved intumorogenesis and discuss about the plants with antitumor and anticancer activity. A. Enhancement of persistent oxidative stress in cancer cells Reactive oxygen species can be used to understand the biology of malignant neoplasia. A free radical contains unpaired electrons which either donate their electrons or accept electrons from other biological molecules of the cell in order to pair and attain a more stabilized state. This results in the initiation of a chain reaction which causes severe damage to the adjacent biological structures. Cell uses the mechanism of antioxidation to protect itself from this oxidative stress [7]. The transformed cells experience a persistent and slightly higher oxidative stress as compared to the neighboring healthy cells. There are evidences to support both the facts, firstly, that the cancer cells produce large amounts of ROS resulting in excessive oxidative stress [8] and secondly, that the natural antioxidant system of the cell gets suppressed [9, 10].

Page 15

Asmita Das et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December-2014 to February2015, pp. 14-23

Despite the fact that the cancer cells experience more oxidative stress than the non-neoplastic cells, the stress is not sufficient to cause the cell death. These cells develop other mechanisms to combat this stress. This importunate oxidative stress provides advantage to the cancerous cells for their survival and to escape the apoptosis mechanism. It allows the constitutive activation of certain transcription factors like NF-ÎşB and induces expression of proto-oncogenes like c-jun, c-foc and c-myc. It also causes DNA damage with modification in the base, further leading to mutations and chromosomal aberrations resulting in genome instability. Activation of cancer specific antioxidant system makes the cancer cells resistant to many chemotherapeutic agents being used for the treatment. Enhanced activity of the proteases due to the inactivation of their inhibitors, also facilitate tumor invasion and metastasis [11]. In a study conducted by Jahangir T. and Sultana S. in 2007, rats with induced renal carcinogenesis were orally administered with Adhatoda vasica. A significant decrease was observed in lipid peroxidation, H2O2 generation, xanthine oxidase (XO), blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, renal ODC activity and DNA synthesis leading to reduced incidence of tumors. Thus it was shown that A. vasica can be used as a chemopreventive agent as it reduces hyperproliferative response and carcinogenic activity induced because of Fe-NTA [12]. Many different studies report that extracts from Aegle marmelos ameliorate the chemical induced carcinogenesis by enhancing the antioxidant defense system. Oral administration of A. maemelos significantly elevates the amount of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione, and vitamin C in AME-treated groups in comparison to the carcinogen-treated control [13-17]. Aloe vera is another promising source for chemopreventive drugs of plant origin. Saini M et al. showed that oral administration of Aloe vera protects the mice against skin papilloma due to the presence of various antioxidant enzymes, vitamins, minerals and polysaccharides in high concentration [18, 19]. The prophylactic effect of Aloctin I, the main lectin present in Aloe vera was also assayed by another group of scientists. They showed that pretreatment with the lectin regressed the tumor size probably because of its immunomodulatory activity [20]. Alstonia scholaris, commonly called sapthaparna was also investigated for its chemopreventive and anti-oxidant properties. On treatment with the bark extract of the plant, there was an increase in the level of reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase and catalase along with significant decrease in lipid peroxidation. This resulted in reduced tumors with decrease in cumulative number of papillomas in carcinogen treated mice [21-23]. Inhibiting the generation of H2O2 in tumor cells is another way of controlling the adverse effects of oxidative stress in the transformed cells. According to a report, experiments with diacetylenic spiroketal enol ether epoxide AL-1 from Artemisia lactiflora in mouse with TPA-induced intracellular peroxide formation shows considerable dwindling in the tumor incidences and tumor induced biological responses. This antioxidant property of A. lactiflora might be attributable to the inhibition of O2generation [24]. Several in vitro experiments and studies on animal model suggest the efficacy of tea (Camellia sinensis) in the chemoprevention of cancer [25-28]. Consumption of black tea has been shown to notably decrease the micronuclei frequency and chromosomal aberrations in patients suffering from oral precancerous lesions [29]. Hossain E et al. in 2012 used the methanol extract of Dregea volubilis leaves to treat tumors in EAC cell lines and EAC tumor-bearing mice. They showed a decrease in tumor volume with an increase in the non-viable cell count in the infected animal model. Thus it exhibited both in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity through augmentation of antioxidant defense system of the body [30]. The seeds of Glycine max also emcompass some chemomodulatary potential against skin and cervical papillomas. The preventive action against the cancer is due to alteration in the levels of detoxifying and antioxidative enzymes [31]. Oral administration of ethanol extract from Indigofera aspalathoides in tumor bearing rats revealed a significant decrease in the levels of different enzymes- glutamate pyruvate transaminase, glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, total bilirubin, gamma glutamate transpeptidase, lipid peroxidase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione S-transferase with a simultaneous increase in superoxide dismutase and catalase levels [32, 33]. The affect of methanolic extract of Operculina turpethum stems on 7,12dimethylbenz(a)anthracene induced breast cancer was investigated by Anbuselvam C et al. in female SpragueDawley rats. Reduce tumor weight as a consequence of low lipid peroxidation activity and increased levels of antioxidant enzymes was observed, thereby indicating its role in the protection against breast cancer [34]. Picrorhiza kurroa, a well known traditional herb possess a diverse set of therapeutic potentials including antioxidant and anti-neoplastic activity [35]. B. Targeting the mitochondrial stress pathway or intrinsic cell death Many chemotherapeutic agents destroy the cancerous cells by inducing the process of apoptosis in them. The different apoptotic signaling pathways ultimately lead to mitochondrial membrane permeabilization (MMP). Involving many direct and indirect mechanisms, the intrinsic cell death or stress pathway to a maximum extent is regulated by the proteins of Bcl-2 protein family. The pro-apoptotic members of this family which include Bax, Bid, Bad, Bim, Bmf, BNIP3, NoxA, Puma translocate from the cytosol of the cell to the mitochondria and dissipate the membrane potential. In response to this change in membrane potential a number of soluble apoptogenic proteins from the intermembrane space of the mitochondria get released into the cytosol. These lethal proteins include cytochrome c, Smac/DIABLO, Htra2/Omi, AIF and endonuclease G. These in turn activate the maturation process or proteolytic cleavage of zymogens (pro-caspases) for the activation of caspases cascade. Because of this membrane permeabilization, mitochondrion loses its important metabolic and redox functions,

Page 16

Asmita Das et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December-2014 to February2015, pp. 14-23

inner transmembrane potential and its capacity to act as Ca2+ storage organelle. As a consequence, the oxidative stress progressively increases and the ATP production decreases, eventually leading to the death of the cell. To keep a check on the pro-apoptotic signal transduction, a number of different proteins called anti-apoptotic proteins and metabolites are employed to locally protect the mitochondria from apoptotic events. Bcl and Bcl-XL, the two MMP inhibitors have been reported to block the Voltage-dependent anion channels which are the prime source for release of cytochrome c from the intermembrane space into the cytosol. Figure 1 illustrates the mitochondrial cell death pathway. Thus, impairment in the balance between pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins may result in cells with potential to divide infinitely, giving rise to a cancerous state [36]. Figure 1: Schematic representation of mitochondrial cell death pathway.

There are many medicinal plants which alter the changes that occur in the cancerous cells thereby inducing apoptosis to kill them. Dianthus chinensis L. is being used to treat many diseases including cancer. Nho et al. in 2012 investigated the molecular mechanism by which the ethanolic extract of this plant inhibit cell growth. He found that it selectively downregulates the anti-apoptotic proteins without altering the expression of Bax protein. Increase in the ratio of bax:bcl-2 and bax:bcl-xl leads to the activation of caspases [37]. Panax ginseng, another medicinal plant shows similar kind of activity. Increase in the expression of anti-apoptotic genes as a result of carcinogenic exposure got suppressed; initiating the process of apoptosis [38]. Maslinic acid is a triterpene present in high amounts in Olea europea. It has the potential to be used as a tumor suppressant as it was shown to induce apoptosis in the HT29 and Caco-2 colon-cancer cell lines via disturbance in the mitochondrial membrane potential with increase in the expression of Bid and Bax and decrease in the level of Bcl-2. Release of cytochrome c was characterized by the increased activity of caspases-3 [39-41]. Betula platyphylla is another potential anticancer plant. It shows significant radical scavenging activity and increase in cell viability against H 2O2 along with increase in the expression of pro-apoptotic protein, Bax, thereby activating caspases-3 [42]. Some polysaccharides from Patrinia heterophylla could also inhibit tumor growth and induce tumor cell apoptosis by increasing the expression of p53, Bax and down regulating the expression of Bcl-2 [43]. C. Modulation of cell cycle regulators for cancer therapy Cancer is often considered to be a disorder of impaired cell cycle. Mammalian cell cycle consists of four phases. In S phase, the cell forms a copy of its own genetic material and in M phase, the cellular components are partitioned into two daughter cells. During G1 and G2 phase the cell prepares itself and synthesises the components required for the successful completion of S and M phase respectively. In the absence of adequate mitogenic stimuli or if the cell has reached the state of terminal differentiation, it enters a non-dividing state known as G0. As soon as a cell encounters mitogenic signals, it progresses towards the G1 phase. There is a specific event in G1 phase, called Restriction Point (R), after which the cell proliferates independently of the mitogenic signals. R prevents the cell from getting through the other phases of cell cycle until it has accumulated a certain threshold of mitogen induced events. It represents a point of no return that commits cell to enter a new round of cell division. Thus there are several checkpoints which ensure that the cell does not progress to a new phase until it has completed the previous one [44]. Cyclin Dependent Kinases (CDKs), a group of serine/threonine kinases are the important factors which control the early events of the cell cycle. They form active heterodimeric complexes with their regulatory subunits, the cyclins. CDK4 and CDK6 are believed to drive cell through early G1 phase whereas CDK2 is required for the completion of G1 phase and intiation of S phase. CDK4 and CDK6 bind with D type cyclins to form active complexes while CDK2 get activated by E type cyclins in G1/S transition and A type cyclins during the

Page 17

Asmita Das et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December-2014 to February2015, pp. 14-23

succession of S phase. CDK3 is also important in cell cycle regulation but its role is still ambiguous. These activated heterodimeric complexes act on the members of retinoblastoma protein family (including RB, p107, p130). These serve as docking sites for a variety of proteins whose function needs to be regulated tightly throughout the process of cell proliferation. RB proteins remain in bound state with E2F family of transcription factors to ensure that they remain in inactive state during M and G0 phase. The activated CDK4/6-cyclin-D complexes partially phosphorylate the RB of RB-E2F-DP complex. It enables the transcription of some genes like cyclin E. Cyclin E then pairs with CDK2 and completely phosphorylates the RB protein. This process induces the expression of E2F responsive genes that help the cell to enter S phase and initiate DNA replication. The level of CDK activity is negatively controlled by CDK kinase inhibitors. These are of two types. The INK4 family including INK4A (p16), INK4B (p15), INK4C (p18) and INK4D (p19) prevent the association of CDK4 and CDK6 to D-type cyclins thus inhibiting their activity. The three CDK inhibitors of WAF/KIP family- WAF1 (p21), KIP1 (p27) and KIP2 (p57) form heterotimeric complexes with various CDKs, mainly CDK2-cyclin-E thereby inhibiting their kinase activity [44]. Figure 2 shows the schematic representation of these important checkpoints of cell cycle that may serve as potential targets for controlling the dysregulated cell division in cancerous state. Figure 2: Schematic representation of the cell cycle along with its important regulators

Cheng et al. in 2004 reported that the acetone extract of Angelica sinensis inhibits the proliferation of human cancer cells by inducing G1/S arrest and decreasing the levels of CDK4 protein, thereby activating the mechanism of apoptosis [45]. Chemopreventive and anti-cancer properties of the aqueous extract of flowers of Butea monosperma were investigated by G. Mathan and his colleagues. They found that treatment with this aqueous extract stimulated apoptotic cell death by accumulating cells in G1 phase which was then accompanied by decrease in the level of activated Erk1/2 and SAPK/JNK [46]. Salograviolide A, a bioactive molecule isolated from Centaurea ainetensis reduces the growth of colon cancer by increasing the preG1 phase which causes apoptosis, increases the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, p53 and p21 protein levels and reduces cyclin B1 proteins [47, 48]. A family of natural products, Flavaglines from the genus Aglaia exhibit anti-cancer activity by inhibiting translation initiation. Silvestrol, one of the flavaglines, was shown to modulate the activity of eIF4A, a subunit of the eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) 4F complex that stimulates recruitment of ribosome during translation initiation [49]. Two new bibenzyls, designated as combretastatins B-3 and B-4 where isolated from Combretum caffrum. It was observed that these bibenzyls possess activity against the protein tubulin which is the major component of the mitotic spindles [50]. Another chemical constituent of Nothapodytes foetida, 9-Methoxycamptothecin was found to have antitumour activity through topoisomerase inhibition [51]. Cell cycle analysis after treating a tumor bearing mice with a polysaccharide isolated from Patrinia heterophylla showed that G2/M phase specific tumor cells were accumulating and there was a relative decrease in the number of tumor cells in S phase. It was inferred

Page 18

Asmita Das et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December-2014 to February2015, pp. 14-23

that this polysaccharide could inhibit tumor growth by inducing apoptosis [43]. Elevating the levels of CDK inhibitors is another effective approach to arrest cell cycle. Curcuma longa Linn was found to have beneficial effects on the early and late stages of pathogenesis by upregulating the p21 and p57 protein level, thus preventing and delaying carcinogenesis [52, 53]. A protein from Nidus vespae could also arrest the cell cycle at stage G1 and inhibit the mRNA expression of cyclin B, cyclin D1 and cyclin E. It suppressed cdk2 expression, but increased p27 and p21 protein expression, thus promoting apoptosis and hence has been identified as a potential drug for cancer treatment [54]. D. Activation of body’s own immune system against transformed cells NK cells are a part of the innate immune system which play a vital role in defense against pathogen infected or transformed cells. It was shown that NK cells effectively eliminate tumor cells from the circulation in mice and rats and also spontaneously kill MHC-I deficient tumor cells. Tumor cells are believed to evade T-cell response by downregulating the expression of MHC-I molecules on their surface. NK cells possess two types of receptorsactivating and inhibitory. The activity of these immune cells is regulated by a balance between activating and inhibitory signals (figure 3). The ligand for inhibitory receptors are MHC-I molecules. Lack of MHC-I expression, which is very frequently observed in cancerous cells, makes them sensitive to NK cells mediated cytotoxicity. In the absence of these inhibitory signals, activating receptors of NK cells recognize stress induced ligands being expressed on the cell surface of tumors. Thus, finding ways to stimulate these cells of innate immune system have proved to be effective means of cancer therapy [55]. Figure 3: A balance between the activity of activating and Inhibitory receptors regulate the function of NK cells

Agrimoniin, tannin contained in Agrimonia pilosa has the potential to augment the activity of NK cell in tumor cells. Increase in cytostatic activity and induction of antibody-dependent cell lysis were observed [56]. The sympathetic nerve of spleen has a suppressive effect on local natural killer (NK) cytotoxicity. Extract from Lentinus edodes was found to inhibit tumor proliferation by affecting the splenic sympathetic nerve activity [57]. E. Fatty acid synthase, a potential therapeutic target in cancer Fatty acid synthase (FASN) is an important enzyme that performs lipogenesis in neoplastic tissues. Cancer or tumor cells require more energy for the rapid proliferation of cells. The glucose uptake increases leading to higher production of pyruvate via glycolytic pathway. This pyruvate is utilized to generate more ATP using Krebs cycle. The intermediate product, acetyl-CoA acts as a substrate for FASN enzyme. Lipogenesis leads to the production of long-chain fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA. Most of the normal cells have a low expression of FASN, which is tightly regulated by diet, hormones and growth factors. To meet the energy and lipid demands of highly proliferating cells for membrane synthesis, β-oxidation and lipid modification of proteins, they start de novo synthesis of fatty acids, thereof showing high expression of FASN. Many studies report an important role of FASN in tumor growth and survival. Knockdown or inhibition of this enzyme results in apoptosis of cancerous cells. It is believed that the selective anti tumor activity of FASN inhibitors might be due to the accumulation of toxic intermediate metabolites leading to cytostatic and cytotoxic effects. It has also been proposed that the over expression of FASN makes cells resistant to many chemotherapeutic agents. Thus, FASN blockage represents an attractive strategy for cancer treatment [58].

Page 19

Asmita Das et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December-2014 to February2015, pp. 14-23

A series of compounds consisting of cylphloroglucinol derivatives, extracted from the rhizomes of Dryopteris crassirhizoma, has been reported to possess fatty acid synthase inhibitory activity [59]. F. Inhibiting overexpressed tyrosine kinases for cancer treatment Tyrosine kinases (TKs) are key players involved in the modulation of growth factor signals. These enzymes transfer Ɣ phosphate group from adenosine triphosphate to the target proteins and regulate a variety of cellular processes. Hyperactivation of these enzymes can cause increased cell growth and proliferation, induce antiapoptotic effect and promote angiogenesis and metastasis. Overexpression TKs like BCR-ABL, epidermal growth factor receptor (ErbB/HER) family members (EGFR), vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGF), and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) receptors has been observed in various forms of cancer [60]. BCR-ABL, a fusion protein, is found to be constitutively expressed in many cases of chronic mylegenous leukemia and acute lymphoblastic leukemia. It dysregulates intracellular signaling with enhancement in proliferative capability and induction of resistance to apoptosis of hematopoietic stem or progenitor cells, which ultimately leads to a immense increase in number of myeloid cells [60, 61]. The transmembrane EGFR activates various downstream signaling pathways like Ras/Raf mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and the phosphoinositol 3’-kinase/Akt pathway. Various neoplastic processes like cell cycle progression, inhibition of apoptosis, tumor cell motility, invasion and metastasis are under the control of these proteins. It also further activates vascular endothelial growth factor, a primary inducer of angiogenesis[60]. Angiogenesis is a process that remodels the existing network of blood vessels. VEGF is secreted by almost all the solid tumors [60]. Interaction of PDGF with their respective tyrosine kinase receptors: PDGFR α and β, induces cell proliferation, cell growth and differentiation. Hyperactivation of these kinases generate excess mitotic signals, transforming the normal cells to transformed cells which results in solid tumors [60]. Anti tumor activity conferred by the extract of flesh fruit of Phaleria macrocarpa was attributed to downregulation of a number of proteins at mRNA level which also included Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Tyrosine Kinase, the primary angiogenesis inducer. It also significantly reduced phosphoinositide-3 (PI3)kinase/protein kinase B (AKT) signalling with control at PI3K transcript level followed by reduction in phosphorylation of AKT. [62]. The Akt pathway/insulin like growth factor 1 receptor downstream to the activation of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Tyrosine Kinase was found to be downregulated byGinsenoside Rp1 from Panax ginseng, thus exhibiting anti-cancer activity [63]. G. Targeting mTOR having an expanding role in the pathogenesis of cancer The mammalian target for rapamycin (mTOR) is a serine-threonine kinase that controls both cell growth and cell cycle progression. It helps the cell to respond to its changing environment and adjust accordingly. It helps the cell to grow by directly acting on the cell cycle regulators, maintaining the supply of nutrients into the cell by overproduction of nutrient transporters and promotion of angiogenesis. It primarily controls the synthesis of cyclin D1. It also increases the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1(HIF1) which further helps in transcription of hypoxia stress responsive genes, including various angiogenesis growth factors. The increase in nutrient transporter proteins as a consequence of mTOR activation results in greater uptake of amino acids, glucose and other nutrients which support the abnormal growth of the cells. It also helps the rapidly dividing cells to survive by activating the anti-apoptotic proteins. There are many evidences that show deregulated mTOR pathway in a number of cancers, anticipating it to be a potential target of high therapeutic value for cancer therapy [64]. Gallic acid, a natural antioxidant isolated from the fruits of Phaleria macrocarpa was shown to have the potential to induce apoptosis selectively in esophageal cancer cells. It resulted in downregulation of mTOR pathway, with decrease in anti-apoptosis proteins such as Bcl-2 and Xiap, increase in pro-apoptosis protein Bax, and stimulation of caspase-cascade activity in cancer cells, suggesting it to be a powerful anticancer agent [65]. H. Upregulation of p53 for controlling some specific cancers p53 is a transcription factor which regulates the expression of many genes and microRNAs in response to cellular stress. It performs a variety of biological functions like regulation of the cell cycle, cellular differentiation, the immune response, apoptosis, senescence, DNA metabolism and angiogenesis. The main function of p53 is to act as a tumor suppressor by blocking the cell cycle progression and inducing apoptosis in stressed cells (such as in response to DNA damage). It has been observed that almost all cancers show altered p53 activity. Impairment in the p53 activity is associated with accumulation of DNA damage in the cells leading to genomic instability, a phenotype particular to cancer. Thus the concept of restoring the lost activity of p53 is an attractive approach for cancer therapy. Efficient tumor regression was observed in experimental animal models upon reactivation and modulation of wild type p53 [66]. Oldenlandia diffusa is a well-known medicinal plant being used to prevent and treat many disorders. Ursolic and oleanolic acids are the two bioactive components responsible for its antiproliferative property. These were shown to upregulate the expression of p53 protein by increased the binding of ERα/Sp1 complex to the p53 promoter region and selectively inhibiting cellular growth in ERα-positive breast cancer cells [67]. Another study reveals the proapoptotic effects of Eupatilin, an active flavones derived from Artemisia asiaticaon human gastric cancer cells. It was found that eupatilin treatment resulted in elevated expression of p53, followed by inactivation of ERK1/2 and Akt [68]. Elevated p53 expression levels were also observed in colon-derived cancer cells upon treatment with the extracts Centaurea ainetensis, containing salograviolide A as the bioactive molecule [47].

Page 20

Asmita Das et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December-2014 to February2015, pp. 14-23

Ginkgo biloba and Patrinia heterophylla are other examples of plants believed to have similar kind of properties with clinical significance [43, 69]. III. Conclusion Cancer being a major global health problem has become an important and highly activearea of research. Because of overlapping nature of the underlying molecular mechanisms there isan urgent need for more work to untangle the signaling networks and focus on their tightlycontrolled regulation process by which they regulate cellular growth and proliferation. Thisknowledge would further facilitate the development of new approach towards treatment ofcancer. The new age therapy focuses on a high specificity towards tumors or cancerous cells,thus providing a broader therapeutic window with less toxicity to healthy bystander cells. Thenew targeted therapies in combination with traditional treatment methods can produce additive orsynergistic cancer therapy. We have seen that plant derived products play an important role intreatment of cancer, but only a small part of fauna has been explored for its therapeutic value.Many plant products or naturally occurring compounds are effective as targeted therapy orimmune potentiation that has the inherent capability to distinguish between tumor cells andhealthy cells. Thus, plants are expected to provide a potential gold mine of bioactive compoundsfor the development of new drugs to combat cancer. IV. References [1] [2] [3]

[4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24]

[25] [26] [27]

J. Wu, K. Kandavelou, and S. Chandrasegaran, "Custom-designed zinc finger nucleases: what is next?," Cell Mol Life Sci, vol. 64, pp. 2933-44, Nov 2007. R. Siegel, D. Naishadham, and A. Jemal, "Cancer statistics, 2012," CA Cancer J Clin, vol. 62, pp. 10-29, Jan-Feb 2012. R. Dikshit, P. C. Gupta, C. Ramasundarahettige, V. Gajalakshmi, L. Aleksandrowicz, R. Badwe, R. Kumar, S. Roy, W. Suraweera, F. Bray, M. Mallath, P. K. Singh, D. N. Sinha, A. S. Shet, H. Gelband, and P. Jha, "Cancer mortality in India: a nationally representative survey," Lancet, vol. 379, pp. 1807-16, May 12 2012. American_Cancer_Society, "Chemotherapy Principles: An Indepth Discussion of the Techniques and Its Role in Cancer Treatment," American Cancer Society2011. M. Feher and J. M. Schmidt, "Property distributions: differences between drugs, natural products, and molecules from combinatorial chemistry," J Chem Inf Comput Sci, vol. 43, pp. 218-27, Jan-Feb 2003. M. L. Lee and G. Schneider, "Scaffold architecture and pharmacophoric properties of natural products and trade drugs: application in the design of natural product-based combinatorial libraries," J Comb Chem, vol. 3, pp. 284-9, May-Jun 2001. G. Bounous and J. H. Molson, "The antioxidant system," Anticancer Res, vol. 23, pp. 1411-5, Mar-Apr 2003. T. P. Szatrowski and C. F. Nathan, "Production of large amounts of hydrogen peroxide by human tumor cells," Cancer Res, vol. 51, pp. 794-8, Feb 1 1991. K. Sato, K. Ito, H. Kohara, Y. Yamaguchi, K. Adachi, and H. Endo, "Negative regulation of catalase gene expression in hepatoma cells," Mol Cell Biol, vol. 12, pp. 2525-33, Jun 1992. Y. Sun, "Free radicals, antioxidant enzymes, and carcinogenesis," Free Radic Biol Med, vol. 8, pp. 583-99, 1990. S. Toyokuni, K. Okamoto, J. Yodoi, and H. Hiai, "Persistent oxidative stress in cancer," FEBS Lett, vol. 358, pp. 1-3, Jan 16 1995. T. Jahangir and S. Sultana, "Tumor Promotion and Oxidative Stress in Ferric Nitrilotriacetate-Mediated Renal Carcinogenesis: Protection by Adhatoda vasica," Toxicol Mech Methods, vol. 17, pp. 421-30, 2007. A. Agrawal, S. Jahan, D. Soyal, E. Goyal, and P. K. Goyal, "Amelioration of chemical-induced skin carcinogenesis by Aegle marmelos, an Indian medicinal plant, fruit extract," Integr Cancer Ther, vol. 11, pp. 257-66, Sep 2012. T. H. Khan and S. Sultana, "Effect of Aegle marmelos on DEN initiated and 2-AAF promoted hepatocarcinogenesis: a chemopreventive study," Toxicol Mech Methods, vol. 21, pp. 453-62, Jul 2011. A. Agrawal, P. Verma, and P. K. Goyal, "Chemomodulatory effects of Aegle marmelos against DMBA-induced skin tumorigenesis in Swiss albino mice," Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, vol. 11, pp. 1311-4, 2010. G. C. Jagetia, P. Venkatesh, and M. S. Baliga, "Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa inhibits the proliferation of transplanted Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in mice," Biol Pharm Bull, vol. 28, pp. 58-64, Jan 2005. V. Chockalingam, S. S. Kadali, and P. Gnanasambantham, "Antiproliferative and antioxidant activity of Aegle marmelos (Linn.) leaves in Dalton's Lymphoma Ascites transplanted mice," Indian J Pharmacol, vol. 44, pp. 225-9, Mar 2012. M. Saini, P. K. Goyal, and G. Chaudhary, "Anti-tumor activity of Aloe vera against DMBA/croton oil-induced skin papillomagenesis in Swiss albino mice," J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol, vol. 29, pp. 127-35, 2010. G. Chaudhary, M. R. Saini, and P. K. Goyal, "Chemopreventive potential of Aloe vera against 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene induced skin papillomagenesis in mice," Integr Cancer Ther, vol. 6, pp. 405-12, Dec 2007. N. Akev, G. Turkay, A. Can, A. Gurel, F. Yildiz, H. Yardibi, E. E. Ekiz, and H. Uzun, "Tumour preventive effect of Aloe vera leaf pulp lectin (Aloctin I) on Ehrlich ascites tumours in mice," Phytother Res, vol. 21, pp. 1070-5, Nov 2007. S. Jahan, R. Chaudhary, and P. K. Goyal, "Anticancer activity of an Indian medicinal plant, Alstonia scholaris, on skin carcinogenesis in mice," Integr Cancer Ther, vol. 8, pp. 273-9, Sep 2009. B. Manjeshwar Shrinath, "Alstonia scholaris Linn R Br in the treatment and prevention of cancer: past, present, and future," Integr Cancer Ther, vol. 9, pp. 261-9, Sep 2010. G. C. Jagetia and M. S. Baliga, "Evaluation of anticancer activity of the alkaloid fraction of Alstonia scholaris (Sapthaparna) in vitro and in vivo," Phytother Res, vol. 20, pp. 103-9, Feb 2006. Y. Nakamura, N. Kawamoto, Y. Ohto, K. Torikai, A. Murakami, and H. Ohigashi, "A diacetylenic spiroketal enol ether epoxide, AL-1, from Artemisia lactiflora inhibits 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced tumor promotion possibly by suppression of oxidative stress," Cancer Lett, vol. 140, pp. 37-45, Jun 1 1999. J. Liu, J. Xing, and Y. Fei, "Green tea (Camellia sinensis) and cancer prevention: a systematic review of randomized trials and epidemiological studies," Chin Med, vol. 3, p. 12, 2008. K. Boehm, F. Borrelli, E. Ernst, G. Habacher, S. K. Hung, S. Milazzo, and M. Horneber, "Green tea (Camellia sinensis) for the prevention of cancer," Cochrane Database Syst Rev, p. CD005004, 2009. P. Ghosh, S. E. Besra, G. Tripathi, S. Mitra, and J. R. Vedasiromoni, "Cytotoxic and apoptogenic effect of tea (Camellia sinensis var. assamica) root extract (TRE) and two of its steroidal saponins TS1 and TS2 on human leukemic cell lines K562 and U937 and on cells of CML and ALL patients," Leuk Res, vol. 30, pp. 459-68, Apr 2006.

Page 21

Asmita Das et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December-2014 to February2015, pp. 14-23 [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34]

[35] [36] [37] [38] [39]

[40]

[41]

[42] [43] [44] [45]

[46]

[47] [48]

[49]

[50] [51] [52]

[53] [54]

[55] [56]

[57] [58] [59]

R. Xu, H. Ye, Y. Sun, Y. Tu, and X. Zeng, "Preparation, preliminary characterization, antioxidant, hepatoprotective and antitumor activities of polysaccharides from the flower of tea plant (Camellia sinensis)," Food Chem Toxicol, vol. 50, pp. 2473-80, Jul 2012. A. Halder, R. Raychowdhury, A. Ghosh, and M. De, "Black tea (Camellia sinensis) as a chemopreventive agent in oral precancerous lesions," J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol, vol. 24, pp. 141-4, 2005. E. Hossain, S. Chakroborty, A. Milan, P. Chattopadhyay, S. C. Mandal, and J. K. Gupta, "In vitro and in vivo antitumor activity of a methanol extract of Dregea volubilis leaves with its antioxidant effect," Pharm Biol, vol. 50, pp. 338-43, Mar 2012. M. Singh, E. Mendez, A. R. Rao, and R. K. Kale, "Chemomodulatory potential of Glycine max against murine skin and cervical papillomagenesis," Indian J Exp Biol, vol. 49, pp. 864-70, Nov 2011. B. Rajkapoor, N. Murugesh, D. Chodon, and D. Sakthisekaran, "Chemoprevention of N-nitrosodiethylamine induced phenobarbitol promoted liver tumors in rat by extract of Indigofera aspalathoides," Biol Pharm Bull, vol. 28, pp. 364-6, Feb 2005. A. J. Christina, M. Alwin Jose, S. J. Heison Robert, R. Kothai, N. Chidambaranathan, and P. Muthumani, "Effect of Indigofera aspalathoides against Dalton's ascitic lymphoma," Fitoterapia, vol. 74, pp. 280-3, Apr 2003. C. Anbuselvam, K. Vijayavel, and M. P. Balasubramanian, "Protective effect of Operculina turpethum against 7,12-dimethyl benz(a)anthracene induced oxidative stress with reference to breast cancer in experimental rats," Chem Biol Interact, vol. 168, pp. 229-36, Jul 20 2007. V. Rajkumar, G. Guha, and R. A. Kumar, "Antioxidant and anti-neoplastic activities of Picrorhiza kurroa extracts," Food Chem Toxicol, vol. 49, pp. 363-9, Feb 2011. K. M. Debatin, D. Poncet, and G. Kroemer, "Chemotherapy: targeting the mitochondrial cell death pathway," Oncogene, vol. 21, pp. 8786-803, Dec 12 2002. K. J. Nho, J. M. Chun, and H. K. Kim, "Ethanol Extract of Dianthus chinensis L. Induces Apoptosis in Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma HepG2 Cells In Vitro," Evid Based Complement Alternat Med, vol. 2012, p. 573527, 2012. T. Varjas, G. Nowrasteh, F. Budan, E. Nadasi, G. Horvath, S. Makai, T. Gracza, J. Cseh, and I. Ember, "Chemopreventive effect of Panax ginseng," Phytother Res, vol. 23, pp. 1399-403, Oct 2009. F. J. Reyes, J. J. Centelles, J. A. Lupianez, and M. Cascante, "(2Alpha,3beta)-2,3-dihydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid, a new natural triterpene from Olea europea, induces caspase dependent apoptosis selectively in colon adenocarcinoma cells," FEBS Lett, vol. 580, pp. 6302-10, Nov 27 2006. F. J. Reyes-Zurita, E. E. Rufino-Palomares, J. A. Lupianez, and M. Cascante, "Maslinic acid, a natural triterpene from Olea europaea L., induces apoptosis in HT29 human colon-cancer cells via the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway," Cancer Lett, vol. 273, pp. 44-54, Jan 8 2009. F. J. Reyes-Zurita, G. Pachon-Pena, D. Lizarraga, E. E. Rufino-Palomares, M. Cascante, and J. A. Lupianez, "The natural triterpene maslinic acid induces apoptosis in HT29 colon cancer cells by a JNK-p53-dependent mechanism," BMC Cancer, vol. 11, p. 154, 2011. E. M. Ju, S. E. Lee, H. J. Hwang, and J. H. Kim, "Antioxidant and anticancer activity of extract from Betula platyphylla var. japonica," Life Sci, vol. 74, pp. 1013-26, Jan 9 2004. W. Z. Lu, G. X. Geng, Q. W. Li, J. Li, F. Z. Liu, and Z. S. Han, "Antitumor activity of polysaccharides isolated from Patrinia heterophylla," Pharm Biol, vol. 48, pp. 1012-7, Sep 2010. M. Malumbres and M. Barbacid, "To cycle or not to cycle: a critical decision in cancer," Nat Rev Cancer, vol. 1, pp. 222-31, Dec 2001. Y. L. Cheng, W. L. Chang, S. C. Lee, Y. G. Liu, C. J. Chen, S. Z. Lin, N. M. Tsai, D. S. Yu, C. Y. Yen, and H. J. Harn, "Acetone extract of Angelica sinensis inhibits proliferation of human cancer cells via inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis," Life Sci, vol. 75, pp. 1579-94, Aug 13 2004. G. Mathan, G. Fatima, A. K. Saxena, B. K. Chandan, B. S. Jaggi, B. D. Gupta, G. N. Qazi, C. Balasundaram, K. D. Anand Rajan, V. L. Kumar, and V. Kumar, "Chemoprevention with aqueous extract of Butea monosperma flowers results in normalization of nuclear morphometry and inhibition of a proliferation marker in liver tumors," Phytother Res, vol. 25, pp. 324-8, Mar 2011. N. El-Najjar, S. Dakdouki, N. Darwiche, M. El-Sabban, N. A. Saliba, and H. Gali-Muhtasib, "Anti-colon cancer effects of Salograviolide A isolated from Centaurea ainetensis," Oncol Rep, vol. 19, pp. 897-904, Apr 2008. A. Ghantous, A. A. Tayyoun, G. A. Lteif, N. A. Saliba, H. Gali-Muhtasib, M. El-Sabban, and N. Darwiche, "Purified salograviolide A isolated from centaurea ainetensis causes growth inhibition and apoptosis in neoplastic epidermal cells," Int J Oncol, vol. 32, pp. 841-9, Apr 2008. R. Cencic, M. Carrier, G. Galicia-Vazquez, M. E. Bordeleau, R. Sukarieh, A. Bourdeau, B. Brem, J. G. Teodoro, H. Greger, M. L. Tremblay, J. A. Porco, Jr., and J. Pelletier, "Antitumor activity and mechanism of action of the cyclopenta[b]benzofuran, silvestrol," PLoS One, vol. 4, p. e5223, 2009. G. R. Pettit, S. B. Singh, J. M. Schmidt, M. L. Niven, E. Hamel, and C. M. Lin, "Isolation, structure, synthesis, and antimitotic properties of combretastatins B-3 and B-4 from Combretum caffrum," J Nat Prod, vol. 51, pp. 517-27, May-Jun 1988. N. Liao, P. Zhang, M. Ao, J. Wang, Y. Shi, and L. Yu, "9-methoxycamptothecin from Nothapodytes foetida induces apoptosis in murine sarcoma S180 cells," Z Naturforsch C, vol. 66, pp. 471-6, Sep-Oct 2011. K. V. Rao, T. Samikkannu, K. B. Dakshayani, X. Zhang, S. S. Sathaye, M. A. Indap, and M. P. Nair, "Chemopreventive potential of an ethyl acetate fraction from Curcuma longa is associated with upregulation of p57(kip2) and Rad9 in the PC-3M prostate cancer cell line," Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, vol. 13, pp. 1031-8, 2012. J. Kim, H. L. Ha, H. B. Moon, Y. W. Lee, C. K. Cho, H. S. Yoo, and D. Y. Yu, "Chemopreventive effect of Curcuma longa Linn on liver pathology in HBx transgenic mice," Integr Cancer Ther, vol. 10, pp. 168-77, Jun 2011. C. Wang, P. Chen, H. Jin, X. Yan, L. Gan, Y. Li, S. Zhou, J. Chang, Y. Wang, G. Yang, and G. He, "Nidus vespae protein inhibiting proliferation of HepG2 hepatoma cells through extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling pathways and inducing G1 cell cycle arrest," Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai), vol. 40, pp. 970-8, Nov 2008. M. J. Smyth, Y. Hayakawa, K. Takeda, and H. Yagita, "New aspects of natural-killer-cell surveillance and therapy of cancer," Nat Rev Cancer, vol. 2, pp. 850-61, Nov 2002. K. Miyamoto, N. Kishi, T. Murayama, T. Furukawa, and R. Koshiura, "Induction of cytotoxicity of peritoneal exudate cells by agrimoniin, a novel immunomodulatory tannin of Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb," Cancer Immunol Immunother, vol. 27, pp. 59-62, 1988. J. Shen, M. Tanida, Y. Fujisaki, Y. Horii, K. Hashimoto, and K. Nagai, "Effect of the culture extract of Lentinus edodes mycelia on splenic sympathetic activity and cancer cell proliferation," Auton Neurosci, vol. 145, pp. 50-4, Jan 28 2009. R. Flavin, S. Peluso, P. L. Nguyen, and M. Loda, "Fatty acid synthase as a potential therapeutic target in cancer," Future Oncol, vol. 6, pp. 551-62, Apr 2010. M. Na, J. Jang, B. S. Min, S. J. Lee, M. S. Lee, B. Y. Kim, W. K. Oh, and J. S. Ahn, "Fatty acid synthase inhibitory activity of acylphloroglucinols isolated from Dryopteris crassirhizoma," Bioorg Med Chem Lett, vol. 16, pp. 4738-42, Sep 15 2006.

Page 22

Asmita Das et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December-2014 to February2015, pp. 14-23 [60] [61] [62]

[63]

[64] [65]

[66] [67]

[68]

[69]

A. Arora and E. M. Scholar, "Role of tyrosine kinase inhibitors in cancer therapy," J Pharmacol Exp Ther, vol. 315, pp. 971-9, Dec 2005. G. Vlahovic and J. Crawford, "Activation of tyrosine kinases in cancer," Oncologist, vol. 8, pp. 531-8, 2003. R. R. Tjandrawinata, P. F. Arifin, O. M. Tandrasasmita, D. Rahmi, and A. Aripin, "DLBS1425, a Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl. extract confers anti proliferative and proapoptosis effects via eicosanoid pathway," J Exp Ther Oncol, vol. 8, pp. 187-201, 2010. J. H. Kang, K. H. Song, J. K. Woo, M. H. Park, M. H. Rhee, C. Choi, and S. H. Oh, "Ginsenoside Rp1 from Panax ginseng exhibits anti-cancer activity by down-regulation of the IGF-1R/Akt pathway in breast cancer cells," Plant Foods Hum Nutr, vol. 66, pp. 298-305, Sep 2011. S. H. Advani, "Targeting mTOR pathway: A new concept in cancer therapy," Indian J Med Paediatr Oncol, vol. 31, pp. 132-6, Oct 2010. A. Faried, D. Kurnia, L. S. Faried, N. Usman, T. Miyazaki, H. Kato, and H. Kuwano, "Anticancer effects of gallic acid isolated from Indonesian herbal medicine, Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl, on human cancer cell lines," Int J Oncol, vol. 30, pp. 60513, Mar 2007. K. Suzuki and H. Matsubara, "Recent advances in p53 research and cancer treatment," J Biomed Biotechnol, vol. 2011, p. 978312, 2011. G. Gu, I. Barone, L. Gelsomino, C. Giordano, D. Bonofiglio, G. Statti, F. Menichini, S. Catalano, and S. Ando, "Oldenlandia diffusa extracts exert antiproliferative and apoptotic effects on human breast cancer cells through ERalpha/Sp1-mediated p53 activation," J Cell Physiol, vol. 227, pp. 3363-72, Oct 2012. M. J. Kim, D. H. Kim, H. K. Na, T. Y. Oh, C. Y. Shin, and D. P. Y. J. Surh Ph, "Eupatilin, a pharmacologically active flavone derived from Artemisia plants, induces apoptosis in human gastric cancer (AGS) cells," J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol, vol. 24, pp. 261-9, 2005. J. C. Chao and C. C. Chu, "Effects of Ginkgo biloba extract on cell proliferation and cytotoxicity in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells," World J Gastroenterol, vol. 10, pp. 37-41, Jan 2004.

Page 23

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Popularization of small millets based food products in Bastar region of Chhattisgarh S. K. Nag*1, A. Pradhan2, S.Patel3, N.K.Mishra 4, S.C.Mukherjee 5 and Rahul Sahu6 Shaheed Gundadhoor College of Agriculture and Research Station (Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya), Kumhrawand, Jagdalpur, Bastar Chhattisgarh, 494 005, INDIA 2 Scientist (Agronomy), College of Agriculture (IGKV), Jagdalpur, Chhattisgarh, 494 001, INDIA. 3 Professor (Agril.Engineering), College of Agriculture Engineering (IGKV), Raipur, Chhattisgarh, INDIA. 4 Assistant Professor (Agril. Engineering), College of Agriculture Engineering (IGKV), Raipur, Chhattisgarh, INDIA. 5 Dean, S.G.College of Agriculture, (IGKV) Jagdalpur, Chhattisgarh, INDIA. 6 SMS (Agril. Engineering) Krishi Vigyan Kendra (IGKV) Jagdalpur, Chhattisgarh, INDIA.

Abstract: Cereal grains are considered to be one of the most important sources of dietary proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and fiber for people all over the world. Millet is one of the oldest foods known to humans and possibly the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes. The training was organized under project to popularization of small millets based food products made the overall impact and influence of food preparation from small millets was new and lucrative for villages and could run the system of production to consumption of small millets in convenient ways. Keywords: finger millet, Kodo millet, food product. I. INTRODUCTION India is the largest producer of many kinds of millets called coarse cereals and small millets. India accounts for 40% of global millet production, the total production as per a 2005 statistics is 98, 10,000 MT per annum. Based on a five-year average (1999 - 2003), India ranks 1st and 11th place in top global consumption and per-capita consumption of millets, respectively. Small millets include 6 main grain crops which are finger millet (ragi in Tamil), kodo millet (varagu or Kodo), little millet (samai or Kutki), foxtail millet (tenai or Ghatka), proso millet (panivaragu or Cheena), and barnyard millet (kudiraivali or Sanwa). Finger millet and Kodo millet are well known for their anti-nutrient constituents such as trypsin inhibitors, phytates, phenols and tannins and consumption pattern for small millets varies from region to region (shahidi et al, 1999). In Southern Karnataka, 100% of the rural population and 94% of the urban population consume finger millet as a traditional food called ‘Mudde’ or ‘Thick porridge’but it is not common with other places. Finger millet and Kodo millet is an important food crop for vast sections of the tribal community in Central India. However all communities of people should be aware of importance and health benefits of small millets (Rao, 1998). A lot of space has been identified by processing of small millets which cater various form of semi and finished food products apart from bakery products with wonderful nutri-cereals to fulfil the nutritional security to rural food basket. It can be used in single or in fortified form which includes other cereals or pulses. The products Burphy.Chakli, Khurmi, Mixer, Idly.Dosa, Pakoda, Ankurit bhajiya and Dhokla may come out easily at home level by village ladies II. METHODOLOGY The processing in based on raw materials available or purchased from producers which is next to convert into conventional forms for ready to use or end products. Flow Chart 1: Chain of small millet production to consumption Initiative Work    

Approach farmers fare Exhibition, SHGs Schools House wife, Village ladies

Product Preparation

Through   

Training Publicity (Leaflet etc.) Organoleptic test

 

SGCARS,Jagdalpur SHGs

Marketing  SGCARS,  Sanjeevani (Forest Dept.)

Consumer

Page 24

S. K. Nag et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 24-25

This whole works were done through some steps involved like initiative works, through training etc. for commercial production of the products from groups or organization and ultimately it gave to material for consuming of the products. The initiative work was begun with resource people of the project which gave the resource support to run the system initially by training, printing materials and mass communication. These prepared products were sold to consumers through sanjeevani and SGCARS, Jagdalpur which completed the chain of production to consumption of small millets. The training was given to farm ladies and house wives of villages viz.Bolbola,Jarebandri,Turenar,Bhataguda,Narayanpur,Kanker ,and Bastanar as well as in kisan mela, School Angan Badi and SGCARS, Jagdalpur.The details of process is depicted in flow chart1. III. RESULTS & DISCUSSION The selected places were taken under training programme of small millet based products in collective forms which led to mass communication of skill by doing and observing with expertise people in collect orate, Jagdalpur ,Kisan mela ,School,Angan Badi,SGCARS, SHGs of Bolbola, Jarebandri, Turenar, Bhataguda, Narayanpur,Kanker and Bastanar with eleven ragi based products. Among the products, Ragi based multigrain flour was most frequent in trainings with more numbers of participant due to health consciousness of present circumstances of cities and urban dwellers followed by ragi malt in similar with high level of likeness among the people and accepted by many in place of tea of prepared products because of home ladies mostly preferred cooking in kitchen by 20 persons in remaining trainings each places. The response of organoleptic test was done during training of preparation by testing the cooked products on same places (Davies, 1991). While observing the test different age group people were targeted to know the liking and disliking percentage and ultimately calculated the response percent in concerned to various forms of prepared products. The maximum numbers of liking person was more in each products as compared to disliking in consideration to multigrain flour Ragi malt, Burphy ,Dosa ,Idly, Mixture, Khurmi, Saloni, Cake, Bhajiya, Dhokla and Pakoda;more people were participated in two products (MGP & Ragi Malt ) that is why response was more whereas others tested 20 or less than 20 people resulted higher percentage but less in number due to special resource needed (Davidson,1972). The disadvantages districts of Bastar division, Narayanpur had maximum villages covering. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are highly thanks to National Agricultural Innovation Project (Component-II) for financial and objective based research provided under the aspects. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Rao, M.V. (1998). Small millets in global agriculture. In: Seetharam A, editor. The small millets: Their importance, present status and outlook. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co Pvt Ltd; pp. 9–12. Shahidi F, Wanasundara, PK. Phenolic antioxidants (1991). Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. (1992); 32:67–103. [PubMed] Davies, K.J. (1991) Oxidative damage and repair: Chemical, biological and medical aspects. London: Oxford Pergamon Press. Davidson S, Passmore R, Broct J.F. (1972) Human Nutrition and Dietetics. 5th ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; Rao M V (1998) Small millets in global agriculture. In: Seetharam A, editor. The small millets: Their importance, present status and outlook. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co Pvt Ltd; pp. 9–12.

Page 25

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Potentiometric study of binary complexes of transition metal ions with βdiketone ligands 1,2

Dr. S. R. Vaidya1, Dr. M. R. Bagal2, Dr. V. A. Shelke3, Dr. S. M. Jadhav4, Dr. T. K. Chondhekar5 Department of Chemistry, Vivekanand Arts Sardar Dalipsing Commerce and Science College, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, INDIA 3 Department of Chemistry, Indraraj Arts, Commerce and Science College, Sillod, Dist. Aurangabad, Maharashtra, INDIA 4 Department of Chemistry, Siddharth Arts, Commerce and Science College, Jafrabad, Dist. Aurangabad, Maharashtra, INDIA 5 Dr. T. K. Chondhekar, Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasahb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, INDIA

Abstract:A new β-Diketone ligands are synthesized from 2-hydroxy acetophenone and 3,4,4-triethoxy benzoic acid and characterized by elemental analysis, conductometry, UV-visible, IR spectra, 1H-NMR and 13 C-NMR. The stability constants of β-diketone ligand complexes with transition metal ions Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II) and Mn(II) were determined pH metrically. The stability constants of β-diketone ligands and metals have been calculated. Keywords: β-diketone ligands, binary complexes, transition metals.

I. INTRODUCTION β-diketone ligands are used as ligands for almost 120 years. These derivatives were synthesized for the first time in 1887. The nature of bonding and chelation was elucidated by Werner and Morgan [1-2]. In the last decades, βdiketones and their metal complexes have been used as model compounds in physical chemistry studies. They have been also been used as chelating ligands for lanthanides and transition metals [3] .β-diketone and its metal complexes have been widely used in diverse areas because of their unique structural features, chemical functionalities, and toughness for light and heat as electroluminescence materials [4]..β-diketones have gained a lot of interest due to their importance as good ligands [5] ,for the chelation with metals, as intermediate in the synthesis of core heterocycles such as flavones[6] ,pyrazole[7] .β-diketones have shown pharmacological activities like prophylactic antitumor[8] ,ntibacterial[9] and antioxidant[10] .They have also used as an antisunscreen agent[11] .β-diketones are well known to have keto-enol tautomerism and rescently it is reported that have the important pharmacophores for the HIV-integrase(1N) inhibitors[12] II. MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental Micro analysis of the ligand is performed at the Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI). The H1 NMR spectra of ligand were recorded on EM-360 spectrophotometer at RSIC, Punjab University, Chandigarh (India). IR spectra of ligand were recorded in KBr pellet on a FTIR-4100 Jasco in the region 4000-400 cm-1. Reagents and chemicals The glass distilled water was collected in a Stoppard bottle and always used fresh. Its pH was about 6.60 to 6.80.THF: HPLC grade THF was freshly distilled and used. Commercial THF was purified by standard method described by Vogel[1]. All other chemicals like perchloric acid, sodium perchlorate and sodium hydroxide were of AR grade, obtained either from B.D.H. (London) or E. Merck, Reidal (Germany). The solutions of above reagents were prepared in CO2 free glass distilled water by taking precautions to avoid errors in their concentrations. Exact normalities were obtained by standard methods. Instruments: An Elico model LI - 120 digital pH meter in conjuction with an Elico combined electrode consisting of glass and reference electrodes in a single entity of the type CL - 51 was used for the pH measurements. Synthesis and characterization of β – Diketones The method used for synthesis of diketones involves two steps

Page 26

S. R. Vaidya et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 26-29

Step 1: Synthesis of 2-Hydroxy Acetophenone The equimolar quantities of substituted phenol and acetic anhydride were taken in to 500ml round bottomed flask and 5ml pyridine was added. The reaction mixture was kept overnight and then it was poured in to crushed ice. Thus two layers were formed in which upper layer contains ester, separated by separating funnel and washed with distilled water for two to four times followed by 2% NaOH solution . The obtained pure ester was subjected to Fries rearrangement. Ester (1mol) was slowly added in powdered anhydrous aluminum chloride(15mol). The mixture was heated in an oil bath for one and half hour and allowed to cool. The mixture was then kept overnight in crushed ice with 5-6 drops of concentrated HCl to form precipitate. It was separated by filtration and recrystallised by minimum quantity of ethanol to obtain pure product. Same procedure was used for the synthesis of other 2- hydroxy acetophenones.

Step 2: Synthesis of -diketones: 1,3 diketones were obtained by the reaction of substituted 2- hydroxy acetophene with 3,4,4-triethoxy benzoic acid in pyridine and POCl3 at roomtemperature. The ester obtained (1) was converted into 1,3 dione(2) by the Baker- Venkataraman rearrangement. Equimolar amount of compounds 1 and 2 were dissolved in 50ml dry pyridine. The reaction mixture was then cooled to 0oC and (0.06 mol) phosphorus oxychloride was added drop wise maintaining temperature below 10oC.The reaction mixture was kept overnight at room temperature. It was then poured on crushed ice with vigorous stirring. The crimson coloured solid ester obtained was filtered and washed several times with ice-cold water. Ester (3) was then crystallized with distilled ethanol. Purity of compound was checked by TLC. 0.03 moles ester (Compound 3) was dissolved in 15ml of dry pyridine. To this, powdered KOH (1gm) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred on magnetic stirrer at room temperature for 3 hours. It was then poured over crushed ice and acidified with concentrated HCL. Thus obtained Yellow coloured product (compound4) was recrystallized from ethanol (yield 50-55%). Purity of all synthesized -diketones was checked by TLC using silica gel G andmelting points. The overall reaction is presented below.

Characterization of ligands: All synthesized ligands were stable to air and moisture. Soluble in ethanol, methanol,chloroform, dichloromethane and insoluble in water and ether. The structural features were elucidated with the help of elemental analysis. One representative ligand 1-(5-bromo-2-hydroxyphenyl)-3-hydroxyl-3-(3,4,5-triethoxyphenyl) prop-2-en-1-one was scanned for IR, 1H NMR, 13 NMR and Mass spectrum. Following are the scanning results are given below. IR Spectral studies IR(cm-1) (KBr) spectral data of compound: 3498 cm-1 (hydroxyl moiety), 2945 cm-1 Aliphatic symmetrical stretching), 2908 cm-1(Asymmetrical stretching)

Page 27

S. R. Vaidya et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 26-29

1H NMR spectral studies 1H NMR (CDCl3) spectral dtat of compound 1.43 δ ppm (t,9H, -CH3 group), 4.19 δ ppm (q,6H, CH2 group), 6.637.84 δ ppm( 5H, from aromatic ring), 12.05 δ ppm(s,Phenolic –OH), 15.76 δ ppm (s, Enolic –OH). 13 C NMR Spectra 13 C NMR (CDCl3) spectral data of compound (50 MHz, CDCl3, δ / ppm) of the ligand, shows peaks at 14.86, 65.12, 91.62, 105-153, 178.84, 193.43. Mass spectral studies Mass spectrum were found to match with the theoretical expected values as ES+ peak observed at 449.2 with 100% and ES value was matched with 451.1 with 100% abundances. Table1: Physical and analytical data of -diketones Ligand L1

R1 H

R R2 H

R3 H

M.F. (M.W.)

CH3

M.P. 0C

C21H24O6 (372) C21H26O6 (386) C22H25O6Cl (420) C21H23O6Cl (407)

89-90

Yield( %) 65%

Colour

120-122

72%

Yellow

131-132

75%

Yellow

135-136

70%

Yellow

C21H23O6Br (452)

128-130

68%

Yellow

C 67.77 (67.74) 68.34 (68.39) 62.91 (62.85) 61.96 (61.91) 55.78 (55.75)

% Found(Calca.) H Cl 6.40 (6.45) 6.77 (6.73) 5.99 8.39 (5.95) (8.33) 5.21 8.62 (5.15) (8.59) 5.10 (5.08)

Br -

17.72 (17.69)

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The potentiometric titrations are performed by using an Elico model LI-120 digital pH meter in conjuction with an Elico combined glass electrode consisting of glass and reference electrode. The combined glass electrode was activated by immersing 24 hours in 0.1 N hydrochloric acid and then 12 hours immersed in glass distilled water. The precautions suggested by Bates[13] ,Albert and sergent[14] were adopted for smooth handling of electrod. The combined glass electrode was connected to pH meter. By adopting standard procedure, all titrations were carried out under inert atmosphere by bubbling oxygen free nitrogen gas through an assembly. The buffer solution having the pH ranges 4.00 and 9.18 was used for the standardization of pH meter, before and after each titration. The ligand solution of 1,3 diketones were prepared in 50%(v/v) THF-water which was used for further titrations i.e without and with the transition metals Co(II), Ni(II), ,Cu(II), Zn(II), Mn(II) at 0.1 M NaClO4 constant ionic strength at constant tempreture 30oC. The base strength is a measure of the  bonding ability of ligands with metal ions which is based on the direct correlation of stabilities of metal complexes with ligand basicities, since the basicities of the present ligands are not of the same order, these correlations would not throw any light on the steric and - interactions in the metal ligand system[15] .This can be achieved by a comparison of the stability per unit base strength defined as the ratio of stability constants to the total base strength of the ligand. i.e. log/ pK, for various complexes[15-17] The ratios for the present complexes are presented in the table 4. Table No. 2 Proton ligand stability constants of β-diketone ligands at 0.1M NaClO4 constant ionic strength Medium – 50%(v/v) THF-water , Tempreture – 30oC Symbols pK1 L1(C21H24O6) 9.04 L2(C22H26O6) 9.69 L3(C22H25O6Cl) 8.08 L4(C21H23O6Cl) 6.02 L5(C21H23O6Br) 7.09

pK2 10.41 10.76 9.43 7.50 8.92

Table No. 3 Metal ligand stability constants of β-diketone ligands at 0.1M NaClO4 constant ionic strength Medium – 50%(v/v) THF-water Transition metal ion Metal Ligand constants Co(II) Log K1 Log K2 Ni(II) LogK1 LogK2 Cu(II) LogK1 LogK2 Zn(II) LogK1 LogK2 Mn(II) LogK1 LogK2

stability

L1 6.99 4.91 8.19 5.9 8.34 5.9 5.27 2.70 5.66 4.84

Tempreture – 30oC L2 L3 7.00 5.11 8.71 6.32 8.91 6.32 5.93 3.32 6.64 3.72

6.72 4.41 7.79 5.21 9.82 5.21 5.11 2.02 5.41 3.81

6.29 4.25 6.82 5.01 7.11 5.01 4.42 2.33 5.12 3.41

6.49 4.22 7.01 4.92 7.91 4.92 4.93 2.42 5.29 3.72

Page 28

S. R. Vaidya et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 26-29

Table No. 4 Stability constants per unit base strength for metal ligand systems Ligand Metal Co(II) Ni(II) Cu(II) Zn(II) Mn(II)

0.56 0.65 0.76 0.41 0.47

0.56 0.63 0.75 0.39 0.51

0.60 0.74 0.84 0.11 0.52

0.63 0.87 1.03 0.49 0.63

0.62 0.74 0.86 0.45 0.53

Fig. 1: Titration curve The proton ligand and metal ligand stability constant of β-diketones with transition metal ions Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II), Mn(II) at constant ionic strength 0.1 M NaClO4 in 50 % (v/v) THF-water medium is given in table 2 and table 3. The tempreture was maintained constant i.e 30oC. β-diketone contains one phenolic and other enolic group. Since the initial stage of titration the ligand curve coincides with the acid curve up to pH 8.2 and then it deviates to rightside. IV. CONCLUSION In the present work pH metric study was performed to determine stability constants and to asses binary species. The complexes of transition metals with β-diketone ligands shows following order of stability. L1 : Cu > Ni > Co > Mn > Zn L2 : Cu > Ni > Co > Mn > Zn L3 : Cu > Ni > Co > Mn > Zn L4 : Cu > Ni > Co > Mn > Zn L5 : Cu > Ni > Co > Mn > Zn REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

T. V. Schroeder, B.Ugrinova , Noll and Brown, A chelating β-diketone/phenoxide ligand and its coordination behavior toward titanium and scandium, Dalton Transactions, 2006, 1: 1030-1040. R. C. Malhotr , Chemistry of metal β-diketonates, Pure and applied chem., 1988, 60:1349. A. Garnovskii, B. Kharixov, L. Blanco, D./ Garnovskii, A. Burlov, I. Vasilchenko, and G. Bondarenko, Solid phase synthesis of traceless 1,3-diketones, J. Coord. Chem. 46, 1999, 365-375. G. Aromi, P. Gamez, and J. Reedijk, Coordination Chemistry Reviews, vol.252, 2008, no. 8-9 pp.964. A. Siedle, in comprehensive Coordination Chem., Wilkinson, pergamon press, Oxford, vol.2 cha 5,4, 1987, pp 365. L. Tang, S. Zhang, J. Yang, W.Gao, J. Cui, T. Zhuang, Molecules, 9, 2004, 842. S. T. Heller, S. R. Natarajan, Org. Lett. 8, 2006,2675. T. Nishiyama, S. T. Shitotsu, Polym. Degrade & Stab, 76, 2002, 435-439. K.Sato, S. Yamamoto, S. Ohata, and A. Ando, Org Kett, 2008, 10: 2405-2408. I. Bennett, J. Broom, R. Cassels, J. Eelder, N. Masson and J. Hanlon, Bioinorganic and Medicinal Chem Lett, 9, 1999, 1847. I. Andrae, A. Bringhen, F. Bohm, H. Gonzenbach, J. Hill, L. Mulroy and T. J. Truscott, Photochemistry and Photobiol, 1997, 37:147. L. Tchertanov and J. Mouscadet, J. Med. Chem, 50, 2007, 1133. R. G. Bates, Dertermination of pH Theory and Practice, A Wiley Interscience Publication, New York. 1973. A. Albert, E. P. Serjeant, Determination of Ionization constants, Chapman and Hall Ltd., 2 nd Edn, London, 1971, 10. D. E. Goldberg and W. C. Fernelins, Phys. Chem. 63, 1959, 245. H. Freiser, Q. Fernando and G. E. Cneney, J. Phys. Chem. 63, 1959, 250. T. J. Lane and J. W. Thomson , J. Am. Chem. Soc, 82, 1960, 4179.

Page 29

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

To Study the suitable period of wedge grafting in guava under different condition of Chitrakoot Region Mahendra Jadia, Yogesh Sahu, S.S. Singh and S.P. Mishra Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramodya Vishwavidyalaya, Satna (M.P.), INDIA. Abstract: Guava (Psidum guajava L.) is one of the most promising fruit crops of India and is considered to be one of the exquisite nutritionally valuable and remunerative crops. In recent years, guava is getting popularity in the international trade due to its nutritional value and processed products. The scenario is changing from traditional propagation with incorporation of science and technology in nursery management and trade. Proper care is not exercised in the selection of scion material from really outstanding and disease-free mother plant. These trees become a permanent liability to the growers as no amount of wedge grafting, fertilization and care can change their genetic qualities. Wedge grafting has a tremendous potential for multiplying guava plants rapidly throughout the year either in green house as well as in open field conditions. In this paper to study the suitable period of wedge grafting in guava under different condition of Chitrakoot Region in India. The most suitable period for wedge grafting obtained at poly house condition from 20th November to 5th January and in open field condition most suitable period obtained from 5th January to 5th February at Chitrakoot region. Keywords: Wedge grafting, guava, open & poly house condition. I. Introduction Guava (Psidum guajava L.) family Myrtaceae guava is one of the most promising fruit crop of India and is considered to be one of the exquisite nutritionally valuable and remunerative crops (Singh et al. 2000). Flower the area, production and productivity in India were estimated to be 1.55 lakh ha, 17.93 million tones and 11.56 t/ha respectively (Indian Horticulture Base 2012-13). In M.P. the area of Guava was obtained 2763 ha, production 55,260 tones and productivity 20 t/ha (commissioner, land record M.P. 2012-13). In recent years, guava is getting popularity in the international trade due to its nutritional value and processed products (Singh et al., 2005). However, the greatest handicap in guava plantation is indiscriminate multiplication of plants from unreliable sources by nurserymen (Singh et al., 2005). Proper care is not exercised in the selection of scion material from really outstanding and disease-free mother plant. The result is that large number of low grade guava plants are distributed and planted in the field every year. These trees become a permanent liability to the growers as no amount of wedge grafting, fertilization and care can change their genetic qualities. Nonavailability of quality of planting materials and consequent substation of poor quality seedling has adversely affected the guava production and productivity levels. Although a large number of nurseries have been established there is an acute shortage of quality planting materials. The scenario is changing from traditional propagation with incorporation of science and technology in nursery management and trade (Singh and Bajpai, 2003). There is tremendous scope for bringing substantial additional area under guava crop in India. So rapid and successful propagation technique is required as the area under crop is expanding and there is a demand to prepare the guava sampling throughout the year raising planting material through rapid multiplication technique. Guava plants have been propagated through seeds for a long time. Propagation from seeds results in considerable variation in the size shape and quality of fruits. Vegetative propagation in guava results in true-totype crop with short juvenile phase. Though guava propagated through budding (Gupta and Malhotra 1985; Kaundal et al. 1987, air layering (Singh and Singh 1970), Sharma et al., 1978; Manna et al., 2004, stooling (Rathore, 1984, Pathak and Saroj, 1988) and inarching (Mukherjee and Majumder, 1983). These are still not commercially viable due to varying rate of success absence of tap root system and cumbersome process. Therefore, there is need to produce healthy planting material of important commercial varieties. While choosing a particular technique for propagating guava, time of grafting operation and climatic conditions should be taken into consideration. Now Government of India has given focused attention on establishing the model nurseries for full-filling the requirements genuine planting material to the Indian farmers

Page 30

Mahendra Jadia et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 30-32

under National Horticulture Mission (N.H.M.). Therefore, a technique of rapid multiplication (wedge grafting) has been developed at Central Institute of Sub-tropical Horticulture (CISH), Lucknow (U.P.). Wedge grafting has a tremendous potential for multiplying guava plants rapidly throughout the year either in green house as well as in open field conditions. In view of varied climatic conditions of our country, guava plants are required round the year; presently the institute is producing raising quality materials of guava through wedge grafting technique round the year in green house as well as in open field conditions.

II. Materials and Methods Study site The study was conducted in Agricultural Farm Razaula at M.G.C.G.V. Chitrakoot (M.P.) in India during the session of 2012-13. The region of Chitrakoot comes under sub-tropical belt in the North-east part of Madhya Pradesh, which experiences extremely hot summer and fairly cold winter. During the winter months (DecemberFebruary) temperature falls 5oC-8oC or even low, while in summer months (May-June) it reaches as high as 45oC- 47oC. The experiment was laid out in Allahabad Safeda variety of Guava. Raising of rootstock seedling Guava seeds were sown in nursery bed, after germination when seedlings near 3-4 foliage then the seedling were shifted in poly bag (12 x 25 cm) with potting mixture (3:1:1) proportion. The seedling was used for propagation after age 6 to 8 month old. Preparation of scion stick Shoot with growing optical portion (apical growth) which is 3 to 4 months old is selected for wedge grafting selected scion shoots are defoliated on the mother plant, about 6-8 days prior to detaching. At the same time, the apical growing portion of selected shoot also beheaded. This helps in forcing the dormant bud to swell. In this way the bud on the scion will be ready to start sprouting at the time of grafting this treatment is essential for high success of grafts. Data collection and statistical analyses The age of scion, height of root stock plant, grafting height of root stock, diameter of rootstock and other growth character was recorded on the day of grafting. Data on daily temperature, humidity, solar radiation and rainfall were recorded in each month. The experiment carried out Factorial Randomized Block Design with 8 treatments (different date of grafting), two factors (polyhouse & open condition) and analyzed by using software like MSEXCEL and Statistical Analysis System (SAS). Graft survival (%) Calculate survival percentage of grafted plants having sprouted bud was counted after 15 days from date of grafting was counted and percentage of graft survival was calculated by the following formula: Total number of survival grafts Graft survival (%) = x 100 Total number of grafted plants III. Results & Discussion The data on graft survival percentage presented in Table 1 showed that various dates of grafting at poly house condition and open field condition both were significant. The graft survival percentage of grafted plant varies, maximum graft survival percentage in P.H.C. was obtained (93.08%) at the month of 5th January which was at par with the (90.94%) in the month of 20 th November and in O.F.C. was obtained (76.33%) at the month of 20th January which was at par with the (72.69%) in the month of 20 th February minimum graft survival percentage were obtained in P.H.C. was (80.69%) at the month of 5 th March and in O.F.C. was (46.33%) at the month of 20th November. Table 1: Effect of graft survival percentage in poly house condition and open field condition different dates of grafting. Levels of Field condition Date of grafting D

Polyhouse condition (C1)

Opened field condition (C2)

20th November

90.94

46.33

68.64

90.47

57.43

73.95

20 December

89.37

69.79

79.58

5th January

93.08

72.69

82.89

87.39

76.33

81.86

5 February

86.66

72.62

79.64

20th February

86.15

69.20

77.68

5 December th

20 January th

Interaction (C x D)

Page 31

Mahendra Jadia et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 30-32

5th March

80.69

61.41

Mean (C)

88.09

65.73

71.05

S. Em. (Âą)

C.D. at 5%

Date (D)

0.478

0.977

Condition (C)

0.239

0.489

Int. (D x C)

0.677

1.382

The similar trend was observed in interaction between P.H.C. and O.F.C. was significant. Maximum graft survival percentage was obtained (82.89) for the month of 5 th January which was at percentage the (81.86) in the month of 20th January and minimum graft survival percentage was obtained (68.64) for the month of 20 th November. IV. Conclusion The most suitable period for wedge grafting at poly house condition from 20 th November to 5th January and in open field condition most suitable period was obtained from 5th January to 5th February at Chitrakoot region in India. The maximum percentage of graft survival obtained at poly house condition was (94.08 %) in the month of December and open field condition was (77.33%) in the month of January. The wedge grafting given best performance under poly house (protected) condition obtained in the month of December and open field condition the best performance was obtained in the month of January. References [1] [2] [3] [4]

[5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

Gupta, M.R. and Malhrotra, N.K. (1985). Propagation studies in guava (Psidium guajava L) cv. Allahabad Safeda. J. Res. PAD Ludhiana, 22: 267-69 Kaundal, G.S.; Gill, S.S. and Minnas, P.P. (1987) Budding clonal propagation of guava. Punjab Hort. J., 27 208-11 Manna, A.; Mathew, B. and Ghosh, S.N. (2004). Air layering in guava cultivars. Journal of Interacademicia, Nadia India. 2:278281. Mukherjee S.K. and Majumder, P.K.(1983) Vegetative propagation of tropical and subtropical fruit crops ICAR, New Delhi. Nagabhushnam, S.; Murthy, K.N. and Mohan,E.(1979). Study on different propagation techniques in cashew nut. Intensive Agric.,17:15 19. Pathak, R.K. and Saroj, P.I. (1988). Studies on the propagation of guava species by stool layering. Fruit Res Workshop Subtropical and Temperature Fruit. RAU, Pusa, Bihar. Rathore. D.S. (1984). Studies on the propagation of guava by stooling Punjab Hort. J., 24:75-78. Sharma, K.K.; Jawanda J 3 and Gill, S.S. (1978). Propagation of guava by mound layering. Punjab Hort. J., 18: 65-67. Singh B.P and Singh. I.J. (1970). Studies on the effect of source and plant growth regulators on the performance of air layers of guava (Psidium guajava L). J., Res. PAU., 12:23-25. Singh G., Singh A.K. and Verma, A. (2000). Economic evaluation of crop regulation treatments in guava (Psidium guajava L). Indian J. agric. Sci.. 70: 226-230. Singh. Gorah (2005). Wedge grafting in Guava, Mango and Aonla, PFDC, ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India. Extension folder No. 8.

Page 32

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Performance of Front Line Demonstrations on Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) in Ambala District, Haryana, India Rupesh Kumar Arora Earlier at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Tepla, Ambala, Haryana– 133104, INDIA Presently working at Regional Research Station, Punjab Agricultural University, Bathinda, Punjab-151001, INDIA Abstract: Front Line Demonstartions on sunflower Hybrid Pioneer 64A57 were conducted at Farmer’s field in district Ambala, Haryana during spring season from the year 2009 to 2013. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ambala (Haryana) conducted 20 demonstrations especially on Plant Protections measures. The constraints in the production of sunflower crop were identified with a major emphasizes against the Head Borer or American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) in the sunflower. The critical inputs required were identified from the recommended package of practices of Punjab and their usages were discussed in practising farmer’s trainings at the farmer’s field and KVK campus. The average four years data revealed that an average yield of demonstrated plot was obtained 20.43 qtl/ha, local check (18.27 qtl/ha) and the average percentage increase in yield over local check was 11.88 per cent. The average extension gap was found to be 2.16 qtl/ha. From the study, it revealed that over the years the hybrid of pioneer performed better at demonstrated plot in comparison to local check. Benefit: Cost ratio was recorded to be higher under demonstrated plot against check during the part of the study. Key words: FLD, Sunflower, American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera), Extension gap, Yield and Economic Impact I. INTRODUCTION Oilseeds play the second important role in the Indian agricultural economy, next only to food grains in terms of area and production(Meena and Singh,2013).Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) belongs to Asteraceae family is one of the important edible oilseed crops cultivated in different parts of the world and has become the fourth most important oilseed crop in India. Sunflower cultivation in India was started with varieties introduced from outside the country and subsequently the hybrids were developed and are being grown widely covering nearly 95 % of the cultivated area. Generally, hybrids have higher yield potential compared to varieties (Kumar et al., 2013). At present, the oilseeds production in India is not meeting the domestic demands and now dependent on imports. The continuous increase in import of oilseed is a matter of great concern today (Katare et al., 2011). A wide gap exists in sunflower production with the use of available techniques and its actual application by the farmers and the higher incidence of pest attack leads to further reduction in yield, reflected through poor yield of sunflower crop on farmer’s field. There is a tremendous opportunity for increasing the productivity of sunflower crop by adopting the improved technologies. To demonstrate the scientific cultivation of sunflower front line demonstrations should be laid out at farmer’s field. The basic objective of FLDs is to demonstrate the proven technology at farmer’s field through KVKs. (Verma et al., 2014). II. MATERIALS AND METHODS The present study was conducted by Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Tepla,Ambala district from Haryana at the farmer’s field of the Pioneer hybrids 64A57 in the adopted villages of the operational area of KVK for four years (20092010 to 2012-13). In total, 20 demonstrations of 0.4 ha. each was conducted in different villages of Ambala district of Haryana. The necessary step for selection of site and farmers, layout of demonstration etc were followed as suggested by Choudhary (1999). Before conducting FLDs, a list of farmers of different villages were prepared from survey and farmer’s meetings and specific skill training was imparted in the form of practising farmer’s training at the farmer’s field or at KVK campus regarding different aspects of cultivation of sunflower and its plant protection measures The traditional practices were maintained in case of local checks. The data output were collected from both FLD plot as well as check plots and finally the extension gap (Katare et al.,2011)along with the benefit cost ratio were worked out( Samui et al.,2000) as given below: Extension Gap = Demonstration Yield – Farmers Yield

Page 33

Rupesh Kumar Arora, American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 33-35

In general the soils under study was sandy loam in texture with a pH ranging between 7 -7.5. The crop rotations normally followed in Ambala district is Rice-Potato-Sunflower. The sowing of the sunflower seeds should be done by the end of January as delayed sowing of crop in the second fortnight of February or in the month of March lead to increases in the incidence of pests and diseases. The 2.0 kg seed were sown per acre. Ridge sowing were done and the seed were placed about 6-8 cm below the ridge top. Irrigation to ridge sown crop was done 2-3 days after sowing and care was done that water level in the ridges well below the seed placement line. The benefit of the ridge sowing that the crop were not lodge and it also helps to save the water during hot summer months. (Package of Practices for Rabi crops of Punjab, 2013-14.) The data on average cost of cultivation, average gross return, average net return and Benefit:Cost ratio were collected from frontline demonstrations plots for working out the economic feasibility of sunflower hybrid Pioneer 64A57. The recommended packages of practices were followed to conduct the Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) at the farmer’s field. The difference between the demonstration package and existing farmers practices are given in Table 1. III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The data of Table 2 revealed that the yield of the Pioneer hybrids 64A57 performed well at the farmer’s field in demonstrated plot as compared to farmer’s practices (check). The maximum yield recorded in demonstrated plot was 21.75 qtl/ha during 2012-13 and minimum yield was 17.40 qtl/ha in 2010-11. The average yield of four years in demonstrated plot was recorded 20.43 qtl/ha and local check (18.27 qtl/ha). The increase in per cent of yield was ranged from 9.80 to 14.28 qtl/ha during four years of study. On an average basis, 11.88 per cent increase in yield over local check was recorded. The extension gap showed the trend ranged from 1.95 to 2.50 qtl/ha during the period of study (Table 2). The average cost of cultivation (Rs 18000.00/ha/), average gross returns (Rs 59500.00/ha.),net returns (Rs 41500.00/ha.) and Benefit: Cost ratio (3.30) was recorded in the Pioneer hybrids 64A57 in the years 2012-13 as compare to local check. Benefit- Cost (B: C) ratio was recorded to be higher under demonstrated plot (Table 3) against check during all the years of study. The results clearly indicate the positive effects of FLDs over the existing practices towards enhancing the yield of the Pioneer hybrids 64A57 in Ambala district of Haryana. The reason for the higher yield in FLDs is due to recommended dosages of fertilizers and modules for pest management against the Head Borer or American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) were followed properly. However, yield of the Pioneer hybrids 64A57 were varied in different years which might be due to the variation in climatic conditions and incidence of disease/ pest attack. The percentage increases in yield over local check were recorded constantly year wise during the period of study. In Ambala district of Haryana, the low productivity of onion is because of farmers are not adopting recommended package of practices. IV. CONCLUSION The above findings inferred that the usage of recommended package of practices leads to control the Head Borer or American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) attack below the Economic Threshold level (ETL) thus lead to increased productivity of Pioneer hybrid 64A57 in the Ambala district of Haryana. To reduce the technological gap and to reverse the trend of extension gap, emphasizes will be done to conduct more number of practising farmer’s training at farmer’s field and KVK campus regarding recommended package and practices. REFERENCES Choudhary, B.N. (1999). Krishi Vigyan Kendra-A guide for KVK managers. Division of Agricultural Extension, ICAR, pp. 73-78. Katare, S., Pandey, S.K. and Mustafa, M. (2011).Yield gap analysis of Rapeseed-mustard through front line demonstrations. Agriculture Update, 6(2):5-7. Kumar, K.A., Neelima,S., Munirathnam,P and Sarma,A.S.R.2013.Impact of NPK fertilization on growth, yield and economics of Sunflower((Helianthus annuus L.) varities and hybrids. J. Oilseeds Res., pp 30(2): 144-146. Meena, M. L. and Singh,D. 2013. Frontline demonstration for boosting the oilseeds production in Rajasthan: A case study in Pali. J. Oilseeds Res. 30(1):51-54. Package of Practices for Rabi crops of Punjab.2013-14.Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.pp.56-60. Samui,S.K., Maitra,S., Roy,D.K.,Mandal,A.K. and Saha,D.(2000).Evaluation of Front Line demonstration on groundnut. J. Indian Soc. Coastal Agric. Res., 18(2):180-183. Verma, R. K., Dayanand, Rathore, R.S.,Mehta,S.M. and Singh,M.2014.Yield and gap analysis of wheat productivity through frontline demonstrations in Jhunjhunu district of Rajasthan.Ann. Agric.Res.New Series. 35(1):79-82.

Table 1: Details of Sunflower hybrid 64A57 growing under Existing Farmer’s Practices and Improved Practices adopted in Frontline demonstrations at farmer’s field in Ambala district of Haryana S.No.

Operations

Farming Situation

Time of Sowing

3. 4.

Seed Treatment Method of sowing

Existing Farmer’s Practices Irrigated Second fortnight of February or March Not done Broadcasting

Improved/Recommended* Practices adopted in Demonstrated Plot(FLDs) Irrigated January end or February (first week) Treatment with Thiram@2g/kg of seed Ridge sowing

Page 34

Rupesh Kumar Arora, American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 33-35

Fertilizers Dosages

Non-adoption of recommended package of practices. Usually more emphasizes were done on the higher dosages of Urea and application of Muriate of Potash (MOP) is omitted due to higher cost. No hoeing and application of stomp 30 EC (Pendimethalin) @500 ml/acre

Weed control

Plant Protection Measures (Pest Incidence)

Non-adoption of recommended package of practices and injudicious use of pesticides and spray Dursban 20 EC(Chloropyriphos)@500 ml/acre

Urea – 50 kg/acre Single Superphosphate–75 kg/acre Muriate of Potash -20 kg/acre

First hoeing was done 2-3 weeks after the emergence followed by second hoeing three weeks therafter and application of Stomp 30 EC(Pendimethalin) @ 1 liter/acre as preemergence within 2-3 days after sowing Spray Asataf 75 SP(Acephate) @800g/acre or Dursban 20 EC(Chloropyriphos)@1 litre/acre

Recommended* - Package of Practices for Rabi crops of Punjab, 2013-14 Table 2: Performance of Front Line Demonstrations (FLD) of Sunflower Hybrid 64A57 in Ambala District, Haryana Year

Area (ha.)

20092010 20102011 20112012 20122013 Average

No. Of Demo.

Yield(Qtl./ha) Demo.

2.0

20.00

17.50

14.28

2.50

Irrigated

2.0

19.50

17.40

12.06

2.10

Irrigated

2.0

21.75

19.80

9.80

1.95

Irrigated

2.0

20.50

18.40

11.41

2.10

Irrigated

20.43

Yield (Qtl./ha) Check

Percentage increase in Yield over local check (%)

18.27

Ext.gap* (Qtl./ha)

Farming Situation

2.16

11.88

Soil Type Sandy loam Sandy loam Sandy loam Sandy loam --

*Extension Gap = Demonstration Yield - Farmer’s Yield Table 3: Economic Impact of Cultivation of Sunflower Hybrid 64A57 in Ambala District Haryana Year

Average Cost of Cultivation (Rs./ha) Demo. Plot

20092010 20102011 20112012 20122013

Local

Average Gross Return (Rs./ha) Demo. Plot

Average Net Return(Profit) (Rs./ha)

Local

Demo. Plot

Local

Benefit Cost (B:C)* Ratio

14950.00

14500.00

42000.00

36750.00

27050.00

22250.00

Demo. Plot 1.80

Local

14000.00

50700.00

36700.00

3.62

17500.00

58725.00

41225.00

3.35

18000.00

59500.00

41500.00

3.30

1.53

B: C Ratio*=Average Net Return/Average Cost of Cultivation

Page 35

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Productivity and Economic of aerobic rice and soil bulk density under conservation tillage Seema1, D.K. Singh2, P.C. Pandey3 1 Ph.D. Scholor, 2, 3Professor 1,2,3 Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-U.S. Nagar- 263145, Uttarakhand (India) Abstract: A field experiment was conducted during the rainy season of 2012 and 2013 to study the performance of rice varieties at different conservation tillage under aerobic condition. Higher grain yield (5.99 t/ha and 5.44 t/ha) of rice was obtained under conventional tillage followed by minimum tillage during both the years. In case of rice varieties high grain yield was recorded by HYV (5.78 t/ha and 5.23 t/ha) in both years than hybrid rice. Similarly higher nutrient uptake was recorded in case of conventional tillage which was statistically similar to minimum tillage. Lower soil bulk density was observed under conventional tillage than zero and minimum tillage during both the years. On the basis of economics higher net return and benefit: cost ratio was recorded with minimum tillage. Key words: Aerobic rice, nutrient uptake, rice varieties, soil bulk density, benefit: cost ratio I. Introduction Rice is staple food of more than 60% of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population. Flood irrigated rice consumed 2-3 times more water than other cereal crops. The increasing water crisis threatens the sustainability of irrigated rice production (Patel et al., 2010). Yet more rice needs to be produced with less and less water to feed the ever-growing population, which needs judicious water management practices and sustainable water saving technologies in rice cultivation (Wang et al., 2010). In aerobic rice system wherein the crop established in non-puddled, non-flooded and rice is grown like an upland crop (unsaturated condition) with adequate and supplementary irrigation when rainfall is insufficient. In most lowland regions rice is grown as a transplanted crop in contrast to the direct seeding. Soil puddling for rice is done to assist in transplanting of seedlings, control of weeds and water and nutrient losses (Ghildyal, 1978). Despite these benefit, the effect of puddling on rice yield is not clear. Puddling breaks down and disperses soil aggregates in to micro aggregates and individual particles (Adachi, 1990) and result in a massive structure after rice which in turn, affects the growth and yield of non rice crop. Also puddling is a capital and energy intensive process. There is limited information on the crop performance under different conservation tillage when varieties are adapted to aerobic condition. Therefore, in this study an attempt has been made to evaluate the influence of conservation tillage on performance of different rice varieties grown under aerobic condition. II. Materials and Methods The field experiment was conducted during 2012 and 2013 in the experimental farm of Norman E. Borlaug Crop Research Centre at G. B. Pant University Agriculture and Technology Pantnagar, district Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand in the tarai region of Indo-Gangatic Plains. It lies at 234.8 m above from sea level, about 30 km south ward of foothills of Shivalik range of Himalayas at 29 0 N latitude 790 290 E longitude with sub humid sub tropical type of climate. The soil of experimental field at the beginning of the experiment was silty loam in texture, medium in organic matter (0.93%), low in available N (175.3 kg/ha), medium in P (17.2 kg/ha) and K (210.5 kg/ha). The treatments which were organized in Split Plot Design with three replications were three tillage practices which were plotted in main plots were zero tillage, minimum tillage and conventional tillage while rice varieties were kept in sub plots i.e. hybrid rice and high yielding variety (HYV). Pant Sankar Dhan 3 (hybrid rice) and Pant Dhan 16 (HYV) used for experimentation. In case of fertilizers, half dose of N and full dose of P and K was applied at the time of field preparation i.e. previous day of sowing. All the agronomic practices and plant protection measures were followed as per standard recommendations. Rice crop was harvested on last week of October during both the years. (A) Sampling and analysis of plant sample The grain and plant samples were dried under shade and then oven dried at 65 + 1 0C till constant weight. These samples were ground and mixed well before being processed for chemical analysis.

Page 36

Seema et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 36-40

Nitrogen, Phosphorus and potassium content (%) and micronutrient (Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu) were determined as per the basic procedure described by Jackson, (1967). (B)

(C)

(D)

Soil bulk density Bulk density was determined by core sampler method (Braver, 1956). Bulk density of the soil was determined at three depths (0-5, 5-10 and 10-15 cm).After core sampling fresh weight of soil along with moisture box was taken to determine the moisture in soil. Then boxes were dried in oven at 105 0C temperature till constant weight and then weighted to express the bulk density and moisture content by following formulae: Bulk density (Mg m-3) = weight of oven dried soil/ field volume of sample Grain yield Grain yield of rice was determined from the net plot area by harvesting all the tillers and excluding the border line area. The grains were separated from the straw, dried and weighed. Statistical analysis All the data using samples from replicate field plots for each treatment was analyzed statistically. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was done to determine by using Gomez and Gomez (1984). Critical Difference (C.D.) values were calculated using standard errors of means (S. Em.+-) at 5 percent level of significance.

III. Result and discussion (A) Yield Different conservation tillage has significant effect on the grain yield during second season of rice crop i.e. 2013 only. Significantly higher grain yield was obtained under conventional tillage (5.44 t/ha) and minimum tillage (5.39 t/ha) than zero tillage (4.62 t/ha). In comparison to first year of rice crop yield obtained during second year was little lower because of aberrant weather condition. Higher grain yield under conventional and minimum tillage may be due to better yield contributing character and better nutrient availability as compared to zero tillage during both the years. Similar result was reported by Singh et al., 2006. Among rice varieties higher yield was observed with HYV (5.78 t/ha and 5.23 t/ha in 2012 and 2013 respectively) than hybrid rice though the difference was found non-significant. HYV recorded higher yield than hybrid rice which might be due to high potential of HYV to perform under aerobic condition than hybrid rice. Another reason may be more weather variation during crop season which disturbed the proper flowering and maturity. Hybrid rice is sensitive to temperature variation more than other. Similar result was reported by Patel et al., 2010. (B) Nutrient uptake (N, P and K kg/ha) The maximum nitrogen uptake (107.4 kg ha-1 in 2012 and 95.8 kg ha-1 in 2013) was recorded under CT which was significantly higher than ZT and at par with MT in 2012 while in 2013 significantly higher than MT and ZT. Rice varieties had non-significant effect on total nitrogen uptake but higher nitrogen uptake was recorded by HYV (103.1 t/ha in 2012 and 88.8 t/ha in 2013). In both the years tillage practices influenced total phosphorus uptake significantly. Maximum phosphorus uptake (31.8 and 28.4 kg ha -1 in 2012 and 2013 respectively) was recorded under CT which was statistically at par with MT (29.8 kg ha-1and 28.0 kg ha-1 respectively in 2012 and 2013) and significantly higher than ZT (28.6, 23.7 in 2012 & 2013) in both the years. Rice varieties had non-significantly effect on phosphorus uptake but higher phosphorus uptake was recorded with HYV (8.57 and 8.26 kg ha-1 in 2012 and 2013 respectively). In 2012, tillage practices had non-significant effect on potassium uptake while had significant effect in 2013. The higher potassium uptake (103.8 kg ha -1 and 104.1 kg ha-1in 2012 and 2013 respectively) by rice crop was recorded with CT which was statistically at par in 2012 and significantly higher in 2013 than MT and ZT. Significant effect of rice varieties on total potassium uptake was found in 2013only. Maximum potassium uptake was found under HYV (101.6 kg ha-1) which was statistically at par to hybrid rice in 2012. In next year significantly higher potassium was recorded by HYV (99.7 kg ha-1) than hybrid rice. Conventional tillage resulted higher nutrient uptake followed by minimum tillage during both the years which might be due to higher nutrient content and dry matter production. Gangwar et al., 2004 also reported the similar result. (C) Micronutrient uptake (Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu) Tillage practices had significant effect on micronutrient uptake by rice crop during both the years. Higher micronutrient uptake by rice crop was recorded under conventional tillage which was significantly higher than zero tillage and statistically at par with minimum tillage. Among rice varieties, non-significant difference was observed in case of micronutrient uptake but little bit higher uptake was recorded with HYV than hybrid rice during both the years of rice cultivation. Higher uptake with conventional tillage may be due to better yield and yield attributing characters. (D) Soil bulk density (Mg/m3) Soil bulk density was taken after the harvest of rice crop at different depths (5, 10 and 15 cm), and it was observed that tillage practices had significant influence on soil bulk density in second year only. Lower bulk

Page 37

Seema et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 36-40

density was observed under conventional tillage than minimum and zero tillage at 5 and 10 cm. Rice varieties did not influence the bulk density during both the years. Under conventional tillage higher bulk density was recorded during second year which might be due to soil settlement on wetting. Similar result was recorded by Sharma et al., 2004. Among tillage practices, higher bulk density was observed with ZT. The greatest bulk density when compared with conventional tillage which created a soft tilth layer might be produced by the lack of soil tillage, hardened soil especially in the early years (Fengyun et al., 2011). (E) Economics During first year rice cultivation net return was obtained under conventional tillage followed by zero tillage while in next year maximum net return was obtained with minimum tillage followed by conventional tillage. Similar pattern was found in B: C ratio also. In case of rive varieties during the years, maximum net return and B: C ratio was observed with HYV than hybrid rice. Higher net return and benefit: cost ratio was observed with minimum tillage which may be due to almost similar yield and lower cost of cultivation than conventional tillage. Similar report was reported by Pandey et al., 2003. IV. Conclusion It can be concluded that growing of HYV under aerobic rice with minimum tillage may be greater promise for higher yield and nutritional quality of aerobic rice. Conservation tillage may be an alternative of conventional tillage to reduce cost of cultivation and sustain yield. References: [1]

Patel, D. P., Das, Anup, Munda, G. C., Ghosh, P. K., Bordoloi, Juri Sandhya and Kumar Manoj. 2010. Evaluation of yield and physiological attributes of high-yielding rice varieties under aerobic and flood- irrigated management practices in mid-hills ecosystem. Agricultural Water Management 4: 124-132 Wang,H., Bouman, B.A.M., Dule, Z.,Wang, C. And Moya, P.F.2002.Aerobic rice in northern China. Opportunities and challenges. In: B.A.M. Bouman, H.Hengsdijk, B.Hardy, P.S. Bindraban, T.P. Tuong and J.K. Ladha (Editors). Water-wise Rice Production. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Water-wise Rice Production. International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines, 8-11 April 2002.pp143-54 Ghildyal, B.P. (1978).Effect of compaction and puddling on soil physical properties and rice growth, In: Soil Physics and Rice. IRRI, Los Banos. Philipines,p 32 Adachi, K., (1990). Effect of rice-soil puddling on water percolation. In: Transactions of the 14th International Congress of Soil Science, Kyoto, Japan, I.pp. 146-151. Jackson, M.L.1967. Soil chemical analysis, Indian reprint.Prentice Hall of India (Pvt.) Ltd., New Delhi. pp.263-393. Baver, L.D. 1965. Soil physics. 3rd ed.John Wiley and Sons, New York, 489 p. Gomez, K.A. and Gomez, A.A. 1984. Statistical Procedure for Agricultural Research (2 nd edn), Wiley, New York. Singh, R.D., Bhattacharyya, R., Chandra Subhas and Kundu, S. 2006. Tillage and Irrigation effect on Soil Infiltration, Water Expense and Crop Yield under Rice-Wheat System in a Medium Textured Soil of North-West Himalayas. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 2:151-157 Gangwar, K.S. and Singh, K.K.2004. Effect of tillage on growth, yield and nutrient uptake in wheat after rice in the IndoGangatic plains of India. Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 142(4):453-459. Sharma Peeyush, Tripathi, R. P. Singh, Singh Surendra and Kumar, R. 2004. Effect of Tillage on Soil Physical properties and Crop Performance under Rice-Wheat System. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 52: 12-16 Fengyun, Zhang, Pute Wu, Xining, Zhao and Xuefeng Cheng. 2011. The effect of no-tillage practices on soil physical properties. African Journal of Biotechnology vol.10 (77): 17645-17650. Pandey, L. M.; Suresh Pal and Mruthyunyaya. 2003. Impact of zero tillage technology in the rice-wheat system of foothill of Uttaranchal state, India. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 73(8): 432-437.

[2]

[3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

[9] [10] [11] [12]

Table1: effect of conservation tillage on yield, net return and benefit: cost ratio of rice during 2012 and 2013 Treatment

Grain yield (t/ha)

Net return (Rs./ha)

B:C ratio

Tillage

2012

2013

2012

2013

2012

2013

Zero tillage

5.54

4.62

43946

36317

1.66

1.44

Minimum tillage

5.58

5.39

43441

44836

1.59

1.67

Conventional tillage

5.99

5.44

46778

44410

1.61

1.59

CD (5%)

0.17

Rice varieties Hybrid rice

5.63

5.08

45120

42304

1.67

1.62

HYV

5.78

5.23

48280

45429

2.01

1.96

CD (5%)

Page 38

Seema et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 36-40

macrontrient uptake (kg/ha) during 2012

Fig. 1: Effect of conservation tillage on nutrient uptake (N, P and K) by rice crop during 2012 and 2013 115 105 95 85 75 65 55 45 35 25 15

N P K zero tillage

minimum tillage

conventional tillage

hybrid rice

macronutrient uptake (kg/ha) during 2013

tillage

HYV

varieties

115 105 95 85 75 65 55 45 35 25 15 zero tillage

minimum tillage

conventional tillage

hybrid rice

tillage

HYV

varieties

micronutrient uptake (g/ha) during 2012

Fig. 2 Effect of conservation tillage on micronutrient uptake (Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu) by rice crop during 2012 and 2013 5000 4500 4000 2012 Cu

3500

2012 Mn

3000

2012 Zn 2500

2012 Fe

2000 ZT

tillage

hybrid rice

HYV

varieties

micronutrient uptake (g/ha) during 2013

4500 4000 3500 2013 Cu

3000

2013 Mn

2500

2013 Zn 2000

2013 Fe

1500 ZT

MT tillage

hybrid rice

HYV

varieties

Page 39

Seema et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 36-40

Table 2: Effect of conservation tillage on soil bulk density at different depths of soil (5, 10 and 15 cm) after harvest of rice crop Bulk density (Mg/m3)

Treatment

After harvest of Rice, 2012

After harvest of Rice, 2013

0-5 cm

5-10 cm

10-15 cm

0-5 cm

5-10 cm

10-15 cm

Zero tillage

1.38

1.43

1.46

1.37

1.43

1.44

Minimum tillage

1.36

1.41

1.44

1.36

1.42

1.44

Conventional tillage

1.36

1.40

1.43

1.34

1.39

1.47

C.D. (5%)

0.02

0.004

Pant Sankar Dhan 3

1.37

1.41

1.44

1.36

1.40

1.45

Pant Dhan 16

1.37

1.41

1.45

1.37

1.42

1.44

C.D. (5%)

Rice variety

Page 40

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Fructooligosacharide Intake- A Potential Means to Reduce Undernutrition in Children Sheth Mini1, Parnami Swati2, Gupta Neha3 and Mandali Janki4 1,2,3,4 Department of Foods and Nutrition Faculty of Family and Community Sciences The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, INDIA Abstract: Fructooligosaccharide is known to have potential health benefits The effect of FOS supplementation was determined on the establishment of Bifidobacteria and enteric pathogens along with morbidity profile of the undernourished children (3-6 years of age) selected from a primary school using double blind placebo control trial. Thirty three subjects (placebo control group) received 7g dextrose and 32 subjects (experimental group) were supplemented with 7g FOS daily for 4 weeks in lemon juice during breakfast. Significant increase in the establishment of gut beneficial Bifidobacteria (p < 0.001) from 5.02 to 5.80 log CFU/g with decrease in the number of enteric pathogens (p < 0.001) from 4.15 to 3.68 CFU/g. FOS intake significantly associated with lower occurrence of infections (p < 0.01) as well as some of the gastrointestinal disorders (p < 0.001) including diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, flatulence, constipation. Hence, daily consumption of 7 FOS for 4 weeks reduces GI morbidity in preschool children which may be related to increased colonization of Bifidobacteria and reduced establishment of Enteric Pathogens in the gut of the undernourished children. Keywords: Undernutrition, fructooligosaccharide, Bifidobacteria, Morbidity, GI disorders, Enteric pathogens

I. Introduction Under nutrition continues to be a primary cause of ill health and mortality among children in developing countries. The UN estimates that 2.1 million Indian children die before reaching the age of 5 every year mostly from preventable illnesses such as diarrhea, typhoid, malaria, measles and pneumonia. In India 48% children suffer from under nutrition and 6.4 % of children below 60 months of age, are severely wasted [1]. There is increasing awareness that the human gut micro flora plays a critical role in maintaining host health. An ‘optimal’ gut micro flora establishes an efficient barrier to the invasion and colonization of the gut by pathogenic bacteria[2].Changes in the intestinal micro flora that occur with the consumption of prebiotic fibers like fructooligosaccharide (FOS) potentially mediate immune changes via the direct contact of Bifidobacteria, which can improve the host health by preventing morbidities. Bifidobacteria is known to constitute one of the major organisms in the colonic flora of healthy children and adults [3].Little information is available in literature on the establishment of Bifidobacteria in normal and undernourished children and its role in occurrence of infections and gastrointestinal problems in children. Investigators have reported increase in the number of bifidobacteria in humans with FOS supplementation for 15 days [4]. However, intake of such foods in preschool children needs to be tested. Many factors such as frequency of intake of antibiotics and long term effect of exclusive breast feeding and mode of delivery on establishment of gut micro flora needs to be determined. Therefore the present study focused on studying the effect of FOS supplementation on establishment Bifidobacteria and enteric pathogens in the gut of undernourished preschool children as well as their morbidity profile. II. Methodology A. Selection of the subjects Eighty eight children (3-6 years of age), were enrolled, from a preschool “Balwadi” associated with The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda at Vadodara. Written informed consent was obtained from the parents of children and school authorities. Children who suffered from obesity/overweight, chronic diarrhea, severe ARI, celiac disease, juvenile diabetes, HIV, cancer, renal disorder and liver disorder were excluded. All the undernourished subject who met the criteria of both weight-for-age and height for age category of <-3 SDs, -3 to -2 SDs and -2 to -1 SD according to WHO classification, 2007 were included in the study. No changes were made in the methods after trial commencement.

Page 41

Sheth Mini et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2015, 2014, pp. 41-45

B. Collection of baseline data Baseline information was collected with respect to anthropometric measurements, diet intake, morbidity profile and socio-economic status. Information regarding age, gender, educational level of parents, monthly family income, and parity was elicited using a pre-tested structured questionnaire administered to the parents of all the subjects. Gut microbial counts levels was determined in terms of bifidobacteria and enteric pathogen. The subjects were randomly assigned using computer generated random tables to either control or experimental group by the investigator. Anthropometric measurements like, height was measured using flexible measuring tape and weight of subjects was measured on a pre-standardized weighing scale nearest to 100 kg. BMI was calculated using the formulae weight (kg)/height (m2). Waist circumference (WC) and hip circumference (HC) were measured using flexible measuring tape. To measure waist circumference, subjects were made to stand straight and with their stomach relaxed. The tape was positioned midway between the top of the hip bone and the bottom of the rib cage. Hip circumference was measured 24 inches below navel level, tape was wrapped and circumference measured. Data on dietary intake of all the subjects was collected by using 24hr dietary recall and food frequency methods. The prebiotic and probiotic content of the selected food items (27 foods) was taken from the scientific report by Sheth, Parnami and Vaidya 2008 [5]. Based on the frequency of consumption of dietary fiber and prebiotic food, the subjects were categorized as those with most frequent and less frequent intakes. A three day 24-dietary recall of 88 subjects was collected. Nutrient content of diet was calculated using ‘Diet soft’ software package [6]. In order to determine the morbidity profile, the respective parents were asked to report the various illnesses experienced in the past two months and the recurring problems with respect to gastrointestinal problems (vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, flatulence and constipation), cardiovascular problems, liver and kidney diseases and general illness such as cough, cold, fever, skin infection, wound and any other major illness suffered by the subject using a checklist. The children were divided into normal and undernourished category using the WHO growth standards for children (2007). C. Study Design Double blind placebo control trial was used as the study design for the intervention where the blinding was done at two stages- one at the time of dividing the children into two groups and second at the time of preparation of the FOS and dextrose added lemon juice. Sixty five Undernourished subjects were divided into 2 following groups irrespective of their degree of under nutrition. Group 1 which constituted of Experimental group was supplemented with 7g of FOS( BeneoRaftilineP95 BAG 25 kg, Orafti, Belgium was procured from Brenntag Ingredients India Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai). D. Mode and duration of Intervention As lemon juice formed a part of their routine drink served along with breakfast daily, it was chosen as a medium for supplementation for period of 4 weeks. The acceptability of FOS added lemon juice was ensured before supplementation. The beverage was given to children during school hours and for the holidays, sachet of 7g FOS and 7g Dextrose was given to respective children for the continuity of the supplementation. Parents were told to give FOS by mixing it into the lemon juice only. E. Collection of test samples Fecal and blood samples were collected before and at the end of intervention. Fecal samples were collected for determining microbial counts in terms of bifidobacteria and enteric pathogen. Parents of the subjects were advised not to alter their usual calorie intakes and physical activity pattern and were asked to document any unusual symptoms or side effects. The compliance of the supplementation was monitored regularly by the research investigator. F. Test methods Fecal bacteria enumeration The gut micro flora was determined with respect to the microorganisms- Bifidobacteria and enteric pathogens. Fecal samples were collected in an air tight sterile container kept with cold packs and within 3 hours after the collection. The serial dilutions of 1 gram of fecal samples were made up from 10 -2 to 10-8 dilutions (14).The media for bifidobacteria and Enteric pathogens was prepared in laboratory using the dehydrated bifidobacterium agar and EMB agar respectively procured from Hi Media and was autoclaved at 121 0C for 15 minutes (15). The prepared media were poured into sterile petri plates and was allowed to set (pour plate technique). The petri plates were kept inside laminar flow under UV light prior to using them for serial dilution. These plates were then kept inside the incubator along with the plates of Enterobacteria at 37°C for 48 hours. After this the colonies were counted and reported the organisms were enumerated using a colony counter and the numbers of colonies were reported as log values per gram of sample (log CFU/g).

Page 42

Sheth Mini et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2015, 2014, pp. 41-45

Blood collection and analysis After the overnight fast, venous blood sample was collected in clean, sterilized vacuum containers and allowed to stand at room temperature for 15 minutes. Hemoglobin assessment of was based on the cell counting and volumetric analysis. 2ml of blood was collected in EDTA bulbs by a professional laboratory technician and analyzed using automated analyzer. G. Statistical analysis The data was entered in a computer using an excel spreadsheet. The data was cleaned and verified and subjected to appropriate statistical analysis Data analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS19.0 version, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Paired t test was performed to observe the effect of FOS supplementation. The significance levels were set at 5% by two sided tests. Student t test was performed for the comparison between control and experimental group. Pearson correlation was calculated between blood glucose parameters and gut microflora counts. Mean and standard deviation were calculated. Frequency distribution and percentages were calculated wherever applicable. All tests were considered significant at P<0.05. H. Statutory clearances The Medical Ethics committee of the Foods and Nutrition Department, The M.S. University of Baroda approved the study proposal and provided the Medical ethics approval number (F.C.Sc/FND/ME/57). Written consent was obtained from the parents of participants who agreed to give baseline information through questionnaire and give sample of blood and stool for biochemical and microbiological analysis respectively. III. Results A. Baseline Characteristics The background information of the subjects revealed that most of the subjects (51.1%) belonged to nuclear family and their average family income per month ranged between 5, 000-10,000. Sixty seven per cent subjects were the first child of their family. In most cases, the parents were literate up to graduation and majority of the mothers (80.7%) were house wives. Type of the delivery was normal in most of the cases (72.7%). Most of the undernourished children were mildly underweight and stunted according to WHO classification, 2007. Almost 65% of the children had completed their booster dose for immunization, yet majority of the subjects (70.4%) were suffering from the mild illnesses and only 4.5% children were hospitalized due to these illnesses. As indicated in table 1, significant association (p < 0.05) was found between antibiotic intake and nutritional status of the children under study. Undernourished children were taking more antibiotics than the normal children. Almost 42% of the children suffered from infection and fever during the past two months, along with abdominal pain and flatulence. More number of undernourished children suffered from infection (p < 0.05) as compare to the normal children and this difference was found to be statistically significant. B. Anthropometric, Biochemical and Physical activity profile The mean values of recorded weight and height of the subjects was 9.7kg and 97.1cm respectively. Weight (p ≤ 0.01) and height (p ≤ 0.001) were significantly associated with the nutritional status of the subjects. Majority of the children (59%) were vegetarian. Surprisingly, 63.3% mothers reported that their children were having normal appetite, in spite of their being undernourished. Only a few subjects (6.81%) were taking dietary supplements other than food. Most of the children (86.3%) were reported to be breast fed exclusively after birth up to 6 months. Mean haemoglobin levels of healthy subjects were in the normal range as compared to undernourished subjects were moderately anemic (Hb < 10.9).15 C. Dietary Intake Assessment The mean nutrient intake of all the children was below the recommended daily allowances (RDA) by 33.7% and 82.7% for calories and total dietary fiber respectively. Very low intakes of zinc, iron, vitamin-C and β-carotene were observed. The nutrients that affected their nutritional status most significantly were protein (p <0.01), TDF (p <0.05) and β-Carotene (p <0.05). Energy intake of severely undernourished children was significantly lower (p <0.001) than that of the mild and moderately undernourished children. Almost 70% children were taking prebiotic and probiotic foods more frequently (Table1). D. Microbial Profile As seen in Table 1, the establishment of beneficial bacteria was significantly higher in normal children as compared to undernourished children whereas enteric pathogens colonized less in the normal subjects. E. Correlation amongst dietary intake , biochemical parameter and microbial parameters Total dietary fiber intake significantly affected Enteric pathogen (p <0.05) counts in the gut of the subjects. Frequent consumption of prebiotics and probiotics foods, significantly reduced the establishment of Enteric

Page 43

Sheth Mini et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2015, 2014, pp. 41-45

pathogen (p <0.001) in the gut of the children. When the establishment of gut micro flora as affected by the intake of curd and buttermilk of children was studied, it was found that the number of subjects who were consuming buttermilk on daily basis had significantly greater establishment (p <0.001) of Bifidobacteria as compared to the children who took buttermilk occasionally. Daily intake of curd showed significantly reduced (p <0.01) establishment of Enteric pathogens in large number of subjects. Data on type of delivery of mothers of the subjects revealed that 72.7% subjects were born through normal delivery and microbial counts of Enteric pathogens of those subjects was significantly less (p <0.001) than those who underwent caesarean delivery. However, the type of delivery did not have any significant effect on the establishment of the Bifidobacteria. Children, who took antibiotics in the past two months, had significantly lower (p <0.05) establishment of beneficial micro flora and greater establishment (p <0.001) of Enteric pathogens in the gut of the subjects. Subjects who were breast fed at the time of birth up to six months, had significantly lower bacterial counts (p <0.001) for Enteric pathogens which are harmful for health. Bifidobacteria counts in the breast fed children were little higher than non-breast fed children but it was not statistically significant. Table 1 Factors affecting the nutritional status of the subjects under study. Variables

Nutritional status (n=88) Normal

Undernourished χ2 value

Number of subjects Antibiotics intake

5.261*

Infection episodes in past 2 months

4.734*

G.I Problems in past two months

1.045NS

Protein(g/d)

33.09±7.8

27.03±8.11

3.104**

TDF (g/d)

3.48±1.44

3.16±1.25

2.222*

β-Carotene(μg/d)

888.73±156.6

795.25±190.66

2.110**

Hemoglobin level (g/dl)

11.09±0.81

10.14±1.12

3.936**

‘t’ value

Mean values

Mean values (log10CFU/g) Bifidobacteria

5.24±0.39

4.97±0.59

2.489*

Enterobacteria

3.5±0.49

4.16±0.53

5.388***

*=Statistically significant at p < 0.05, **=Statistically significant at p < 0.01 ***=Statistically significant at p < 0.001 NS= Non-Significant

Impact of FOS supplementation on weight gain, dietary intakes, hemoglobin and gut bacteria of undernourished children. FOS supplementation resulted in non-significant weight gain of the children, however a significant reduction in GI problems (p <0.001) and occurrence of infections was observed. Also the dietary intakes of FOS supplemented children increased significantly with respect to vitamin-C, zinc and total dietary fiber and A significant (p <0.01) increase in the establishment of Bifidobacteria in the gut of the children with a significant reduction in the establishment of Enteric pathogens was seen in the FOS supplemented group. Supplementation with FOS showed a non-significant increase in the hemoglobin levels (Table 2) . Table 2 Impact of FOS supplementation on weight gain, dietary intakes, hemoglobin and gut bacteria of undernourished children. Variables

Groups(n=65) Experimental (n=32)

Placebo (n=33) ‘t’ value

Mean values Weight gain

12.87 ± 1.4

13.82 ± 2.4

1.877NS

Vitamin-C (mg/d)

22.75 ± 12.3

15.81 ± 9.5

2.524*

TDF (g/d)

10.31 ± 1.08

3.19 ± 1.54

20.739***

Zinc (mg/d)

2.10 ± 0.7

1.82 ± 0.6

2.174*

Hemoglobin level (g/dl)

10.72 ± .9

11.06 ± 1.23

1.125NS

Bifidobacteria

5.8 ± 0.54

5.1 ± 0.72

4.326***

Enterobacteria

3.68 ± 0.83

4.11 ± 0.65

2.316***

(log10CFU/g)

*=Statistically significant at p < 0.05, **=Statistically significant at p < 0.01 ***=Statistically significant at p < 0.001 NS= Non-Significant

Page 44

Sheth Mini et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2015, 2014, pp. 41-45

IV. Discussion The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) micro biota plays an important role in host health due to its involvement in nutritional, immunologic and physiological functions. Microbial imbalances have been associated with enhanced risk of specific diseases [7]. The present study revealed increased establishment of bifidobacteria and reduced enteric pathogens in normal children when compared to the undernourished children. Human gut is a natural habitat for a large and dynamic bacterial community; these include both beneficial and harmful bacteria. Composition of Microflora differs among individuals and also during life with in the same individual. Under normal homeostatic conditions, the intestinal microflora is of central importance in preventing colonization by pathogens [8], hence, beneficial bacterial species were found to establish more in healthy gut as compared to the one with compromised gut enteropathy. Gut enteropathy plays an important role in the pathogenesis of severe undernutrition by affecting their resistance against the pathogens [9]. Intake of dietary fiber and frequent consumption of foods rich in probiotics and prebiotics also may have played a role in the establishment of more number of beneficial bacteria in the gut of the normal children. In the present study the intake of dietary fiber was significantly higher (9.1%) in the normal children when compared to the undernourished children. Several studies have shown positive balance in the establishment of beneficial gut microflora as affected by intakes of dietary fiber. The establishment of beneficial microflora in the adult female was also reported with more frequent consumption of prebiotics and probiotic foods [10].In a study, infants who were fed with cow milk formula supplemented with FOS and galactooligosaccharides (GOS), after 28 days of feeding revealed significant increase in the numbers of fecal bifidobacteria when compared with the placebo [11,12] . The major functions of the gut microflora include metabolic activities that result in salvage of energy and absorbable nutrients, important trophic effects on intestinal epithelia and on immune structure and function. In the present study, undernourished subjects were found to suffer from more episodes of infection and gastrointestinal problems then their normal counterparts [13]. Studies have reported that inclusion of ﬁbre (FOS) in the diet promotes satiation and aids in long-term compliance to low energy diets, and encourages “healthy” food choices and eating habits [14]. The decrease in fat mass development is clearly linked to decrease in energy intake and hence reduction in body weight. The present study did not reveal any association between fructan (FOS) intake and reduced weight gain in the children. In fact there was a nominal weight gain in both experimental and the placebo group, indicating that the mechanism of satiation may be different in the children and daily supplementation in amounts as low as 7g may in fact provide health benefits to the children. The present study therefore concludes that supplementation of 7g FOS for the period of 4 weeks does not cause weight loss in undernourished children but in fact increase the establishment of Bifidobacteria and reduce establishment of enteric pathogens known to reduce occurrence of infections in children. Such an effort may promote to break the vicious cycle of infections and under nutrition in children. Long term studies on a larger sample are required to determine the effect of FOS supplementation on reducing under nutrition related morbidities and mortalities. V. [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14].

[15].

References

NFHS III 2005-2006. Undernutrition in Gujarat. http://www.nfhsindia.org. Isolauri E, Kaila M, Arvola T. Probiotics: a role in the treatment of intestinal infection and inflammation 1991; 50:54–59. Mitsuoka, T. Biﬁdobacteria and their role in human health.J. Ind. Microbiol1990; 6: 263–268. Gibson GR and Roberfroid MB. Dietary Modulation of the Human Colonic Micro biota introducing the Concept of Prebiotics. American Institute of Nutrition 1995; 0022-3166. Sheth M, Parnami S and Vaidya R. Role of prebiotics in health and disease, scientific reports series No.8, UGC/DSA program of F.N. dept., The MSU of Baroda, Vadodara 2008. Diet soft 2008-2009. Gurdeep kaur, Deptt. Of dietetics AIIMS, New Delhi. Version 1.1.7©. Collado MC, Isolauri E, Salminen S, Sanz Y 2009. The impact of probiotic on gut health. Curr Drug Metab 2009; 10:68-78. Gibson GR, Collinns MD 1999. Concept of balanced colonic microbiota, prebiotics and synbiotics In: LA Hanson and RH Yolken (Ed). Probiotics, other nutritional factors and intestinal microflora. Lippincott-Raven: Philadelphia 1999; 139-156. Field CJ and Schley PD 2002. Immune enhancing effect of dietary fiber and prebiotics. British Journal of Nutrition 2002; 2:221– 230. Sheth M and Bhinde M. Consumption pattern of prebiotic and probiotic foods and determining the related gut microflora of young adult female population (18-24 yrs) of urban Baroda 2006. Moro G, Minoli I, Mosca M et al. Dosage-related bifidogenic effects of galacto- and fructo-oligosaccharides in formula-fed term infants. J PediatrGastroenterol Nutr 2002; 34:291-295. Parnami S and Sheth M. Indian fermented milk (Dahi) fortified with probiotic bacteria and inulin improves serum blood glucose levels and gut microflora of instutionalized older adults. Journal of the Indian academy of geriatrics 2011; In press. Guarner F, Malagelada JR. "Gut flora in health and disease". Lancet 2003; 361: 512–19. Sandra J. M. Ten Bruggencate, Ingeborg M. J. Bovee-Oudenhoven1, Mischa L. G. Lettink-Wissink, Roelof Van der Meer. Dietary Fructooligosaccharides Affect Intestinal Barrier Function in Healthy Men.American Society for Nutrition J. Nutr 2006; 136:70-74. WHO. Haemoglobin concentrations for the diagnosis of anaemia and assessment of severity. Vitamin and Mineral Nutrition Information System. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2011 (WHO/NMH/NHD/MNM/11.1) (http://www.who.int/vmnis/indicators/haemoglobin.pdf, accessed [date]).

Page 45

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Preparation of Undoped and Sb Doped Tin Oxide Films by Spray Pyrolysis for Gas Sensing Studies a

Archana Guptaa, M.C. Bhatnagarb, P. Rajarama School of Studies in Physics, Jiwaji University, Gwalior 474011, Madhya Pradesh, INDIA b Department of Physics, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110016, INDIA

Abstract: Tin oxide (TO) and antimony doped tin oxide thin films with different doping levels were prepared by the spray pyrolysis technique. The films were deposited on glass slides at 400 °C temperature and sintered at 450 °C for 3 hours. The structural and morphological properties of the films were studied using XRD, SEM, AFM and TEM. SEM and AFM studies reveal that the particle size ranges from 100 to 300 nm while TEM studies show that the grain size of the films is much smaller (~20 nm). The gas sensor response of the SnO2 films to carbon monoxide improves when doped with around 5 % antimony. Keywords: SnO2, Spray Pyrolysis, XRD, SEM, TEM, AFM, Gas Sensor. I.

Introduction

Tin oxide (SnO2) is a well-known material for its applications in transparent conducting layers and gas sensors [1,2]. It has been extensively investigated for practical applications, such as gas leak detection, environmental monitoring, dye sensitized solar cells [3], gas sensors [4–6] and photo catalysts [7]. These oxide sensors have good reliability and long-term stability and at the same time have low cost. There are several methods of preparing tin oxide thin films such as: RF magnetron sputtering [8], electron beam evaporation [9], sol–gel method [10], chemical vapor deposition [11], pulsed laser deposition [12], vacuum evaporation [13], electron cyclotron resonance sputtering [14], molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) [15] spin-coating method [16] and spray pyrolysis [17] etc. Among all the above methods, spray pyrolysis is one of the simpler and economical methods. Accurate doping of the films can be achieved with ease, using the spray technique. However, gas sensing properties of SnO2 suffer from several problems such as high operating temperature and poor sensitivity, which limits its applicability in real-time gas sensing. Recent research has focused on improving the responsivity, selectivity and time response of these gas sensors. It is well known [18 -24] that sensitivity and selectivity of the SnO2, gas sensors can be significantly improved by doping the films with various metals and oxides like antimony and fluorine. In this work, we have synthesized Sb-doped nanocrystalline SnO2 films by the spray pyrolysis method and investigated their sensing properties to carbon monoxide gas. It was found that the gas response of the nanocrystals was greatly increased by the Sb doping. II.

Experimental Details

Undoped and antimony doped thin films of (0%, 5% and 15%) doping were deposited by the spray pyrolysis method. The starting solutions were solutions of stannous chloride (SnCl2.2H2O) dissolved in propanol in which appropriate quantities of antimony tri chloride (SbCl3) were added for Sb doping. The SnO2 films were prepared on glass substrates heated to 400 oC. The structural properties of the films were studied by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) patterns obtained on a Philips ‘X-part’ model glancing angle X-ray diffractometer (GAXRD). The average crystallite size (D) of the Sb-doped SnO2 films was estimated using the Scherrer equation as follows [25]: D =0.9λ / B cos θ

(1)

Where λ, B, and θ are the X-ray wavelength, the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the diffraction peak, and the diffraction angle, respectively. Surface and internal morphology was studied using SEM, AFM, and TEM. The surface topography of the films was investigated by atomic force microscopy (AFM) using a Digital Instruments’ Nanoscope III. Microstructural characterization of films was carried out by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) using a Philips CM12 TEM operating at 100 kV.

Page 46

Archana Gupta et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 46-50

Figure 1: Sensing Chamber The CO sensing properties of SnO2 films were studied in a gas sensor assembly set up at IIT, Delhi, and the setup is shown in Figure 1. The gas sensitivity was measured at temperatures between room temperature and 500 o C. Air with a controlled rate was used as a carrier gas; a known amount of target gas was introduced to get the required level of target gas concentration. The resistance of the film was measured as a function of time. The percentage response (% S) to a reducing test gas is defined as: S = {(Ra − Rg) / Ra} ×100% Where Ra is the resistance of sensor in air and Rg is the resistance in the presence of a test gas[26]. III.

(2)

Results and Discussions

The structural and morphological properties of SnO2 have a significant role on the electrical and gas sensing properties. Hence, structural and grain size measurements were performed. The XRD patterns of 0%, 5%,15%Sb doped SnO2 films are shown in Fig. 2. a

Figure 2: XRD patterns of Sb:SnO2 thin films with different Sb contents: (a)0%, (b)5% and (c)15 %. All the diffraction patterns show characteristic tin oxide peaks with the rutile structure without any impurity phase indicating formation of single phase tin oxide films. The incorporation of Sb causes a broadening of the peaks and a reduction in the peak intensity, thus indicating a reduction in the crystallite size with doping. Doping levels of 15% Sb seem to be the limit, as higher doping levels have been found to severely degrade the crystallinity of the films. The lattice parameters calculated from the diffraction patterns of SnO2 are in good agreement with the JCPDS data, where a = b = 4.738 Å and c = 3.188 Å . Figures 3(a) (b) and (c) show the SEM images of undoped SnO2, 5% antimony doped SnO2 and 15% antimony doped SnO2 films, respectively. The

Page 47

Archana Gupta et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 46-50

SEM micrographs show that the surface of the undoped and 5% doped films is uniformly covered with particles. However the shape of the particles changes from sharp polygonal for undoped SnO 2 films to near spherical for 5% Sb doped films. Moreover, it can be seen that the particle size of the films decreases as the antimony doping increases from 0 % to 5 %. The morphology of the 15 % doped SnO 2 sample seen in Fig. 3(c) resembles that of an amorphous sample in agreement with the poor crystallinity indicated by the XRD pattern.

(a)

(c)

(b) Figure 3: SEM images of Sb doped SnO2 thin films with (a) 0 %, (b) 5% and (c) 15% Sb content.

(a) (b) Figure 4: AFM images of SnO2 thin films with (a) 0 % and (b) 5%) Sb content.

Page 48

Archana Gupta et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 46-50

Surface morphology of the Sb; SnO2 films was also examined using AFM and the results are shown in Figures 4(a) and 4 (b) for pure SnO2 and 5 % Sb doped SnO2 respectively. The AFM results confirm the SEM studies which show that the particle size is found to decrease with increasing Sb content in the films.

50 nm

100 nm

(a) (b) Figure 5: TEM micrographs of SnO2 samples with (a) 0 % and (b) 5% Sb content. The crystallite shape and size distribution of the samples was determined by TEM. Figures 5 (a) and 5 (b) show typical TEM images of the undoped SnO2 film and 5% doped Sb:SnO2 film, respectively. It can be seen that both undoped and doped samples contain nanocrystallites of around 10 nm size. However, it is hard to discern changes in the crystallite size with doping concentration from the TEM micrographs, and thus agreement with XRD cannot be claimed without further studies like HRTEM. The sensing response of undoped SnO2, 5% antimony doped SnO2 and 15% antimony doped SnO2 films, to carbon monoxide gas, is shown in Figures 6 (a), (b) and (c), respectively. Under identical testing conditions, the Responsivity of the 5% doped sample is several times greater than that of both the undoped sample and the 15% doped sample It is well known that gas sensing is a surface phenomenon and, in oxides, is mainly controlled by the adsorbed oxygen species. Doping with Sb could give rise to various oxygen species and surface states causing enhancement in the gas sensing response. The reduction in both the particle size (as indicated by SEM and AFM) as well as the crystallite size (as indicated by XRD studies) could be the reason for the enhancement. The high surface to volume ratio in nanostructures causes an enhancement to chemical reactivity and is thus expected to exhibit enhanced sensing response to gases and chemicals. Interestingly, poor surface morphology and poor crystallinity seem to hamper the sensor response, as the Responsivity curve for 15 % Sb doped SnO2 sample indicates.

Time (a)

Time (b)

Time (C)

Figure 6: Responsivity to CO gas of SnO2 thin films doped with (a) 0% (undoped), (b) 5% Sb and (c) 15% Sb.

Page 49

Archana Gupta et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 46-50

IV.

Conclusions

Undoped and antimony-doped SnO2 thin films were deposited on glass microslides by the spray pyrolysis technique for CO gas sensing studies. The structural, morphological and CO gas sensing properties of undoped, 5% Sb doped and 15% Sb doped tin oxide thin films were compared. The gas sensing ability was correlated with the surface and internal morphology of the samples. The best gas sensing response was observed in a 5% Sb doped SnO2 sample. One of the reasons for the increased responsively to CO gas with Sb doping could be the increase in surface area due to the smaller particle size. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26]

T. Fukano, T. Ida, H. Hashizume, J. Appl. Phys. 97 (2005) 084314. G. Korotcenkov, Sens. Actuator B 107 (2005) 209. B. O’ Regan, M. Gratzel, A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO2 films, Nature 335 (1991) 737–739. R.J. Wu, Y.L. Sun, C.C. Lin, H.W. Chen, M. Chavali, Composite of TiO 2 nanowires and Nafion as humidity sensor material, Sens. Actuators B 115 (2006) 189–204. H. Tang, K. Prasad, R. Sanjin´es, F. L´evy, TiO2 anatase thin films as gas sensors, Sens. Actuators B 26 (1995) 71–75. C.M. Carney, S. Yoo, A.A. Sheikh, TiO2–SnO2 nanostructures and their H2 sensing behavior, Sens. Actuators B 108 (2005) 29– 33. A.I. Martinez, D.R. Acosta1, A.A. Lopez, Effect of deposition methods on the properties of photocatalytic TiO 2 thin films prepared by spray pyrolysis and magnetron sputtering, J. Phys. Condens. Matter 16 (2004) S2335–S2344. R. Cavicchi, S. Semancik, Thin Solid Films 206 (1991) 81. J.C. Jiang, K. Lian, E.I. Meletis, Thin Solid Films 411 (2002) 203. S. Wang, J. Huang, Y. Zhao, S. Wang, S. Wu, S. Zhang, W. Huang, Mater. Lett. 60 (2006) 1706. C.F. Wan, R.D. McGrath, W.F. Keenan, S.N. Frank, J. Electrochem. Soc. 136 (1989) 1459. Y.R. Ryu, S. Zhu, J.M. Wrobel, H.M. Jeong, P.F. Miceli, H.W. White, J. Cryst. Growth 216 (2000) 326. H. Yan, G. Chen, W. Man, S. Wong, R.W.M. Kwok, Thin Solid Films 326(1998) 88. M. Kadota, T. Kasanami, M. Minakata, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 32 (1993) 2341. M. Batzill, J.M. Burst, U. Diebold, Thin Solid Films 484 (2005) 132. T. Schneider, M. Sommer, J. Goschnick, Appl. Surf. Sci. 252 (2005) 257. S. Shanthi, C. Subramanian, P. Ramasamy, J. Cryst. Growth 197 (1999) 858. G. S. V. Coles, S. E. Bond, and G. Williams, Sensors and Actuators B 4, 485 (1991). 3 G. Sberveglieri, S. Gropelli, P. Nelli, and A. Camanzi, Sensors and Actuators B 3, 183 (1991). C. Xu, J. Tamaki, N. Miura, and N. Yamazoe, Sensors and Actuators B 3, 147 (1991). 5D. D. Lee and W. Y. Chung, Sensors and Actuators 20, 301 (1989). %. AmbrazeviEiene, A. Galdikas, S. Grebinskij, A. Mironas, and H. Tvardauskas, Sensors and Actuators B 17, 27 (1993). 7H.-W. Cheong, J.-J. Choi, H. P. Kim, J. M. Kim, J. M. Kim, and G.-S. Churn, Sensors and Actuators B 9, 227 (1992). D. Kohl. Sensors and Actuators B 1. 158 (1990) H.P. Klug, L.E. Alexander, X-Ray Diffraction Procedures for Polycrystalline and Amorphous Materials, Wiley, New York, 1974. V.V. Petrov, T.N. Nazarova, A.N. Korolev, N.F. Kopilova, Thin Sol-Gel SiO2-SnOX-AgOY Films for Low Temperature Ammonia Gas Sensor, Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical (2007)

Acknowledgments The Authors are grateful to IIT Delhi, for permitting the use of several of their experimental facilities, including the XRD, SEM, TEM and AFM facilities. Authors are also grateful Shikha and Parul, the research scholars at IIT Delhi, who extended their support in this work.

Page 50

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Quantitative Analysis of Serum Level Alanine and Aspartate Aminotransferases, γ-Glutamyl Transferase and Alkaline Phospatase as Predictor of Liver Diseases Debasish Sahoo*, M. Rukmini, Ravitosh Ray Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, niTza Biological (P) Ltd., Neredmet X Roads, Secunderabad-500056, Telangana, INDIA Abstract: The diagnostic evaluation of different enzymes associated to liver such as Alanine Amino Transferase(ALT), Aspartate Amino Transferase(AST) and Gamma Glutamyl Transferase(GGT) can give a easy follow through for detection of liver homeostasis. The hepatic diseases can be better evaluated by analyzing the serum levels of alanine and aspartate amino transferase and Alkaline Phospatase (ALP). The study includes serum level of enzymes of hepatic disorders such as alcoholic liver disease, hepatitis, and liver cirrhosis. The serum level of ALT, AST, GGT and ALP were analysed by their standardized methods . There was a significant relationship between ALT and GGT. Comparative elevation in the above discussed enzyme indicates the nature and degree of the hepatic damage. Keywords: Hepatic damage, serum level, Liver cirrhosis, viral hepatitis, Alcoholic liver damage, Alanine amino Transferase, Aspartate amino Transferase, Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase, Alkaline Phospatase.

I. Introduction Liver is the major organ that performs many vital functions of our body. It helps primarily in metabolism, digestion, detoxification and immunity [1]-[3]. Various forms of liver associated diseases are alcohol cirrhosis [1], viral hepatitis [4], non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) [5]. Alanine amino transferase (ALT) also known as serum glutamic pyurvic transaminase (SGPT) normally found largely in liver. It is not fact that it is only present in liver but the concentration of this enzyme is more in liver and generally are released to bloodstream as a result of liver injury. Its level in serum of blood is frequently used to determine these type of hepatic diseases and functionality of liver. Elevated serum level of ALT determines the liver damage such as hepatitis and jaundice [6]. The normal level of ALT in blood ranges between 7-56 U/L and it increases more than 50 times or greater than 500 U/L during hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, ischemic liver injury, toxin induced liver damage [7]. Despite the association between greatly elevated ALT level and its specificity to hepatocellular diseases, the absolute peak of the ALT elevation does not correlate with the extent of liver cell damage. Aspartate amino transferase (AST) also known as serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) is found in diverse tissue system such as liver, heart, muscles, kidney and brain. The normal range of AST is 5-40 U/L. It is released into the bloodstream when the above tissues are damaged. Its serum level increases with heart attacks and muscle disorders. So AST can’t be used as specific indicator for liver damage. AST and ALT are sensitive indicators for liver damage as the interpretation of elevated serum level of two enzymes, but depends solely on the whole clinical picture and the physician experience in evaluating the liver disease. The precise level of these enzyme does not correlate the extent of liver damage or the prognosis. The ratio of AST/ALT ratio can be more clinically valid than assessing individual concentration. Alkaline Phospatase (ALP) is present in mucosal epithelia of small intestine, proximal convoluted tubule of kidney, bone, liver and placenta. It helps in lipid transportation in intestine and calcification of bone. The serum ALP activity is mainly from liver with half that is contributed by bone. The normal ALP level is 41-133 U/L [8]. Elevated serum level of ALP found in infiltrate liver disease, granulomatous liver disease and amyloidosis, hepatitis etc. [9]. Gamma-glutamyl transferase, GGT, GGTP, gamma-GT (E.C. 2.3.2.2) is found in many tissue system including kidney, duct, pancreas, gall bladder, spleen, heart, brain and seminal vesicles the most notable one being the liver. It catalyse the transfer of gamma-glutamyl moiety of glutathione to a acceptor may be amino acid, a peptide or water. It also involve the transfer of amino acid across cellular membrane and leukotriene synthesis. Elevated serum GGT can be found in diseases related to liver, billiary system and pancreas. Indeed unlike ALP, it is also related to detecting liver diseases. The two markers i.e ALP and GGT indeed correlate well though there is a conflicting data about whether GGT has better sensitivity. The main value of GGT over ALP is in verifying that ALP elevations are, in fact, due to billiary diseases, ALP also has increased serum level in certain bone diseases but GGT has no elevated level in this case. [9]

Page 51

Debasish Sahoo et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 51-55

II. Material and Methodology In the present investigation, a total of 40 male subjects aged between 30 to 50 years having history and suffering from viral hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, and liver cirrhosis. The inclusion criteria were for liver cirrhosis were jaundice, ascites, edema, enlarged veins over abdomen and palable spleen whereas for hepatitis pyrexia, jaundice tendency and repeated vomiting. For alcoholic liver disease the inclusion criteria were fever, repeated vomiting, pain in liver area, hepatic tenderness, cyst, vegetative forms seen in stool. The exclusion criteria were cases of liver carcinoma, cardiovascular associated liver disease and other infectious diseases. Controls were selected on the basis that they do not have a history or are not suffering from any chronic diseases so as they have a controlled serum level of ALT, AST, GGT and ALP. Each group i.e. controls, cases suffering from viral hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease and liver cirrhosis containing 10 individuals. The estimation for the ALT, AST, GGT and ALP was carried out for three consecutive weeks. Estimation of Alanine amino Transaminase (ALT) and Aspartate amino Transaminase (AST) by Reitman and Frankel method [10] The estimation is based on the quantification of pyurvate produced by Alanine amino Transferase(ALP). In this assay pyurvate and NADH are converted to lactate and NAD by enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). The decrease in NADH absorbance at 340 nm is proportional to ALT activity. This method is very simple and a convenient assay. For the assay, two quartz cuvettes, one for the blank and one for the sample were taken. To each cuvette, 1000 µL of assay buffer, 25 µL of co-substrate, 5 µL of enzyme mix and 20 µL of double distill water. The cuvettes were equilibrated to 370C. The sample serum was prewarmed to 37 0C and 100 µL of serum was added to the sample cuvette. To the blank, 100 µL of double distill water was added to the blank cuvette. The content of the assay were mixed thoroughly by mixing. The absorbance was measured at 340 nm in a double-beam spectrophotometer at 5th and 10th minutes of the reaction. For quantification of Aspartate amino Transferase (AST) is done by the quantification of oxaloacetate hydrazone formed with 2,4 dinitrophenyl hydrazine. The oxaloacetate was formed by the action of AST on Laspartate and α-keto-glutarate. This oxaloacetate formed then reacts with 2,4 dinitrophenyl hydrazine to oxaloacetate hydrazone . Estimation of Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase (GGT) by SZASZ method The Estimation of Gamma-Glutamyl transferase was done by the method as proposed by Szasz G. [11]. The test utilizes substrate as L-γ-glutamyl-3-carboxy -4-nitro-anilide in Tris Glycylglycin buffer pH-8.25. The enzyme Gammaa glutamyl transferase transfers the gamma glutamyl group of L-γ-glutamyl-3-carboxy -4nitro-anilide to glycylglycine. The amount of 5-amino-2- nitrobenzoate liberated is proportional to amount of GGT activity and is determined spectrophotometrically at 420nm. Estimation of Alkaline Phospatase (ALP) The serum Alkaline Phospatase in blood was assayed by colometric and point method as described in Moss and Henderson, 1999 [12] . Two clean and dry test tubes were taken and marked as Standard and Test. To both the test tubes 0.5 mL of Alkaline phospatase substrate(di-sodium phenyl phospahate in carbonate-bicarbonate buffer at pH 10) was taken and incubated at 370C for 10 minutes. The standard and sample enzymatic solution were also equilibrated at 370C. 0.05 mL of the standard and sample were then added respectively to the Standard and Test test tubes respectively. Then they were mixed gently and incubated at 37 0C exactly upto 10 minutes. Sodium arsenate was added to stop the enzymatic activity. The absorbance was taken using a double beam spectrophotometer at 590nm. III. Results The serum enzyme level of different enzymes such as ALT, AST, GGT, ALP were analysed after 1st week, 2nd week and 3rd week. (Table :1, Figure :1, Figure :2, Figure :3, Figure :4). Table 1: Estimation of serum level ALT, AST, GGT and ALP for three consecutive weeks. Control (n=10) (mean±SD)

Viral Hepatitis (n=10) (mean±SD)

Alcoholic Liver disease (n=10) (mean±SD)

Liver Cirrhosis (n=10) (mean±SD)

WEEK 1 WEEK 2 WEEK 3 WEEK 1 WEEK 2 WEEK 3 WEEK 1 WEEK 2

7.73±3.50 9.14±2.50 11.29±3.98 4.10±0.65 6.11±0.49 13.06±3.43 17.65±2.03 19.21±2.30

251.13±80.65 255.64±83.12 269.32±79.23 154.80±54.23 157.23±34.22 161.66±59.87 107.45±10.32 110.49±10.10

72.18±30.12 76.62±34.33 82.43±29.32 157.83±45.43 162.56±39.76 165.47±50.12 171.07±40.26 176.98±39.87

45.70±6.43 48.97±7.98 56.09±5.76 54.14±6.56 59.07±6.27 65.77±12.17 236.74±32.08 243.43±35.69

WEEK 3

27.64±4.32

117.23±19.65

183.35±54.67

255.29±43.52

WEEK 1 WEEK 2

26.20±3.65 28.21±2.63

197.78±49.45 203.66±37.56

172.22±23.30 178.23±13.10

54.13±6.70 58.23±8.76

WEEK 3

37.88±6.23

211.03±54.60

183.88±33.30

64.23±12.77

TIME OF DIAGNOSIS Alanine amino transferase (ALT) Aspartate amino transferase (AST) Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT)

Alkaline phospatase (ALP)

Page 52

Debasish Sahoo et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 51-55

Serum Level of ALT (mean±SD)

Figure 1: Comparative analysis of Alanine aminoTransferase (ALT) for different liver diseases. 400 350 300 250

Control

200

Viral Hepatitis

150

Alcoholic liver disease

100

Liver cirrhosis

50 0 ALT-WEEK 1

ALT-WEEK 2

ALT-WEEK 3

Figure 2: Comparative analysis of Aspartate aminoTransferase (AST) for different liver diseases. Serum Level of AST (mean±SD)

250 200 Control

150

Viral Hepatitis Alcoholic liver disease

100

Liver cirrhosis 50 0 AST-WEEK 1

AST-WEEK 2

AST-WEEK 3

Figure 3: Comparative analysis of Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase (GGT) for different liver diseases. 350 Serum Level of GGT (mean±SD)

300 250 Control 200

Viral Hepatitis

150

Alcoholic liver disease

100

Liver cirrhosis

50 0 GGT-WEEK 1

GGT-WEEK 2

GGT-WEEK 3

Serum Level of ALP (mean±SD)

Figure 4: Comparative analysis of Alkaline Phospatase (ALP) for different liver diseases. 300 250 200

Control

150

Viral Hepatitis Alcoholic liver disease

100

Liver cirrhosis 50 0 AKP-WEEK 1

AKP-WEEK 2

AKP-WEEK 3

Page 53

Debasish Sahoo et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 51-55

Figure 5: Comparative analysis of serum level of ALT, AST, GGT and ALP for different liver diseases. Serum Level conc. (meanÂąSD)

160 140 120 Control

100 80

Viral hepatitis

Alcoholic liver disease

Liver Cirrhosis

20 0 ALT

AST

GGT

ALP

IV. Discussion The analysis of the level of serum liver enzymes such as ALT, AST, GGT and ALP was done as they are proposed to be the main biomarkers for the liver diseases and these can tested routinely for the clinical analysis. The elevation in the concentration of ALT and AST may indicate predominantly hepato-cellular diseases while the elevation in ALP and GGT may indicate cholestatic diseases of the liver. The concentration of ALT, AST and GGT are considered to be the measures for liver homeostasis. The two Transferases such as serum ALT and AST are the sensitive indicators as those hepatic enzymes have leaked into blood stream due to some hepatocellular injury such as hepatitis. The pattern of the elevation of serum aminotransferase elevation can be useful to treat liver diseases diagnostically. In most of the cases of acute hepato-cellular disorders, the ALT concentration is higher than or equal to AST. The ratio of AST:ALT also determines the diseases status and their ratio greater than 3:1 highly suggest alcoholic liver disease. In the present study from Figure 5, mostly the concentration of AST:ALT is almost equals to 1 for normal individuals whereas it is less than 1 in case for viral hepatitis, greater than 2 for alcoholic liver disease and within 1-2 for liver cirrhosis. The present study has suggested that there is a huge increase in the level of ALT, AST, GGT and ALP as compared to the controls in the diseased conditions. The concentration of serum ALT, AST and ALP are significantly higher in viral hepatitis as compared to alcoholic liver disease and liver cirrhosis. The alcoholic liver diseased person have higher serum level of ALT, AST and ALP as compared to liver cirrhosis. Increased ALT to AST ratio may be due to also fatty liver diseases (non-alcoholic hepatosteatosis), viral infections(Hepatitis A, B, C), haemochromatosis, adverse medication effect, auto-immune diseases and inherent factors whereas it is reversed in case of alcoholic liver disease. The level of ALP increase upto 200-300 U/L in viral hepatitis and upto 300 U/L in alcoholic liver disease. In liver cirrhosis ALP level is normal or slightly elevated. Increased ALP level is observed in intra or extra hepatic bile duct obstructions due to regurgitation of enzyme into circulating blood. The level of GGT is significantly low in case of viral hepatitis and high in case of alcoholic liver disease and cirrhosis. GGT level is high in case of cirrhosis than alcoholic liver disease. The GGT present in hepatobilliary system is extremely sensitive to identify cholestatis disease. In viral hepatitis, it increases upto 5 times in absence of cholastatis and 10 times in presence of cholastatis. There is a 8-10 folds increase in upper limit of GGT and the persistence increase in the GGT is an indicator of liver cirrhosis. If medication and alcohol are suspected cause, then serum level of aminotransferase level must be checked upto 6-8 weeks. High ALT also found in obesity induced fatty liver and diabetes. Commonly encountered serum liver enzyme levels in clinical practices are hepatocellular predominance with elevated ALP and AST and cholestatic predominance with elevated ALP and GGT. The joint analysis of GGT with other liver associated enzyme may yield additional information regarding disease risks and diagnosis. Elevated GGT combined with elevated ALP suggest hepatobilliary injury that distinguishes form elevated level for ALP that suggest bone related diseases. V. Conclusion The abnormal elevation in the level of ALT, AST, GGT and ALP than normal values indicative of different liver diseases. In case of the serum ALT level it was found out that the mean value was 23 folds in case of viral hepatitis, 7.13 folds in case alcoholic liver disease and 4.6 folds in case of liver cirrhosis elevated concentration than normal mean value whereas in case of AST, the serum level was 12 folds in case of viral hepatitis, 12.7 folds in case of alcoholic liver disease and 4.7 folds in case of liver cirrhosis elevation than normal value. The serum GGT showed 4 folds elevations in case viral hepatitis whereas it was 6 folds and 9 folds elevation in case of liver diseases and cirrhosis respectively than normal value. In case of ALP, the serum level were 5.7 folds, 5 folds and 3.2 folds elevated in case viral hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease and liver cirrhosis respectively. So these study can a possibility in the early and correct diagnosis of the different liver diseases. These can helpful in detecting the severity of the diseases that in future considered for the right medication with right dose at right time.

Page 54

Debasish Sahoo et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 51-55

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

Backer et al (1980) “Alanine aminotransferase: analyte monograph.” Association for Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine. Retrieved 7 October 2013. Ghouri, N; Priess, David; Sattar, Naveed (2010). “Liver enzymes, non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases and incident cardiovascular diseases: a narrative review and clinical prospective data”. Hepatology 52 (3): 1156-61. PMID 6104563. Wang, CS; Chang, Ting-Tsung; Yao, Wei-Jen; Wang, Shan-Tair; Chou, Pesus (2012). “Impact of increasing alanine aminotransferase levels within normal range on incident diabetes”. J Formos Med Assoc 111 (4): 201-8. PMID 22526208. Hirsch, FJ, Alvarez-Ossorio MC, Relimpio AM (1991). “Purification and characterization of aspartate aminotransferease from the halophillic archaebacterium haloferax mediterranei”. Biochem J 278 (1); 149-54. PMC 1151461. PMID 1909112. Hayashi H, Wada H, Yoshimura T, Esaki N, Soda K (1990). “Recent topic in pyridoxal 5’-phosphate enzyme studies”. Annu Rev Biochem 59; 87-110. PMID 2197992. Gelfand DH, Steinberg RA (1977), “Escherichia coli mutants deficient in the aspartate and aromatic amino acid aminotransferase”. J bacterial 130 (1); 429-40. PMC 235221. PMID 15983. McPhalen CA, Vincent MG, Jansonius JN (1992). “X-ray structure refinement and comparison of three forms of mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase”. J Mol Biol 225 (2): 495-517. PMID 1593633. Jemal, A; Bray, F; Center, MM; Ferlay, J; Ward, E; Forman D (2011 Mar-Apr). “Global cancer statistics” CA: a cancer journal for clinicians 61 (2): 69-90. PMID-21296855. Bhattacharya I..Lancet, 1997; 349,957: 1002. Reitman S, Frankel S, 1957, A method of assaying liver enzymes in human serum. American Journal of Clinical pathology 28, 56-58. Szasz G.. A kinetic photometric method for serum γ-glutamyl-transferase J. Clin Chem 1969;15:124-136. Moss DW, Henderson AR. 1999. Clinical enzymology. In: Burtis CA, Ashwood ER, eds. Tietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry, 3rd edition Philadelphia, USA: WB Saunders, 617-721.

Page 55

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Study the Effect of Thermally stimulated discharge current on polar Polysulfone and Multiwall Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite Singh Rekha and Tiwari R. K. Department of Physics, Jiwaji University-474011, Gwalior (M.P.), India Abstract: The thermally stimulated discharge current (TSDC) has been observed in 50µm thickness of pure and various weight ratio of polarPolysulfone and Multiwall Carbon Nanotube nanocomposite.PSF/MWCNTs nanocomposite film were prepared by solution mixing of different weight ratio (0, .25, .5 and 1).In TSDC spectra there were one relaxation peak observed and the magnitude of these peaks were increases with increase in weight ratio of MWCNTs due to strong interaction of organic and inorganic component. The height of TSDC observed as a polarizing field. Height of TSDC peaks are increased in pure polar polysulfone while the peaks were more increasing with different weight ratio of MWCNTs due to amount of space charge is smaller in the MWCNTs nanocomposite rather than pure polar polysulfone.The surface morphology of pure PSF and PSF/MWCNTs nanocomposites at micro level were studied by SEM. The XRD characteristic confirms the formation of PSF/MWCNTs nanocomposites. Keywords:TSDC,Nanofillers,MWCNTs and activation energy I. Introduction In recent years thermally stimulated discharge current is very well known and useful technique for investigation of various polymeric electret parameters such as activation energy, charge released, relaxation time and many more in the field of polymer nanocomposite. This technique has been reported during the past few years in the field of polymeric materials. Electret were first discovered by Eguchi in 1919 and named thermo-electret.1 In year 1980 G.M.Sessler gave the electret definition and he defined the insulating or dielectric material exist a quasi-permanent electric charge.2Several processes contribute to the discharge of electrets, but the driving force of them is the restoration of charge neutrality. The TSDC thermogram of PSF/MWCNTs nanocomposite film will consist of one peak, because the dipoles with low activation energy will disorient at low temperatures, while those with high activation energy will disorient at higher temperatures.3 If the differences in the various activation energies are not large, it is more appropriate to assume a continuous distribution of activation energies, for which all individual peaks overlap and merge into a broad peak. Such broad peaks are often seen as a result of disorientation of polar side groups in polymers at low temperatures i.e. α- peak. Another possible cause for the appearance of broad peaks is a difference in the rotational mass of dipoles. These differences occur in e.g., a polymer when heated to its softening temperature, where the dipoles are disoriented by the motion of main chain segments.4-5 II. Experimental Method The Polysulfone was procured by Redox (India) and Multiwall carbon nanotubes ( i.e. length 50 µm, inner diameter 10 nm, surface area 200m2/gm) were supplied by Reinste Nano Ventures Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. The dimethyl formamide (DMF) was used as received from Merck India Ltd. The pristine polysulfone and nano composite sample were prepared by solution mixing method. For the 0, .25, 0.5 and 1.5 wt. % MWCNTs concentration (weight fraction concentration for a total 5 g of PSF/MWCNTs, First, given amount of MWCNTs was dissolved inN-N,dimethylformamideby sonication for 25 min. in a sonicator. Then required amount of PSF dissolved in dimethyl formamide was added to MWCNTs dispersed solvent and the mixed solution was stirred and sonicated for 30 min. stirring and sonication were done in 5 min interval. Thin films of average thickness 50–60µm were prepared by casting the solution and evaporating the solvent at room temperature for overnight to remove solvent completely. For the thermally stimulated discharge current, samples were vacuum aluminized over the central circular area of 1.4cm diameter using high Vacuum Coating Unit (Vacuum Equipment Company Ltd, Noida, India). III. Result and discussion A. SEM analysis Figure1 shows that the effect of carbon nanotubes in PSF matrix were clearly observed.Figure 1 B clearly shows that carbon nanotubes were present in PSF matix and the dispersion of CNT was uniform. In SEM Figure of pure PSF the pores of PSF sample were easily seen.However ,increasing of wt% of CNTs the size of pores of

Page 56

Singh Rekha et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 56-59

PSF were redoced.It clearly shows in SEM image.In Fig 1(a and 1b ) the structural density increasd with increasing of wt% of CNTs.

B. X-ray Diffraction XRD results Fig.2 also reveal the structural features of the Pure PSF, Pure CNT and different wt% of PSF/CNT nanocomposite. The diffraction peaks in XRD pattern at 19.0, 25.0 and 45.0° indicating a good crystallinity of the supported nanoparticles. The broad peaks in the XRD pattern indicate that the PSF are small. The average crystallite size of PSF was calculated using the Debye–Scherrer formula

d

k  cos 

(1)

in which d is the crystallite size,  the wavelength of the X-ray radiation, K is usually taken as 0.89, 2θ is the Bragg angle of the PSF (111) peak, and β is the full width at half-maximum height. The diffraction peak at 2 θ =250 is related to the presence of carbon nanotubes with graphite structure. The diffraction peaks in XRD pattern indicating a good crystallinity of the supported nanoparticles C. Short Circuit Thermally Stimulated depolarization current study Short-circuit TSDC characteristics are represented PSF /MWCNTs nanocomposite samples polarized at room temperature with different polarizing fields (Ep’s) (a)2kV/cm,(b)4kV/cm and (c)10kV/cm respectively. It is observed from the various TSDC characteristics of nanocomposite samples are characterized by a single peak located at 145+10°C. For TSDC characteristic obtained polarizing at room temperatures, the depolarization current flows in the normal sense ( i.e. the current is anomalous i.e. flowing in the same direction as the charging current and if changes sign and starts flows in a direction opposite to the charging current or is negative called normal current). For nanocomposite containing a lower weight percentage of MWCNTs, the depolarization current is small enough. However, as the MWCNTs content is increased, the current is increased in magnitude. From the observed characteristics, it is found that the shift in the temperature scale of the current maxima moves to low temperature side with the increase in nano-composition. Our TSDC result suggesting relaxation is the main mechanism of TSDC. For α-relaxation processes, the activation energy more than 0.9eV.However, calculated activation energy for nano-composite samples is comparatively greater than pristine PSF sample. The electret behaviour of nano-composite samples is significantly affected by pure PSF and PSF/MWCNTs nano-composite because of change in structural morphology, which influences greatly the electrical behavior of the polymer.The PSF enhances the amorphous content in nano-composite and modified the trap structure due to which the large numbers of charge carriers are localized in shallow traps. With increasing MWCNTs content in the nano-composite, the modified trap structure where the large number of charge carriers got trapped, get detrapped and result in producing a discharge current. This phenomenon has been explainedon the basis of induced dipoles created because of the piling up of charge carriers at the phase boundary of heterogeneous structure of blend and increase in mobility of charge carriers due to plasticization effects reported by Arthur (2003). The mixing between the polymers nanocomposite is such that it results in the increase of intermolecular interaction which reduces dipolar contribution towards the total polarization. The polarization in the nanocomposite is mainly due to induced dipoles. The numbers of peak in short-circuit TSDC and their various characteristics have indicated that traps are distributed over wide energy range. IV. Conclusion In this study, amorphous polysulfone (PSF) filled with multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNTs) nanocomposite of different wt% were prepared by solution grown technique.SEM image shows the morphology of uniform dispersion of PSF filled with different wt% of MWCNTs nanocomposite. In short circuit TSDC characteristics obtained from both sided metalized polymer nanocoposite electrets have led to the conclusion that the peak located at around 145±10ºC can be attributed to dipolar relaxation. With increase in polarizing fields and temperatures, the magnitude of peak currents was found to be increased. The α peak occurred almost at the same temperature. The various other features of this peak further led to the conclusion that this peak is also contributed by space charge polarization produced due to macroscopic displacement of bulk generated charge carriers as well as due to injection of the charges into the bulk of the sample with subsequent trapping during polarization. V. Acknowledgements The authors Rekha Singh and R.K.Tiwari are gratefully acknowledge to Dr.M.S. Gaur for providing TSDC facility.

Page 57

Singh Rekha et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 56-59

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

References M.Eguchi ,Proc. Phys. Math. Soc. Jpn,1919, 1 326. G M Sessler, Electrets (Berlin: Springer-Verlag; New York: Heidelberg) ,1980, 81â&#x20AC;&#x201C;217. C.T. Moynihan, A.J. Easteal, J. Wilder, J. Tucker. J. Phys. Chem., 1974, vol.78,2673. A.J. Kovacs, J.M. Hutchinson, J.J. Aklonis, Non-Crystalline Solids. Proceedings ofSymposium Cambridge Ed. P.H. Gaskell, Francis & Taylor, London. 1976, 153-163. J Van Turnhout, Thermally stimulated discharge of polymer electret (Amsterdam: Elsevier) 1975, 25.

Fig. 1: SEM image of PSF /MWCNTs nanocomposite samples

(b)

Fig. 2: XRD spectra of MWCNTs pure,PSF pure and PSF /MWCNTs nanocomposite samples

Page 58

Singh Rekha et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 56-59

Fig. 3: Short circuit TSDC characteristics of PSF /MWCNTs nanocomposite samples polarized at polarizing at RT with different polarizing fields (Ep’s) (a)2kV/cm,(b)4kV/cm and (c)10kVv/cm

Page 59

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Physical Development of School Children and Some Personal Social Variable Dr. Anisa M. Durrani Professor, Department of Home Science, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, INDIA. Abstract: The present study was undertaken to assess the status of physical development of school children of Aligarh city and to know the relationship between physical development and selected personal social variables. One thousand six hundred and twelve children (boys - 759, girls - 853) who were in the age group of 6+ to 12+ years constituted the sample. Anthropometric measurements taken to study the physical development includes weight and stature. The results of the study revealed that school children stood below the ICMR and NCHS standards in both weight and stature by weighing 74-89% of NCHS standards and measuring 91-98% of NCHS standards. It is noteworthy to mention that age, class, landholding, parental education and occupation, caste and socio economic status were significantly related to physical development where as ordinal position, family type and family size were not significantly related to physical development. Key words: School children, Anthropometric measurements, education and occupation, weight and stature I. Introduction School children constitute a major segment of the community whose health and nutritional status will indicate the changing trend of nutritional profile of a region. Approximately 25% of our population comprises of school children (Verma et.al,(1998). Only one third of the school children that too from higher socio economic groups were found to be apparently healthy. Agarwal et.al, (1998). The growth and development of these children has been an area of concern and of great significance, since this segment constitutes the majority of the future citizens of this country Even the global declaration of the world summit for children (UNICEF 1991) gave a high priority to survival and development of children. One of the goals being growth promotion through regular monitoring. In India large scale studies on nutritional anthropometry of children are limited. Hence there is a need to collect data on the lines of NCHS standards to be used as standards of reference, because it has often been suggested that use of local standards is more valid than standards obtained in developed countries. Keeping the above theoretical back ground in view the present study was carried out to collect data on children between 6+ to 12+ years which could serve as standards for this state. The objectives of the study were (a) To assess the growth and development of school children of both the genders in the age group of 6+ to 12+ years. (b) To assess the magnitude of nutritional problem. (c) To see the relationship if any between the physical development and the selected personal social variables. II. Method Sample : The data for the present study has been collected from 1612, school children (759 boys and 853 girls) in the age group of 6-12 years of age from four school located in Aligarh city by stratified purposive sampling. To ensure the representativeness, the city of Aligarh was divided into four specific zones on the geographical layout. One school from each zone was selected on the bases of consent and active cooperation of school authorities. The sample size was calculated 1612, by using the formula N = 4pq/L2. 1612 school children ranging in age 6-12 years participated in the study, with response rate of 92.84%. Informationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s about the socio demographic characteristics were recorded in the predesigned and pretested questionnaire comprising of child's age, gender, class , ordinal position, family background information and socio economic status information The measurements were taken during the school hours, mostly in the morning, in a quiet isolated setting. The age was determined to the nearest birth date from the school registration record. The weight (Kg) was recorded by using a standardized weighing machine having accuracy up to 0.1 Kg and height (M) was measured using a standard stediometer with accuracy of up to 0.5 cm by applying standard technique. The mean distribution of the two physical measurements across age and gender were calculated and comparisons were made with ICMR well to do children as well as NCHS standards. Simple linear correlations were computed in order to understand the relationship of the selected personal social variables with the children's physical development.

Page 60

Anisa M. Durrani., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 60-63

III. Results and Discussion The mean weights with standard deviation of 1612 children from 6 to 12 year are presented and comparison with NCHS and ICMR standards are also examined in the tables I. A. Weight Children, adolescents and adults in developing countries were noted as shorter and lower in weight than those in developed countries. The result of the present study was compared with the ICMR and NCHS standards. The mean weight of the boys in the study indicated that they were consistently lower than ICMR well to do children differing from 2.5 kg to 9.43 kg across the ages. With regard to the per cent differences the boys of the present study with ICMR standards weighed about 71.4 to 87.01 per cent. When NCHS standards were compared the differences were found to be between 1.95 kg to 7.63 kg across the age groups and were measuring 79.37 to 89.57 per cent. The difference for NCHS standards were less as compared to ICMR showing that ICMR well to do children are higher than NCHS standards. The maximum differences were noted for the age 11 to 12 years, being 7.91, 9.43 and 7.63 respectively in comparison both with ICMR and NCHS. However the result of the present study was statistically significant (P<0.01) at all ages. . The mean weight of girls was lower than ICMR well to do children differing about 3.43 kg to 13.97 kg across the ages and they weight about 67.43 per cent to 89.72 per cent of ICMR standards. The differences across the ages were found to be significant at (P<0.01). With regard to NCHS standards the difference was 2.32 kg to 9.77 kg as age increased. The girls weighed about 74.75 per cent to 88.1 per cent of NCHS standards. The results were marginally lower in the age group of 10 to 12 years showing the maximum difference for ICMR and NCHS standards. Overall it was found that girls are uniformly lighter for all ages and the differences in mean weight were found to be statistically significant (P<0.01). B. Height The mean heights of boys and girls and comparison with ICMR and NCHS standards between 6 and 12 years are depicted in Table II. Results on height of boys indicated that boys of the present study were shorter than well to do boys of ICMR by 2.95 cm to 9.33 cm from 6 years to 12 years and were measuring 93.03 to 98.31 per cent. The difference in height was minimum at age 15, the difference being 2.95 cm and maximum at 9 years, the difference being 9.33 cm, which was found statistically significant at (p<0.0) level of probability. On comparison of height of boys with NCHS standards, the difference increased with increase in age from 2.1 cm to 3.95 cm except at age 8 and 9 years where the difference increased drastically up to 8.69 cm and 7.33 cm respectively. The boys mean height was measured about 93.15 cm to 98.01 per cent of NCHS standards. The differences were highly significant (p<0.01) at one per cent of probability except at age 11 years where it was found not significant in comparison to both ICMR and NCHS standards. On comparing with ICMR and NCHS standards girlâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s stature differed on the negative side of the ICMR standards ranging from 2.18 to 12.79 cm and showed 88.6 to 96.61 per cent of ICMR standard statures. With reference to NCHS standards the difference was between 5.11 cm to 11.49 cm and a general stature measurement of 91.7 to 96.23 per cent of NCHS standards. The differences were statistically significant (P<0.01). The present study revealed that the differences between NCHS and the height of girls were not increasing uniformly with increase in age. Bhave et al., (2001) reported in their study that children of parents with better economic status were taller and heavier than those in deprived communities. He also reported in the study of efficiency of some anthropometric indices for the diagnosis of malnutrition that prevalence of under nutrition in poor communities was higher than those in better off communities. In order to understand the relationship of the different personal social variables with the school children's physical development simple linear correlations were computed and the results are presented in the Table III. From the table it is clearly evident that weight and stature were positively and significantly (0.01% level) related to age, class, parental education and occupation, caste and scores on different socio economic status (SES) factors. That is, as age, class and scores on different SES factors increased, children's weight and stature too increased indicating a positive growth trend as well as the fact that better the SES conditions better the physical development of children. Recent studies also confirmed the same. However, ordinal position of the child was found to be negatively related to physical development but not significantly. This indicate that more the number of children in the family which increases the ordinal position of the child, the less better the child fared in physical measurements, especially the weight. In contrary,. Bhave et al., (2001) ) reported the significant interaction between birth order and the weight. IV. Conclusions It can be concluded from the study that school children were lagging behind in physical development when compared to ICMR and NCHS standards. The lag is more in weight than in stature emphasizing the measures to be taken up to improve the children's physical status. The personal social variables like age, class, parental education and occupation, caste and SES have significant relationship with physical development of children. Family size, family type and ordinal position of the child were not found to be related to the child's physical development.

Page 61

Anisa M. Durrani., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 60-63

References Agrawal M, Singh S. A study on nutritional status of urban children from low socio – economic status. XXXI Annual Meeting, November 26-28, 1998. Nutrition Society of India; National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad.1998; 44. Bhave SY, Chorgade A, Goel P. Height, weight and mid arm circumference of school children between 2.5 and 17.5 from convent school of Bombay suburbs. School Health Project, Bombay Hospital Institute of Medical Sciences, Mumbai, Bombay Hospital Journal 2001; 3901-3906. Indian Council for Medical Research Growth and Development of Indian Infants and School Children. ICMR Technical Reports Series. No. 18, New Delhi, India, 1984. National Centre for Health Statistics. Growth curves for children: Birth-18 years. Washington DC: National Centre for Health Statistics.1987. UNICEF The state of World's Children, 1991. Oxford University Press, 1991. Verma M, Chhatwal J, Kaur G. Prevalence of anemia among urban school children of Punjab. Indian Pediatrics 1998; 35: 1181-1186.

[1] [2]

[3] [4] [5] [6]

Table I: Comparison of Mean (+/- SD) Weight (kg) of 759 boys and 853 girls with ICMR and NCHS Standards on the basis of Age Age in Years

No.

Mean (Kgs)

S.D

ICMR (Kgs)

Differ ence

% of ICMR stds.

NCHS (Kgs)

Differ ence

% of NCHS stds.

Boys 6

100

17.23**

1.72

24.41

6.91

71.34

20.7

3.47

83.23

100

18.58**

1.70

24.5

5.92

75.83

22.9

4.32

81.13

100

20.95**

2.51

26.4

5.45

79.35

25.3

4.35

82.8

100

23.20**

3.23

30.0

6.8

77.33

28.1

4.9

82.56

119

25.56**

5.03

32.3

6.74

79.13

31.4

5.84

81.4

121

27.39**

4.24

35.3

7.91

77.59

32.2

4.81

85.06

119

29.37**

4.04

38.8

9.43

75.69

37.0

7.63

79.37

125

17.18**

2.26

21.6

4.42

79.53

19.5

2.32

88.15

121

18.58**

2.16

24.5

5.92

75.83

21.8

3.22

85.22

120

20.49**

2.50

25.9

7.39

78.89

24.8

4.31

82.62

121

23.02**

2.55

29.8

6.78

77.24

28.5

5.48

80.77

124

24.44**

3.74

33.6

9.16

72.61

32.5

8.06

75.24

121

26.80**

4.27

37.2

10.4

72.04

33.7

6.91

79.52

121

28.93**

4.83

42.9

13.9

67.43

38.7

9.77

74.75

Girls

SD = Standard Deviation; * p<0.05; ** p<0.01 for differences in observed means and ICMR and NCHS standards value for respective age groups

Table II: Comparison of Mean (+/- SD) Weight (kg) of 759 boys and 853 girls with ICMR and NCHS Standards on the basis of Age Age in Years

No.

Mean (Kgs)

S.D

ICMR (Kgs)

Differ ence

% of ICMR STDS.

NCHS (Kgs)

Differ ence

% of NCHS STDS.

Boys 6 100 111.90** 7.29 118.9 7.11 7 100 117.40** 9.15 123.3 5.64 8 100 118.31** 4.79 127.8 7.69 9 100 124.67** 6.68 133.6 9.33 10 119 134.84** 7.08 138.4 3.66 11 121 136.83 NS 7.59 143.3 6.17 12 119 143.01** 6.71 148.9 5.89 Girls 6 125 109.43** 4.91 117.7 8.57 7 121 115.49** 5.45 122.6 7.51 8 120 120.00** 6.50 127.2 7.00 9 121 123.65** 8.32 133.0 9.35 10 124 126.81** 6.19 138.9 12.19 11 121 135.13** 6.72 145.0 9.87 12 121 142.43** 7.44 150.9 8.57 SD = Standard Deviation; * p<0.05; ** p<0.01 for differences in observed means age groups

94.03 95.44 93.89 93.03 97.35 95.68 96.04

116.1 121.7 127.0 132.2 137.5 140.0 147.0

4.1 4.6 8.69 7.33 3.16 3.17 3.99

96.46 96.22 93.15 94.44 97.51 97.73 97.28

92.73 114.6 5.17 95.48 93.89 120.6 5.11 95.76 94.48 126.4 6.4 94.93 92.96 132.2 8.55 93.53 91.23 138.3 11.49 91.69 93.19 142 6.87 95.16 94.32 148 5.57 96.23 and ICMR and NCHS standards value for respective

Page 62

Anisa M. Durrani., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2105, pp. 60-63

Table III: Correlation of Physical Measures with Selected Personal Social Variables - N = 1612 Variables

Weight

Stature

Age

0.7414**

0.8232**

Class

0.7598**

0.8268**

Ordinal Position

-0.0580

-0.0530

Family Type

0.0236

0.0414

Land

0.0388

0.0625*

Father's Education

0.1269**

0.1362**

Father's Occupation

0.1539**

0.1897**

Mother's Education

0.0833**

0.0751*

Mother's Occupation

0.0789*

0.0915**

Caste

0.0873**

0.0893**

Family Size

0.0332

-0.0015

Socio Economic Status

0.1289**

0.0601

* P>0.05 **>0.01

Page 63

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

IRON FORTIFICATION OF GREEN GRAM DHAL FLOUR AND IT’S INVITRO BIOAVAILABILITY AS A PREVENTIVE MEASURE OF ANAEMIA Tania Biswas, Dr. Binata Nayak Department of Home Science (Food & Nutrition Division) University of Calcutta, Kolkata-700027, INDIA Abstract: Green gram dhal or Mung Bean scientifically known as Vigna radiate from the family Fabaceae contains a good amount of carbohydrate, protein ,energy & other nutrients but very minimal amount of Iron. Here a laboratory scale technology was developed to fortify green gram dhal flour with or without iron(FeSO4, 7H2O)and iron absorption promoters such as- Ascorbic acid, Ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid(EDTA)and with a stabilizer- Sodium hexameta phosphate(SHMP)in 1:1 molar ratio.The Invitro bioavailability of iron in food (Baked snacks) prepared with each type of fortified green gram dhal flour is performed.The results come out in very impressive way. All the three additives with or without exogenous iron showed a trend of enhancing the invitro bioavailability of iron in gastric pH 1.35 and also in intestinal pH 7.5.The predicted total iron bioavailability in human containing Ascorbic acid with iron gives the highest result (63% approx.of total iron) at pH 1.35 whereas at pH 7.5 EDTA fortified green gram dhal flour shows (37% approx.)the best result. Keywords: Fortification; Green gram dhal flour; EDTA;Ascorbic acid; SHMP;Iron;Invitro bioavailability.

I. INTRODUCTION Iron is the most versatile and important of all biologically active metals in the body. It has different roles for e.g. it acts as a O2 carrier, key component of different enzymes & helps in energy production.[1] Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency disorder in the world which leads to Anaemia, a public Health Problem in developing countries, including India. [2][3] Globally, Anaemia threatens 1.62 billion people which corresponds to 24.8% of the population and the highest prevalence is in Pre-school age children (47.4%) as well as Pregnant women (41.8%). Whereas, it is estimated that about 20%-40% of maternal death is due to anaemia in India. One in every two Indian women suffers (56%) from anaemia. India has the highest numbers of cases of anaemia in the world according to NFHS III undertaken in 2005-2006. [4] To combat this situation the three way strategic principles may be-Dietary Modification, Supplementation and Food Fortification. A few previous studies referred iron as most important mineral. In the history of fortification many significant fortification procedures has performed to enhance the native iron bioavailability. Iron is fortified with wheat based food and invitro bioavailability is performed to estimate the changes in absorption in the body. [5] Another previous study establishes an increase in iron absorption after fortify it with rice and different iron promoters such as- FeSO4, EDTA, SHMP, FeFum (Ferrus fumerate), FeBis (Ferrus bisglycinate). [6] Previous study also gives an evidence of a double fortification of salt with iron and iodine both for simultaneous prevention of iron deficiency anaemia and iodine deficiency disorders. [7] Where in another investigation, Finger millet flour was explored for its suitability as a vehicle for fortification with iron and Ferrus fumerate as well as Ferric pyrophosphate both were found to be equally effective. [8] Green gram dhal belongs to pulses & legumes food group. It is the most important and popular crop in India and consumed by most of the Indians as approx. 20 million tones/year produces. [9]. A few studies establishes that green gram dhal can be a better carrier of iron in iron fortification. It is observed that the dhal contains 25% of protein almost 3 times of cereal and also it is a drought resistant crop, have good storage quality and suitable for dry land farming [10][11]. The present study is concerned with developing food fortification strategy with a new vehicle pulse specially green gram dhal flour with or without iron and it’s absorption promoters-ascorbic acid,EDTA and a stabilizerSHMP to assess the invitro iron bioavailability.This study was performed to support the daily requirement of every person according to RDA and to evolve a technology of food preparation with fortified green gram dhal flour which can be a contribution to prevent and fight against anaemia, one of the major health challenge of today’s world. II. MATERIALS & METHODS The study was designed to evaluate invitro bioavailability from green gram dhal flour fortified with Iron and

Page 64

Tania Biswas et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2015, 2014, pp. 64-66

Iron absorption promoters. The methodologies adopted for the same here Preparation of Iron Fortified Green Gram Dhal Flour[5]  Estimation of Total Iron (Wong’s Method) [12]  Estimation of Ionizable Iron (Invitro Iron Bioavailability) [5] A)Preparation Iron fortified Green gram dhal flour :  Processing of Green gram dhal : A single batch of 10 kg green gram dhal or mung bean was purchased locally. The extent of Iron contamination was checked from washed and unwashed dhal sample. Due to minimal difference the whole procedure is performed by unwashed green gram dhal powdered in a mill.  Preparation of premix :5 times concentrated premix were prepared by using supplied chemicals and green gram dhal flour in 1:1 molar ratio.They are- L-ascorbic acid or Vitamin C,Ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid(EDTA),Sodium hexameta phosphate(SHMP) and Ferrous sulphate heptahydrate (FeSO4,7H2O).Green gram dhal flour was added to the individual fortificants in small aliquots and mixed thoroughly with hand. Preparation of Biscuits: Biscuits were prepared with all types of fortified Green gram dhal flour separately using glass distilled water under identical conditions. Care was taken to avoid Iron contamination during preparation. CEstimation of Ionizable Iron : 8 different types of baked snacks (biscuit) was prepared with 8 different fortified green gram dhal flour.With these baked foods invitro bioavailability of iron was studied by the method of Narasinaga Rao & Prabhavati Devi (1978) [13]. Statistical Analysis : Since the study design contains more than two groups, One-Way Analysis of Variance has been used to find out the mean difference between the groups. A “p” Value of 0.001 is considered as significant. III. RESULT Comparative outputs of Total Iron and Invitro bioavailability of Iron ( Ionizable Iron) from each type of combinations at different pH Serial No.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Biscuit Samples

Average Total Iron(mg/100g)

pH 1.35 Ionizable Iron(mg/100g) Mean±SD 1.55±0.009 1.84±0.045

% of Total Iron Mean±SD 38.9±0.61 40.2±1.16

p Value

pH 7.5 Ionizable Iron(mg/100g) Mean±SD 0.64±0.94 0.86±0.11

Green gram Flour 4 Green gram 4.6 Flour+SHMP Green gram 4.6 2.15±0.095 46.9±2.14 1.69±0.13 Flour+Ascorbic acid < Green gram 4.3 2.07±0.209 43.3±5.68 1.59±0.11 0.0001 Flour+EDTA Green gram Flour+ 9 4.53±0.63 50.4±6.93 1.43±0.57 FeSO4 Green gram 11 5.48±0.56 49.9±5.02 2.51±0.10 Flour+SHMP+FeSO4 Green gram 10 6.38±1.29 63.8±12.98 2.38±0.87 Flour+Ascorbic acid+ FeSO4 Green gram 9.8 3.46±1.18 35.4±11.92 2.85±0.07 Flour+EDTA+ FeSO4 N=6,p<0.001=very strong evidence against the null hypothesis in favor of the alternatives

% of Total Iron Mean±SD 16.12±2.37 18.7±2.39

p Value

36.8±3.01 37.24±2.75

< 0.0001

15.9±0.63 22.9±0.82 23.8±0.87

29.1±0.72

IV. DISCUSSION Pulse is being tried to be fortified with many Iron absorption promoters or Iron compound to increase it’s intrinsic ionizable iron and through this in pulse consumption population it will be very easy to take control the iron deficiency disorders.Ligands which can bind iron to keep it in solution with good stability at neutral or alkaline pH of small intestine, can serve as useful absorption promoters of dietary iron. Ascorbic acid, EDTA and SHMP are strong enhancers of non-heme iron absorption.[14] Preparation: A five times concentrated premix of 8 combinations with iron and iron absorption promoters were prepared. Ferrous sulphate heptahydrate(FeSO4,7H2O), a cost effective compound, is chosen as an iron source because- it is a compound of high relative bioavailability in human subjects. Levels of Fortification: The level of fortification tested here,was based on  The daily intake of green gram dhal per head in India i.e. 60g/cu/day.  RDA of iron for an adult male is 17mg/day and adult female is 20mg/day Iron content of the Green gram dhal tested in the present study was around 4.0mg/100g. The value is similar to that reported earlier. A two stage dry mix method was used for Green gram dhal flour fortification.The Iron fortification was done at 5.5mg/100g of green gram dhal flour which was found to satisfy 1/3rd of the RDA of iron for Indian adult man and woman. [15]

Page 65

Tania Biswas et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2015, 2014, pp. 64-66

Effect on Ionizable Iron: Ionizable iron was measured by the method of Nayak & Nair, 2003 [5]. The method follows a simulation of the condition as in digestive system especially in stomach (pH 1.35) and small intestine (pH 7.5). It is assumed that at gastric pH of 1.35,most of the iron will be in ionizable form. During the transmit of iron to the duodenal pH of 7.5,most of the iron becomes insoluble unless chelated by dietary components that enhance iron absorption. In the present study at pH 1.35 iron fortified sample with ascorbic acid have given the highest value and green gram dhal flour which is fortified with SHMP have also given a good result. In pH 7.5 the significant effect was seen in the sample which is fortified with EDTA. A noticeable result also has given by green gram dhal flour sample fortified with ascorbic acid. Predicting Iron Bioavailability In Humans: An in vitro method for predicting the bioavailability of iron from foods was reported by Narasinga Rao & Prabhavathi (1978)[13]. They correlated the physiological availability of iron in humans with the ionizable iron at pH 7.5. Based on this correlation a prediction equation on iron absorption was formulated. The prediction equation is : Y = 0.4827 + 0.4707X Where, Y – is the % of iron absorption in adult X – is the % of ionizable iron at pH 7.5 The predicted bioavailability of iron from green gram dhal flour biscuit fortified with ascorbic acid(17.8%) and EDTA(18.01%) was found to be twice higher than with green gram dhal alone(8.07%)or with SHMP(9.28%)and FeSO4,7H2O(7.96%).And other combinations such as-green gram dhal fortified with FeSO 4 & SHMP(11.26%)or ascorbic acid & FeSO4(11.68%)or EDTA & FeSO4(14.18%) also shows an increased predicted result respectively. From the in vitro studies it can be predicted that green gram dhal flour fortified with ascorbic acid or EDTA with or without iron at a molar ratio of 1:1 enhances the absorption of both native and added iron in humans. VI.

REFERENCE

Oser BL,ed Hawk’s Physiological Chemistry,14th Ed.Newyork:MC Graw Hill,pp.1094-96,1965

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Iron Deficiency-United States”,1990-2000.MMWR 51:pp.897-899,2002

Hider,Robert C,Kong and Xiaole. “Iron-Effect of Overload and Deficiency”.Chapter 8.In Astrid Sigel,Helmutb Sigel and Roland K.O.Sigel. “Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases.”Metal Ion in Life Sciences 13.Springer.pp.229294.doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8-8

Kawaljit Kaur.B.D.Arya Girls College.Punjab.Anaemia “a silent killer” among women in India:Present Scenario.Scholars Research Library,European Journal of Zoological Research.3(1):pp.32-36,2014

Binata Nayak and K.Madhavan Nair.Department of Biophysics.NIN.ICMR.Hyderabad. “In Vitro Bioavailability of Iron from Wheat Flour Fortified with Ascorbic acid,EDTA and SHMP with or without Iron.”Food Chemistry.Volume 80,Issue 4,pp.545-550.April 2003

Valdez DH,Mallillin AC,Askali FC,Daraug AF and Capanzana MV.Department of Home Science and Technology.Trinidad. “The Effect of Different Iron Fortificants on Iron Absorption from Iron Fortified Rice.”

L.L Diosady and M.G Venkatesh Mannar.Ottawa.Canada. “Double Fortification of Salt with Iron and Iodine”.KIG 3H9

Bhumika Tripathy and Kalpana Patel. Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition.CSIR.India. “Iron Fortification of Finger Millet(Eleucina coracana)Flour with EDTA and Folic acid as Co-Fortificants”

D.Q Fuller. “Contrasting Patterns in Crop Domestication and Domestication Rates:Recent Archaeobotanical insights from the Old World.”.Annals of Botany 100(5):pp.903-924.doi:10.1093/aob/mcm048.PMC 2759199.PMID 17495986.2007

10. “Mung Bean.Define Mung bean at Dictionary.com”.Dictionary.reference.com.Retrieved 08-22.2012 11. D.Q Fuller,E. Harvey. “The Archaeobotany of Indian Pulses:Identification,Processing and evidence for Cultivation”.Environmental Archaeology 11(2):pp.219-246.doi:10.1179/174963106x123232.2006 12. N.Raghuramulu,KM Nair and S.Kalyanasundaram.NIN.ICMR. “A Manual of Laboratory Technique” 77.Page 409.1982 13. Narasinga Rao BS and Prabhavati T. “An In Vitro Method for Predicting the Bioavailability of Iron from Foods”.Am J Clin Nutr.31.pp.169-75.1978 14. Rao and Rao.1984;Macphail,Patel,Bothwell and Lamparelli.1994 15. A Report of the Expert Group of the Indian Council of Medical Research. “Nutrient Requirements and Recommended Dietary Allowances for Indians”.NIN.ICMR.Hyderabad.2012

V. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Authors are thankful to Department of Home Science, University of Calcutta for providing laboratory facilities with continuous encouragement.

Page 66

American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

Sun-climate connection: an overview S.C. Dubey1,#, D.S. Raghuvansi1, D.S. Chauhan2 and S.K. Pandey3 Department of Physics, S.G.S. Govt. P.G. College, Sidhi (M.P.) Pin-486661, INDIA. 2 Department of Physics, Govt. Girls College, Satna (M.P.) INDIA. 3 Department of Physics, Rewa Engineering College, Rewa (MP) 486 002, INDIA.

Abstract: The historical and geological records show that the Earth’s climate has always been changing. The Sun is the continuous source of the energy that causes the motion of the atmosphere and thereby controls weather and climate. Any change in the energy from the Sun received at the Earth’s surface will therefore affect our climate. During stable conditions there has to be a balance between the energy received from the Sun and the energy that the Earth radiates back into space, are creates the mean temperature of the Earth. The Sun’s output to change over an 11-year sunspot cycle, and variations over longer periods occur as well. A number of correlations between solar activity variations and climate changes, some more significant than others, have been reported but they have traditionally been accompanied by a considerable skepticism among scientists because a plausible physical mechanism to account for these correlations has not yet been found. The most immediate cause of climate changes would be changes in the total irradiance (TSI) of the Sun. The determination of the natural climate variability is therefore of decisive importance for a credible estimation of the human-made signal and hence for possible political decisions regarding initiatives to mitigate the effects of the increased amount of greenhouse gases. The increasing amount of greenhouse gases, in particular Co2, which is due to human activities related to the burning of fossil fuel. In the present work, we have discussed about perspective roll of above activities on recent climate change. Keywords: SSN, TSI, GSTemp.

Introduction

The Earth’s climate has always been changing. The climate variations prior to the industrial era may thus be strongly influenced by variations in solar activity. The Sun is the source of the energy that causes the motion of the atmosphere and thereby controls weather and climate. Solar activity variations have traditionally been associated with the sunspot number although it is well known that solar activity may not be described by a single number. The Solar activities follow over an 11-year cycle. Eddy (1976) provided the first thorough study of long-term (century scale) variations in solar activity and climate. This study indicated a very strong link which he hypothesized could be accounted for by small changes in the solar total irradiance. Subsequently studies of palaeoclimate and historical solar activity inferred by its modulation of 14C in tree rings and 10Be in ice cores provided evidence that long-term minima in solar activity seems to be associated with climate on Earth that is colder than average. The total solar irradiance (TSI) is integrated solar energy flux over the entire spectrum which arrives at the top of the atmosphere at the mean Sun-Earth distance. The TSI observations show variations ranging from a few days up to the 11-year SC and longer timescales (Lockwood and Fröhlich, 2008). The historical reconstruction of TSI absolute value is described by Kopp and Lean (2011) based on new calibration and diagnostic measurements by using TIM V.12 data on 19 th January 2012, and is updated annually. TSI are known to be linked to Earth climate and temperature. The historical reconstruction of TSI and their association with 11-year sunspot cycle from 1700 onwards are shown in Figure 1. From the plot, it is find that TSI variation trend follows with SSN within a limit but centurial variation trends of TSI have not shown clear association. Linear variation of TSI for last 311 years shows continuously increasing trend. It is find that decadal TSI variation trend follows with SSN within a limit, except Maunder Minimum period. The centurial variation trends of TSI have not shown clear association. Surface temperatures and solar activity both increased during the past 400 years, with close associations apparent in pre- and post-industrial epochs (Lean et al., 1995; Reid, 1997).

Page 66

S.C. Dubey et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2015, 2014, pp. 66-68

However, the inference from correlation studies that Sun-climate relationships can account for a substantial fraction of global warming in the past 150 years is controversial.

Linear (TSI [W/m^2]) 1362

200

1361

100

1360

1359

Total Solar Irradiance (TSI)

TSI [W/m^2]

1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Sunspot Number (SSN)

SSN 300

Years Figures 1: Shows the long-term variation of TSI and yearly mean SSN, during 1700 onwards. [The data were taken from SOURCE website (http://lasp.colorado.edu/sorce/index.htm) The associations of TSI with global surface temperature (GSTemp) from 1880 onwards are shown in Figure 2. From the plot, centurial variation trends of TSI and GSTemp both show increasing trends. GSTemp

Linear (TSI)

Linear (GSTemp)

1361 0 1360

Global Surface Temperature (GSTemp)

100

TSI

1362

-50

2010

2000

1990

1980

1970

Years

1960

1950

1940

1930

1920

1910

1900

1890

-100 1880

1359

Figures 2: Shows the variation of TSI and global surface temperature, during 1880 onwards. The associations of sunspot number (SSN) with global surface temperature (GSTemp) from 1880 onwards are shown in Figure 3. From the plot, centurial variation trends of SSN and GSTemp have not very clear associations.

Page 67

S.C. Dubey et al., American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences, 9(1), December 2014-February 2015, 2014, pp. 66-68

SSN

GSTemp

Linear (GSTemp)

100

100 0

-100

2010

2000

1990

1980

1970

1960

1950

1940

1930

1920

1910

1900

1890

0 1880

Sunspot Number (SSN)

y = 0.6825x - 48.433 R² = 0.6575

Global Surface Temperature (GSTemp)

200

-50

-100

Years

Figures 3: Shows the variation of SSN and global surface temperature, during 1880 onwards. The basic components that influence the Earth’s climatic system can occur externally (from extraterrestrial systems) and internally (from ocean, atmosphere and land systems).The external change may involve a variation in the Sun’s output. Internal variations in the Earth’s climatic system may be caused by changes in the concentrations of atmospheric gases, mountain building, volcanic activity, and changes in surface or atmospheric albedo. The basic causes of increase in global temperature can occur from variation in TSI and human made activities (mainly emission of Co2). Atmospheric carbon dioxide (Co2) is an important kind of greenhouse gas which influences global temperature. Its concentration variation could indicate the distribution of human and natural activities in various regions. The increase in Co2 then amplified the global warming by enhancing the greenhouse effect. The long-term climate change represents a connection between the concentrations of Co2 in the atmosphere and means global temperature. Co 2 concentrations in the atmosphere have increased from about 280 ppm in pre-industrial times to 395 ppm at present. The variation of atmospheric Co2 (in ppmv) collected at Mauna Loa, Hawaii and their association with global surface temperature (GSTemp) during 1880 onwards are scatter plotted in Figure 4. From the plot, it is clear that the rate of concentration of atmospheric Co2 and GSTemp both are increasing continuously during above mentioned periods. 100 GSTemp

Linear (GSTemp)

350 0 300

20…

19…

Years

19…

250

18…

-50 18…

Atmospheric Co2

Co2

Global Surface Temperature (GSTemp)

400

-100

Figures 4: Shows the variation of Co2 and global surface temperature, during 1880 onwards. References [1]. Eddy, J.A, 1976, The Maunder minimum, Science, 192, 1189-1202. [2]. Kopp, G. and Lean, J.L., 2011, A New, Lower Value of Total Solar Irradiance: Evidence and Climate Significance, Geophys. Res. Letters Frontier article, Vol. 38 : L01706. [3]. Lean, J., J. Beer, and R. Bradley, 1995, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 3195. [4]. Lockwood, M. and C. Fröhlich, 2008, Recent oppositely-directed trends in solar climate forcings and the global mean surface air temperature: II. Different reconstructions of the Total Solar Irradiance variation and dependence on response timescale, Proc. Roy. Soc., Lond. [5]. Reid, G.C, 1987, Influence of solar variability on global sea surface temperatures, Nature, 329, 142-143.

Page 68