AIJRHASS issue 10 vol1 print

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734 ISSN (Online): 2328-3696 ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688

Issue 10, Volume 1, 2, 3 & 4 March-May, 2015

American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR) (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

STEM International Scientific Online Media and Publishing House Head Office: 148, Summit Drive, Byron, Georgia-31008, United States.

Offices Overseas: Germany, Australia, India, Netherlands, Canada.

Website: www.iasir.net, E-mail (s): iasir.journals@iasir.net, iasir.journals@gmail.com, aijrhass@gmail.com

PREFACE We are delighted to welcome you to the tenth issue of the American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS). In recent years, advances in science, engineering, formal, applied and natural sciences have radically expanded the data available to researchers and professionals in a wide variety of domains. This unique combination of theory with data has the potential to have broad impact on educational research and practice. AIJRHASS is publishing high-quality, peer-reviewed papers covering topics such as Business administration, Management, Marketing, Finance, Economics, Banking, Accounting, Human resources management, Entrepreneurship, Relationship management, Risk management, Retail management, Linguistics, International relations, Anthropology, Archaeology, Sociology, International business, Tourism and hospitality management, Law, Psychology, Corporate governance, Education, Ethics, Geography, History, Industrial relations, Information science, Library science, Media studies, Philosophy, Political science, Public administration, Sociology, Social welfare, Literature, Performing arts (music, theatre and dance), Religious studies, Women studies, Production and operations management, Organizational behavior and theory, Strategic management & policies, Statistics and Econometrics, Technology and innovation, Management information systems and other closely related field in the disciplines of arts, humanities and social sciences.

The editorial board of AIJRHASS is composed of members of the Teachers & Researchers community who are enthusiastically involved in the systematic investigation into existing or new knowledge to discover new paths for maintaining a strong presence in the arts, the humanities and the social sciences which can easily be coupled with the information and communication technologies. These fields respect objective and logical reasoning to optimize the impact of research in social, economic and cultural, quality of life to understand the advancements in humanities, arts and social sciences. These fields are the pillars of growth in our modern society and have a wider impact on our daily lives with infinite opportunities in a global marketplace. In order to best serve our community, this Journal is available online as well as in hard-copy form. Because of the rapid advances in underlying technologies and the interdisciplinary nature of the field, we believe it is important to provide quality research articles promptly and to the widest possible audience.

We are happy that this Journal has continued to grow and develop. We have made every effort to evaluate and process submissions for reviews, and address queries from authors and the general public promptly. The Journal has strived to reflect the most recent and finest

researchers in the fields of humanities, arts and social sciences. This Journal is completely refereed and indexed with major databases like: IndexCopernicus, Computer Science Directory,

GetCITED,

CRCnetBASE,

Google

DOAJ,

SSRN,

Scholar,

TGDScholar,

Microsoft

Academic

WorldWideScience, Search,

CiteSeerX,

INSPEC,

ProQuest,

ArnetMiner, Base, ChemXSeer, citebase, OpenJ-Gate, eLibrary, SafetyLit, SSRN, VADLO, OpenGrey, EBSCO, ProQuest, UlrichWeb, ISSUU, SPIE Digital Library, arXiv, ERIC, EasyBib, Infotopia, WorldCat, .docstoc JURN, Mendeley, ResearchGate, cogprints, OCLC, iSEEK, Scribd, LOCKSS, CASSI, E-PrintNetwork, intute, and some other databases.

We are grateful to all of the individuals and agencies whose work and support made the Journal's success possible. We want to thank the executive board and core committee members of the AIJRHASS for entrusting us with the important job. We are thankful to the members of the AIJRHASS editorial board who have contributed energy and time to the Journal with their steadfast support, constructive advice, as well as reviews of submissions.

We are deeply indebted to the numerous anonymous reviewers who have contributed expertly evaluations of the submissions to help maintain the quality of the Journal. For this tenth issue, we received 126 research papers and out of which only 63 research papers are published in four volumes as per the reviewers’ recommendations. We have highest respect to all the authors who have submitted articles to the Journal for their intellectual energy and creativity, and for their dedication to the field of humanities, arts and social sciences.

This issue of the AIJRHASS has attracted a large number of authors and researchers across worldwide and would provide an effective platform to all the intellectuals of different streams to put forth their suggestions and ideas which might prove beneficial for the accelerated pace of development of emerging technologies in formal, applied and natural sciences and may open new area for research and development. We hope you will enjoy this tenth issue of the American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences and are looking forward to hearing your feedback and receiving your contributions.

(Administrative Chief)

(Managing Director)

(Editorial Head)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS), ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 (March-May, 2015, Issue 10, Volume 1, 2, 3 & 4).

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BOARD MEMBERS

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EDITOR IN CHIEF Prof. (Dr.) Waressara Weerawat, Director of Logistics Innovation Center, Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Thailand.

Prof. (Dr.) Yen-Chun Lin, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Jung Christian University, Kway Jen, Tainan, Taiwan.

Divya Sethi, GM Conferencing & VSAT Solutions, Enterprise Services, Bharti Airtel, Gurgaon, India.

CHIEF EDITOR (TECHNICAL) Prof. (Dr.) Atul K. Raturi, Head School of Engineering and Physics, Faculty of Science, Technology and Environment, The University of the South Pacific, Laucala campus, Suva, Fiji Islands.

Prof. (Dr.) Hadi Suwastio, College of Applied Science, Department of Information Technology, The Sultanate of Oman and Director of IETI-Research Institute-Bandung, Indonesia.

Dr. Nitin Jindal, Vice President, Max Coreth, North America Gas & Power Trading, New York, United States.

CHIEF EDITOR (GENERAL) Prof. (Dr.) Thanakorn Naenna, Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Thailand.

Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Huiyun Liu, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London.

ADVISORY BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Kimberly A. Freeman, Professor & Director of Undergraduate Programs, Stetson School of Business and Economics, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States.

Prof. (Dr.) Klaus G. Troitzsch, Professor, Institute for IS Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany.

Prof. (Dr.) T. Anthony Choi, Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States.

Prof. (Dr.) Fabrizio Gerli, Department of Management, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, Italy.

Prof. (Dr.) Jen-Wei Hsieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan.

Prof. (Dr.) Jose C. Martinez, Dept. Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Panayiotis Vafeas, Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Patras, Greece.

Prof. (Dr.) Soib Taib, School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia.

Prof. (Dr.) Vit Vozenilek, Department of Geoinformatics, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic.

Prof. (Dr.) Sim Kwan Hua, School of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Rafael Ignacio Alvarez Sanchez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Praneel Chand, Ph.D., M.IEEEC/O School of Engineering & Physics Faculty of Science & Technology The University of the South Pacific (USP) Laucala Campus, Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji.

Prof. (Dr.) Francisco Miguel Martinez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Antonio Zamora Gomez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Leandro Tortosa, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Samir Ananou, Department of Microbiology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain.

Dr. Miguel Angel Bautista, Department de Matematica Aplicada y Analisis, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de Barcelona, Spain.

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Prof. (Dr.) Prof. Adam Baharum, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Universiti Sains, Malaysia, Malaysia.

Dr. Cathryn J. Peoples, Faculty of Computing and Engineering, School of Computing and Information Engineering, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.

Prof. (Dr.) Pavel Lafata, Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, 166 27, Czech Republic.

Prof. (Dr.) P. Bhanu Prasad, Vision Specialist, Matrix vision GmbH, Germany, Consultant, TIFACCORE for Machine Vision, Advisor, Kelenn Technology, France Advisor, Shubham Automation & Services, Ahmedabad, and Professor of C.S.E, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Anis Zarrad, Department of Computer Science and Information System, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Prof. (Dr.) Mohammed Ali Hussain, Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Dr. Cristiano De Magalhaes Barros, Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Prof. (Dr.) Md. Rizwan Beg, Professor & Head, Dean, Faculty of Computer Applications, Deptt. of Computer Sc. & Engg. & Information Technology, Integral University Kursi Road, Dasauli, Lucknow, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Vishnu Narayan Mishra, Assistant Professor of Mathematics, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Ichchhanath Mahadev Road, Surat, Surat-395007, Gujarat, India.

Dr. Jia Hu, Member Research Staff, Philips Research North America, New York Area, NY. Prof. Shashikant Shantilal Patil SVKM, MPSTME Shirpur Campus, NMIMS University Vile Parle Mumbai, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Bindhya Chal Yadav, Assistant Professor in Botany, Govt. Post Graduate College, Fatehabad, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India.

REVIEW BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Kimberly A. Freeman, Professor & Director of Undergraduate Programs, Stetson School of Business and Economics, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States.

Prof. (Dr.) Klaus G. Troitzsch, Professor, Institute for IS Research, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany.

Prof. (Dr.) T. Anthony Choi, Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, United States.

Prof. (Dr.) Yen-Chun Lin, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Chang Jung Christian University, Kway Jen, Tainan, Taiwan.

Prof. (Dr.) Jen-Wei Hsieh, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan.

Prof. (Dr.) Jose C. Martinez, Dept. Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Joel Saltz, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States.

Prof. (Dr.) Panayiotis Vafeas, Department of Engineering Sciences, University of Patras, Greece.

Prof. (Dr.) Soib Taib, School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia.

Prof. (Dr.) Sim Kwan Hua, School of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Prof. (Dr.) Jose Francisco Vicent Frances, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Rafael Ignacio Alvarez Sanchez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Francisco Miguel Martinez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Antonio Zamora Gomez, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Leandro Tortosa, Department of Science of the Computation and Artificial Intelligence, Universidad de Alicante, Alicante, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Samir Ananou, Department of Microbiology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain.

Dr. Miguel Angel Bautista, Department de Matematica Aplicada y Analisis, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de Barcelona, Spain.

Prof. (Dr.) Prof. Adam Baharum, School of Mathematical Sciences, University of Universiti Sains, Malaysia, Malaysia.

Prof. (Dr.) Huiyun Liu, Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London.

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Dr. Cristiano De Magalhaes Barros, Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Prof. (Dr.) Pravin G. Ingole, Senior Researcher, Greenhouse Gas Research Center, Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER), 152 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-343, KOREA Prof. (Dr.) Dilum Bandara, Dept. Computer Science & Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka.

Prof. (Dr.) Faudziah Ahmad, School of Computing, UUM College of Arts and Sciences, University Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darulaman Prof. (Dr.) G. Manoj Someswar, Principal, Dept. of CSE at Anwar-ul-uloom College of Engineering & Technology, Yennepally, Vikarabad, RR District., A.P., India.

Prof. (Dr.) Abdelghni Lakehal, Applied Mathematics, Rue 10 no 6 cite des fonctionnaires dokkarat 30010 Fes Marocco.

Dr. Kamal Kulshreshtha, Associate Professor & Head, Deptt. of Computer Sc. & Applications, Modi Institute of Management & Technology, Kota-324 009, Rajasthan, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Anukrati Sharma, Associate Professor, Faculty of Commerce and Management, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India.

Prof. (Dr.) S. Natarajan, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SSM College of Engineering, NH 47, Salem Main Road, Komarapalayam, Namakkal District, Tamilnadu 638183, India.

Prof. (Dr.) J. Sadhik Basha, Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Prof. (Dr.) G. SAVITHRI, Department of Sericulture, S.P. Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati517502, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Shweta jain, Tolani College of Commerce, Andheri, Mumbai. 400001, India Prof. (Dr.) Abdullah M. Abdul-Jabbar, Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Salahaddin-Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq.

Prof. (Dr.) P.Sujathamma, Department of Sericulture, S.P.Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati517502, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India.

Prof. (Dr.) Manjulatha, Dept of Biochemistry,School of Life Sciences,University of Hyderabad,Gachibowli, Hyderabad, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Upasani Dhananjay Eknath Advisor & Chief Coordinator, ALUMNI Association, Sinhgad Institute of Technology & Science, Narhe, Pune- 411 041, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sudhindra Bhat, Professor & Finance Area Chair, School of Business, Alliance University Bangalore-562106.

Prof. Prasenjit Chatterjee , Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MCKV Institute of Engineering West Bengal, India.

Prof. Rajesh Murukesan, Deptt. of Automobile Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering college, Chennai, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Parmil Kumar, Department of Statistics, University of Jammu, Jammu, India Prof. (Dr.) M.N. Shesha Prakash, Vice Principal, Professor & Head of Civil Engineering, Vidya Vikas Institute of Engineering and Technology, Alanahally, Mysore-570 028 Prof. (Dr.) Piyush Singhal, Mechanical Engineering Deptt., GLA University, India.

Prof. M. Mahbubur Rahman, School of Engineering & Information Technology, Murdoch University, Perth Western Australia 6150, Australia.

Prof. Nawaraj Chaulagain, Department of Religion, Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington, IL. Prof. Hassan Jafari, Faculty of Maritime Economics & Management, Khoramshahr University of Marine Science and Technology, khoramshahr, Khuzestan province, Iran Prof. (Dr.) Kantipudi MVV Prasad , Dept of EC, School of Engg, R.K.University,Kast urbhadham, Tramba, Rajkot-360020, India.

Prof. (Mrs.) P.Sujathamma, Department of Sericulture, S.P.Mahila Visvavidyalayam, ( Women's University), Tirupati-517502, India.

Prof. (Dr.) M A Rizvi, Dept. of Computer Engineering and Applications, National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Bhopal M.P. India Prof. (Dr.) Mohsen Shafiei Nikabadi, Faculty of Economics and Management, Industrial Management Department, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran.

Prof. P.R.SivaSankar, Head, Dept. of Commerce, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post Graduate Centre, KAVALI - 524201, A.P. India.

Prof. (Dr.) Bhawna Dubey, Institute of Environmental Science( AIES), Amity University, Noida, India.

Prof. Manoj Chouhan, Deptt. of Information Technology, SVITS Indore, India.

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Prof. Yupal S Shukla, V M Patel College of Management Studies, Ganpat University, KhervaMehsana, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kohli, Head of the Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering, D.A.V.Institute of Engg. and Technology, Kabir Nagar, Jalandhar, Punjab(India) Prof. (Dr.) Kumar Irayya Maddani, and Head of the Department of Physics in SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dhavalagiri, Dharwad, State: Karnataka (INDIA).

Prof. (Dr.) Shafi Phaniband, SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad, INDIA. Prof. M H Annaiah, Head, Department of Automobile Engineering, Acharya Institute of Technology, Soladevana Halli, Bangalore -560107, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Shriram K V, Faculty Computer Science and Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidhyapeetham University, Coimbatore, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sohail Ayub, Department of Civil Engineering, Z.H College of Engineering & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. 202002 UP-India Prof. (Dr.) Santosh Kumar Behera, Department of Education, Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University, Purulia, West Bengal, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Urmila Shrawankar, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, G H Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur (MS), India.

Prof. Anbu Kumar. S, Deptt. of Civil Engg., Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering) Delhi, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Meenakshi Sood, Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, Mysore, University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot, Karnataka (India) Prof. (Dr.) Prof. R. R. Patil, Director School Of Earth Science, Solapur University, Solapur, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Manoj Khandelwal, Dept. of Mining Engg, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur-313 001 (Rajasthan), India Prof. (Dr.) Kishor Chandra Satpathy, Librarian, National Institute of Technology, Silchar-788010, Assam, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Juhana Jaafar, Gas Engineering Department, Faculty of Petroleum and Renewable Energy Engineering (FPREE), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor.

Prof. (Dr.) Rita Khare, Assistant Professor in chemistry, Govt. Women,s College, Gardanibagh, Patna, Bihar, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Raviraj Kusanur, Dept of Chemistry, R V College of Engineering, Bangalore-59, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Hameem Shanavas .I, M.V.J College of Engineering, Bangalore, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sandhya Mehrotra, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Sciences, Pilani, Rajasthan, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Dr. Ravindra Jilte, Head of the Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering,VCET, Thane-401202, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay Kumar, JKL University, Ajmer Road, Jaipur Prof. (Dr.) Pushp Lata Faculty of English and Communication, Department of Humanities and Languages, Nucleus Member, Publications and Media Relations Unit Editor, BITScan, BITS, PilaniIndia Prof. Arun Agarwal, Faculty of ECE Dept., ITER College, Siksha 'O' Anusandhan University Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Prof. (Dr.) Pratima Tripathi, Department of Biosciences, SSSIHL, Anantapur Campus Anantapur515001 (A.P.) India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sudip Das, Department of Biotechnology, Haldia Institute of Technology, I.C.A.R.E. Complex, H.I.T. Campus, P.O. Hit, Haldia; Dist: Puba Medinipur, West Bengal, India.

Prof. (Dr.) ABHIJIT MITRA , Associate Professor and former Head, Department of Marine Science, University of Calcutta , India.

Prof. (Dr.) N.Ramu , Associate Professor , Department of Commerce, Annamalai University, AnnamalaiNadar-608 002, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu , India.

Prof. (Dr.) Saber Mohamed Abd-Allah, Assistant Professor of Theriogenology , Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Beni-Suef University , Egypt.

Prof. (Dr.) Ramel D. Tomaquin, Dean, College of Arts and Sciences Surigao Del Sur State University (SDSSU), Tandag City Surigao Del Sur, Philippines.

Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India.

Prof. (Dr.) R.K.Tiwari, Professor, S.O.S. in Physics, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, M.P.-474011, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sandeep Gupta, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Gr.Noida, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Mohammad Akram, Jazan University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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Prof. (Dr.) Sanjay Sharma, Dept. of Mathematics, BIT, Durg(C.G.), India.

Prof. (Dr.) Manas R. Panigrahi, Department of Physics, School of Applied Sciences, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India.

Prof. (Dr.) P.Kiran Sree, Dept of CSE, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, India Prof. (Dr.) Suvroma Gupta, Department of Biotechnology in Haldia Institute of Technology, Haldia, West Bengal, India.

Prof. (Dr.) SREEKANTH. K. J., Department of Mechanical Engineering at Mar Baselios College of Engineering & Technology, University of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala, India Prof. Bhubneshwar Sharma, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Eternal University (H.P), India.

Prof. Love Kumar, Electronics and Communication Engineering, DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar (Punjab), India.

Prof. S.KANNAN, Department of History, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar- 608002, Tamil Nadu, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Hasrinah Hasbullah, Faculty of Petroleum & Renewable Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia.

Prof. Rajesh Duvvuru, Dept. of Computer Sc. & Engg., N.I.T. Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Bhargavi H. Goswami, Department of MCA, Sunshine Group of Institutes, Nr. Rangoli Park, Kalawad Road, Rajkot, Gujarat, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Essam H. Houssein, Computer Science Department, Faculty of Computers & Informatics, Benha University, Benha 13518, Qalyubia Governorate, Egypt.

Arash Shaghaghi, University College London, University of London, Great Britain.

Prof. Rajesh Duvvuru, Dept. of Computer Sc. & Engg., N.I.T. Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Anand Kumar, Head, Department of MCA, M.S. Engineering College, Navarathna Agrahara, Sadahalli Post, Bangalore, PIN 562110, Karnataka, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) Venkata Raghavendra Miriampally, Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept, Adama Science & Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia.

Prof. (Dr.) Jatinderkumar R. Saini, Director (I.T.), GTU's Ankleshwar-Bharuch Innovation Sankul &Director I/C & Associate Professor, Narmada College of Computer Application, Zadeshwar, Bharuch, Gujarat, India.

Prof. Jaswinder Singh, Mechanical Engineering Department, University Institute Of Engineering & Technology, Panjab University SSG Regional Centre, Hoshiarpur, Punjab, India- 146001.

Prof. (Dr.) S.Kadhiravan, Head i/c, Department of Psychology, Periyar University, Salem- 636 011,Tamil Nadu, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Mohammad Israr, Principal, Balaji Engineering College,Junagadh, Gujarat-362014, India.

Prof. (Dr.) VENKATESWARLU B., Director of MCA in Sreenivasa Institute of Technology and Management Studies (SITAMS), Chittoor.

Prof. (Dr.) Deepak Paliwal, Faculty of Sociology, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani-Nainital Prof. (Dr.) Dr. Anil K Dwivedi, Faculty of Pollution & Environmental Assay Research Laboratory (PEARL), Department of Botany,DDU Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur-273009, India.

Prof. R. Ravikumar, Department of Agricultural and Rural Management, TamilNadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003,Tamil Nadu, India.

Prof. (Dr.) R.Raman, Professor of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai university, Annamalai Nagar 608 002Tamil Nadu, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Ahmed Khalafallah, Coordinator of the CM Degree Program, Department of Architectural and Manufacturing Sciences, Ogden College of Sciences and Engineering Western Kentucky University 1906 College Heights Blvd Bowling Green, KY 42103-1066 Prof. (Dr.) Asmita Das , Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), Shahbad, Daulatpur, Delhi 110042, India.

Prof. (Dr.)Aniruddha Bhattacharjya, Assistant Professor (Senior Grade), CSE Department, Amrita School of Engineering , Amrita Vishwa VidyaPeetham (University), Kasavanahalli, Carmelaram P.O., Bangalore 560035, Karnataka, India Prof. (Dr.) S. Rama Krishna Pisipaty, Prof & Geoarchaeologist, Head of the Department of Sanskrit & Indian Culture, SCSVMV University, Enathur, Kanchipuram 631561, India Prof. (Dr.) Shubhasheesh Bhattacharya, Professor & HOD(HR), Symbiosis Institute of International Business (SIIB), Hinjewadi, Phase-I, Pune- 411 057 Prof. (Dr.) Vijay Kothari, Institute of Science, Nirma University, S-G Highway, Ahmedabad 382481, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Raja Sekhar Mamillapalli, Department of Civil Engineering at Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur, India.

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Prof. (Dr.)B. M. Kunar, Department of Mining Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad 826004, Jharkhand, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Prabir Sarkar, Assistant Professor, School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Room 307, Academic Block, Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar, Nangal Road, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India.

Prof. (Dr.) K.Srinivasmoorthy, Associate Professor, Department of Earth Sciences, School of Physical,Chemical and Applied Sciences, Pondicherry university, R.Venkataraman Nagar, Kalapet, Puducherry 605014, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Bhawna Dubey, Institute of Environmental Science (AIES), Amity University, Noida, India.

Prof. (Dr.) P. Bhanu Prasad, Vision Specialist, Matrix vision GmbH, Germany, Consultant, TIFACCORE for Machine Vision, Advisor, Kelenn Technology, France Advisor, Shubham Automation & Services, Ahmedabad, and Professor of C.S.E, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India.

Prof. (Dr.)P.Raviraj, Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, Kalaignar Karunanidhi, Institute of Technology, Coimbatore 641402,Tamilnadu,India.

Prof. (Dr.) Damodar Reddy Edla, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004, India.

Prof. (Dr.) T.C. Manjunath, Principal in HKBK College of Engg., Bangalore, Karnataka, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Pankaj Bhambri, I.T. Deptt., Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana 141006, Punjab, India .

Prof. Shashikant Shantilal Patil SVKM, MPSTME Shirpur Campus, NMIMS University Vile Parle Mumbai, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Shambhu Nath Choudhary, Department of Physics, T.M. Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur 81200, Bihar, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Venkateshwarlu Sonnati, Professor & Head of EEED, Department of EEE, Sreenidhi Institute of Science & Technology, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Saurabh Dalela, Department of Pure & Applied Physics, University of Kota, KOTA 324010, Rajasthan, India.

Prof. S. Arman Hashemi Monfared, Department of Civil Eng, University of Sistan & Baluchestan, Daneshgah St.,Zahedan, IRAN, P.C. 98155-987 Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Chanda, Dept. of Jute & Fibre Tech., University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700019, West Bengal, India.

Prof. V.S.VAKULA, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, JNTUK, University College of Engg., Vizianagaram5 35003, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Nehal Gitesh Chitaliya, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology, Vasad 388 306, Gujarat, India.

Prof. (Dr.) D.R. Prajapati, Department of Mechanical Engineering, PEC University of Technology,Chandigarh 160012, India.

Dr. A. SENTHIL KUMAR, Postdoctoral Researcher, Centre for Energy and Electrical Power, Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0001, South Africa.

Prof. (Dr.)Vijay Harishchandra Mankar, Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Mangalwari Bazar, Besa Road, Nagpur- 440027, India.

Prof. Varun.G.Menon, Department Of C.S.E, S.C.M.S School of Engineering, Karukutty, Ernakulam, Kerala 683544, India.

Prof. (Dr.) U C Srivastava, Department of Physics, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, U.P-203301.India.

Prof. (Dr.) Surendra Yadav, Professor and Head (Computer Science & Engineering Department), Maharashi Arvind College of Engineering and Research Centre (MACERC), Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Kumar, H.O.D. Applied Sciences & Humanities Dehradun Institute of Technology, (D.I.T. School of Engineering), 48 A K.P-3 Gr. Noida (U.P.) 201308 Prof. Naveen Jain, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, College of Technology and Engineering, Udaipur-313 001, India.

Prof. Veera Jyothi.B, CBIT ,Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. Aritra Ghosh, Global Institute of Management and Technology, Krishnagar, Nadia, W.B. India Prof. Anuj K. Gupta, Head, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RIMT Group of Institutions, Sirhind Mandi Gobindgarh, Punajb, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Varala Ravi, Head, Department of Chemistry, IIIT Basar Campus, Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Mudhole, Adilabad, Andhra Pradesh- 504 107, India Prof. (Dr.) Ravikumar C Baratakke, faculty of Biology,Govt. College, Saundatti - 591 126, India.

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Prof. (Dr.) NALIN BHARTI, School of Humanities and Social Science, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Shivanand S.Gornale, Head, Department of Studies in Computer Science, Government College (Autonomous), Mandya, Mandya-571 401-Karanataka Prof. (Dr.) Naveen.P.Badiger, Dept.Of Chemistry, S.D.M.College of Engg. & Technology, Dharwad-580002, Karnataka State, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Bimla Dhanda, Professor & Head, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India.

Prof. (Dr.) Tauqeer Ahmad Usmani, Faculty of IT, Salalah College of Technology, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman, Prof. (Dr.) Naresh Kr. Vats, Chairman, Department of Law, BGC Trust University Bangladesh Prof. (Dr.) Papita Das (Saha), Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India Prof. (Dr.) Rekha Govindan , Dept of Biotechnology, Aarupadai Veedu Institute of technology , Vinayaka Missions University , Paiyanoor , Kanchipuram Dt, Tamilnadu , India Prof. (Dr.) Lawrence Abraham Gojeh, Department of Information Science, Jimma University, P.o.Box 378, Jimma, Ethiopia Prof. (Dr.) M.N. Kalasad, Department of Physics, SDM College of Engineering & Technology, Dharwad, Karnataka, India Prof. Rab Nawaz Lodhi, Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology Sahiwal Prof. (Dr.) Masoud Hajarian, Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, General Campus, Evin, Tehran 19839,Iran Prof. (Dr.) Chandra Kala Singh, Associate professor, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, College of Home Science, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125001 (Haryana) India Prof. (Dr.) J.Babu, Professor & Dean of research, St.Joseph's College of Engineering & Technology, Choondacherry, Palai,Kerala.

Prof. (Dr.) Pradip Kumar Roy, Department of Applied Mechanics, Birla Institute of Technology (BIT) Mesra, Ranchi-835215, Jharkhand, India.

Prof. (Dr.) P. Sanjeevi kumar, School of Electrical Engineering (SELECT), Vandalur Kelambakkam Road, VIT University, Chennai, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Debasis Patnaik, BITS-Pilani, Goa Campus, India.

Prof. (Dr.) SANDEEP BANSAL, Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, I.G.N. College, Haryana, India.

Dr. Radhakrishnan S V S, Department of Pharmacognosy, Faser Hall, The University of Mississippi Oxford, MS-38655, USA Prof. (Dr.) Megha Mittal, Faculty of Chemistry, Manav Rachna College of Engineering, Faridabad (HR), 121001, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Mihaela Simionescu (BRATU), BUCHAREST, District no. 6, Romania, member of the Romanian Society of Econometrics, Romanian Regional Science Association and General Association of Economists from Romania Prof. (Dr.) Atmani Hassan, Director Regional of Organization Entraide Nationale Prof. (Dr.) Deepshikha Gupta, Dept. of Chemistry, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences,Amity University, Sec.125, Noida, India Prof. (Dr.) Muhammad Kamruzzaman, Deaprtment of Infectious Diseases, The University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW-2145.

Prof. (Dr.) Meghshyam K. Patil , Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Chemistry,Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,Sub-Campus, Osmanabad- 413 501, Maharashtra, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kr. Dargar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur (Raj.) Prof. (Dr.) Sudarson Jena, Dept. of Information Technology, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India Prof. (Dr.) Jai Prakash Jaiswal, Department of Mathematics, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal-India Prof. (Dr.) S.Amutha, Dept. of Educational Technology, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli620 023, Tamil Nadu-India Prof. (Dr.) R. HEMA KRISHNA, Environmental chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada.

Prof. (Dr.) B.Swaminathan, Dept. of Agrl.Economics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India.

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Prof. (Dr.) Meghshyam K. Patil, Assistant Professor & Head, Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Sub-Campus, Osmanabad- 413 501, Maharashtra, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) K. Ramesh, Department of Chemistry, C .B . I. T, Gandipet, Hyderabad-500075 Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Kumar, H.O.D. Applied Sciences &Humanities, JIMS Technical campus,(I.P. University,New Delhi), 48/4 ,K.P.-3,Gr.Noida (U.P.) Prof. (Dr.) G.V.S.R.Anjaneyulu, CHAIRMAN - P.G. BOS in Statistics & Deputy Coordinator UGC DRS-I Project, Executive Member ISPS-2013, Department of Statistics, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar-522510, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Sribas Goswami, Department of Sociology, Serampore College, Serampore 712201, West Bengal, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sunanda Sharma, Department of Veterinary Obstetrics Y Gynecology, College of Veterinary & Animal Science,Rajasthan University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences,Bikaner334001, India.

Prof. (Dr.) S.K. Tiwari, Department of Zoology, D.D.U. Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur-273009 U.P., India.

Prof. (Dr.) Praveena Kuruva, Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore560012, INDIA Prof. (Dr.) Rajesh Kumar, Department Of Applied Physics , Bhilai Institute Of Technology, Durg (C.G.) 491001 Prof. (Dr.) Y.P.Singh, (Director), Somany (PG) Institute of Technology and Management, Garhi Bolni Road, Delhi-Jaipur Highway No. 8, Beside 3 km from City Rewari, Rewari-123401, India.

Prof. (Dr.) MIR IQBAL FAHEEM, VICE PRINCIPAL &HEAD- Department of Civil Engineering & Professor of Civil Engineering, Deccan College of Engineering & Technology, Dar-us-Salam, Aghapura, Hyderabad (AP) 500 036.

Prof. (Dr.) Jitendra Gupta, Regional Head, Co-ordinator(U.P. State Representative)& Asstt. Prof., (Pharmaceutics), Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura.

Prof. (Dr.) N. Sakthivel, Scientist - C,Research Extension Center,Central Silk Board, Government of India, Inam Karisal Kulam (Post), Srivilliputtur - 626 125,Tamil Nadu, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Omprakash Srivastav, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202 001, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) K.V.L.N.Acharyulu, Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, Bapatla Engineering college, Bapatla-522101, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) Fateh Mebarek-Oudina, Assoc. Prof., Sciences Faculty,20 aout 1955-Skikda University, B.P 26 Route El-Hadaiek, 21000,Skikda, Algeria.

NagaLaxmi M. Raman, Project Support Officer, Amity International Centre for Postharvest, Technology & Cold Chain Management, Amity University Campus, Sector-125, Expressway, Noida Prof. (Dr.) V.SIVASANKAR, Associate Professor, Department Of Chemistry, Thiagarajar College Of Engineering (Autonomous), Madurai 625015, Tamil Nadu, India (Dr.) Ramkrishna Singh Solanki, School of Studies in Statistics, Vikram University, Ujjain, India Prof. (Dr.) M.A.Rabbani, Professor/Computer Applications, School of Computer, Information and Mathematical Sciences, B.S.Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India Prof. (Dr.) P.P.Satya Paul Kumar, Associate Professor, Physical Education & Sports Sciences, University College of Physical Education & Sports, Sciences, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur.

Prof. (Dr.) Fazal Shirazi, PostDoctoral Fellow, Infectious Disease, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA Prof. (Dr.) Omprakash Srivastav, Department of Museology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh202 001, INDIA. Prof. (Dr.) Mandeep Singh walia, A.P. E.C.E., Panjab University SSG Regional Centre Hoshiarpur, Una Road, V.P.O. Allahabad, Bajwara, Hoshiarpur Prof. (Dr.) Ho Soon Min, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Applied Sciences, INTI International University, Persiaran Perdana BBN, Putra Nilai, 71800 Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia Prof. (Dr.) L.Ganesamoorthy, Assistant Professor in Commerce, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar-608002, Chidambaram, Tamilnadu, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Vuda Sreenivasarao, Professor, School of Computing and Electrical Engineering, Bahir Dar University, Bahirdar,Ethiopia Prof. (Dr.) Umesh Sharma, Professor & HOD Applied Sciences & Humanities, Eshan college of Engineering, Mathura, India.

Prof. (Dr.) K. John Singh, School of Information Technology and Engineering, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sita Ram Pal (Asst.Prof.), Dept. of Special Education, Dr.BAOU, Ahmedabad, India.

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Prof. Vishal S.Rana, H.O.D, Department of Business Administration, S.S.B.T'S College of Engineering & Technology, Bambhori,Jalgaon (M.S), India.

Prof. (Dr.) Chandrakant Badgaiyan, Department of Mechatronics and Engineering, Chhattisgarh.

Dr. (Mrs.) Shubhrata Gupta, Prof. (Electrical), NIT Raipur, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Usha Rani. Nelakuditi, Assoc. Prof., ECE Deptt., Vignan’s Engineering College, Vignan University, India.

Prof. (Dr.) S. Swathi, Asst. Professor, Department of Information Technology, Vardhaman college of Engineering(Autonomous) , Shamshabad, R.R District, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Raja Chakraverty, M Pharm (Pharmacology), BCPSR, Durgapur, West Bengal, India Prof. (Dr.) P. Sanjeevi Kumar, Electrical & Electronics Engineering, National Institute of Technology (NIT-Puducherry), An Institute of National Importance under MHRD (Govt. of India), Karaikal- 609 605, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Amitava Ghosh, Professor & Principal, Bengal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, B.R.B. Sarani, Bidhannagar, Durgapur, West Bengal- 713212.

Prof. (Dr.) Om Kumar Harsh, Group Director, Amritsar College of Engineering and Technology, Amritsar 143001 (Punjab), India.

Prof. (Dr.) Mansoor Maitah, Department of International Relations, Faculty of Economics and Management, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 21 Praha 6 Suchdol, Czech Republic.

Prof. (Dr.) Zahid Mahmood, Department of Management Sciences (Graduate Studies), Bahria University, Naval Complex, Sector, E-9, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Prof. (Dr.) N. Sandeep, Faculty Division of Fluid Dynamics, VIT University, Vellore-632 014.

Mr. Jiban Shrestha, Scientist (Plant Breeding and Genetics), Nepal Agricultural Research Council, National Maize Research Program, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal.

Prof. (Dr.) Rakhi Garg, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Ramakant Pandey. Dept. of Biochemistry. Patna University Patna (Bihar)-India.

Prof. (Dr.) Nalah Augustine Bala, Behavioural Health Unit, Psychology Department, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, P.M.B. 1022 Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria.

Prof. (Dr.) Mehdi Babaei, Department of Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Zanjan, Iran.

Prof. (Dr.) A. SENTHIL KUMAR., Professor/EEE, VELAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI Prof. (Dr.) Gudikandhula Narasimha Rao, Dept. of Computer Sc. & Engg., KKR & KSR Inst Of Tech & Sciences, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Dhanesh singh, Department of Chemistry, K.G. Arts & Science College, Raigarh (C.G.) India.

Prof. (Dr.) Syed Umar , Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Guntur, A.P., India.

Prof. (Dr.) Rachna Goswami, Faculty in Bio-Science Department, IIIT Nuzvid (RGUKT), DistrictKrishna , Andhra Pradesh - 521201 Prof. (Dr.) Ahsas Goyal, FSRHCP, Founder & Vice president of Society of Researchers and Health Care Professionals Prof. (Dr.) Gagan Singh, School of Management Studies and Commerce, Department of Commerce, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani-Nainital, Uttarakhand (UK)-263139 (India) Prof. (Dr.) Solomon A. O. Iyekekpolor, Mathematics and Statistics, Federal University, WukariNigeria.

Prof. (Dr.) S. Saiganesh, Faculty of Marketing, Dayananda Sagar Business School, Bangalore, India.

Dr. K.C.Sivabalan, Field Enumerator and Data Analyst, Asian Vegetable Research Centre, The World Vegetable Centre, Taiwan Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kumar Mishra, Department of Environmntal Science and Energy Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel Prof. (Dr.) Manisha N. Paliwal, Sinhgad Institute of Management, Vadgaon (Bk), Pune, India Prof. (Dr.) M. S. HIREMATH, Principal, K.L.ESOCIETY’S SCHOOL, ATHANI, India Prof. Manoj Dhawan, Department of Information Technology, Shri Vaishnav Institute of Technology & Science, Indore, (M. P.), India Prof. (Dr.) V.R.Naik, Professor & Head of Department, Mechancal Engineering , Textile & Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji (Dist. Kolhapur), Maharashatra, India Prof. (Dr.) Jyotindra C. Prajapati,Head, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa Anand -388421, Gujarat, India Prof. (Dr.) Sarbjit Singh, Head, Department of Industrial & Production Engineering, Dr BR Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab,India

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Prof. (Dr.) Professor Braja Gopal Bag, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Vidyasagar University, West Midnapore Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kumar Chandra, Department of Management, Bhilai Institute of Technology, Bhilai House, Durg (C.G.) Prof. (Dr.) Amit Kumar, Assistant Professor, School of Chemistry, Shoolini University, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) L. Suresh Kumar, Mechanical Department, Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India.

Scientist Sheeraz Saleem Bhat, Lac Production Division, Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums, Namkum, Ranchi, Jharkhand Prof. C.Divya , Centre for Information Technology and Engineering, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli - 627012, Tamilnadu , India Prof. T.D.Subash, Infant Jesus College Of Engineering and Technology, Thoothukudi Tamilnadu, India Prof. (Dr.) Vinay Nassa, Prof. E.C.E Deptt., Dronacharya.Engg. College, Gurgaon India.

Prof. Sunny Narayan, university of Roma Tre, Italy.

Prof. (Dr.) Sanjoy Deb, Dept. of ECE, BIT Sathy, Sathyamangalam, Tamilnadu-638401, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Reena Gupta, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura-India Prof. (Dr.) P.R.SivaSankar, Head Dept. of Commerce, Vikrama Simhapuri University Post Graduate Centre, KAVALI - 524201, A.P., India Prof. (Dr.) Mohsen Shafiei Nikabadi, Faculty of Economics and Management, Industrial Management Department, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran.

Prof. (Dr.) Praveen Kumar Rai, Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, U.P. India Prof. (Dr.) Christine Jeyaseelan, Dept of Chemistry, Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University, Noida, India Prof. (Dr.) M A Rizvi, Dept. of Computer Engineering and Applications , National Institute of Technical Teachers' Training and Research, Bhopal M.P. India Prof. (Dr.) K.V.N.R.Sai Krishna, H O D in Computer Science, S.V.R.M.College,(Autonomous), Nagaram, Guntur(DT), Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Ashok Kr. Dargar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur (Raj.) Prof. (Dr.) Asim Kumar Sen, Principal , ST.Francis Institute of Technology (Engineering College) under University of Mumbai , MT. Poinsur, S.V.P Road, Borivali (W), Mumbai, 400103, India, Prof. (Dr.) Rahmathulla Noufal.E, Civil Engineering Department, Govt.Engg.College-Kozhikode Prof. (Dr.) N.Rajesh, Department of Agronomy, TamilNadu Agricultural University -Coimbatore, TamilNadu, India Prof. (Dr.) Har Mohan Rai, Professor, Electronics and Communication Engineering, N.I.T. Kurukshetra 136131,India Prof. (Dr.) Eng. Sutasn Thipprakmas from King Mongkut, University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand Prof. (Dr.) Kantipudi MVV Prasad, EC Department, RK University, Rajkot.

Prof. (Dr.) Jitendra Gupta,Faculty of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura.

Prof. (Dr.) Swapnali Borah, HOD, Dept of Family Resource Management, College of Home Science, Central Agricultural University, Tura, Meghalaya, India Prof. (Dr.) N.Nazar Khan, Professor in Chemistry, BTK Institute of Technology, Dwarahat-263653 (Almora), Uttarakhand-India Prof. (Dr.) Rajiv Sharma, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai (TN) - 600 036, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Aparna Sarkar, PH.D. Physiology, AIPT, Amity University , F 1 Block, LGF, Sector125,Noida-201303, UP, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Manpreet Singh, Professor and Head, Department of Computer Engineering, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Haryana, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sukumar Senthilkumar, Senior Researcher, Advanced Education Center of Jeonbuk for Electronics and Information Technology, Chon Buk National University, Chon Buk, 561-756, SOUTH KOREA. .

Prof. (Dr.) Hari Singh Dhillon, Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar (Punjab), INDIA. .

Prof. (Dr.) Poonkuzhali, G., Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Chennai, INDIA. .

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Prof. (Dr.) Bharath K N, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, GM Institute of Technology, PB Road, Davangere 577006, Karnataka, India.

Prof. (Dr.) F.Alipanahi, Assistant Professor, Islamic Azad University, Zanjan Branch, Atemadeyeh, Moalem Street, Zanjan IRAN. Prof. Yogesh Rathore, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RITEE, Raipur, India Prof. (Dr.) Ratneshwer, Department of Computer Science (MMV),Banaras Hindu University Varanasi-221005, India.

Prof. Pramod Kumar Pandey, Assistant Professor, Department Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering, ITM University, Gwalior, M.P., India.

Prof. (Dr.)Sudarson Jena, Associate Professor, Dept.of IT, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India Prof. (Dr.) Binod Kumar, PhD(CS), M.Phil(CS), MIEEE,MIAENG, Dean & Professor( MCA), Jayawant Technical Campus(JSPM's), Pune, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Mohan Singh Mehata, (JSPS fellow), Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Physics, Delhi Technological University, Delhi Prof. Ajay Kumar Agarwal, Asstt. Prof., Deptt. of Mech. Engg., Royal Institute of Management & Technology, Sonipat (Haryana), India.

Prof. (Dr.) Siddharth Sharma, University School of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Satish Chandra Dixit, Department of Chemistry, D.B.S.College, Govind Nagar,Kanpur208006, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Ajay Solkhe, Department of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Neeraj Sharma, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Chemistry, GLA University, Mathura, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Basant Lal, Department of Chemistry, G.L.A. University, Mathura, India.

Prof. (Dr.) T Venkat Narayana Rao, C.S.E, Guru Nanak Engineering College, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Rajanarender Reddy Pingili, S.R. International Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Prof. (Dr.) V.S.Vairale, Department of Computer Engineering, All India Shri Shivaji Memorial Society College of Engineering, Kennedy Road, Pune-411 001, Maharashtra, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Vasavi Bande, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Netaji Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Hardeep Anand, Department of Chemistry, Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra, Haryana, India.

Prof. Aasheesh shukla, Asst Professor, Dept. of EC, GLA University, Mathura, India.

Prof. S.P.Anandaraj., CSE Dept, SREC, Warangal, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Chitranjan Agrawal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur- 313001, Rajasthan, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Rangnath Aher, Principal, New Arts, Commerce and Science College, Parner, DistAhmednagar, M.S. India.

Prof. (Dr.) Chandan Kumar Panda, Department of Agricultural Extension, College of Agriculture, Tripura, Lembucherra-799210 Prof. (Dr.) Latika Kharb, IP Faculty (MCA Deptt), Jagan Institute of Management Studies (JIMS), Sector-5, Rohini, Delhi, India.

Raj Mohan Raja Muthiah, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.

Prof. (Dr.) Chhanda Chatterjee, Dept of Philosophy, Balurghat College, West Bengal, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Mihir Kumar Shome , H.O.D of Mathematics, Management and Humanities, National Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh, India Prof. (Dr.) Muthukumar .Subramanyam, Registrar (I/C), Faculty, Computer Science and Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Puducherry, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Vinay Saxena, Department of Mathematics, Kisan Postgraduate College, Bahraich – 271801 UP, India.

Satya Rishi Takyar, Senior ISO Consultant, New Delhi, India.

Prof. Anuj K. Gupta, Head, Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering, RIMT Group of Institutions, Mandi Gobindgarh (PB) Prof. (Dr.) Harish Kumar, Department of Sports Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Mohammed Ali Hussain, Professor, Dept. of Electronics and Computer Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India.

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Prof. (Dr.) Manish Gupta, Department of Mechanical Engineering, GJU, Haryana, India.

Prof. Mridul Chawla, Department of Elect. and Comm. Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India.

Prof. Seema Chawla, Department of Bio-medical Engineering, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Haryana, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Atul M. Gosai, Department of Computer Science, Saurashtra University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India.

Prof. (Dr.) Ajit Kr. Bansal, Department of Management, Shoolini University, H.P., India.

Prof. (Dr.) Sunil Vasistha, Mody Institute of Tecnology and Science, Sikar, Rajasthan, India.

Prof. Vivekta Singh, GNIT Girls Institute of Technology, Greater Noida, India.

Prof. Ajay Loura, Assistant Professor at Thapar University, Patiala, India.

Prof. Sushil Sharma, Department of Computer Science and Applications, Govt. P. G. College, Ambala Cantt., Haryana, India.

Prof. Sube Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Narnaul, Haryana, India.

Prof. Himanshu Arora, Delhi Institute of Technology and Management, New Delhi, India.

Dr. Sabina Amporful, Bibb Family Practice Association, Macon, Georgia, USA. Dr. Pawan K. Monga, Jindal Institute of Medical Sciences, Hisar, Haryana, India.

Dr. Sam Ampoful, Bibb Family Practice Association, Macon, Georgia, USA. Dr. Nagender Sangra, Director of Sangra Technologies, Chandigarh, India.

Vipin Gujral, CPA, New Jersey, USA. Sarfo Baffour, University of Ghana, Ghana.

Monique Vincon, Hype Softwaretechnik GmbH, Bonn, Germany.

Natasha Sigmund, Atlanta, USA. Marta Trochimowicz, Rhein-Zeitung, Koblenz, Germany.

Kamalesh Desai, Atlanta, USA. Vijay Attri, Software Developer Google, San Jose, California, USA. Neeraj Khillan, Wipro Technologies, Boston, USA. Ruchir Sachdeva, Software Engineer at Infosys, Pune, Maharashtra, India.

Anadi Charan, Senior Software Consultant at Capgemini, Mumbai, Maharashtra.

Pawan Monga, Senior Product Manager, LG Electronics India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.

Sunil Kumar, Senior Information Developer, Honeywell Technology Solutions, Inc., Bangalore, India.

Bharat Gambhir, Technical Architect, Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Noida, India.

Vinay Chopra, Team Leader, Access Infotech Pvt Ltd. Chandigarh, India.

Sumit Sharma, Team Lead, American Express, New Delhi, India.

Vivek Gautam, Senior Software Engineer, Wipro, Noida, India.

Anirudh Trehan, Nagarro Software Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

Manjot Singh, Senior Software Engineer, HCL Technologies Delhi, India.

Rajat Adlakha, Senior Software Engineer, Tech Mahindra Ltd, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India.

Mohit Bhayana, Senior Software Engineer, Nagarro Software Pvt. Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

Dheeraj Sardana, Tech. Head, Nagarro Software, Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

Naresh Setia, Senior Software Engineer, Infogain, Noida, India.

Raj Agarwal Megh, Idhasoft Limited, Pune, Maharashtra, India.

Shrikant Bhardwaj, Senior Software Engineer, Mphasis an HP Company, Pune, Maharashtra, India.

Vikas Chawla, Technical Lead, Xavient Software Solutions, Noida, India.

Kapoor Singh, Sr. Executive at IBM, Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

Ashwani Rohilla, Senior SAP Consultant at TCS, Mumbai, India.

Anuj Chhabra, Sr. Software Engineer, McKinsey & Company, Faridabad, Haryana, India.

Jaspreet Singh, Business Analyst at HCL Technologies, Gurgaon, Haryana, India.

TOPICS OF INTEREST Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:  Business administration  Marketing & Management  Finance  Economics  Banking  Accounting  Human resources management  Entrepreneurship,  Education and its applications  Business ethics  Relationship & Risk management  Retail management and communication  Linguistics  International relations  Anthropology & Archaeology  Sociology  International business  Tourism and hospitality management  Law  Psychology  Corporate governance  Demography  Education  Ethics  Geography  History  Industrial relations  Information science  Library science  Media studies  Philosophy,  Political science  Public administration  Sociology  Social welfare  Literature  Paralegal  Performing arts (music, theatre and dance)  Religious studies  Visual arts  Women studies  Production and operations management  Organizational behavior and theory  Strategic management Policy  Statistics and Econometrics  Personnel and industrial relations  Gender studies & Cross cultural studies  Management information systems  Information technology

TABLE OF CONTENTS American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (AIJRHASS) ISSN(Print): 2328-3734, ISSN(Online): 2328-3696, ISSN(CD-ROM): 2328-3688, (March-May, 2015, Issue 10, Volume 1, 2, 3 & 4) Issue 10, Volume 1 Paper Code

Paper Title

Page No.

AIJRHASS 15-305

Concepts of Continuity and Changes in Indian Social Structure Under British Rule Dr. Hareet Kumar Meena

01-06

AIJRHASS 15-306

Entertainment Studies – A Perspective Dr. LIM Kok Wai Benny

07-11

AIJRHASS 15-308

Applying Universal Design concept in interior design to reinforce the Social dimension of Sustainability Dr. Inas Hosny Ibrahim Anous

12-24

AIJRHASS 15-314

Contemplation of conservation and Painting technique of plaster wall paintings at Church Karas in Deir el-Anba Shenouda Sohag- Egypt Shehata A. Abd elrehym, Mohamed A.A. Awad, Hossam R. A. Sleem

25-29

AIJRHASS 15-315

Investigating how school leaders negotiate their role as instructional leaders in secondary schools in Mauritius Nathalie Congo-Poottaren

30-33

AIJRHASS 15-316

Peasants’ Mobilization under the Communist at its formative stage in Colonial Odisha: a case study of Kolkata Odia Krushak Sammilani Amit Kumar Nayak

34-40

AIJRHASS 15-317

Examining the Effectiveness of different Media of Advertising: A Comparative Analysis in North India Dr. Rajesh Kumar

41-46

AIJRHASS 15-319

A Theoretical approach on the moderating effect of competitive positioning on consumer reactions to Corporate Social Responsibility Preetha.R, Gopika.G

47-49

AIJRHASS 15-320

A cross-sectional study on behaviour and social aspects of deaf and dumb children in Ahmedabad Dr. Krunal G. Varia, Dr. Niti J. Talsania

50-53

AIJRHASS 15-322

Word Structure in Gondi Thota Venkata Swamy

54-56

AIJRHASS 15-323

Necessity for Sustainable Environmental Considerations in Corporate Decision making Processes Pranav Sharma, Swarita Sharma, Rina Kumari and A K Tiwari

57-60

AIJRHASS 15-324

The Impact of Colonisation on Women in ‘Child of All Nations’ Hamid Farahmandian

61-64

AIJRHASS 15-325

From Stockholm to Rio to Rio+20: Green Economy and the Road Ahead Dr. Shobhalata Udapudi, Mr. Fakkiresh S. Sakkarnaikar

65-73

AIJRHASS 15-326

Reverse Merger as a Method of Going Public: Regulatory Approach in U.S. Chaitra R. Beerannavar, Dr. Shashikala Gurpur

74-79

AIJRHASS 15-327

Peculiaris Lepores: Grotesque as Moment in British Literature Sambhunath Maji, Dr. Birbal Saha

80-85

AIJRHASS 15-328

Abortion: A Study Based On Case-Studies Of South 24-Parganas, West Bengal Arunima Dhar

86-89

AIJRHASS 15-329

The impact of Interior Design in educational spaces for children with Autism Dr. Inas Hosny Ibrahim Anous

90-101

Issue 10, Volume 2 Paper Code

Paper Title

Page No.

AIJRHASS 15-330

An Analysis of Intelligence Informer network during the British conquest of India Shabir Ahmad Reshi & Dr. Seema Dwivedi

102-104

AIJRHASS 15-331

A Study of the Growth in Small Scale Industries through Strategic Leadership Skills: An Analytical Approach Jyothi A N and Dr. Ambily A S

105-110

AIJRHASS 15-332

Prevalence of vulvovaginal candidiasis among female patients attending New Life Hospital Mubi, Adamawa State David, D. L. Wahedi, J.A. Umaru, F. B. and Ibrahim, R.K

111-113

AIJRHASS 15-333

Foreign Connection: Foreign Workers and Internationalization among Small Business Enterprises in Kampala, Uganda Olutayo K. Osunsan

114-118

AIJRHASS 15-335

Patent war amidst globalization: Focus on India & China deliberating United States Perspective Dr. Tanushri Purohit, Jasleen Kaur

119-126

AIJRHASS 15-336

Farmers’ Perception Of African Locust Bean Tree (Parkia Bigloblosa ) As An Economic Tree In OYO State, Nigeria ADEOLA, R. G.

127-130

AIJRHASS 15-337

Growth and Determinants of Post Delivery Complication of Women in Respect of Access to Health Care Facilities in West Bengal: An Inter-District Analysis Uttam Kumar Sikder, Barsha Choudhury

131-139

AIJRHASS 15-338

Eve Teasing and the Decadence of Social Values in Bangladesh: How Many Innocent Faces are to be Lost!

Md. Assraf Seddiky, Esmat Ara, Fatema Khatun

140-148

AIJRHASS 15-348

A Study On Terrace Farming And Its Effect On Women Empowerment In Ernakulam District Nayana N Nair, Lekshmy P R

149-151

AIJRHASS 15-350

Re-defining ‘Identity’: A Critique of Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake Dashrath Gatt

152-155

AIJRHASS 15-354

The Role of Akshaya and Friends in Rural Area Arun Kumar P S, Alvin Abraham, Girish S (Assistant Professor)

156-160

AIJRHASS 15-358

Performance Assessment of the Architectural Heritage Dr. Ammar Korichi, Salah Eddine Krada, Dr.Youcef Laraba

161-164

AIJRHASS 15-359

The Impact of Language in Conflict Management and Peace Building Osimen, Goddy Uwa, Aniga, Ugo Samuel, Bateye, Omonike Rashidat

165-171

AIJRHASS 15-360

Diaspora in William Shakespeare’s HAMLET L.Santhosh Kumar

172-174

AIJRHASS 15-361

Re-Engineering Nigeria’s Corporate Governance and Political Economy towards the Expectations of Vision 2020 Adeola, G. L. (PhD), Omorogbe, C. E (PhD)

175-181

AIJRHASS 15-363

Analysing the Fragmentation of Indian Territory with Reference to Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children Vaalanteena X., Veeramani S.Ph.D,

182-184

AIJRHASS 15-364

A study of perception of tourist Socio-economic status on Jharkhand Tourism Category Pranjal Kumar, Dr. Ashutosh Mishra

185-196

AIJRHASS 15-365

Effect of Low Impact Aerobic Dance Exercise On Vo2 Max Among Sedentary Men of Kannur (DT) of Kerala Dr.K.P.Prashobhith

197-199

Issue 10, Volume 3 Paper Code

Paper Title

Page No.

AIJRHASS 15-368

An Empirical Study on Customer Relationship Management and Products- in Banking Sector at Mysore city Ms. Sandhya P

200-205

AIJRHASS 15-369

Gen Z - Children of Digital Revolution Transforming Social Landscape Ms Maitri, Dr. K. Gargi

206-208

AIJRHASS 15-370

Recent Trends in Haryana State Finances Dr. Laxmi Narayan

209-214

AIJRHASS 15-371

Globalization and its Ethical Standards Mohammed Kamal Khwaja

215-219

AIJRHASS 15-372

The Roots of the Kurdish Internal Rivalries, Conflicts and Peace Process 1964-2000 Krawan Salih Waisy

220-232

AIJRHASS 15-374

An Epidemic: Famine & Malnutrition Dr. Suniti Ahuja

233-236

AIJRHASS 15-375

Laws for Elder lies in India: Its Applicability and Loop Holes Dr. Nisha Chaudhary, Yash Pal Singh

237-243

AIJRHASS 15-376

Failure of the new town of Constantine (Algeria) Makhlouf Mokhtar, Dekoumi Djamel

244-248

AIJRHASS 15-378

Ubiquity of Posthumanist Quadruplex in Krrish 3 Kiran deep Singh

249-253

AIJRHASS 15-379

Talent Retention Management in Corporate sectors Pranav Sharma, Swarita Sharma, and A K Tiwari

254-257

AIJRHASS 15-383

Job Performance: Getting Influenced by Emotional Intelligence Dr. Satish Ahuja

258-263

AIJRHASS 15-387

International Human Dignity and Social Justice-Social Security Approach Mr. Fakkiresh S. Sakkarnaikar, Dr. Shobhalata Udapudi

264-273

AIJRHASS 15-388

Assessing Stressors Responsible for Stress Generation among Women Employees in Indian BPO’s Sonal Pathak, Dr. Anil Sarin,

274-280

AIJRHASS 15-389

Influence of Mothers of Sarsara in Workplace Spirituality Movement Pintu Mahakul

281-286

AIJRHASS 15-390

Study of Hand Dimensions and Hand Grip Strength between Adolescent Basketball and Volleyball Players Dr.Vishaw Gaurav, Mukhwinder Singh, Dr. Sukhdev Singh, Dr. Amandeep Singh and Sandeep

287-289

AIJRHASS 15-391

Assessing the Correlation between Continuous Assessment and Examination Scores of Education Courses Ado Abdu Bichi & Aliyu Musa

290-294

Issue 10, Volume 4 Paper Code

Paper Title

Page No.

AIJRHASS 15-393

Improving teaching practices through Action research at primary school teachers Preparation Dr. Hamdy Ahmed Mahmoud Hamed

295-309

AIJRHASS 15-394

Locus of control and psychological well-being among Iranian adolescent migrants in Kuala-Lumpur, Malaysia Mohammad Reza Vakili Mobarakeh, Rumaya Juhari, Siti Nor Yaacob, and Ma rof Redzuan

310-313

AIJRHASS 15-395

Assessment of Self-concept of Secondary School Students in respect to their Gender, Localities and Category (Tribe and Non-Tribe) Dr. Jagabandhu Behera, Dr. Rebati Mani Samal

314-319

AIJRHASS 15-396

Barriers to Overcome in Pamela and Mr. B—’s Marriage in Richardson’s Pamela Dr. Gassim H. Dohal

320-322

AIJRHASS 15-397

Performance assessment of bedrooms in urban hotels in Algeria Dr. Youcef Laraba, Dr. Ammar Korichi, Dr. Salah Eddine Krada

323-325

AIJRHASS 15-402

CSR - IN OPERATION Devika Ahuja

326-329

AIJRHASS 15-408

Shift in Perceptions Regarding Role and Responsibilities of Women in Society in Chinua Achebe’s ‘Girls at War’ Dipali Sharma Bhandari

330-333

AIJRHASS 15-414

Parental Attitude towards Girl Education in District Kulgam (J&K) Ruhee Rashid and Dr. Santosh Kumar Maharashi

334-336

AIJRHASS 15-415

Enhancing Adolescents’ Prosocial attitudes and Prosocial behaviors through the implementation of a Research based comprehensive Character Education programme Kauser Tasneem

337-343

AIJRHASS 15-418

The Impact of Human Resource Practices on Turnover Intention: The Mediating Roles of Procedural Justice and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (Case Study: Employees of West Azerbaijan Electric Energy Distribution Company) Parisa Darvishi Balderlou, Mohammad Hassani

344-351

AIJRHASS 15-419

A study to assess the effectiveness of Computer Assisted Teaching programme regarding knowledge on available health services at Primary Health Centre(PHC) among ASHA workers in selected PHCs of Holenarasipura Ms. Nithyashree B V, Mrs. Saraswathi P C

352-355

AIJRHASS 15-420

Monetary Motivation - Incentive Schemes of Rourkela Steel Plant Satchidananda Patnaik

356-359

American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Concepts of Continuity and Changes in Indian Social Structure Under British Rule Dr. Hareet Kumar Meena Assistant Professor, Department of History Indira Gandhi National Tribal University Amarkantak, Distt. Anuppur- 484 886,Madhya Pradesh, India.

Abstract: British imperialism was more pragmatic in comparison of other contemporary colonial powers. In the beginning of the eighteenth century, the British East India Company came to India as commercial enterprise but the existing unstable political scenario gave them a fillip to establish their hegemony in political and socioeconomic web. In colonial era, India experienced both negative and positive impact on Indian society. The British Raj had a deeply racist aspect and it ultimately existed to protect colonial exploitation. They replaced the wasteful warlord aristocracy by a bureaucratic-military establishment, carefully designed by utilitarian technocrats, which was very efficient in maintaining law and order throughout the country. To cater their needs and for the sake of smooth administrative functioning, British Raj carved out the policy of divide and rule. The greater efficiency of government permitted a substantial reduction in the fiscal burden; consequently a bigger share of the national income was available for landlords, capitalists and the new professional classes. However, at the same time, it was the British administrative setup which has done a noteworthy job in the eradication of numerous social evils and for the emancipation of women in India. Similarly, the concept of equality and freedom was unknown in India, which was introduced through the exposure of rational ideology prevailed in Europe.

Key words: Caste, Elite class, Female infanticide, Infant Mortality, Macaulay Minute, Sati, Untouchability Objective of the Study: The present study is an attempt to examine and evaluate the outlook of British regime towards Indian social milieu. While observing the racist policy, the paper also narrates positive measures taken by the colonial government as the abolition of sati, ban on infanticide and granting the legal right to widows to remarry, provisions of education, etc.

Methodology: A descriptive research methodology was used to assess the perception of British regime towards Indian society. The researcher has relied both on Primary sources as well as Secondary sources for collection of data. Primary data has been gathered from archival records; whereas Secondary data is based on analysis and discussions.

I. Introduction The latter half of the eighteenth century witnessed the culmination of Mughal power and initiation of colonial rule in India.1 Colonial administration in India was introduced by the Treaty of Allahabad (Oct. 1765) by Robert Clive (Dutt, 1906; Beer, 1962). Accordingly, a new model of Dual government2 was implemented through the Diwani rights (rights related with revenue collection) and Nizamat rights (rights related with military administration). From onwards, Indian society, economy and administration experienced two kinds of consequences; one positive impact and another one was negative (Ghurye, 1969). As we know, British interests were of several kinds. At first the main purpose was to achieve a monopolistic trading position. Later it was felt that a regime of free trade would make India a major market for British goods and a source of raw materials.

1

Colonialism denotes establishment of rule by one foreign human race over another local human race and keep latter suppressed. It is an organized policy of oppression of local people by foreigners; where the local people have to accept servitude of the foreign rule in-order to foster the colonialism and capitalism of that particular foreign country. It manages control over administrative mechanism and productive process and brutally exploits all human-natural resources for her benefit and betterment. At the same time, it tries to break up the social web of the colony into classes so that her rule may be stabilized. The best example of this theory is what the British did in India since middle 18th century till middle 20th century.

2 Initiated by Robert Clive, the Dual Government of Bengal was a double system of administration, through which the Company got both the diwani (revenue) and nizamat (civil administration) functions of Bengal from two different sources i.e., diwani from the Mughal emperor and nizamat from the Nawab of Bengal. In simple words, the British East India Company was authorized to accumulate revenues of the Bengal province as the Diwan and to handle the civil administration as the British obtained the designation to control the police and judicial powers or the Nizam. The greatest drawback of this administrative mechanism was that it separated power from responsibility. The British were given control over the province but, at the same time, they did not feel any responsibility for its administration. The weakness of the system became clear in 1770 when a severe famine broke out in Bengal.

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The British Raj was deeply directed for colonial economic exploitation of India through trade, industry and finance. Consequently, the Indian economy was subordinated to the British economy (Naoroji, 1901; Roy, 2013). India was transformed into a supplier of raw materials, a vast market for British manufactures and a field of investment for British capital. After 1813, the British imposed a policy of one-way free trade on India. The result was the ruination of Indian handicraft and cottage industries (Guha, 1963; Arvind, 1982). While they collected high land revenue, the British rule did little to improve agriculture. The net result was the prevalence of extreme poverty in Indian society. The British rule created a vast mass of landless peasants. The movement of the landless labourers for tenancy rights and against the exploitation began to surface with the expansion and extension of British Empire (Desai, 2000).

In the initial phase of their rule, British Raj did not initiate any programme for the progress and welfare of the people. They did not pay any attention to the progress in the field of agriculture, industry, judiciary, education and social reforms. For the purpose of extension of Colonial rule continuously British administrators introduced some additional supporting reforms. As a result, a number of socio-economic and other administrative reforms were introduced in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. However, the reason for this was quite different. It was thought that India should progress on the lines of their motherland and ultimately it will lead to consolidation of British rule in India (Kenneth, 1994; Ranganathan, 2008; Datta, 1964; Goodwin, 2014). Lord Cornwallis (1786-93), Wellesley (1798-1805), Dalhousie (1848-56) and Curzon (1898-1905) ruled with antiIndian sentiments and they preferred Indians to low rank scale service in colonial government.

From the 1820s to the 1850s the British demonstrated a strong urge to change Indian social institutions and to Westernize India.3 As we know, according to the old Hindu law, a Brahmin murderer might not be put to death, while a Sudra who cohabited with a high-caste woman would automatically suffer execution (Kane, 1925).

However, under the British regime, Brahmin and Sudra were liable to the same punishment for the same offence. At the same time, there was a strong streak of Benthamite radicalism in the East India Company administration. James Mil became a senior company official in 1819 after writing a monumental history of India which showed a strong contempt for Indian institutions. A significant result of the British conquest was the political and administrative unification of India and establishment of uniform rule of law. With the introduction of so-called administrative unification and uniformity, there emerged a new social class in India (Hutton, 1963; Ghurye, 1961; Census of India, 2004). For example, in the areas of Permanent Settlement a new class of landlords emerged which regarded land as their private property and aimed at obtaining the maximum monetary gain out of it. The cultivators were mere tenants and could be evicted by the landowners.

With new administrative and economic structures, a new middle class began to emerge in the Indian society.4 This exposure stimulated them to examine and analyze the ills of their own society. This elite class leaded to reformation and initiated campaigns against polytheism, animism, idoltry, purdah, caste barriers, child-marriage, sati, etc. They termed these evils as elements of primitive or pre-modern identity (Jackson, 2010; Grover, 1998; Lateef, 1977). Emancipation of women dominated the agenda for social reform. They assumed that women’s position was an excellent indicator of the advancement of a society (Chaudhuri 2003, Chaudhuri 2011). It was this impulse that provoked reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dayanand Saraswati, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Jyotiba Phule, Keshav Chandra Sen, etc. to reform the plight of women (Grover, 1998).

II. Discussion Indian society underwent many changes after the British came to India. In Indian society they abolished the production process that was prevalent in India before the advent of capitalism (Stokes, 1959). With the establishment of new production systems or revenue generating mechanisms, there emerged new sections in Indian social web. These production systems or new tenancy structures were Zamindari system (Permanent Settlement)5 in Bengal, Ryotwari system in Madras and Mahalwari system in North India (Government of India , 1867; Blyn, 1966). Through these systems Colonial rule brutally destroyed the agrarian pattern in India. 6 Consequently, a new class called Zamindars (landlords) came into existence; which proved instrumental in the extension of British rule in India (Baden-Powell, 1972). The colonial rulers did not allowed accumulation of capital in their colonies as they wished to transfer it to their mother country (Guha, 1992; Bagchi, 2000).

3

They stamped out infanticide and burning of widows (sati). They abolished slavery and eliminated dacoits (religious thugs) from the highways. They legalized the remarriage of widows and allowed Hindu converts to Christianity to lay claim to their share of joint family property. They took steps to introduce a Penal Code, based on British law, which helped to promote the ideas of equality and rationality.

4 People of this class received modern education and became interested in public services. This newly emerged professional class constituted the intelligentsia, administrative officials, lawyers, doctors, teachers, journalists, technicians and others. This group was more liberal in outlook because it drew its position and strength from professional competence rather than hereditary privilege.

5 The Permanent Settlement also known as the Cornwallis Code or permanent Settlement of Bengal was an agreement between the East India Company and Bengali landlords, with far-reaching consequences for both agricultural methods and productivity in India. It was concluded in 1793, by the Company administration headed by Lord Cornwallis.

6 During the British India, as a whole, agricultural output rose at a rate of merely 0.37 per cent per annum. Moreover, the growth rate of food grains production was 0.11 per cent, which was radically lower than the population growth rate of 0.67 per cent annually. Agricultural output seems to have gradually increased over the period, but the pace was slower than population growth. It is so ironic that commercial crop output increased rapidly, nearly doubling over the period.

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Therefore, they made use of official power to destroy all the handicraft and works of skill that produced wealth in India. At the same time, British in India diverted all sources of income towards unproductive expenditure like hostilities, victories, expansion of territories, making war alliances, etc.

It is a well accepted historical fact that the British Raj had a deeply racist aspect (Johannes, 1996; Roberts, 1837; Srinivas, 1955). Many Englishmen adopted the tone of racial superiority in their dealings with Indians, irrespective of their caste, religion, province or class with the badge of inferiority. They were kept out of the important offices in both civil and military administration. In judicial set up, a hateful and frequent policy of racial arrogance was adopted to demoralise Indians. It is said that the testimony of a single Englishmen had more weight in the court than that of any number of Indians (Cohn, 1966; Beer, 1962). This had put a terrible instrument of power into the hands of an unscrupulous Englishmen. The Indian were kept out of European clubs and were often not permitted to travel in the same compartment in a train with the European passengers.

In the nineteenth century, certain social practices like a rigid caste system, female infanticide, child marriage, sati and polygamy became more prevalent in society (Ambedkar, 1946). These practices were against human dignity and values. Women were discriminated on all stages of life and were considered as the most disadvantaged section of the society. They did not have access to any development opportunities to improve their status. Education was limited to a handful of men belonging to the upper castes. Brahmins had access to the Vedas which were written in Sanskrit. Expensive rituals, sacrifices and practices, after birth or death, were outlined by the priestly class (Kane, 1925; Atal, 1968). When the British came to India, they brought new ideas such as liberty, equality, freedom and human rights evoked by various movements in Europe as the Renaissance, the Reformation, etc. These ideas appealed to some sections of our society and led to several reform movements in different parts of the country (Forrester, 1980; Mukherjee, 2007).

The biggest change the British made in the social structure was to replace the warlord aristocracy by an efficient bureaucracy and army. The traditional system of the East India Company 7 was supposed to pay its servants fairly modest salaries and to let them augment their income from private transaction (Bagchi, 2000). This arrangement worked reasonably well before the conquest of Bengal, but was inefficient as a way of remunerating the officials of a substantial territorial Empire because of two reasons. Firstly, too much of the profit went into private hands rather than the Company’s officers, and secondly, an over rapacious short-term policy was damaging the productive capacity of the economy and likely to drive the local population to revolt, both of which were against the Company’s longer-term interests (Stokes, 1978). To tackle the situation Clive had operated a ‘dual’ system in Bengal, i.e. Company power and a puppet Nawab. Warren Hastings, Governor of Bengal, (1772-85) displaced the Nawab and took over direct administration, but retained Indian officials.

Finally, in 1786, Cornwallis (1786-93) created a professional cadre of Company servants who had generous salaries, had no private trading of production interests in India, enjoyed the prospect of regular promotion and were entitled to pensions (Bearce, 1982). All administrative high-level posts were reserved for the British, and Indians were excluded.

India’s contact with the West forced educated Indians to think that socio-religious reform was a prerequisite for the all-round development of the country (Charles, 1964; Kenneth, 1994). Educated Indians like Raja Rammohan Roy worked systematically to eradicate social evils. A period of social reforms began in India during the time of Governor General Lord William Bentinck (1828-35) who was helped by Rammohan Roy. In 1829, Sati or the practice of burning a widow with her dead husband was made illegal or punishable by law.

Female infanticide was banned. With Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar’s assistance, the Widow Remarriage Act was passed by Lord Dalhousie (1848-56) in 1856. Vidyasagar also campaigned against child marriage and polygamy. The cruel custom of offering little children as sacrifice to please God, practiced by certain tribes, was banned by Governor General Lord Harding (1910-16) (Chaudhuri, 2011). It is important to note that since the reform movement started in Bengal, its impact was first felt here and later on it spread all over India.

One of the most significant equipment the British did to Westernize India was to introduce a modified version of English education. Macaulay’s Minute (2nd February, 1835) on Education had a decisive impact on British educational policy and is a classic example of a Western rationalist approach to Indian civilization (Johannes, 1996). Here, it is mention worthy to narrate that this new education infrastructure was not meant for the masses.

As Macaulay himself said that, “It is impossible for us, with our limited means, to educate the body of the people. We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the population.”

The Macaulay Minute created a new elite class in India, which functioned according to their needs and demands. This new elite established a Western life-style using the English language and English schools. New 7

The East India Company (EIC), initially known as, Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies or United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies, was an English joint-stock company formed on 31st December, 1600.

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towns and urban amenities were created with segregated suburbs and housing for them. Their habits were copied by the new professional classes as of lawyers, doctors, teachers, journalists and businessmen. Within this group, old cast barriers were eased and social mobility increased.

Until 1857, the East India Company was unable to destroy traditional Indian society and westernize the county.

But proactive British policies and the attempt to extend British rule by taking over native states provoked both the Hindu and Muslim communities to participate actively in the rebellion of 1857 (Grover, 1998; Alavi, 1998).

With the end of this fierce rebellion, British policy towards Indian institutions and society became much more conservative.

III. Women in Indian Society The existence of Indian women, as independent individuals, was always denied on the basis of customary practices and traditions. But it was only towards the colonial period that women’s question began to receive attention (Kumar, 1989; Srinivas, 1955). India’s encounter with the notion of liberalism occurred as a result of its contact with colonial rule and subsequently formed part of nationalist discourse. 8 Radha Kumar refers nineteenth century an age of women; when it was felt that time has come for women to unite and strive towards a set goal of men and women enjoining equal status (Kumar, 1993). The first and foremost social problem that attracted British administrators and Indian social reformers was the need for a better position for women in social configuration. 9 There core areas were the abolition of the cruel rite of sati and female infanticide, popularization of widow remarriage, condemnation of child marriage and polygamy, abolition of purdha system and fostering provisions of education facilities for women (Ranganathan, 2008; Jackson, 2010). Furthermore, Indian education was of predominantly literacy character and the provision for technical training was negligible.

Education for girls was almost totally ignored throughout the nineteenth century. Because higher education was in English, there was no official effort to translate Western literature into the vernacular, nor was there any procedure of standardization of Indian scripts. Primary education was not taken very seriously as a government obligation and was financed largely by the weak local authorities.

In the mid of the nineteenth century, Calcutta became an intellectual and early centre for the emancipation of women. Most of the notable campaigns were launched from Calcutta by a developing intelligentsia. First of them was, Henry V. Derozio, a young Anglo-Indian, who was deeply inspired by the ideas of liberty and equality propounded by the French revolution. Raja Ram Mohan Roy leaded the campaign against sati which was the first women’s issue to receive public attention (Chaudhuri, 2011). His determined struggle for the abolition of sati is referred as milestone in the reform programme intended for emancipation of women. Ram Mohan Roy also established Atmiya Sabha (1815), which was instrumental in spreading education among Indian women. 10 Similarly, in the early 1850s Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar launched a campaign for widow remarriage. Dayanand Saraswati’s Arya Samaj also worked towards betterment of women’s lives by advocating widow remarriage and education (Fuller, 1900; Chaudhuri, 1988). Eminent social reformer, Dhondi Karve worked for the widowhood reform movement. In the late nineteenth century, Behram Malabari initiated campaign against child marriage and the argument forwarded was that child marriages resulted in the debilitation of the race. First attempts to reform prostitutes were made by Michael Madhusudan Datta, a member of the young Bengali group, who proposed to rehabilitate them by turning them into actresses.

Another major anxiety in Indian families in colonized period was the high rate of infant mortality. In the Bengal presidency between 1860 and 1869, the average death rate was about 148 per thousand British children under the age of five, while in England during the same period the mortality rate was about 67 per thousand. Table: 1 shows the general tendencies in death and birth rates, which indicates the consequences of colonial administration (Davis, 1951; Census of India, 2004).

Decade 1881-91 1891-1901 1901-11 1911-21 1921-31 1931-41

Table: 1- Crude Death and Birth Rates, 1881-1951 Death Rate (deaths per 1,000 persons) Birth Rate (births per 1,000 persons) 40-2 47-9 38-50 46-51 41-4 44-8 42-50 45-9 33-8 42-8 30-2 43-5

8

Medieval India is considered as the "Dark Age" for Indian women. There were many foreign conquests during the medieval times which resulted in the decline in women's status. Consequently, there emerged evils such as Child Marriage, Sati, Jauhar, etc. The codes of Manu decided the social spaces for men and women which usually accorded a low status to women.

9 Many legal measures were introduced to improve the status of women. For example, the practice of sati was banned in 1829 by Lord Bentinck, the then Governor General of India. Widow Remarriage was permitted by a law passed in 1856. Another law passed in 1872, sanctioned inter-caste and inter-communal marriages. Sharda Act was 1901-11passed in 1929 prevented child marriage. According to this act, it was illegal to marry a girl below 14 and a boy below 18 years.

10 The movement for women’s education is generally considered to be the outcome of the need of the rising middle class to adapt its women to a western milieu.

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The grief of losing children was expressed by British mothers. Maria Amelia Vansittart, wife of a Civil Session judge in northern India, noted in her diary on 26 th March 1846, that between eight and nine in the evening a very little girl was born, and in the entry of April 13 th she described her daughter's burial. Theon Wilkinson, who studied tombstones in India, documented the repeated misfortunes of some families (Chitnis, 2004; Chaudhuri, 1988). The rate of infant mortality decreased as the century progressed, but it was still high enough to create anxiety and perceived helplessness among British mothers.

IV. Conclusion Right from the beginning of their relationship with India, the British, who had come as traders and had become rulers and administrators, had influenced the economic and political structure of the country. Their impact on the cultural and social life of India was, however, gradual. Till 1813, they followed a policy of non-interference in the social and cultural life of the Indians. Yet, changes were taking place in particular fields as condition of women, the caste system and other social malpractices. The demand for social and religious reform that manifested itself in the early decades of the nineteenth century partly arose as a response to Western education and culture. Some British administrators were inspired by the liberal ideas popular in the West and tried to introduce them in India. This was reflected in some of the social legislation of the British government in India and in the introduction of modern education. The educational system was reorganized and it brought the educated people into contact with the modern ideas of democracy and nationalism. The beginning of the Press, in spite of the severe restrictions, played a vital role in spreading modern ideas among Indian society.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Entertainment Studies – A Perspective Dr. LIM Kok Wai Benny Department of Cultural and Religious Studies Chinese University of Hong Kong Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong S.A.R. Abstract: Entertainment involves generating an external stimulus, be it a positive or negative emotion (or a combination), in a satisfying manner. Entertainment is sometimes associated to the arts. Within the discipline of humanities, there is also the study of popular culture and its impacts on our daily lives.

Entertainment is also subsumed under the study of the creative industries and its related discussions of intellectual property and commercial viability. At times, entertainment is discussed within the framework of media studies in the field of social sciences. Falling back on the basic definition of entertainment, this paper seeks to offer a perspective to isolate entertainment as a possible standalone discipline, under the umbrella of Entertainment Studies. Three areas of Entertainment Studies are discussed in this paper, and they include entertainment arts, entertainment management and entertainment industries. Finally, the paper also explores the possible passivity of the audience in the entertainment context.

Keywords: Entertainment; Entertainment studies; Entertainment Arts; Entertainment Management; Entertainment Industries; Popular Culture I. Introduction Merriam-Webster has defined entertainment as an activity that provides amusement and pleasure. This definition, in my opinion, is problematic and could be misinterpreted at times. The terms amusement and pleasure give the impression that entertainment only generates positive emotions, such as making someone laugh or happy. But we know that this is not always the case. For instance, one can be saddened by a touching story on film, or get really upset with the protagonist of a television program. While experiencing such emotions, one is still being engaged or entertained. To be more precise, entertainment involves generating an external stimulus, be it a positive or negative emotion, or both, in a satisfying manner (Bates and Ferri, 2010). If we look closely at what triggers such external stimuli in our daily lives, we can perhaps get a better understanding of the concept of entertainment.

Despite being a multi-trillion dollars industry (Zinn, Frank and Kelley, 2002; Walker and Perry, 2014), entertainment has not been studied or researched on extensively. Even as I write this paper, there is a lack of literature on specific discussions of entertainment on its own. This could be attributed to how entertainment has been contextualized so far. Sometimes, entertainment is associated to the arts. Within the discipline of humanities, there is also the study of popular culture and its impacts on our daily lives (Doruk, 2014).

Entertainment is also subsumed under the creative industries and the related discussions of intellectual property and commercial viability (Rae, 2007; d’Ovidio and Haddock, 2010; Flew, 2013). At times, entertainment is discussed within the framework of media studies (Fourie, 2001; Biagi, 2011) in the field of social sciences. Of course, the lack of research solely on the concept of entertainment could also be due to the common view that entertainment is a trivial subject that lacks depth (Zipes, 2011). Yet, entertainment is part of our daily lives. Let’s consider this: even one who chooses not to participate in the arts, media or the creative industries, one still need some form of entertainment. In this paper, I seek to offer a perspective of entertainment as a possible standalone discipline, under the umbrella of Entertainment Studies, bearing in mind the fundamental definition of entertainment as discussed.

II. Entertainment Arts “Popular culture is produced by mass media as an entertainment culture. Television, radio, press, movie, and more recently, Internet serve as creators and disseminators of popular culture. Although there are different approaches among the intellectuals toward definition and explanation of popular culture, there is a common opinion that popular culture is oriented to entertainment and is consumed daily.”

(Doruk, 2000) As I have discussed, entertainment is part and parcel of our daily lives. Hence, it is no surprise that entertainment is sometimes studied in the context of popular culture, which is really about the mainstream culture of the general

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population at any given time. A large number of people can identify themselves collectively under the context of popular culture (Iadevito, 2014). Of course, unlike the official culture of each individual, popular culture changes over time (Dittmer, 2010). Just a decade ago, the mass media is still a common form of popular culture, where people spent hours a day watching television program. In today’s context, on top of the mass media, it is common for people living in the city to be constantly connected to a variety of social media through their smartphones.

Board any public transport in the city, and observe the phenomenon of people looking down at their smartphones and connecting to different people or information at the same time. Popular culture reflects our contemporary living and could also influence it (Forbes, 2000; Scollo, 2007). It is therefore understandable that entertainment is often included as one of the important aspects in the discussions of popular culture. After all, activities such as watching television programs, surfing the Internet or staying connected to various social media through multiple devices are part of the mainstream culture of today, and can be very entertaining. Nonetheless, we have to recognize that, by being mainstream, popular culture could be referring to activities that are habitual and the ordinary (Ivashkevich, 2008; Storey, 2014). Watching television programs can be entertaining but it could also be a form of habit. Some people turn on their television set but this activity does not mean that they will be engaged and entertained. The same goes for the ordinary acts of web surfing or staying connected on the social media.

This does not mean that one gets entertained all the time by engaging in these acts. Surmise to say, popular culture dwells into how entertainment affects and impacts our day-to-day living, but does not fall back on the basic definition of entertainment – the generation of the external stimuli in a satisfying way.

The generation of the external stimuli has also been discussed in the context of the performing arts. How do we differentiate performing arts events that are meant for entertainment or otherwise? The difference lies in the primary purpose of the performing arts, which gives precedence to the artists’ vision. For entertainment, it is clear that the primary function is to allow the audience to generate satisfaction and pleasure (Chartrand, 2000). The performing arts, on the other hand, focus more on the artistic direction and the freedom of the artists to express certain key messages (Arrowsmith, 2002). In other words, the performing arts are mainly artist-centric, while entertainment is audience-centric. Entertainment arts, therefore, refers to satisfying content with the primary intention to communicate the external stimuli to, and to invoke emotional responses from, an audience. This definition is able to clarify several grey areas within the context of the performing arts and new media arts, etc.

For instance, a scriptwriter in the context of the performing arts is one who writes with a clear artistic vision as the primary intention, whereas in entertainment arts, a scriptwriter writes with the intention to entertain the audience. The keyword here is primary intention. I am not implying that a scriptwriter who writes for entertainment has no artistic vision. It is merely the order that matters. The same applies to directors and choreographers, when they create the semiotics. Beyond the performing arts, new media arts have always been associated with entertainment. This definition of entertainment arts immediately segregates the technical and technological aspects from the user-experience aspects of new media arts. The user-experience is what determines the external stimuli derived from the new media arts. Game design, for instance, is a form of entertainment arts, whereas game technology development is not.

III. Entertainment Management “The state presence and effective support are necessary if cultural production in Singapore is not be reduced to the level of simple manufactures, since cultural production and the symbolic values they stand for are part of the larger symbolic life of the city-state itself that cannot be commercialized. In this regard, arts development in terms of museums and art schools, among other institutions subsidized by the state, represents a good start - but it is just that, a start.”

(Wee, 2002) In order to examine the concepts of entertainment management, there is a need to first review the concepts of arts and cultural management, where management is not a straightforward process. The quote above provides some insights to the concepts of arts and cultural management. Cultural production in itself has got symbolic values in life and such values cannot be measured in terms of financial success. There is a certain function of the arts in society (Metallinos, 1996; Rothenberg, 2014) and the recognition of this social function allows many arts organizations to operate in a non-profit and charitable mode. To manage the arts and culture is therefore not as straightforward as just providing sound management practices to generate maximum revenue for the organizations. The quote also suggests the possibility of sustainability in the long run, and that government subsidies ought to only be a start. The sustainable development of the arts and the culture will require the managers to be effective mediators, who does not only manage but also bridge the gap between the arts and the audience (Anderton and Pick, 2002). In order to achieve this long-term sustainability, arts and cultural managers must constantly push forward the importance of arts in our daily lives and make clear the arts’ societal functions.

Entertainment, on the other hand, is already a part of our daily lives. The taste and the interest of the content evolves over time but generally, entertainment is here to stay. The role of the entertainment manager is, therefore, more straightforward. As I have mentioned, entertainment is ever evolving and the taste of the audience could

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change. An effective entertainment manager must be aware of new trends and possibilities, and when necessary, bridge or introduce them to the audience. A specific focus on entertainment management does have its advantages. It directs us to research on areas such as entertainment policies, which is really all about policies involving entertainment content, with a clear consideration of the audience. This differs from cultural policies, which focus more on the development and the integration of the arts in our daily lives. The clear segregation of the entertainment and cultural policies can also provide the explanation as to why the arts (artist-centric) should not be regulated but the content of entertainment (audience-centric) could be. Only when there is an audience in mind, then it is possible for regulations and restrictions to take place. For instance, pornographic films are created for the entertainment of adult audience, and it makes absolute sense to restrict the access of such content to only adults. The focus on entertainment management also gives priority to entertainment arts and the development of talents in this area. Entertainment managers must be equipped with the skills to market and to brand the talents of entertainment arts. In the same light, entertainment management also differs from the concept of media management, which focuses on the effective management of the platform for information and communication. In summary, entertainment management involves the effective facilitation and development of the entertainment arts and its talents.

IV. Entertainment Industries “The collection of bodies that exist globally, which provide products that have a primary purpose of engaging or captivating an audience is the entertainment industry.”

(Moss, 2010) This definition of entertainment industries by Stuart Moss is the closest one that relates to the fundamental definition of entertainment. In this section, I am not attempting to provide an alternative definition. Rather, I hope to provide a perspective on the entertainment industries, which dissociates from the cultural and creative industries. Historical data has shown us that the cultural industries were a direct response against entertainment and the mass media (Kirby, 2000). First and foremost, being part of people’s daily lives, the mass media in Europe was manipulated to be the voice of dictators and their propaganda during the second world war. The arts within the cultural industries were then the tools to archive societal issues and to provide commentary of the war and the dictators (Hartley, 2005). Years later, with the rise of Hollywood in America, the cultural industries was once again brought up as a response against entertainment, which was then accused of dumbing-down the culture (Roberts, 2004). This divide between cultural industries and the entertainment industries has already been widely discussed for several decades. Interestingly, in the last decade, there has been a growing attention on the creative industries, which seems to be have subsumed the entertainment industries, as well as the cultural industries. These two industries, which have been at odds since the beginning, are finally able to unite in the grand narrative of the creative industries, which has been acknowledged for its potential to contribute to the nation’s gross domestic product (Towse, 2014). The concepts behind the creative industries are rather straightforward. It focuses on human creativity in the development of viable and functional innovations (Potts, 2011). Such innovations will then bring about direct contributions to the economy.

“While the definitions of cultural industries usually focus on the production of texts and symbols, the concept of creative industries puts an emphasis on the creativity involved in a specific production process.”

(Sandoval, 2014) In an earlier paper, I recommended the possibility of establishing a clearer relationship between entertainment and the creative industries (Lim, 2014). The focus of the creative industries has always been on creativity, which basically means the creation of new ideas. This offers a rather vague situation because the context of creative industries requires the creativity to be a useful one so as to be able to contribute to the economy. Innovation, which simply refers to the successful implementation of the new ideas (De Beule and Nauwelaerts, 2013), allows creativity to be quantified against its economic contributions through the viable outputs (Anyanwu, 2004). In this context of the creative industries, cultural industries seem to be rather dissociated. First and foremost, it makes very little sense to relate arts to creativity. The production of arts can be creative but if we look at the primary function of the arts, it is never for the sake of creating new ideas (Oakley, 2009). It is the voice and the vision of the artist that matters. Next, cultural industries often reject the commercialization of culture (Fulcher and Scott, 2011) and hence, create a natural opposition with the key intention of the creative industries. As compared to the cultural industries, the entertainment industries seem to have a better fit with the creative industries. After all, in order to generate something entertaining, there must be some form of human creativity involved. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that the creative process is still considered secondary in relation to the generation of the external stimuli and pleasure in the audience. Furthermore, a replicated content, with no new ideas, i.e. no creativity, can be equally entertaining. While both the creative industries and entertainment industries are often associated to the development of the economy in the areas of jobs creation and commercialization, the fundamental success of creative industries depend a lot on the different bodies coming up with creations that are functional and viable

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whereas for the entertainment industries, as Moss’s definition suggests, the underlying success depends on the various bodies involved in producing the entertainment content for the audience.

V. The Passive Audience?

The audience, though being at the end of the entire chain, has got huge influence in the cultural production.

Even within the context of arts where it is artist-centric, and production precedes and influences consumption, the audience has got opportunities to react and to respond to the works. In the case of the creative industries, the outputs are produced according to the needs of the consumers (audience). At times, the outputs can also influence and generate the demand of the consumers. Very often, the production equates the consumption.

Nonetheless, this is not definite. For instance, Pebble released a smartwatch in 2013 that created a mainstream demand for such watches worldwide. Pebble was launched as a result of crowdsourcing, which requires payment before production. Subsequently, Samsung and Apple also launched their own unique version of smartwatch, where consumers are allowed to pre-order. This example shows that consumption can sometimes precede production in the creative industries. Within the conditions of entertainment industries, it seems logical to assume that production always precedes consumption. The entertainment content must first be produced before the audience can enjoy it. However, being audience-centric, the entertainment content is often produced with an intended expectation of the audience’s responses and reactions, which indirectly affect the consumption patterns. While production still precedes consumptions, this expectation from the audience does bring the production and consumption timeframe closer.

The audience is very important for entertainment. Without an audience, the basic possibility of generating an external stimulus is non-existent (Moss, 2010). The audience’s taste and interests over time could also have a huge impact on the production patterns of entertainment and its content. Bearing in mind such active roles of the audience in the context of entertainment, I will like to propose that the audience can sometimes be rather passive in the equation as well. As discussed so far, the primary intention of the producer matters in differentiating between the arts, creativity and entertainment. However, the primary purpose is never communicated to the audience. In a way, the audience will never know whether a film they have just watched is meant to be entertaining or artistic. Some audience will expect the film to be entertaining, while some will expect it to be artistic and thought provoking. On the other hand, some just seek for the experience. Such passivity will continue to blur the lines of entertainment from the cultural and creative industries. It is precisely this vagueness that protrudes the importance of entertainment studies as a possible standalone discipline.

VI. Conclusion and Recommendations Despite being a part of our daily lives, and worth trillions of dollars, entertainment (and its scope) has not been clearly defined, sometimes, even unclear. The basic function of entertainment to generate satisfying external stimuli to the audience must be considered in the discussions of entertainment, even when the definition seems to trivialize it. I must clarify that it has never been my intention to downplay entertainment, especially after spending years of research in this area. Going back to the fundamentals, in my opinion, has got more advantages than disadvantages. It allows entertainment its proper treatment and a possibility to be studied and researched on as a standalone discipline. The rethinking of entertainment as presented in this paper triggers some further possibilities. First and foremost, with entertainment arts clearly defined, it is now possible to reconsider the training and development of talents solely for the entertainment industries. Secondly, the focus on entertainment management takes away the many issues surrounding arts and cultural management, and the technicalities of media management. It offers a new realm in entertainment marketing, branding of the entertainment talents, and the observation of new trends in terms of content development. Finally, the segregation of entertainment industries from the creative industries allows the industry, to place creativity secondary, and to go back to the basic purpose of producing or generating content that engages and captivates the audience.

VI. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

References

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Applying Universal Design concept in interior design to reinforce the Social dimension of Sustainability Dr. Inas Hosny Ibrahim Anous Lecturer / Department of Interior design and Furniture Faculty of Applied Arts / Helwan University Arab Republic of Egypt Abstract: Universal Design (UD), is “design for all people”. Its focus is not specifically on people with disabilities, but targets all people at different ages. Children, the elderly, the disabled, people with different sizes and forms, sick or injured people and people with discomfort are in this range. The main aim of the universal design is not to make people fit to space but to make the space fit to people. This paper provides an overview of universal design applications in interior design promising results for a better future for social sustainability. Universal Design is a concept that is applied to designing of anything or any place that affects people. The term is now recognized and accepted internationally as a framework for good design. There are many theories regarding its basic principles. Primarily, Universal Design addresses safety, facility in use, understanding and redoing, adaptability, feasibility, marketability and profitability. It does not address everyone's ability. Nothing can. But it does level the playing field for more people.

Keywords: Design for all, inclusive design, Principles of Universal design, social sustainability, Universal Design.

I. Introduction The root of universal design was deep and strong throughout the twentieth century due to the demographic, legislative, economic and social changes among older adults and people with disabilities. The move towards universal design has developed due to the expanding population of people with varying degree of abilities and advancing years, their demands for recognition and desire for independent living. Designing any product or environment involves the consideration of many factors, including aesthetics, engineering options, environmental issues, industry standards, safety concerns, and cost. Often, products and environments are designed for the average user. In contrast, when designers apply UD principles, their products and environments meet the needs of potential users with a variety of characteristics. Disability is just one of many characteristics that an individual might possess [1]. This study is important in prioritizing ‘design for all’ factors among diverse user groups that would both ensure the inclusiveness of different needs and quicken the design process.

II. Problem of research The research question of this study is the Lack of awareness of the concept of universal design (UD) and the features of its applications in the field of interior design.

III. Research Objectives The objective of the current study is to highlight the importance of Universal Design and its benefits, guide designers in the decision-making process through the principles of Universal Design. Raise awareness about the value of universal design. Provide practical examples of how universal design can be implemented.

IV. Methodology The paper is divided into five sections: the first explains some fundamental concepts about Universal Design.

The second includes the seven Principles of Universal Design and their guidelines. The third section shows the Universal City and its features. The fourth section gives the relationship between Universal design and social sustainability. The last section is an application of the Universal design in a public library. The researcher follow the inductive approach through access to the latest scientific literature and websites related to the subject of research and the analytical approach by the study and the analysis of some applications of Universal design.

V. Concepts about Universal design A. A Brief History of Universal Design The term universal design was first used in 1970’s and reinterpreted by the American architect Ronald Mace in 1985. Since then, universal design has been widely accepted and expressed all over the world [1]. The ‘design for all’ approach has also been extensively studied under the concept of universal design (often referenced in Europe as ‘inclusive design’) [2].

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A.1 Ronald L. Mace and the Evolution of the Universal Design concept Ronald L. Mace (1941 - 1998), creator of the term "universal design," was an articulate architect and determined advocate who influenced international thinking about design. He used a wheelchair and understood what it was to try to participate in a world that was not designed to include him. Even though Ron died at the age of 56, he impacted architecture, interior design .and the perceptions of many in how they view people with disabilities [3].

In 1988, Mace defined it as an approach for creating products and built environments accessible, usable and understandable for everyone. Mace, Hardie & Place (1991) described universal design as follows: “It includes not just people in wheelchairs, but also people with mobility impairments, speech and hearing impairments, cognitive impairments, and with other inabilities that can be occurred over a person’s life span”. The Centre for Universal Design states that “universal design is the best way to integrate access for everyone into any effort to serve people well in any field” [4].

A.2. Defenition and Philosophy of Universal Design Under the leadership of Ron Mace, the Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University defined universal design as :"The design of products and environment to be useable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design"[5]. This philosophy poses the condition that products, physical environment and services should reach people and that people should be able to use them in the widest way possible. Fulfilling this condition, improving the life quality of the spaces, health, safety and welfare of people to the highest level are the task of the planners and designers [6]. Universal Design reflects a type of design allowing all users to be accommodated. Its intent is to simplify life for everyone by making products, communications, and the built environment more useable by as many people as possible at little or no cost” [7]. The idea is to design a room that is functional for any able-bodied individual (regardless of age) and a person who has special needs because of physical limitations[5] ''Fig.1'' .

Fig. 1: shows how can we apply universal design in bedroom and kitchen in our house B

A

1.1. Types of accessible B. Types of accessible design Accessible design can be defined as design that meets prescribed code requirements for use by people with disabilities [8] '' Fig 2''. Because it is often achieved by providing separate design features for "special" user groups, it can segregate people with disabilities from the majority of users and make them feel out of place [9].

Adaptable design features are modifications made to a standard design for the purpose of making the design usable for an individual, as needed [8]. Transgenerational design, sometimes called lifespan design, is design that considers the changes that happen to people as they age[10]. Transgenerational design does not necessarily address the full range of possible disabilities nor other factors that affect usability, such as gender differences, cultural background, and literacy level [1].

Fig.2: shows the relationship between accesible, adaptable,transgenerational, and univesal design .

B. 1. Accessible, adaptable, transgenerational, and universal design Universal design is always accessible, but because it integrates accessibility from the beginning of the design process, it is less likely to be noticeable. Universal design sometimes employs adaptable strategies for achieving customization, but it is best when all choices are presented equally. Some universal design is transgenerational,

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but the approach is inclusive of more than just age-related disabilities. Universal design is sometimes adaptable and sometimes transgenerational but always accessible. Universal design, adaptable design, and transgenerational design are all subsets of accessible design. Sometimes a design can be considered to be two of these subsets, and some designs are all three. Not all accessible design is universal. Universal design is the most inclusive and least stigmatizing of the three types of accessible design because it addresses all types of human variation and accessibility is integrated into design solutions [9].

C. Universal design, human adaptation and abilities C.1. Defenition of human adaptation There are three ways to enhance an individual’s capabilities: change the person, provide the individual with tools he or she can use, or change the environment. Universal design applies to the third approach, changing the built environment, which includes everyday products, buildings, and outdoor environments. [8].

C.2. Universal Design and the spectrum of Human Abilities Human abilities can be grouped into categories: cognition, vision, hearing and speech, body function, arm function, hand function, and mobility. They can vary widely according to age, disability, the environment or the particular situation. Universal design means considering the variety of human abilities in: cognition, vision, hearing and speech, body function, arm function, hand function, and mobility [11].

VI. Center for Universal Design and its role in universal design In 1997, The Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University (CUD) (by Bettye Rose Connell, Mike Jones, Ron Mace, Jim Mueller, Abir Mullick, Elaine Ostroff, Jon Sanford, Ed Steinfeld, Molly Story & Gregg Vanderheiden) has developed a set of seven Principles of Universal Design that may be used to guide the design process, to evaluate existing or new designs, and to teach students and practitioners. The Principles of Universal Design helped to articulate and describe the different aspects of universal design. They have proved useful in shaping projects of various types all over the world [12]. The Principles established a valuable language for explaining the characteristics of Universal Design. [13].

A.The seven Principles of Universal Design The seven principles are: Principle 1: Equitable Use, Principle 2: Flexibility in Use, Principle 3: Simple and Intuitive, Principle 4: Perceptible Information, Principle 5: Tolerance for Error, Principle 6: Low Physical Effort, Principle 7: Size and Space for Approach and Use [14] ''Fig.3''. The Features of Universal Design consist of : increase accessibility, or the ability to access regular activities in our home, enhance visitability, or the ability for friends to visit our home , promote more independent lifestyles, for our self, family and guests, ‘universally’ support people’s diverse needs and abilities , provide greater safety in our home; and encourage “Aging in Place” [15].

Fig. 3: Pictograms shows respectively the symbol of Universal Design and its seven principles.(Source:[14])

B. Universal design by Steinfeld and Maisel In 2012, Steinfeld and Maisel cited the definition of universal design as ‘a process that enables and empowers a diverse population by improving human performance, health and wellness and social participation’ [16]. steinfeld and Maisel proposed the following eight goals of universal design: Body fit : accommodating a wide range of body sizes and abilities; Comfort: keeping demands within desirable limits of body function and perception; Awareness: insuring that critical information for use is easily perceived ;Understanding: making methods of operation and use intuitive, clear, and unambiguous; Wellness: contributing to health promotion, avoidance of disease, and prevention of injury; Social integration: treating all groups with dignity and respect; Personalization: incorporating opportunities for choice and the expression of individual preferences; and, Appropriateness: respecting and reinforcing cultural values and the social and environmental context of any design project [17].

C. Explaining the seven Principles of Universal design and their Guidelines Table 1: The Principles of Universal Design The Principles of Universal Design The building’s design should make it equally usable by everyone.

Principle 1: Equitable Use The design is useful and marketable to people with diverse abilities.

Ideally, the means by which people use the building should be the Guidelines: same (e.g., providing one means of entry to the building that works 1a. Provide the same means of use for all users: identical whenever well for everyone). If it cannot be identical, the several means possible; equivalent when not. provided must be equivalent in terms of their privacy, security, 1b. Avoid segregating or stigmatizing any users. safety and convenience. The building must never employ means that 1c. Make provisions for privacy, security, and safety equally isolate or stigmatize any group of users or privilege one group over available to all users. another[12] 1d. Make the design appealing to all users.

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Principle 2: Flexibility in Use The design accommodates a wide range of individual preferences and abilities.

Guidelines: 2a. Provide choice in methods of use.

2b. Accommodate right- or left-handed access and use.

2c. Facilitate the user’s accuracy and precision.

2d. Provide adaptability to the user’s pace.

Principle 3: Simple and Intuitive Use Use of the design is easy to understand, regardless of the user’s experience, knowledge, language skills, or current concentration level.

Guidelines: 3a. Eliminate unnecessary complexity.

3b. Be consistent with user expectations and intuition.

3c. Accommodate a wide range of literacy and language skills.

3d. Arrange information consistent with its importance.

3e. Provide effective prompting and feedback during and after task completion.

Principle 4: Perceptible Information The design communicates necessary information effectively to the user, regardless of ambient conditions or the user’s sensory abilities.

Guidelines: 4a. Use different modes (pictorial, verbal, tactile) for redundant presentation of essential information.

4b. Maximize “legibility” of essential information.

4c. Differentiate elements in ways that can be described (i.e., make it easy to give instructions or directions).

4d. Provide compatibility with a variety of techniques or devices used by people with sensory limitations.

Principle 5: Tolerance for Error The design minimizes hazards and the adverse consequences of accidental or unintended actions.

Guidelines: 5a. Arrange elements to minimize hazards and errors: most used elements, most accessible; hazardous elements eliminated, isolated, or shielded.

5b. Provide warnings of hazards and errors.

5c. Provide fail-safe features.

5d. Discourage unconscious action in tasks that require vigilance.

Principle 6: Low Physical Effort The design can be used efficiently and comfortably and with a minimum of fatigue.

Guidelines: 6a. Allow user to maintain a neutral body position.

6b. Use reasonable operating forces.

6c. Minimize repetitive actions.

6d. Minimize sustained physical effort.

Principle 7: Size and Space for Approach and Use Appropriate size and space is provided for approach, reach, manipulation, and use regardless of user’s body size, posture, or mobility.

Guidelines: 7a. Provide a clear line of sight to important elements for any seated or standing user.

7b. Make reach to all components comfortable for any seated or standing user.''Fig 4'' 7c. Accommodate variations in hand and grip size.

7d. Provide adequate space for the use of assistive devices or personal assistance.[5],[11]

The building’s design should allow people to use its design features in more than one prescribed way (e.g., providing a countertop orientation map that is viewable from either a seated or standing position). It should accommodate both right-and left-handed use and be adaptable to the individual pace. The building’s design should have the built-in flexibility to be usable even when it is employed in an unconventional or unanticipated manner [5].

The building should make it easy for everyone to understand the purpose of each design feature and how to use it (e.g., providing washroom lavatory faucets that make their method of operation readily apparent and relatively easy) Moreover, its means of use should be intuitively obvious so that it operates as anticipated and, therefore, can be used spontaneously[11].

The building should provide all essential information in a variety of modes (e.g., written, symbolic, tactile, verbal) to ensure effective communication with all users regardless of their sensory abilities.

The information provided must be presented with sufficient contrast to surrounding conditions so that it is distinguishable from its context and decipherable in all its various modes of presentation [5].

Ideally, the building’s design should eliminate, isolate or shield any design features that could prove hazardous to or inconvenience any user. When potentially dangerous conditions are unavoidable, users should receive warnings as they approach the design feature (e.g., providing proximity warnings in a variety of sensory modes near the top of stairs.) The building’s design should also anticipate accidental or unintended actions by any user to minimize the inconvenience and/or protect the user from harm [12].

The building’s design should employ design features that require little or no physical force to use them (e.g., replacing a traditional door knob with a lever handle that does not require the ability to grasp and turn the wrist). If a low level of force is required,any user should be able to engage the feature without assuming an awkward or hazardous body position (e.g., providing a smooth travel surface with minimal slope along the path of travel leading to the entrance) [12]. Doors to a lecture hall open automatically for people with a wide variety of physical characteristics[18].

A building’s design features should provide an adequate amount of space that is appropriately arranged to enable anyone to use them (e.g., providing knee space under a washroom lavatory to enable use by someone in a seated position). In addition, the space needs to be arranged to provide a clear path of travel to and from important design features for all users[12].

Fig. 4: Fig. 4a shows : Wide gate at subway station accommodates wheelchair users as well as commuters with packages or luggage, Fig .4b, 4C show different level of countertop in the kitchen for people on wheelchair.

A

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VII. Features of the Universal City A universal city is, a city of inclusion where everyone is welcome to participate and contribute [14]. The features that the universal city should have: Pathways, street crossings, and plazas would be free of hazards and barriers to the flow of movement ''Fig. 5''. It would be planned to provide opportunities for employment, childcare, education and recreation in close proximity to residential areas. Public buildings would accommodate the diverse needs of the population in a cost-effective yet dignified and pleasant manner. Goods and services in these buildings would be easy to find and access. This would contribute to improving economic development and the standard of living of the population. Tourists would want to visit the city because of its convenience.

Older people would want to remain in the city after retirement because it provided a more convenient, safe and secure environment than other places they could live [19]. Although each country has its own building regulations, standards, references and norms, designers should not perceive these data merely as a set of rules for applying them in the design process. Effective and efficient knowledge is crucial for the ‘design for all’ approach in the design process[20].Today universal design supports market mechanisms as a primary means to design accessible environments although it was used as the basis for rehabilitation before[21].

Fig. 5: Schematics Diagram of the elements of the universal city used to have a universal design 

The fives general building issues that users of most facilities come across

     

Using circulation systems

Entering and existing



Wayfindings

 

Obtaining products and sevices

Using public amenities

    

 

Restrooms Areas of Public.

Information Display Public Telephonesublic Drinking Fountains

Exterior Path Planning and Design Street Crossings Curb Ramps (Curb Cuts) Ramps and Stairs Hallways and Corridors Mechanical Circulation Systems Escape and Refuge

Finding the Building Identifying the Entrance or Exit Approaching the Entrance or Exit Maneuvering through the Departing the Entrance or Exit Area

 

Architectural Wayfinding Graphic Wayfinding

       

Entries and Circulation Spaces Product Distribution Staff Assistance Waiting Areas Service Desks and Offices Information Transaction Machines Vending and Ticket Machines

A. Using circulation systems Moving around outdoors and inside buildings is the quintessential activity of urban life. Accessibility of resources, in its broadest sense, and the mobility required for that access is what cities are all about.

A.1. Exterior Path Planning and Design, Street Crossings and Curb Ramps The layout of path systems should establish a pattern that is safe and accommodates the needs of people on the site and in buildings. Planning should give consideration to the needs and references of people have varying abilities. Travel surfaces and dimensions should support comfortable and easy movement without hazards or barriers, except in locations where challenge is part of a recreational experience. People should not encounter unexpected obstacles on a path. Street Crossings, Curb Ramps (Curb Cuts) should provide continuity in the accessible path of travel [22].Curb ramps should provide a smooth transition in level changes within the pedestrian environment and be designed and located to reduce hazards [14].

A.2. Ramps and Stairs It is important to ensure that ramps, stairs, steps and handrails are designed and constructed so that all pedestrians can use them safely [19]. Ramps and stairways should be wide enough to accommodate the expected traffic flow which may exceed minimum required width. Provide handrail extensions at the top and bottom of stairs and ramps to help people identify the change in grade and make the necessary adjustments in gait.

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Handrail extensions should be turned down or returned to the wall for protection. Wall surfaces adjacent to handrails should be non-abrasive. Provide multi-sensory indicators to identify the beginning and end of a set of stairs, a change in direction, or the location of facilities. Ramps and stairs should be marked and lighted evenly throughout their length. Illuminate travel surfaces with low lighting to reduce shadows. Mark and secure the underside of freestanding stairs to prevent users from inadvertently moving [14].

A.3. Hallways and Corridors Indoor circulation should be convenient, safe and comfortable" Fig. 6". Stairways kept out of the direct path of travel.Ramps running in the direction of normal travel .Hallways and corridors wide enough for two people traveling in the opposite direction to pass each other. All corridors and hallways evenly Illuminated .Gradual transitions from dark to bright spaces, especially those that have high levels of natural illumination. Paths of travel distinguished with material, floor textures or color differences to assist in orientation [19].

A.4. Mechanical Circulation Systems Mechanical devices are used extensively in multi-story buildings. In large buildings, provide escalators from the main entries to key attractions to reduce congestion. Escalators cannot be used in place of elevators. Provide detectable floor surface changes at approaches to escalators and moving pedestrian pathways or keep them out of the direct path of travel. Moving pedestrian pathways should be wide enough and safe for use by all people whether standing or sitting. Elevator panels should have high contrast signs and labels and be well lighted.

Elevator cabs should have enough room to allow all users, whether standing or sitting, to enter, turn around and exit. Both verbal and visual announcements of floor levels are recommended. Plan mechanical circulation systems so that the people are not inconvenienced or unduly separated from the main pattern of building use [14].

Fig 6: Schematics Diagram of Universal Design Application in the Built Environment . (Source [22]).

A.5. Escape and Refuge In the event of an emergency, all users should be provided routes of escape or safe places to wait for rescue.

Refuges should be provided so that people with mobility difficulties are not placed at a greater risk from fire than other occupants. This will usually require an assessment of the number of people likely to require the use of a refuge space and assistance with vertical evacuation of the building [23]. Provide two means of stairless egress when the topography makes it feasible to have entries at different grade levels. Plan at least one approved place of refuge during emergencies on every floor in strategic locations. Vestibules leading to fire stairs or elevator lobbies that are also served by stairways can be used for this purpose if they are large enough. Provide labeling and instructions for use of refuge areas. Develop an evacuation plan for people who cannot get out of a building on their own in an emergency "Fig. 7".Provide public address announcements in both verbal and visual formats during emergencies to inform everyone of the situation. (e.g., underground facilities) [14].

Fig.7 : Fig .7a :Provide comfortable and easy movement throughout the building., Fig .7b: Escalators cannot be used in place of elevators , Fig .7c: Provide signaling systems and signs that can help people escape from complex buildings where the way out is not easy to understand.(Source: [19]) A

B

C

B. Entering and Exiting

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The rest of a building’s features do not matter to the person who cannot get in or out. Therefore, it is imperative that the design of entry and exit conditions ensures their ready use by everyone [19].

B.1. Finding the Building, Identifying, Approaching and Maneuvering through the Entrance or Exit Before people can enter a building, they first must be able to find it. The use of external landmarks that distinguish the building from other nearby facilities can help people locate it [24].For Identifying the Entrance or Exit: When faced with multiple doors or panels that imitate the appearance of doors at the entrance or exit of a building, a person should be able to tell the difference between the ones that are doorways and those that are not. Provide perceptible multi-sensory cues (e.g., visual, informational and tactile design properties) to help the person tell the difference between entrance and exit doors "Fig .8". For Approaching the Entrance or Exit: After identifying the entrance or exit, the next task involves the approach. A primary path of travel to the entrance or exit should be provided that is readily perceptible by anyone. It should be free of level changes and obstructions that could impede access or make access hazardous. For Maneuvering through the Entrance or Exit: Designing entrance and exit conditions that permit anyone to get through the doorways is a challenge that is often underestimated. Where possible, employ automated doors that accommodate people whose hands or arms are otherwise occupied. The controls of automated doors should accommodate differing speeds and styles of movement through the doorway [14],[19],[25].

B.2. Departing the Entrance or Exit Area Successfully entering or exiting a building includes a person’s ability to move away after passing through the doorway . Primary paths of travel leading away from the entrance and exit should be provided that are readily perceptible by anyone and free of level changes and obstructions that could impede movement [25].

Fig . 8 :This entrance in Fig . 8aThe fountain and high canopy in front of the building clearly mark the entrance,This entrance in Fig.8b is virtually impossible to distinguish from adjacent window panels (Source: [ 14]) A

B

C. Wayfinding Wayfinding is the organization and communication of our dynamic relationship to space and the environment [26].It is how people get from one location to another, including their information-gathering and decisionmaking processes for orientation and movement through space [27]. Wayfinding allows people to: determine their location within a setting, determine their destination and develop a plan that will take them from their location to their destination[1].The design of wayfinding systems should include: identifying and marking spaces, grouping spaces, and linking and organizing spaces through both architectural and graphic means [14].A decade ago, the professional practice of wayfinding design simply involved devising sign systems. Today, the field is much broader and continues to expand to address technological developments kinetic media, GPS systems, web connectivity, smart materials as well as cultural changes in areas such as branding and environmental awareness. [28].Difficulty with wayfinding causes humans to feel frustrated and stressed and decreases a building's functional efficiency, accessibility, and safety in the event of an emergency [29].Exterior wayfinding obstacles are common, including poor identification of building entrances and lack of clear access from parking facilities or mass transportation. Common interior wayfinding obstacles include the failure to make spaces within a facility look unique, connecting corridors at acute or obtuse angles, and failure to provide sufficient lighting at intersections, entrances to major destinations, and landmarks [27]. Principles for effective wayfinding include: Create an identity at each location, different from all others. Use landmarks to provide orientation cues and memorable locations. Create well-structured paths. Create regions of differing visual character. Don't give the user too many choices in navigation. Use survey views (give navigators a vista or map). Provide signs at decision points to help wayfinding decisions.Use sight lines to show what ahead [30] is.

In sum, good wayfinding promotes: Reduction of stress and frustration for the visitor.Functional efficiency.

Visitor accessibility, Safety, Patient empowerment, improving cognitive skills in spatial understanding.Improved bottom line [31]. There are two kinds of wayfindings: architectural wayfinding and graphic wayfinding [14].

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C.1. Architectural Wayfinding There are five primary architectural wayfinding elements: (1)paths/ circulation, (2)markers,(3) nodes, (4)edges, and (5)zones/districts .Architectural wayfinding systems use the design and organization of landscaping, urban amenities, and buildings as spatial indicators[19]. (a). Paths/Circulation People use circulation systems to develop a mental map [26]. Paths, including walkways, hallways and corridors, generally define the circulation system in a building or a site. Develop a focal point and a system of circulation paths to help people understand where they are in the system. In multi-story buildings, organize elements such as restrooms,elevators, and exits in the same location on each floor. Use circulation systems that lead people from node to node. Use circulation systems that lead people from node to node[14]. In complex buildings and sites there are usually two orders of pathways: main pathways that connect major spaces, and secondary pathways that lead from primary paths to less important destinations.[19] (b). Markers In wayfinding, a marker is an object that marks a locality. Markers such as arches, monuments, building entrances, kiosks, banners, artwork and natural features give strong identities to various parts of a site or building. They act as mental landmarks in the wayfinding process and break a complex task into manageable parts[32]. (c). Nodes A node is a point at which subsidiary parts originate. People make decision points at nodes in paths. As a result, nodes should contain graphic and architectural information to assist with those decisions [26]. (d). Edges Wayfinding edges determine where an area begins or ends. Edges include features of the built environment like the walls of buildings, the wall of a hallway or corridor or a handrail. An edge provides a boundary that people use to orient themselves in space and to keep themselves moving in the right direction "Fig .9". Since every path has an edge, it can be used to carry information to users [19].

Fig. 9: Fig .9a :The Braille Staircase Handrail Helps the Blind Navigate Buildings .Fig.9b: Design edges to help in orientation and in wayfinding.Incorporate strong edges to provide shorelines for navigation.Reinforce edges in more than one sensory mode.(Source : [19]) A

B

(e). Zones/Districts Wayfinding zones and districts are regions (either outside or within buildings) with a distinguishing character that assists in the general identification of place [26].Identify each zone to be unique and memorable in its context.If possible, reinforce the identifying characteristics of the zone with signage prior to arrival in the zone.

Identify zones in buildings with a letter prefix such as “A” or with the cardinal points of the compass (e.g., N101 for North wing, room 101)[19].

C.2. Graphic Wayfinding There are four main categories of graphic wayfinding elements: (1) orientation, (2) directional information, (3) destination identification, and (4)situation and object identification. Graphic information is the most direct way for people to find their location "Fig. 10". Typical graphic wayfinding information includes systems made up of text, pictograms, maps, photographs, models, and diagram [14].

Fig. 10: shows different methodes for graphic wayfindings.

A

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C

D

Orientation devices such as maps, site plans, floor plans, building and floor directories are used to help people to develop a mental map of a large complex[19]. Directional information: guides people along a route to a destination,and is given after they have had the chance to orient themselves to the general setting. This includes signs with arrows and elevator button panels. Destination identification: is provided at the point of destination. It includes building signage, floor numbers, and room identifiers. Situation and object identification: informs visitors about situations such as local hazards, changes of status (e.g., train schedules) and identifies objects such as fire extinguishers [14], [33].

D. Obtaining products and services Buildings includes commercial facilities, service centers, bill payment locations, libraries and offices handling applications and forms . Entries and Circulation Spaces should provide a sense of openness improves knowledge of the facility’s spatial layout and social organization. Product Distribution:Displays expose visitors to the range of products available. Space and illumination are critical concerns for access and product selection [25]. Staff Assistance: Where assistance is necessary to provide access to all products, (e.g., books on a top shelf) this can be a universal service provided and available to everyone [14]. Waiting Areas: It is inevitable that people sometimes will have to wait where services are provided to the public. Service Desks and Offices: It is important to establish an equitable relationship between the visitor and the person at service desks where a variety of activities take place [19]. Information Transaction Machines: an increasing amount of information services is being provided through computer-based equipment like ATMs, ticket machines and internet terminals. All ITMs should be simple to use and easy to perceive. Vending and Ticket Machines: Vending machines, ticket machines, change machines, vend-a-card systems and related equipment should be usable by everyone. These should include the types and design of machines and the location and arrangement of machines in the spaces provided [25].

E. Using public amenities Public amenities are restrooms, information displays, public telephones, rain shelters, drinking fountains, etc.

Several key that should be integrated into all public amenities to ensure universal usability: location, interactivity and safety. [14], [19].

VIII. Social sustainability and its relation to Universal Design The goal of Universal Design is to make our human-made world as accessible and usable as possible [34]. (UD) can be related to social sustainable development (SSD). There exist associations between UD and social sustainability [35]. A growing emphasis has been placed on providing equal opportunities for all people, particularly people with disabilities [36]. Universal or inclusive design is characterized by the Institute for Human Centred Design as:'' a framework that accepts diversity of ability and age as the most ordinary reality of being human'' and it revitalizes “design as intrinsic to social sustainability [37]. Accredited interior design programs should consider UD principles as the basis for their design projects in order to enhance the function and quality of interiors [38]. The route to universal design is illustrated by a pyramid with its building users "Fig11''. The interior designer and architect, moving up from one row to the next, looks to expand the accommodation parameters of normal provision, and by doing so minimise the need for special provision to be made for people with disabilities. In row 1, are fit and agile people. In row 2 are the generality of normal adult able-bodied people, those who, while not being athletic, can walk wherever needs or wishes may take them, with flights of stairs not troubling them. There are no small children in rows 1 and 2. The people in row 3 are also normal able-bodied people. These are women. In row 4 are elderly people who, going around with a walking stick, do not regard themselves as being disabled. With them are people with infants in pushchairs. In row 4 are elderly people who, going around with a walking stick, do not regard themselves as being disabled.

With them are people with infants in pushchairs. In row 5 are ambulant people who have disabilities. One in this row is a blind person led by a guidedog. The others, either ambulant disabled or wheelchair users, are all people with locomotor impairments. Broadly, the building users who are in rows 3, 4 and 5 are people who would not be architecturally disabled if normal provision in buildings were suitable for them, if it were standard practice

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for architects to design buildings to the precepts of universal design. The people in row 6 are independent wheelchair users. In row 7 are wheelchair users who need another person to help them when they use public buildings, and those disabled people who drive electric scooters. In row 8, are wheelchair users who need two people to help them when they go out [39]. For the crucial agenda of the 21st century design, sustainability, can be categorized to three main aspects; environmental, economic and social [40]. The third set of factors inherent in sustainability issues are those related to social sustainability [22]. Much emphasis has been given to the environmental and economic aspects of sustainability; however, the social sustainability which is equally important has often been neglected [40]. The criteria for social sustainability which are related to sustainable life of an individual include well-being, safety, and access to facilities and amenities .These factors relate to the distribution of wealth and services within and between generations as well as the distribution of rights to use environmental services contained within a given ecosystem. In additional, legal issues pertaining to property rights and the treatment of common law resources are factors of social sustainability. Social sustainability reflects the relationship between development and current social norms. An activity is socially sustainable if it conforms to social norms or does not stretch them beyond the community’s tolerance for change. Social norms are based on religion, tradition, and custom; they are rooted in values attached to human health and well-being [22].These criteria for sustainable life can be achieved through UD implementation in the planning and design process of housing and neighbourhood areas. Within adaptable private living spaces, an individual may develop sustainable well-being and a safe place to live in. People needs are never static, and everyone experiences changing abilities throughout their life cycle, a more universally designed environment is what the world needs in order to sustain everybody’s quality of life. Considering UD’s prospect of diverse users throughout life changing abilities, there exist associations between UD and social sustainability [40].Universal design and sustainability go hand in hand for creating a smarter, greener and more livable future. [41].

Fig 11: The Universal Design Pyramid demonstrate the bottom up methodology of universal design.(Source:[39])

IX. Applying Universal Design Principles in the interior design of a public Library The public library attract diverse groups of users, citizens and visitors of all ages, sizes, abilities and cultures .It is particularly important to acknowledge this diversity and ensure usability by everyone.

Site Design Public library facilities should be easily accessible from public transit, parking and public pathways. This creates a good introductory experience for the first time visitor. Many of these facilities are attended by tours, but there is a need to provide sufficient space for small or large groups.

Locate the main building entrance in closest proximity to the major points of public access. This may be a transit stop, a pedestrian pathway or a parking lot. Study each site to determine the priorities based on expected visitor volume.

Design outdoor attractions so that people of all statures, whether standing or seated, can have an unobstructed appreciation of the attraction. Provide more than one choice.

Use pathways on the site to enable pedestrians to anticipate the attractions inside. Windows, small display cases and signboards with current attractions will provide an orientation to the building’s activities prior to entry and entice passing pedestrians to visit.

On large sites, strategically locate restrooms to be within about a two-minute travel distance from all locations.

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Orient and design outdoor activity spaces to protect people from prevailing winds, hot sun and precipitation.

Entrances The entry to a cultural facility is the point of main introduction. Most cultural facilities have important transitional areas through which access is controlled and where ticketing, coat check and other activities take place.

It may be desirable to have two main entry points (e.g.,one for people arriving by vehicle and one for those arriving on foot or by public transit).

Provide space and seating for individuals who are waiting for others. Such spaces should be in a location easily detectable rom main entries but out of the way of busy traffic.

In large facilities, provide a separate waiting space for groups to assemble and queue up. This space should have some seating for people who need to rest.

Provide amenities like restrooms, drinking fountains and public telephones on the public side of the security perimeter and near waiting spaces.

If facilities are provided for night use by the public when the rest of the building is closed, the entry and exit to that part of the building should be accessible to everyone.

Spatial Organization The main visitor entry should be detectable from public access ways. This is particularly important if the institution has more than one building or is situated on a campus. Provide an information desk immediately inside the entry or in a strategic location in an entry hall. Ensure that crowd control devices are detectable by everyone.

Group amenities like restrooms, drinking fountains, and telephones together. The groupings will serve as important landmarks in the building.

Signage Systems Develop a pictogram system to associate with different parts of the building. In a library, it might use images related to the type of literature in an area.

Signs should be in at least two languages common to the region.

Use a graphic identity scheme to distinguish one area from another. This could include color family differences and/or display graphics like photographs or banners.

Exhibits and Collections Provide alternate media for wayfinding information, exhibits, presentations and background material using Braille, audio, text and captions. Audio presentation controls should be well marked and easy for anyone to activate.

The information desk should have materials available in the alternate media and languages. This may include audioguided tours, tactile maps, Braille information and text scripts of audio presentations.

Design exhibits to enable all people to experience them. Where exhibits are interactive, access should be provided at different heights and with knee clearance if approached from the front. The paths through exhibits should be spaced to accommodate wider patterns of use (e.g., adults pushing children in strollers).

Eliminate deep shadows in exhibits that block access to content. The placement of lighting and design of exhibit enclosures are both critical.

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X. Results Universal design (UD) is as an opportunity to enrich our design perspective to design effectively. By understanding the human diversity, (UD) integrates access for everyone into any effort to serve people well in any field. The concept of Universal Design is a significant aspect of social sustainability, it may cater the needs of diverse users over a life time, therefore be able to sustain one’s life throughout life changing abilities and support social development among all members of the society.(UD) is a critical approach to design practices so design professions, principally architecture and interior design.

XI. Conclusion In conclusion, the study demonstrates the importance of activating the role of Universal design philosophy in architecture and interior design. Furthermore, it shows the inevitability of the application of its seven principles in all types of private and public buildings to promote the sustainable development.

XII. Recommendations The students in all schools of architecture, interior design, landscape architecture and urban design should become aware of the values, concepts and philosophy of universal design at every level of their education program, beginning from the early stages of design education to the graduate and also post-graduate level. Use techniques to create the understanding and demand of Universal Design concepts by educating the politicians of the need to create environments that encourage independence.

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Story, M., Mueller, J., Mace, R., ”The Universal Design File: Designing for People of All Ages and Abilities”. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University, The Center for Universal Design.

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The Institute for Human Centered Design , ” Principles of Universal Design ”available online:http://www.humancentereddesign.org/universal-design/principles-universal-design Giuliani, R. W., ”Universal Design New York”, United States of America : Mayor (2001).

City of Irvine Universal Design Resource Guide, ”Home Modifications through Universal Design: A Resource Guide”, available online:http://www.cityofirvine.org/cityhall/cd/buildingsafety/accessibility_universal_design.asp Steinfeld, E., and J. Maisel, ”Universal Design: Creating Inclusive Environments”, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, (2012).

“The seven principles of Universal Design “, available online: http://www.universaldesign.com/universal-design/1761-the-sevenprinciples-of-universal-design.html Burgstahler , S., ”Universal Design of Instruction (UDI): Definition, Principles, Guidelines, and Examples”, available online: http://www.washington.edu/doit/Brochures/Academics/instruction Levine, D., ”Universal Design New York”, Center for Inclusive Design and Environmental Access, Buffalo, New York(2003).

Afacan, Y., and H. Demirkan. , “An Ontology-Based Universal Design Knowledge Support System” , Knowledge-Based Systems, Vol 24, No 4: 530–541,(2011), available online: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.knosys.2011.01.002 Imrie, R., “Perspectives in Rehabilitation :Universalism, Universal Design and Equitable Access to the Built Environment.”

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873–882, available online: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.3109/09638288.2011.624250 Abdul Rahim, A., “Universal Design in Maintaining Social Sustainability“, (2012), available online: http://www.mpn.gov.my/c/document_library/ .

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Peponis, J., C. Zimring, and Y.K. Choi, “Finding the Building in Wayfinding,” Environment and Behavior, Vol. 22,No. 5, (1990),pp. 555-590, available online: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1177/0013916590225001 Center for Inclusive Design and Environmental Access , “Entering and Exiting”, School of Architecture and Planning University at Buffalo, The State University of New York Buffalo, available online http://idea.ap.buffalo.edu//udny/section41b.htm Macsorley, Steve.,J., “Wayfindings ”, available online https://ws.elance.com/file/S_MacSorley_Wayfinding.pdf Hunter,S., “Architectural Wayfinding”, Center for Inclusive Design and Environmental Access , University at Buffalo, (2010),available online: http:// udeworld.com/documents/designresources/pdfs/ArchitecturalWayfinding.pdf Gibson, D ., “The Wayfinding Handbook: Information Design for Public Places”, ( 2009),Princeton Architectural Press.

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116–130, available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2009.12.004 Arthur, P., Passini, R., “Wayfinding: People, Signs, and Architecture”,(2002), McGraw- Hill.

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Vavik, T. and Keitch, M.M., “ Exploring Relationships between Universal Design and Social Sustainable Development: Some Methodological Aspects to the Debate on the Sciences of Sustainability“,Sustainable Development,Vol.18,No.5, (2011), pp. 295 – 305, available online: http:// dx.doi.org/ 10.10002/sd.4 Gossett, A., Mirza, M., Barnds, A.K. and Feidt, D. , “Beyond Access: A case study on the intersection between accessibility,sustainability, and universal design”, Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology, Vol.4, No. 6, (2009), pp.439-450, available online: http:// dx.doi.org/ 10.3109/17483100903100301 Vavik, T., “Strategies for teaching universal design ”, 13th International conference on engineering and product design education 8 & 9 september , City University , London, uk. (2011),pp.360-365, Olguntürk , N., Demirka , H. , “Ergonomics and universal design in interior architecture education ”, METU Journal of the Faculty of Architrcture , Vol 26. N. 2 pp .123-138, available online: http:// dx.doi.org/ 10.4305/METU.JFA. 2009.2.7 Goldsmith, S. , Universal Design, Architectural Press, (2000).

Abdul Kadir,S., Jamaludin,M., “ Universal Design as a Significant Component for Sustainable Life and Social Development” ,Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 85 ,( 2013 ) , pp.179 – 190, available online http:// dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.349 Skoda, I., “ Universal Design and Sustainability”, (2012),available online : http://www.skodadesign.com/universal-design-andsustainability.

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Contemplation of conservation and Painting technique of plaster wall paintings at Church Karas in Deir el-Anba Shenouda Sohag- Egypt Shehata A. Abd elrehym1, Mohamed A.A. Awad2, Hossam R. A. Sleem3 Professor, Conservation Department, Faculty of Archaeology, Fayoum University, EGYPT. 2 Professor, Conservation Department, Faculty of Arts, Sohag University, EGYPT. 3 Assistant Lecturer of Conservation Department, Faculty of Arts, Sohag University, EGYPT. 1

Abstract: The state of conservation of the frescoes at Church Karas in Deir el-Anba Shenouda Sohag was investigated by integrated physicochemical measurements , particularly optical and scanning electron microscopy, m-infrared spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and X-ray powder diffraction. The frescoes appear darkened and severely damaged owing to the deterioration of surface treatments and to the widespread presence of differentsalts. These caused significant detachments of the painting layers. The materials used in the painting and preparation layers and in the wall plaster were characterized in order to clarify the painting technique. Different pigments have been identified on the pictorial layers: the original ones correspond to green earth, yellow and red ochre, realgar, bone black and lapis lazuli and others, such as titanium white and cobalt blue, ascribed to recent restoration works. Proteinaceous materials (egg or yolk) have been identified as binders for the pigments, indicating a tempera painting technique. Three different products, belonging to restoration interventions, have been also identified: the natural product shellac, ascribable to nextto- last restoration and scarcely removed during last restoration also because of its insolubility, the synthetic vinyl acetate and acrylic polymers. Particularly the latter one indicates an on-going degradation of the applied fixatives. The extensive deterioration of the surfaces is also due to the widespread presence of salts, such as chloride, nitrate and sulphate clearly identified by XRD measurements. The obtained results give a comprehensive overview on the employed painting technique and its state of preservation and on the causes of the painting deterioration. Therefore, they are a fundamental tool to develop durable and compatible materials and methodologies for a future conservation strategy of this site.

I. Aim of Research Integrated physico-chemical investigations were carried out on fragments, collected from the pictorial cycle, one of the most important buildings of the coptic dynasty in upper Egypt, with the aim to obtain useful information about the painting technique, to offer a preliminary scientific view of the state of conservation of these wall paintings, to ascertain the type and the extent of the degradation processes and to detect the materials used in previous interventions. The final goal is to offer scientific tools for a better understanding of this pictorial cycle and to set up a scientific aid and guide for a conscious intervention on these paintings, severely damaged not exclusively by natural decay processes.

II. Introduction Deir el-Abyad (or the White Monastery in English) (also known as Deir Amba Shenuda or Shenute) is a Coptic Orthodox monastery. It lies about 4 kilometers south-east of the Red Monastery, some 15mi/25km northnorthwest of Sohag (Suhag). It was named after Saint Shenouda (Shenute) the Archimandrite who founded it about 332/350 to 451/466. By the time of Shenouda's death, in 466 AD, the population of the White Monastery increased from 30 to more than 2000 monks and 2000 nuns. Although it was burnt Conquest (619 AD), the church enclosed inside the monastery is still extant in place. After the Arab Conquest, the monastery began to decline and in 1168. The Monastery was restored during the 13th century, but it began to decline again since the 14th century, until it was burnt by the Mamelukes in 1798, while they were fleeing from Napoleon's army.

During the reign of Mohamed Ali, part of the monastery was restored. The Last restoration was committed in 1980. The monastery's architecture is similar to that of the Red Monastery. It is one of the most celebrated and important monasteries in Egypt. Surrounding the monastery is a high wall of white limestone blocks. The church can be entered via a narthex that has an apse at the west end. Noticeably, it is an aisled basilica with a trilobate sanctuary, consisting of a square domed central area and three apses with semi domes. The apses have two rows of five niches alternating with columns. At the north end, there is a second narthex with a pillared apse. Deep down in Egypt, 500 km (300 miles) south of Cairo, just outside the province capital of Sohag, at the

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border of the Nile valley and the Western desert, within a stone’s throw of the age-old White Monastry, one finds a remarkable new Coptic Orthodox Church.

Fig. 1. View of Church Karas in Deir el-Anba Shenouda Sohag Very important mural paintings decorate the central hall and the connected rooms of the building of Church Karas destined to alcoves and baths with tepidarium and calidarium. Although they have been recently restored, the paintings appear severely deteriorated. The low part of the paintings (originally painted as imitation of marbles) are damaged by the rising damp and worsened by writings, incisions and other vandalic actions, that have caused the total loss of significant parts of them. Besides all, chromatic alterations are widely distributed, essentially greyish in colour that could be ascribed to the deposition of soot and other atmospheric fine particulates. Moreover, many areas show an extensive network of micro- cracks associated with a spread darkening of the painted surface and detachments; this peculiar decay pattern is especially localised on paintings subjected to earlier restorations by different organic fixatives. The frescoes of Church Karas show details of the clothes, i.e. the colors and the fabrics, that testified the social and economic life in the Coptic period. Today the visitor must use his imagination to reconstruct the original aspect of the paintings because of the very poor state of presentation of many scenes, as a diffuse dark patina overshadows the restored painted surfaces. An urgent restoration is needed to adequately clean and free from the dirt the wall paintings.

IV. Experimental Twelve samples areas have been collected from the western and northern walls, side-walls with respect to the main entrance. The sampling procedure deserved difficulty owing to the scarce cohesion of the painting layers and the crumbling of the plaster. The samples were observed as received and as cross-sections. The optical observations on the cross-section were carried out by a microscope Olympus BX51 equipped with UV-light source to prove the organic layers. The cross sections were analysed also by SEM-EDS, after metallization through the deposition of a graphite film. The instrument was Philips Model XL 40 LaB6. Semi quantitative analyses of elemental composition were obtained using an EDAX DX Prime X-ray energy dispersive spectrometer equipped with a thin beryllium window, using an accelerating voltage of 25 keV. By stereomicroscope observation of the collected samples, the different layers of the paintings have been mechanically separated each others and studied separately. The binding media of the painting layers were identified by mFTeIR analyses, performed either on the different crushed layers and on their soluble fractions extracted by solvents (CH2Cl2, H2O, EtOH, Acetone). IR spectra were collected in reflection mode by a Nicolet Magna IR560 FTeIR Spectrometer and Spectra Tech microscope on the separated layers and the extracted fractions flattened on a gold surface. The IRUG database was used for the identification of the material constituents of the sample. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses of the ground samples were performed on a Philips X’Pert PW3710 diffractometer, using Cu Ka radiation (40 kV, 30 mA), high-resolution graphite monochromator, rotating sample holder and proportional detector. Measurements were carried out in the range 50 < 2 < 900 with a step of 0.020; the ICDD data bank of standard X-ray powder spectra was used for phase identification.

V. Results and Discussion The collected samples have been examined as received and or as cross sections by integrated physico-chemical measurements particularly optical and scanning electron microscopy where possible, by X-ray powder diffraction in order to verify the pictorial technique, the state of conservation of the frescoes the damages caused especially by chemically agents, particularly salts, detachments, repaintings and fixatives also in consequence of the materials employed in previous interventions and to propose an appropriate intervention project. Some Pyrolysis GC-MS measurements have been also included to corroborate the infrared indications about the organic materials .Optical and SEM-EDS microscopies show that the finishing plaster below the painting layers contains calcium carbonate and a small amount of Si, mainly in the form of quartz clusters. Some samples show a superficial finishing layer exclusively constituted by Ca (white lime). Mineral and synthetic inorganic

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pigments have been identified on different painting layers: green earth (potassium and iron silicate) bone black, natural lapis lazuli, red and yellow ochres, realgar and white lead (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Cross section of sample magnification 500 ( Optical observation shows the finishing lime layer followed by the blue layer composed of calcium carbonate and particles of two superimposed restoration layers (a). (b)Optical micrograph of the cross-section of sample a blue area. (c) Cross section from the olive green zone in the background (d) image showing details of the gilding With the exclusion of layers containing white lead, the widespread distribution of Ca on the painting layers proves the use of lime as a binder; notwithstanding organic binding as egg tempera, has also been employed as identified by FT IR and GC-MS investigations .Industrial pigments as cobalt blue and titanium dioxide have been also identified; they clearly belong to a pictorial retouching performed during recent interventions .FT IR investigations, carried out on powders collected from the different painting strata, gave quite convincing information on the original binding materials and the organic products applied as restoration fixatives; spectra collected on several samples show a carbonyl ester band at 1738 cm -1  C=O stretching) and the protein bands (broad band centred at 3308 attributed to stretching  N-H, 1650 stretching  C=O amide I and 1543 cm -1 bending  N-H amide II( )Fig. 3a( )The comparison with reference spectra and the data obtained by pyrolysis GC-MS investigations indicate the presence of egg . Absorptions of calcium oxalate bands at 1618 and 1316 cm -1 respectively the symmetric and asymmetric stretching of COO group and absorptions of nitrate salts at 1386 and 837 cm( -1 )Fig. 3b )Respectively the stretching and out-of-plane bending of NO3 group are clear indication of transformation of constituent materials and salt induced decay processes.

Fig. 3. FT IR spectrum of the CH2Cl2 soluble fraction of the sample G3 (a) and of the H2O soluble fraction of the sample G8 (b, c). Infrared absorptions reflect the composition of protein aceous binding media (i.e. animal glue, egg) in the painting layers (a) and the presence of nitrates (b) and oxalates (c )due respectively to transformation of constituent materials and salt induced decay processes.

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The FTIR characterization of powders and CH2Cl2 extracts from the superficial layers of painting samples shows different absorption patterns: some spectra, collected from the outmost layers, show a strong absorption at 1739 cm-1 due to the  C=O carbonyl stretching of an ester group, intense bands at 1235 cm -1 corresponding to the C-O stretching band of the acetate CH3-CO-OR, and at 1021 cm -1 corresponding to the O-C stretching of the acetate group O-CH2 ) Fig. 4a). This characteristic absorption pattern is ascribable to a vinyl acetate polymer, in good agreement with the reference spectrum of the commercial synthetic resin poly(ethylene/ vinyl-acetate) (BEVA 371), widely employed in the recent past as fixative for mural paintings and canvas .

Acrylic polymers have also been identified on superficial layers of few samples ( Fig. 4b), these may be ascribed to the commercial product Primal, applied during the last restoration work. More remarkably, the IR spectrum of the acrylic polymer shows a weak band occurring at 1776 cm -1 related to stretching absorption of g-lactones (Fig. 4b), a common feature of polymer photo-oxidative degradation , indicating the applied product is undergoing severe deterioration processes .

Fig. 4. FT IR spectrum of the CH2Cl2 soluble fractions of the sample G4. Both spectra indicate the presence of restoration polymers applied in the recent past: a vinyl acetate polymer, in good agreement with the reference spectrum of the commercial synthetic resin poly(ethylene/vinyl-acetate) (BEVA 371) (a) and an acrylic polymer tentatively ascribed to the commercial product Primal (b). The latter is undergoing severe deterioration processes as indicated by the absorption at 1776 cm -1 ascribable to glactones, a common feature of polymer photo-oxidative degradation.

Several samples also show a brownish superficial layer, which appears bright fluorescent by UV light observation of cross sections( Fig. 2b) and consequently not ascribed to a polymer used as restoration material.

So far, it has been mechanically separated from the painting fragments and characterized by FT IR.All attempts to solubilise it with different solvents (CH 2Cl2 acetone, H2O, CH3CH2OH) failed.The IR spectra collected on the insoluble brownish product, show a strong band occurring at 1712 cm-1 with a shoulder at 1732 cm-1 related respectively to antisymmetric C=O stretching of a carboxylic acid and to  C=O stretching of an ester group.

Other bands in the range 1300e 1111cm-1 can also be attributed to different stretching modes of the ester and acid groups, while absorptions at 2929 and 2856 cm-1 are related to asymmetric and symmetric stretchings of CH3 and CH2 groups (Fig. 5.( The mixture of esters and acids resembles the composition of the natural product shellac, whose reference IR spectrum fully agrees with the analysed unknown product .Shellac’s good adhesive power and penetration made it widely employed as fixative for wall painting, notwithstanding the yellowing and increasing insolubility with ageing that darken the treated surfaces and strongly reduce the removability.XRD analyses of samples collected from the widespread efflorescences, prove the presence of sylvite and halite, respectively a potassium and sodium chloride, aphthialite, a mixed sodium and potassium sulfate, and, finally, nitratine, sodium nitrate.

Macroevidences of pulverization of the wall painting, detachments and superficial incrustations, induced by the disruptive effects of these soluble salts, have been also highlighted by micro morphological SEM observations on samples collected from these deteriorate areas.

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Fig. 5. FT IR spectrum of powdered superficial brownish layer of painting sample G8 (a). The infrared absorption can be inferred to a mixture of esters and acids, resembling the composition of the natural product shellac. Its spectrum fully agrees with IRUG reference IR spectrum (b( VI. Conclusion The physico-chemical investigations, carried out on a series of fragments, collected from the wall paintings of Church Karas in Deir el-Anba Shenouda Sohag allowed a comprehensive characterization of the pictorial technique and of the nature and the degradation degree of the wall paintings. Different pigments have been identified on the pictorial layers: the original ones, corresponding to green earth, yellow and red ochre, realgar, bone black and lapis lazuli and those ascribing to recent restoration works, such as titanium white and cobalt blue. In disagreement with other studies FT IR and GC-MS analyses identified a proteinaceous medium, i.e .egg or yolk employed as binder for the pigments .FT IR spectroscopy has also identified three different fixatives.

The natural product shellac has been found in several samples ascribable to next-to-last restoration and scarcely removed during last restoration also because of its insolubility in the most common solvents. It could be responsible of the widespread and severe darkening of the wall paintings. Also vinyl acetate and acrylic polymers have been identified on the painted surfaces and the decay products, especially of the acrylic polymers clearly indicate an on-going degradation of the applied fixatives.The pictorial cycle is indeed severely damaged also by soluble salts transported by rising damp and ground water; chloride nitrate and sulphate salts have caused remarkable surface alterations efflorescences and detachments of painting fragments.The present work must be considered as a preliminary assessment to quantify and qualify the degree and type of damage suffered by wall paintings, to evaluate the current effectiveness of the fixatives applied during the previous restoration and their possible alterations. The obtained results clearly show the severe deterioration that are suffering both the original materials and the applied products and must be use as a starting point to develop durable and compatible materials and methodologies for a future conservation strategy of this site.

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7]

D. Lin-Vien, N.B. Colthup, W.G. Fateley, J.G. Grasselli, The Handbook of Infrared and Raman Characteristic Frequencies of Organic Molecules, Academic Press Inc, 1991.

M. Derrick, Fourier Transform infrared spectral analysis of natural resins used in furniture finishes, Journal of the American Institute of Conservation 28 (1) (1989) 43e56 P. Mora, L. Mora, P. Philippot, Conservation of Wall Paintings, Butterworths, London, 1984.

G.A. Berger, Consolidation of delaminating paintings, in: ICOM Committee for Conservation 5th triennial meeting: Zagreb, 1e8 October 1978: preprints. International Council of Museums, 1978, p. 19.

J. Medina Flores, A. Garcı´a Bueno, Metodologı´a en la intervencio´n de las pinturas de Qusayr Amra, Jordania, Boletı´n del Instituto Andaluz del Patrimonio, Histo´rico 10 (39) (2002) 59e68.

R.W. Dutton, J.I. Clarke, A.M. Battikhi, Arid Land Resources and Their Management, University of Durham, 1998.

D. Lin-Vien, N.B. Colthup, W.G. Fateley, J.G. Grasselli, The Handbook of Infrared and Raman Characteristic Frequencies of Organic Molecules, Academic Press Inc, 1991.

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Investigating how school leaders negotiate their role as instructional leaders in secondary schools in Mauritius Nathalie Congo-Poottaren Lecturer, Department of Educational Administration and Management Mauritius Institute of Education, Reduit, Mauritius Abstract: This study aims to investigate how school leaders negotiate their role as instructional leaders. A qualitative research approach was chosen and data was collected from school leaders (n=6) by means of an interview. Major findings include the tensions which school leaders feel when they conduct class visits and the lack of understanding which they feel exists in relation to what an instructional leader is supposed to do. School leaders recognise the importance of instructional leadership but they also feel that they have not been fully prepared to endorse that role. Chief development needs as observed by school leaders include better training, more tools, and time to develop the skills of an instructional leader.

Keywords: Instructional leadership, school leader I. Introduction Instructional leadership has been used in many educational systems and it is now that we are talking of its use in schools in Mauritius. In Mauritius, education is free and compulsory from the age of 3 to the age of 16. Students spend 2 years in pre-primary, 6 years in primary and 7 years in secondary. Since education is free and students have free transport to come to school and the government also pays the examinations fees for students taking part in school certificate and higher school certificate, there is usually high expectations on schools to perform well.

Coupled with these, the educational authorities have just set up a Quality Assurance and Inspection Division whose mandate is to ensure that schools deliver quality “education”.

There is thus a lot of pressure on the school leaders to be more involved with what is going on in the classroom.

Additionally, the importance of the school leader on the performance of a school cannot be ignored. As noted by Day et al (2010) “school leaders improve teaching and learning indirectly and most powerfully through their influence on staff motivation, commitment and working conditions” (p.3). They are also expected to be more visible in the classroom and to guide teachers in their practice. As mentioned by Ingvarson, Anderson, Gronn and Jackson (2006) “In recent years, the context within which school leaders work has been characterised by increasing complexity in expectations for school leaders and greater demands for accountability” (p.9). They also talked about the “intensification” of school leaders’ work and the impact that it is having on their leadership.

Coupled with that the call for accountability requires school leaders to review their leadership. As they embrace instructional leadership, school leaders are stepping out of their comfort zone and are treading on new grounds.

At the same time, school leaders cannot forget that they impact on students’ performance. This is described by Leithwood and Seashore-Louis (2012) who claimed that “to date, we have not found a single documented case of a school improving its student achievement record in the absence of talented leadership” (p.3). So we see that the school leader is an important figure in the school. A review of the literature on school leadership also points to the fact that the school leader must be able to display certain predispositions. He/she must be “as great a teacher [as] your teachers, as great a learner as your teachers, and the person who provides the goalposts for excellence” (Hattie, 2002, p.8). This puts a lot of pressure on what school leaders are supposed to do and how they are supposed to be. Consequently, there is reason to focus attention on how the school leader negotiates his/her role as an instructional leader. Knowledge gathered from this study can be used to review the training programmes for aspiring and practicing school leaders in Mauritius. It will also help to advocate that practicing school leaders attend workshops and seminars on this issue.

II. Statement of the problem In Mauritius, there is now renewed interest for instructional leadership as the educational authorities are going for standard-based accountability and there is also increasing demands that school leaders be held responsible for how students perform at school (Hallinger, 2005). They have just set up a Quality Assurance and Inspection Division which will be responsible to monitor the quality of teaching and learning in schools. At the same time, schools are called upon to provide evidence of students’ success. Consequently, school leaders are expected to

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take up the role of the instructional leader. Hence it is felt relevant to investigate how school leaders negotiate their role as instructional leaders.

III. Objective The objective of this study is to investigate how school leaders negotiate their role as instructional leaders.

IV. Literature review A. Definition of instructional leadership The concept of instructional leadership is not new. It has existed decades ago, but has lost it importance as time went by. However, as there is now a system which puts a lot of emphasis on providing evidence of students’ achievement (Hattie, 2008), the concept of instructional leadership has been revamped. Hattie (2012) defines instructional leaders as “Principals who have their major focus on creating a learning climate free of disruption, a system of clear teaching objectives, and high teacher expectations for teachers and students” ( p. 84). This definition encompasses a wide array of actions which an instructional leader does.

B. Uses of instructional leadership at school.

In fact, instructional leadership encompasses a series of activities which the leader performs (Robinson, 2010).

An instructional leader determines the objectives and prospects of the school. The school leader needs to determine in which direction he/she wants the school to move. He/she must also be aware of the environment in which it is operating and act accordingly. This will involve developing a shared vision and determining how to fulfill it ( Cotton, 2003, Leithwood & Riehl, 2003).

The school leaders also ensure that resources are made available to achieve them. This involves helping teachers meet their instructional needs. School leaders would thus be “mobilising resources” (Andrews, Soder & Jacoby, 1986). As school leaders attend to the instructional needs of their teachers, they can ensure that an efficient use of these resources is done in order to achieve maximum student achievement.

Furthermore, the leader is also involved in teaching and learning by being directly involved in planning, coordinating and evaluating teaching. As mentioned by Robinson et al. (2009) “[the] more leaders focus their influence, their learning, and their relationships with teachers on the core business of teaching and learning, the greater is their influence and impact in terms of improved student outcomes” (p.28). This implies that the school leaders would be visiting classrooms for instructional purposes. He/she would be seen in classrooms.

He/she is involved in curriculum design, implementation and evaluation (Cooper et al. 2005; Cotton, 2003, Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). The school leaders also use data in order to adjust the curriculum or its implementation in order to suit the needs of the learners (Fullan, 2005; Guskey, 2003; Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). This can even lead to combined efforts to design focused instructional approaches and strategies to meet the needs of the learners.

Moreover, he/she also encourages teachers to go for professional development and even organises such activities. Here mentioned should be made to school leaders leading a learning community (Fullan, 2002; Marzano et al. 2005). The school leaders would be using data and feedback from teachers in order to determine the professional developmental needs of teachers and would attend to these needs. It was also found that school leaders might need further training to “leading the professional development of others” (Earley et al.,2002).

Additionally, he/she works in ways which will ensure a conducive learning environment. This involves working on the school culture and climate. The school leaders works to be providing praise for effective teaching. Rules and regulations would be clear and concise. Collaboration and cooperation are privileged through open and free communication.

V. Methodology The objective of this study was to investigate how school leaders negotiate their role as instructional leaders.

Consequently, a qualitative research design was selected as is well suited to the study of the experiences of school leaders (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007).

Data has been collected from those school leaders (n =6) who are following a course in educational leadership and who have been exposed to instructional leadership. Furthermore, this small sample allowed in depth study of the phenomenon and is adequate for the type of research undertaken (Patton, 2002).

Interviews were conducted (Patton, 2002). This allowed for the emergence of ‘thick description’ (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) and for the interviewer to ask more questions to clarify understanding. Furthermore, the transcripts were analysed and emergent categories were found.

VI. Discussion on emergent categories A. Knowledge All the six participants explained that they dreaded this exercise and they did not know exactly what they would have to do in class and how the teachers would take it. Participant E explained that a session or two on instructional leadership is not enough to convert them into instructional leaders. Yet Fullan (2002) and Marzano

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et al. (2005) have found that as an instructional leader, the school leader leads a learning community. Hence although the school leaders have the basic knowledge of instructional leadership they still need to explore the concept of instructional leadership and find out how to make a most effective use of it.

B. The outsider Additionally, participant C revealed that he was “not at ease” and felt like an “intruder”. This is also how participant D must have felt as the teacher “kept looking at him as if looking for approval”. The teacher also wanted to know what the school leader was writing down. One participant mentioned that the classroom atmosphere was “heavy”. This is far away from the findings of Cotton (2003) and Leithwood et al. (2004) who found that sharing leadership creates the kind of collaboration and relationship which is open and nonjudgemental.

C. Paperwork One participant explained that he has “a lot of paperwork” and he is thus “very busy”. All the participants mentioned the fact that they like to conduct class visit, plan curriculum with teachers but they also felt that priority must be given to office work. Participant A nicely summarised that element by saying that “at least in my office, I know what I am doing!”. However, an instructional leader is involved in monitoring curriculum and instruction and is involved in unpacking the curriculum with the teachers and making instruction more relevant to the learners as supported by Marzano et al. (2005).

D. Not enough time to analyse and discuss instruction with teachers Furthermore, it was felt that even when school leaders do find the time to conduct class visits, they do not have enough time to analyse and discuss instruction with teachers. Participants A and B explained that they have to visit teachers and fill in a report. However, participant A explained that apart from that he does not find time for feedback and follow up visits. Yet, as an instructional leader, the school leader is involved in discussing the curriculum implementation and how lessons are conducted. There is need to ensure that while discussing with the teachers, attention is given to ensure that the learning experiences which are essential for the learners are available (Marzano et al.2005).

E. Resource persons – experts Five participants explained that they have invited resource persons to conduct seminars, intensive workshops so as to provide their teachers on the spot further training and to be exposed to new knowledge. Participant C mentioned the fact that he feels that ‘my teachers will gain more if they were to listen to an expert!’. This suports the claim that the school leader creates a learning community and attends to the needs of the learners ( Marzano et al. 2005).

F. Knowledge of the subject matter.

Participants explained that they have moved from being teachers to school leaders. They knew only the subjects which they were teaching when they were teachers. They do not have the necessary knowledge of the teacher’s subject area and this prevent productive and effective conversational give and take needed for quality feedback.

Yet when we talk about instructional leadership we are referring to a leader who has built a vision for his/her school and who is working to have a successful school. This tends to suggest that there are additional efforts which the school leader must make (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003).

VII. Analysis of findings The findings above reveal that school leaders do not fully implement instructional leadership. They are aware of the details of instructional leadership but they do not apply it in a systematic way. They still feel constrained by their other responsibilities which somehow they feel are more important and which deserve to be given priority.

Furthermore we find that their relationship with their teachers is not conducive for instructional leadership. We can infer that there is not enough trust among them or that school leaders are not used to move outside of their office. We also need to consider the teachers and how are going to react to the presence of the school leader in class.

Furthermore, there is also the part on curriculum design, implementation and evaluation. Teachers might feel that they know more how to attend to the needs of their learners than an outsider. However, it is important for them to understand that there is need to make space for the school leader. Yet given the abundance of literature on instructional leadership and of its benefits for the educational system as a whole, it is urgent to reflect on the means which can be used to give instructional leadership all the attention that it deserves.

VIII. Future directions The professional development needs of school leaders in respect to instructional leadership have to be attended to. There is need to provide school leaders with more exposure to instructional leadership and how they are to go about fulfilling their duties. This could be done through case study analysis, role plays and interactive workshops.

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School leaders must set up a proper structure at school for instructional leadership. All those involved in the school must be aware of this structure and understand why the school leader is also an instructional leader.

Information about the role of the instructional leader must be available for all to know.

School leaders must also learn to delegate, use information and communication technology, and develop efficient time management skills so that they can have more time to conduct class visits, discuss about the curriculum and determine the goals for the school. They need also to work on the school culture and school climate so that they can set up a system which promotes instructional leadership as well as teaching and learning.

There is need to develop a solid partnership with teachers built on trust, integrity and respect. This will help to gain teachers’ commitment. Hence, there is need to develop cooperative, collaborative and flexible structures.

At the same time, all the planning and the implementation decisions have to be discussed between the school leaders and the teachers. Openness has to be practiced. It is also advisable to hold regular meetings between the school leaders and the teachers.

It is important for school leaders to share leadership. This involves bringing all the stakeholders on board and getting the teachers to exert leadership power. They could be encouraged to develop their own teaching strategies and to empower their colleagues. The school leader could work in ways which will develop a collaborative culture among the teachers to encourage them to share and collaborate. They could also be encouraged to develop projects and conduct action research at classroom level and at school level. This will help them to improve their practice.

School leaders must also develop a system whereby they come to gather data in order to help them assess the situation at school and to take informed decisions. Furthermore, they need to encourage teachers to use and analyse the data that are available so that they can have a clearer picture of the situation. As a first step, they need to use data themselves in their analysis of the school’s performance and infuse their decisions with facts and figures.

However, the school leaders need to be aware of their specific contexts. Whilst research supports the use of instructional leadership, school leaders have to remain sensitive to their specific contexts. They need to respect and respond accordingly to the different contextual factors which affect their schools. In fact we can notice that both teachers and school leaders need to learn how to handle the different expectations which arise as a result of the school leader acting as an instructional leader. This leads us to see that the school turns out to be a learning organisation.

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Andrews, R., Soder, R., and Jacoby, F. Principal Roles, Other In-School Variables, and Academic Achievement by Ethnicity and SES. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, 1986.

Cotton, K. (2003). Principals and student achievement: What the research says. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2003.

Day, C, Sammons, P, Hopkins, D, Harris, A, Leithwood, K, Gu, Q and Brown, Ten strong claims about successful school leadership, Nottingham, National College for School Leadership, 2010.

Earley, P, Evans, J, Collarbone, P, Gold, A and Halpin, D, Establishing the current state of school leadership in England, DfES research report RR336, London, HMSO. 2002.

Fullan, M. Principals as leaders in a culture of change. Educational leadership, 2002.

Fullan, M. Leadership & sustainability: System thinkers in action. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2005.

Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., and Borg, W. R. Educational research: An introduction. Boston: Pearson Education, 2007.

Guskey, T. R. How classroom assessments improve learning. Educational Leadership, vol 60(5), 2003, pp. 6-11.

Hallinger, P. Instructional leadership and the school principal: A passing fancy that refuses to go away, College of Management, Mahidol University, Thailand, 2005.

Hattie, J, School research: How, what and why: Six things school leaders should know about educational research, Auckland NZ, University of Auckland Principals’ Centre and King’s Institute. 2002.

Hattie, J. Teachers make a difference: What is the research evidence?. 2003.

Hattie, J. Visible learning for teachers. Oxford, UK: Routledge. 2012.

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Peasants’ Mobilization under the Communist at its formative stage in Colonial Odisha: a case study of Kolkata Odia Krushak Sammilani Amit Kumar Nayak Research Scholar Department of History, Utkal University, Odisha, INDIA Abstract: Given the agrarian economic base of India coupled with ongoing peasants’ discontentment against institutionalized government and former’s relation with the Left political parties, the present situation demands to find out the answer as to the historical basis of the relationship between the Left and the peasantry in India as well in Odisha during the colonial period. Organized peasants’ movement in Odisha started taking its configuration following the suspension of Civil Disobedience movement and the coming of Socialist ideas in subsequent period. The Congress Socialists, which subsumed in it the extreme radical leaders who later on constituted the atoms of the Communist movement in Odisha, were the pioneer of that organized movements. Unlike all Indian scenarios, the Communist movement started to surface lately in Odisha at a time when it was undergoing a passive stage due to colonial apathy towards its very existence. However it remained within Congress Socialist party for a long time and actively participated in the peasants’ struggle in colonial Odisha until it was separated from Congress Socialist party/Indian National Congress. The tempo the Communist party had at its birth clearly found its expression in the heightened upward peasants’ mobilization and radicalization of congress ideologies. Therefore, this research article tries to study the birth and growth of Communist movement in India and Odisha in brief keeping in view the peasants’ mobilization. The study also aims at analyzing the role of Communists in the peasants’ struggle in Odisha in 1930s when the party was at its infant stage. Apart from it, this article endeavors to assess the role of the Communist leaders in organizing peasants’ conference in Kolkata (Calcutta) and in creating radical content of resolutions passed in the conference.

Keywords: Communist, Kolkata, Mobilization, Peasant, Socialist, Sammilani, I.

Introduction

1

The victory of the proletariat (Sweezy,1969) i.e., the workers, the peasants, and the slaves etc., over the age old Czarist rule and the interim capitalist system through the famous Bolshevik revolution, the first ever Communist party composed of peasant-labor majority, led by Vladimir Lenin in 1917 objectified, to a greater extent, the notion of dictatorship of the proletariats, non-existence of private property, dominance of peasants and labors on land and industry, equal distribution of surplus value and an egalitarian society with much say for the oppressed--the cardinal principles of Socialism/Marxism. As this revolutionary transformation of Russian society, a step toward realizing communist state, was an open threat to the European capitalistic society and its brain child i.e., colonialism, as the revolutionary sequel stood by free society and Free State, It was inevitable that the way the revolution was carried out by the peasants and the workers would found its echo in the world, especially, in colonized Asiatic states. With rapid economic development, a hitherto unknown innovative foreign policy, successful transformation of feudal-capitalistic base into organized, planned and above all inclusive growth, Russia paved the way for coming up of new challenges to the colonial governments across the globe. The newly indoctrinated oppressed and exploited class of the imposed capitalistic colonial states endeavored to steer the state in Russian model leading to the formation of radical institutions on Marxist-Leninist ideologies1, famously known as communism.

1

It was Karl Marx and Frederick Engels who perceived of a Communist society in which in the very first stage the proletariat dictatorship would replace the age old capitalistic means of production characterized by monopoly of a few over means of production, existence of private property, and non-availability of surplus value for the labor seller, and in the next step the proletariat would destroy itself as a class leading to the existence of a communist state. It was Vladimir Lenin who led the Bolshevik party ---the first ever communist party-----and fulfilled the first stage of a communistic society to a greater extent. So in academic literature Marxism-Leninist ideological Discourse is generally accepted as the bedrock of communism.

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India, being a colonial victimized state, was not an exception to it. That innovative leftist ideas, though reached India in late 1920s (Chandra, 1989), slowly and steadily started to gain currency in post Non-cooperation movement phrase and in Odisha as a part of it, giving birth to a complex phenomenon in Indian political circle i.e., the emergence of a band of radical leaders of heterogeneous ideas. When newly encroached communist ideas was looking for space in Indian political circle and trying to focus on remaining independent of Indian national Congress, the growing discontentment and agony among peasants and workers, due to apathetic role of Indian National Congress, provided a good deal of opportunities for easy but resisted growth of those ideas. Formation of different organizations across India during that time amply proves this fact2 (Chandra, 1989). The situation took a ‘U’ turn following the temporary end of ‘’Congress-CPI romance’’ in 1930s, stringent anti-communist measures of colonial government( Chandra, 1987 ), direct involvement of congress in class cause and above all the subsequent colonial governments’ banning of Communist Party of India in 1934(Chandra, 1989). But the post-Civil Disobedience movement India and Odisha witnessed a radical transformation not only in the political horizon but also in the socio-economic sphere as well. It was partly because of the resultant forces that came out of the frustration caused due to the suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement and partly due to the gradual loss of confidence in Gandhi’s leadership and the efficacy of All Indian Congress Party. This transformation compounded by germination of the socialist ideas found its manifestation in the emergence of radical ideas within or outside the Congress circle, the emergence of class consciousness among the peasants, youths, women and depressed classes.

The case of Odisha was somehow different from the all Indian phenomenon. The same fervor, as was seen from an all Indian case so far as communist party was concerned, seems to be absent in Odisha though it being a part of colonial India. Exception was that Odisha pioneered the socialist movement prior to that of other states of India in late 1930s (Dwivedy, 1984). The Communist and the Socialist combination, of all their political as well as nonpolitical works, did a good job by successfully integrating, mobilizing the peasants in Odisha in post 1934 period.

Before analyzing the achievements of the Communist—Socialist combine in the peasants’ cause in Odisha, it seems desirable to have a glance over the birth and growth of ‘Communist’ as a political ideology in India as well in Odisha.

II. Birth of the Communist Party in India and Odisha In general Communism was considered as an alternative political ideology, advocating communal ownership over means of production and absence of private property, which stands as an antithesis of capitalism and feudalism, and a modified version of Marxism. Due to its eye catching socio-economic and political programs and above all its anti-colonial stance, Marxism-Leninism got easy popularity in the era of colonial-capitalistic rule in Asian nations. The history of communism in India goes back to the 1920s.It was the famous Yugantar revoutionary Naren Bhattachary ji ( Manabendra Nath Roy ), who came in contact with the Bolshevik Mikhail Borodin in Mexico in 1919. The communist party of India (CPI) was founded in Tashkent, Turkestan autonomous soviet socialist republic on Oct 17th 1920 soon after the second congress of the communist international(Chandra, 1989). The founding members were M.N Roy, Evelyn Trent Roy, Abani Mukherji, Rosa Fitings, Mohamed Ali, Mahumme Shafiq Siddique and MP. B. T Acharya. The environment was not so conducive that the communist could make easy head way due to strong colonial opposition. Basing upon those communist ideologies, the front line leaders organized peasants and workers in different parts of India and mobilized the mass through different activities. Soon after its formation, CPI began efforts to build a party organization inside India and in turn so many communist groups were formed in West Bengal, Bombay, Madras (Chennai), united provinces, and Punjab, which were integrated in 1925 at Kanpur to Communist Party of India. During the period from 1920 to 1930, the party was badly organized with lack of national coordination (Devdas, 2014). Even the British government then banned communist activities in India. Following the direction of the 7th communist International, the CPI was reorganized under P. C. Joshi and was made an ally of Indian National Congress for a ‘united front’ against the colonial government (Haithcox, 1971). Before independence, the CPI never become a prominent political party, but was prominent as an advocacy organization of peasants and workers.

As already mentioned Odisha lagged behind all Indian states so far as an organized communist movement was concerned. However, the leftist ideas found its germination in the minds of young students of Odisha. The students with radical ideas like, Prananath Pattnaik, Sarat Patnaik, Gurucharan Pattnaik etc., studied at famous Kasi Vidyapitha around 1934(Nanda, 2008), when colonial government had a strong objection to its very existence, where they utilized available platform to shape their mind. It was here that the students got inclined towards Marxist ideology and formed a group known as Young Communist League(Nanda, 2008). But the genesis and gradual development of the communist ideas in Orissa could only be attributed to the Navayuga Sahitya Sansad organised by the youth students of Revenshwa College under the leadership of Ananta charan pattnaik and Bhagabati Panigrahi(HPD, 1938). It must be noted that formative period of communist movement 2

The first such organization was the Labour-Swaraj party of the Indian National Congress by Muzzafar Ahmed, Qazi Nazrul Islam, Hemanta Kumar Sarakar and others in Bengal in November 1925. In late 1926, a Congress Labour Party was formed in Bombay and a Kirti Kishan Party in Punjab. All these parties cam e to be united under an umbrella organization named Workers’ and Peasants’ Parties in 1928 at Kanpur.

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in colonial Orissa was full of constraints and challenges due to government’s ban of Communist Party of India (CPI) in 1934. Late awakening of the so called communist in Odisha coupled with situational constraints lessened the intensity of its rapid growth and even made the movement somehow passive. But, our evidences shows that as early as 1935 Guru Charan Patnaik had became a secret member of the banned Communist party(Dwivedi, 1984). In 1936 Prananath Patnaik, Gurucharan Patnaik and Bhagabati Charan Panigrahi formed a Secret Communist Party in Odisha (Pradhan, 2007).

Of all those important developments in mid-nineteen thirties, the coming of a new and nation-wide awakening among the Indian peasants realizing their own strength and capacity to organize themselves for the betterment of their living conditions(Chandra, 1989) was the most important, as it was alien to the age old tradition of India.

This new awakening among this subaltern class was largely a result of, apart from the deep impact of Marxism, the combination of particular economic and political developments i.e., (a) The Depression which brought agricultural prices crashing down to half or less of their normal levels, dealt severe blow to impoverished peasants. (b) The refusal of Government to scale down the taxations (c) The stagnation of prices of manufactured goods(Chandra, 1989). (d) Inability of Indian National Congress to do more for peasants.

Formation of Congress Socialist Party under some veteran congress leaders of socialist Ideology in 1934 following the suspension of Civil Disobedience movement coupled with the opening of its branch organization in Odisha in the form of Utkal Provincial Shamyavadi Karmi Sangathana (UPSKS) in the same year paved the way for heightened upward mobilization of peasants. The socialist leaders in Odisha tried tooth and nail to organize peasants on their class interest along Marxist ideology as a part of national politics of Congress Socialist party of India. As a result of which Utkal Provincial Krushak Sangha ( UPKS ) came in to being in 1935, and it, subsequently, acted as a provincial branch of All India Kishan Sabha ( AIKS ) formed in 1936 under some of the noted peasants leaders of the time(Nanda, 2008; Dwivedy, 1984). Hereafter the peasants were organized, integrated and mobilized under AIKS and UPKS in Indian and Odishan level respectively. In every respect it is concluded that the Communists never had strong hold in Kishan Sabha movements before 1940s in India.

But Odisha was an exception to it to a great extent. Peasants were mobilized along class line under the banner of UPKS led by then Congress Socialists which had subsumed ‘the Communist’ within its party. As the so called communists remained within the Congress Socialist Party for a long time particularly up to 1939 when controversy arose as to membership in Kishan sabha in Odisha(Samaja, 1937), and tried hard to fetch a space for their activities. In fact the communists had been trying to indoctrinate the peasants in their ideology(Pradhan, 2007) while remaining in CSP. As pointed out by Ashish Mahapatra, while remaining a member of Congress Party and a legislator, Prananath Patnaik was openly implementing the mass program of Communist party in large areas of Khruda, Jatani, Chandaka, Bolgarh and Begunia, and the flag of Communist party was flaying along with those of Congress and Krushak Sangha(Mahapatra, 1988). The communist leaders like Prananath Patnaik, Gokul Mohan Rai Chudamani, Parashuram Padhiary, Gangadhar Mishra, Laxman Patnaik, Raghunath Patnaik, Gangadhar Paikray, Sadhu Charan Mohanti, Baikunthanath Subudhi, Niranjan Jagaddeba, Upendra Nath Das, Damodar Mishra, Purna Chandra Mahanti and others carried on movements for abolition of Sarbarakaki system, repeal of Khas Mahal law and tenancy Act (Pradhan, 2007). For mobilizing peasants along communist line, the leaders like Sachidananda Routray, Ananta Patnaik distributed many booklets like Raktashikha in villages of coastal Odisha (Pradhan, 2007). The communist led peasant movements not only aimed at redressing the peasant’s agrarian grievances but also overthrowing imperialism and capturing power by the peasants and labors. As early as 1938 an official report revealed that undisguised reference to a future mass no-tax campaign in conjunction with a possible general strike on railways and in key industries with a view to crippling the administration and ultimately drive away the Britishers out of India early, showed the penetration of communist ideology to the interiors of Orissa(Pradhan, 1996). The communist usually tired to meet the peasants challenges by inhibiting a rare militancy in them. Again the changing political circle in all Indian level made it easy for communists to participate in peasants’ cause successfully.

Following the famous Dutt-Bardley thesis of ‘united front’ of Communist Party of India with the mainstreamed Indian National Congress(Bairathi, 1987), the political atmosphere in India witnessed, after a long hibernation, a radical transformation. On the eve of the election scheduled to be held on 1937, the congress as well as other political parties tried to mobilize the masses and canvassed for votes, which, in turn, resulted in strong class mobilization along specific class ideologies. The peasants, of those classes, were far ahead as far as the question of mobilization and their struggle for class interest were concerned which could only be contextualized in that socio-political situation in India. The dominance of left ideologies and their proponents within congress circle and their avowed objectives to organize peasants and workers along their class ideologies, the coming of congress socialist parties within Indian national congress, the united front of communist party of India and Indian national congress, and above all the coming up of All Indian Kishan Sabha in 1936 electrified the whole atmosphere. It was the peasants which snatched the maximum benefits out of that situation which were manifested in the congress election manifesto and the subsequent victory of congress leaders of left ideologies in 1937 elections.

The year nineteen thirty six, from an all Indian as well as Odishan perspectives, bore special characteristics as far as the question of peasants’ mobilization was concerned. The members of UPSKS as well as UPKS held peasants

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conferences in Cuttack and Puri (HPD, 1935; Pati, 1982), and mobilized the peasants on different burning peasant issues. They too gave that movement a national character by bringing peasant leaders of all Indian repute to address those peasant conferences. Large scale peasant disturbances in coastal Orissa characterized that phenomenon. The newly indoctrinated communist leaders following the directions of CPI, too, endeavored to lead peasants’ movement in large scale. There were many instances to substantiate the fact that the communists in Odisha, despite remaining within the UPCC and UPSKS, led the peasant well and effectively, and one such big example was Odia peasants’ conference in Kolkata held towards the end of 1936 under the Communist leadership though the Socialists were actively involved in it. Before stepping towards analyzing Communist characters in Odia Krushak Sammilani in Kolkata, the situation demands to have a general overview as to the burning peasants’ issues of that period around which the communist mobilized the peasants.

III. Peasants’ Issues The peasant issues or demands that are potent enough to mobilize the peasantry into protest or revolt is always legitimate and rightful (Mukherjee, 2004). The analysis of the peasants’ demands to the colonial government in Odisha in different peasants’ conferences and meetings organized by UPCC and UPKS in time to time shows the following ‘Issues’ which mobilized the peasants.

First, the abolition of colonial imposed capitalistic farming system and its brain child ----Zamindary system. The abolition of Zamindary system as an agrarian institution side by side setting up of direct connection between the government and the rentee emerged as an eye-catching ‘Issue’ in the late nineteen thirties and early nineteen forties, which provided ample opportunity to the peasant leaders to mobilize peasant around this issue.

Secondly, exorbitant Government taxation, which had by that time emerged as one of the major issues around which peasant protests surfaced in many parts of India (Mukharjee, 2004). In Odisha, too, taxation on land or land rent assumed same attention in the peasants’ agenda during that period. In the temporary settled estates rent was increased by the zamindars quite disproposnately due to lack of security of tenure and fixity of the rent by the government. In the permanently settled area, due to absence of any regulation from the government the zamindars, too, used to collect more rents. Apart from it, the frequency in the rent hike abnormally aggravated the situation. Besides this, many peasants’ movements in Puri, Cuttack and Balasore districts planned and implemented the ‘no-revenue’ as well as ‘no-tax’ campaign during the Non Co-operation Movement and Civil Disobedience Movement periods (Pradhan, 2007).

Thirdly, Collection of the illegal dues or cess called abwabs by the zamindars besides the regulated rents had also been an important ‘Issue’. T.E. Ravenshwa, the Commissioner of Odisha, wrote to the Board of Revenue that there were few, if any, who do not, more or less in some form or other, levy cesses over and above the settlement rents, and in excess of the legitimate demands due on agreements with their tenantry (POGB, 1871). Those cesses were collected on jungle, fishing pond, grazing land and other means. Apart from that, forced labor (bethi, begari ) along with other illegal dues were forcefully collected and appropriated by Zamindars and his associates in large scale. So abolition of that system was also another important peasant issue of the time.

Fourthly, Zamindar’s frequent interference in the question of tenants’ occupancy rights over land they cultivated, the trees and ponds they had with their cultivated lands had also been an important ‘issue’ behind peasants’ discontentment in colonial Odisha during that time.

Fifthly, Remission or exemption of rents or debts had also been another important peasants’ issue around which peasants were mobilized in large scale. In other words widespread rural indebtness, a resultant side effect of the newly imposed capitalistic agrarian system deemed to have been an important challenge in the way of development of peasantry (Maddox, 1900). Sahukars; Mahajans, Sabarkars (money lenders of the rural areas of the time) exploited the raiyats in different ways by giving loans to those needy at exorbitant rent due to absence of institutional mechanism for that purpose. The growing indebtness were resulted in rampant transfer of lands to the hands of unproductive moneylenders leading to ‘Sub-infeudation’ and ‘absentee-landlordism’. As a proof of the existence of widespread indebtness in rural Odisha, the Bihar and Orissa Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee’s investigation report 1929-30 put the figure of indebtness of the 822,000 rural householders of coastal Odisha alone at 7 corers (Mishra, 2007). The gravity of this ‘Issue’ can be easily known provided we see the resolution of the first, second and third UPKS (Utkal Provincial Kishan Sabha) conferences. The pre-election Congress manifesto along with Kisan manifesto of 1936 in Odisha included this issue atop in the agenda. The peasants’ campaign in Khurda, Puri, Jajpur, and Cuttack against the growing rural indebtness in1930s and 1940s certainly proves the intensity of this issue.

Sixthly, many peasants’ disturbances in colonial Odisha occurred on the issue of abolition of “a chain of intermediaries” between the state and the actual rural cultivators. The gravity of the issue could well be assessed if one views the report published in the Nabeen newspaper which read as raiyats earnings like the course of a stream passed through the hands of the zamindars, the collectors and numerous other hands till it finds its way into the hands of the revenue secretary where it is lost to public view like the sacred Ganga concealed in the matted hairs of Shiva (Star of Utkal, 1912).The mere existence of so many intermediary interests in land below that of the zamindars viz., padhans, mukadammas, Tankidars, Sarbarakaras, Lakhraj bahaldars, kharidars etc.

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contributed to make the development of agriculture and the living standard of the agriculturists depending on it, further lop-sided……… to a deplorable state (Mishra, 2007). Therefore, abolition of intermediaries was , too, a burning issue of the time around which peasants could be well mobilized.

In nutshell, Issues like abolition of zamindari system as an agrarian institutions, abolition of rigidity in the process of tax collection un regulatedly, abolition of collection of illegal cesses, ending presences of a chain of intermediaries, controlling widespread rural indebtness, stopping outright transfer of cultivated lands to the unproductive hands, and protesting against government inability and indifferences towards impoverished mofussilies in times of flood, drought and famine were prominent. It may be concluded that there were numerous peasant issues to be used as means for large scale peasant mobilization and disturbances to fulfill class interests.

IV. The Communists and Odia Krushak Sammilani Against that background when peasants’ mobilization was at its hey-day following the formation of Odisha as a separate state, successfully holding of Puri peasants’ conference, and Jahwarlal Neheru’s visit to Odisha, another Krushak Sammilani ( peasants’ conference ) of Odia peasants was organized on 29 November 1936 at Elbert Hall in Calcutta (Naveen, 1936). This Samilani or Conference was attended by a galaxy of eminent Krushak Sangha, UPSKS and Communist leaders of Odisha like, Harekrushna Mahatab, Jagannath Das, Dwarikanatha Das, Bhagabati Charan Panigrahi, Surendranath Dwivedy, Gour Chandra Das, Anata Patnaik, Pari Shankar Roy, Rajkrushna Bose, and Nabakrushna Choudhury (Naveen, 1936). The noted Communist leaders of that conference included Bhagabati Charan Panigrahi, Gour Chandra Das, Anata Patnaik, Pari Shankar Roy and many more leaders of public stature. The Willington Square of Calcutta witnessed a mass peasant rally who shouted “Lal Jhanda Ki Joy”( generally, Red flag is the symbolic flag of the communists), “Majdur Kishan Ki Joy”, “Duniyaka Majdur Ek ho Jao”( slogans reflecting communist radical ideologies) while handling Red Flag with their hands.

Besides peasants of Odisha, thousands of peasants of Bengal from Beluta, Lilua Susuchi, Khijirpur, Shalimar etc. attended the conference.

A number of well known communist leaders from Bengal were specially invited to that conference i.e., Mujaffar Ahmed, the great communist leader of Bengal and was convicted in Meerut conspiracy case, Niharendu Datta Majumdar , the leader of Bengal workers party, Sri Fazul-ul ,member of Bengal provincial kishan committee, and many leaders of provincial trade union congress of Bengal -----Sudhir Pramanik, Devendrra Natha sen , Shyam Shundrar Huda, Srinath Pathak and Dayaram Bedi etc.,The conference, basing upon basic tenants of communism—‘equality’, was presided over by a group of presidents----Nabakrushna chaudhury, the chief president, Bhagabati Charana Panigrahi, Krupasindhu Khuntia and Narendra natha Majumdar. The aim and objectives of the conference could well be known from the Odia pamphlets circulated among the workers of different industries of Calcutta then, which bore the sign of three Communist leaders of Odisha--- Sarat Chandra Patnaik, Guru Charan Patnaik, and Aparti Charan Naik. That pamphlet clearly stated that the objective of the conference was to strengthen, invigorate and help in revolutionizing the fast developing peasant movement of Orissa by their active co-operation and generally to link up the working class movement in Calcutta and elsewhere the peasant movement at home (Nanda, 2008).

The Communist and Congress Socialist leaders mobilized the peasants differently on different issues. For examples, H. K. Mahatab tried to mobilize the half-slept peasant community with his heart touching speech which clearly defined the aims and objectives as well as the necessity of an organized peasant’s movement in India as well as in Odisha. The aim of the organized, H. K. Mahatab said, peasant movement in Odisha was to arouse the long oppressed peasant community and to inhibit in them all the qualification of being a human being. Nabakrushna Chaudhury with the capacity of the chief president of the conference, following the toes of H.K. Mahatab lamented upon the gradual destruction of a self sufficient village economy of India and how the poor raiyats had to bear the brunt of its resultant forces. Going a step ahead, Mr. Chaudhury explained the cyclical process of the rise and development of colonialism by citing nexus between population explosion and industrialization. Gradual disappearance of handicraft industries from rural areas and the process of deindustrialization had pauperised the raiyats dependent upon that. The communist leaders of Odisha as well as of Bengal utilized that platform to awake the poor raiyats of Odisha. Apart from discussions, speeches and interactions, the conference passed many proposals to address the burning peasant issues of the time. The content of those resolutions, as illustrated in following lines, clearly manifested the radical communist ideology and communist plan of action in regard to peasant cause.

Proposals and Resolutions of the Proceedings of the Conference: All the resolutions passed in that conferences were twenty in number and they had already been passed in the conference at Puri organised by UPKS in August, 1936 (Pati, 1992). The resolutions passed in that conferences reflecting communist ideologies were as follows (Naveen, 1936) 1. Demands related to Land revenue: The land revenue of the share-cropper peasants (Bhaga chhasies) should not be collected for the 1340,41,42,43 sana (the year1932, 33, 34, 35). Due to the losses of profit, the condition of the peasants had been precarious. So, one of the resolutions demanded that 50% of the land taxes should be waivered. As to the faulty land revenue assessments, the conference

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2.

3.

4.

5.

demanded that the taxes on income incurred on land should be imposed by taking a family of 5 members whose annual income should not exceed RS 250 as a single unit. Water tax should be reduced by 50%, and it was too demanded that immediate steps should be taken to provide water to far off lands by the government keeping in view the scarcity of water and non-availability of other alternative sources.

Demands related to rural indebtedness: In order to relieve the poor raiyats from indebtness, independent enquiry should be undertaken by the government and proper remedial measures should be undertaken instantly. Apart from it, the government should stop the implementation of the Laws which allowed authorities collecting arrears for 5 years, and till that date all the arrears should be cancelled.

Collecting more than 60% as interest (sudha) should be declared illegal. On the other hand the government should provide institutional mechanism for easy and timely credits to the farmers. The government should too ban the rampant use of compound interest. For the sake of the poor farmers non-institutional as well as non traditional sources of credit supply should be regulated with tough hand. The money lenders (mahajanas) should be registered and be given licence from the government to carry on their transactions.

Demands related to tenancy reform: In view of peasants interest , the leaders demanded, there should be a uniform Tenancy Legislation thorough out Odisha with following outstanding features (a) the raiyats and sikmi raiyats should have ownership on tilling land; (b) the raiyat should have complete independence of transferring ownership rights; (c) legal steps should be taken to prevent benami transfer ( unauthorized transfer )/sub-infeudation;(d) the raiyats should have full right and independence on fish and trees that belonged to their land;(e) they should have right to make bricks, construct concrete home, dig well independently and it should be independent of zamindars; (f) in order to make a barren land fertile, if the initiative was not taken by zamindars, the raiyats should not give any extra dues to zamindars and should be given patta( deed of occupancy) without any difficulties; (g) in case of default of land dues , zamindars instead of other belongings of the raiyats, should seize only those lands whose revenue had not been deposited;(h) there should be adequate provisions in regard to the auction and selling of land according to the court decree so that the poor raiyat must get right and adequate compensation(i) the zamindars should not be given the right to certify the same procedure directing that transaction;(j) raiyats could deposit their land revenue through money order. In case of non acceptance of money order by the zamindars, the same should be returned to the raiyats as soon as possible; (k) stringent policy should be made by the government as to forced labour and illegal dues so that the zamindars demanding those dues could be easily penalized, and (l) the raiyats should have full rights to use jungle and uncultivated government land in the way they liked.

Demand as to land revenue settlement: Due to numerous difficulties, the government should nullify the permanent land revenue settlement forth with.

Miscellaneous demands: Apart from above demands as to agrarian reforms, there were numerous other demands which were of non-agrarian nature made in that conference. They were as follows: i.

The peasants in general and tenant-at-will in particular should be guaranteed just and adequate wage by the government leading to easy life style. ii.

The poor children of raiyat should be provided elementary education free of cost. iii.

Adequate policies should be made on god land and charitable land so that the revenue coming from that should be spent on managing schools and charitable hospitals. iv.

Import taxes on some of the indispensable articles of the day today life -----kerosene, matches, sugar etc., ---should be lifted to facilitate easy peasant life. v.

Cheap post cards should be provided even at the cost of 1 paisa per copy. vi.

In permanent settlement areas, adequate places should be arranged for storing cow dung. vii.

Fish taxes collected in coastal areas of Orissa by zamindars should be lifted forever. viii.

Adequate government provisions should be made to prepare fallow lands cultivatable by the government and provisions should also be made to water supply to the lands. ix.

Enactments made to diffuse peasants and labour movements in Orissa should be banned as soon as possible, and; x.

The poor peasants should be enabled to keep arms and ammunition with themselves for self protection and self defence.

V. Conclusion Going against the propositions raised by Prof. Bipan Chandra on Indian Marxists as well as Indian Communists that the left parties in India had lacked theoretical as well as programmatic ideologies (Chandra, 1987) and their utter failure as an advocacy organization, this study has tried to prove the opposite to a great extent, and seldom can anybody deny this fact. Despite being a late comer to the political arena, the Communists in Odisha became successful in raising peasantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; questions as was done by Congress Socialists and Right wing elements in Utkal

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Provincial Congress party. Congress party composed of elite leaders, as it was usually dubbed, was forced by the Communists in Odisha as was in India to raise radical agrarian issues in its own party agenda as well as a policy of defending peasantry from further exploitation. The Communists in colonial Odisha also, in combination with the Congress Socialists, organized peasants along their class ideologies, helped integrating peasants’ issues with mass issues, and strengthened the organizational base of UPKS. The Communists too give an inter-regional/intranational configuration to the peasants’ struggle in Odisha by organizing a big peasant conference in Kolkata with the cooperation of noted Communist leaders of the then Bengal. It was those Communist leaders who raised newer agrarian questions and demanded its instant and effective solutions in an atmosphere where there was an intra-congress controversy as to independent existence of Krushak Sanghas. However, unlike the Bolsheviks, it neither lacked extreme radical notions, nor did it aim at establishing the dictatorships of the peasants, but it tried its best to procure maximum benefits for peasantry in a hegemonic colonial rule. In nutshell the Communists at its formative stage actively participated in peasants’ mobilization in post-Civil Disobedience movement period in Odisha, organized UPSKS as well as UPKS and provided a batch of dedicated leaders to peasants to bargain with Congress and to snatch their legitimate rights from the colonial governments.

VI.

References

Primary sources: Home Political Department (HPD), ‘’A Note on Youth Movement in Orissa up to 1.1.1938’’, Report by IG of Police, Orissa to Chief Secretary, 17 January 1938, Accession Number-893.

Home Political Department, Special Branch Report, File No.167 of 1935, 17 June 1935, Accession No-467.

Proceedings of the Lt. Governor of Bengal, Revenue Department (POLB), No.41,Commissioner of Orissa to Board of Revenue, No.218, 11 September, 1871.,p.237.

S.L. Maddox, Final Report on the Survey and Settlement of the province of Orissa (Temporary Settled arrears) 1890-1900, Vol.II, Calcutta, 1900, p.124 The Naveen, Berhampur, 8 December 1936 The Samaja, Cuttack, 28 February 1937 The Star of Utkal, Cuttack, 11 September 1912.

Secondary sources: Bairathi, Sashi (1987) Communism and Nationalism in India: A Study of Inter Relationship (1919-1947), Anamika Publishers, Delhi., P.146.

Chandra, Bipan (1989) et.al, Indian Struggle for Independence, penguin publishers, New Delhi., PP. 296-343.

----------------- (1987) Ideology and Politics in Modern India, Har-Anand publishers, New Delhi., PP.198-208.

Devadas, MB (2014) Globalization and Cakewalk of Communism—from Theory to ‘’Politricks’’ A critical Analysis of Indian Scenario, published in Int. J. Hum. Social Sci. Invention, 3 (5), 19 May. Dwivedi,B N. (1984) Mo Jivan Sangram (Odia), Cuttack., P.81.

Dwivedy, Surendranath (1984) Quest for Socialism; Fifty years of struggle in India, Radiant, New Delhi.,PP. 30-57.

Haithcox, John Patrick (1971), Communism and Nationalism in India, New Jersey., PP. 212-13.

Mishra, Amal Kumar (2007) The Raj, Nationalist and Reforms, Elite Publishers, Bhubaneswar., PP.194-196.

Mohapatra, Asish (1998) Mukti O Samatara Mahayoddha: Prananatha (Odia), Cuttack., P. 68.

Mukharjee, Mirdula(2004) Peasants in India’s Non-Violent Revolution: practice and theory, Sage Publishers, New Delhi, PP. 466-468 Nanda, Chandi Prasad (2008) Vocalizing Silence: Political Protests in Orissa (1930-42), Sage Publisher, New Delhi, PP. 64-68 Pati, Biswamoy (1992) Resisting domination……, Manohar Publishers, New Delhi., PP. 88-90 Pradhan, A. C (1996) A Study of History of Orissa, Bhubaneswar., PP. 344-45.

Pradhan, A.C (2007), Freedom Movement in Khurda, Orissa Review, Bhubaneswar, 8 August.

Paul Sweezy (1969) Selected Works of The Principle of Communism of Frederick Engels,(1), Progress Publishers, Moscow., PP. 81-97.

VII.

Acknowledgments

This Research Article is one of the segments of my Mphil Dissertation which i undertook under the guidance of Prof. Amal Kumar Mishra in Utkal University, so i am grateful to him for his sincere guidance. I am also greatful to Prof. Ashok Kumar Patnaik, Prof. Basant Kumar Mallik, Prof. Chandi Prasad Nanda, Prof. Jayanti Dora, Prof. Biswamoy pati whose masterly work on this area and Seminal Eassyes have widened my vision on this topic. I too owe my greatfulness to the Members of Odisha State Archaives, Bhubaneswar for their timely help.

Last but not the least, i am thankful to all of my class mates.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Examining the Effectiveness of different Media of Advertising: A Comparative Analysis in North India Dr. Rajesh Kumar Assistant Professor, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India Abstract: Advertising is mass media content intended to persuade audiences to take action on products, services and ideas. The idea behind advertising is to drive consumer behavior in a particular way in regard to a product, service or concept. Advances in communication technology have provided the advertisers a wide range of media options. Advertisers must be well-versed in choosing advertising media that will present the message to the targeted audience efficiently and effectively. Since, media research constitutes an important component of advertising effectiveness; the present study is aimed at analyzing the impact of different media. The study was conducted in select states/UT of north India. This study provides comparative analysis of different media of advertising on the basis of attractiveness, accessibility, message clarity and the influencing power. The results of the study reveled that TV is the most preferred medium of advertising followed by internet. This research has the implication for the advertisers as the study will help them to develop effective media strategies.

Keywords: advertising; media; effectiveness; attractiveness; credibility; influencing power I. Introduction The Advertising is an integral part of our social and economic system. In our complex society, advertising has evolved into a vital communication system for both consumers and businesses. The ability of advertising to deliver carefully prepared messages to target audiences has given it a major role in the marketing programs of most organizations. Companies ranging from large multinational corporations to small retailers increasingly rely on advertising to promote their products and services. In market-based economies, consumers have learned to rely on advertising and other forms of promotion for information they can use in making purchase decision.

Nearly everyone in this modern world is influenced to some degree by advertising and other forms of promotion. Organizations in both the public and private sectors have learned that the ability to communicate effectively and efficiently with their target audiences is critical to their success. We are experiencing perhaps the most dynamic and revolutionary changes of any era in the history of advertising and promotion. These changes are being driven by advances in technology and developments that have led to the rapid growth of communications through interactive media, particularly the internet. The increasing growth in advertising and media expenditures provides evidence of their rising significance. Since companies are investing huge expenditure on advertising, they are obviously interested in knowing the impact of advertising. That’s why companies are using various extensive research techniques to know the effectiveness of their advertisements.

(Belch and Belch, 2012).

Advertising strategy consists of two major elements: creating advertising messages and selecting advertising media. The media planner has to know the reach, frequency and impact of each of the major media types. The major media types are television, the internet, newspapers, direct mail, magazines, radio and outdoor.

Advertisers can also choose from a wide array of new digital media, such as cell phones and other digital devices, which reach consumers directly. Media planners consider many factors when making their media choices. They want to choose media that will effectively and efficiently present the advertising message to target customers. Thus, they must consider each medium’s impact, message effectiveness and cost. (Kotler, 2010) II. Review of Literature Banwari (1994) examined the perceptions of consumer towards TV advertising. The result of the study indicated that majority of the respondents had an unfavorable attitude towards the ads. Abhilasha (2000) studied that print advertisement performance is influenced by consumers’ attitude towards advertising in general. The findings revealed that the respondents with more favorable attitude towards advertisement recalled a higher no. of advertisements the day after exposure and were more persuaded by them. Wim & Patrick (2005) studied 17 characteristics of 100 Belgian radio commercials (amount of information & brand quotes,

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Dr. Rajesh Kumar, American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 10(1), March-May 2015, pp. 41-46

humor, emotionality, eroticism, music, action-impulse and so on), three types of radio spots were identified: image dominant and emotional/creative spots, information-dominant and non-emotional/non creative spots.

Cleopatra & Claire (2005) investigated the perception towards a non-traditional, outdoor, transit media that have not been researched previously, traditional black cabs. The study revealed that the medium is far from being unnoticed by the respondents, who accept it better than anticipated. Gerard & Chan (2005) conducted a survey of 150 interviewers in Hong Kong to know their perception of cinema advertisements. Results showed that cinema advertisements exposure and recall rates were significantly related to various demographic variables, especially gender and age. Renjith (2007) studied the unaided recall ability of customers watching television advertisements. The results of the study indicated that female audiences, teen-age audiences, audiences who watch television advertisements in the evening have high recall ability than others. Helen et al (2007) investigated the impact of seven characteristics of banner ads on the effectiveness of online advertising using a multiple regression model. The findings of this study are broadly consistent with past research into online advertising efficiency, indicating that the creative characteristics of effective banner ads in the online gaming arena include: a large size, absence of promotional incentives and the presence of information about casino games. Alain (2007) studied four major components of print advertisements: Pictures, logos, text & headline. Findings revealed that pictures and texts are the prevailing elements, while logo and headlines are of marginal importance. Kirti (2009) conducted a study on consumer beliefs and attitudes towards advertising media concluded that the imperative for marketers is to create advertisements that are believable and contain relevant information about the product. Dan & Horst (2010) demonstrated in their study that evolving media i.e. internet use pattern facilitates a new kind of TV advertising effect and this effect can be measured with a new metric - a measure of changes in Google search queries. Shintaro & Patrick (2011) explored that mobile advertising is a young, fast-growing part of marketing communication. Results have been mixed but suggest acceptance especially by younger consumers of well executed SMS based push advertisements. Cengiz et al (2011) examined the impact of source likability and source credibility on the effectiveness of print advertisements. Findings indicated that the sequence of relationships between source characteristics, attitudinal response and willingness to purchase may vary substantially across the four conditions characterized by high/low levels of processing motivation and product category knowledge. Peter et al (2011) found that the environment in which online advertisements are viewed has significant impact on consumer perception of the ad message and ultimately impacts the persuasive properties and efficacy of the ads. Pongiannan (2011) studied a new sales promotional strategy through measuring the viewer’s perception towards the different advertisements on TV media. It is observed from the study that TV is single most preferred media for advertisements by the respondents because of its creativity, reliability, understandability & flexibility. Vinita & Sanjeev (2012) studied the general opinion of respondents towards internet advertisements and found that internet advertisements are attractive and informative.

III. Objectives of the Study Keeping in mind the rationale behind the study, the following research objectives have been framed:  To know the most preferred medium for watching advertisements  To evaluate the effectiveness of different media of advertising on the basis of (a) Attractiveness (b) Accessibility (c) Message clarity (d) Credibility (e) Influencing power IV. Research Methodology Research Design: The study is descriptive in nature and is focused on the comparative analysis of effectiveness of different media of advertising. The advertising media used in the study are: television, radio, newspapers, magazines and internet.

Sampling: The study attempts to investigate the effectiveness of different media of advertising in the select states/UT of Northern region of India. At the first stage; 3 states; namely Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and one UT; namely Chandigarh were selected on the basis of simple random sampling. Then, a sample of 500 respondents (Age group 20-40 years) was selected from different cities of these states on the basis of convenience sampling. The sample was comprised of 330 male respondents and 170 female respondents.

Data Collection: The study is based on primary data. A well structural schedule of questions containing different aspects of the study was developed and circulated among the respondents. Certain information has been collected through personal observations.

Statistical tools: The mode was used to find the most preferred media by the respondents on the basis of ranks assigned to different advertising media by them. The mean and standard deviation were used to compare the results for different media. Further, ANOVA was used to check the significant difference among different media of advertising on the basis of attractiveness, accessibility, message clarity, credibility and influencing power.

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Dr. Rajesh Kumar, American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 10(1), March-May 2015, pp. 41-46

V. Analysis and Findings (1) Most preferred Media of Advertising In this part of the study, Respondents were asked to rank the different media (TV, radio, newspapers, magazines and internet) according to their preference. Further, respondents’ opinion towards the media preference has been comprehensively analyzed in order to know the most preferred medium of advertising.

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics for Most Preferred Media Media TV Radio Newspaper Magazines Internet

Rank 1

Rank 2

Rank 3

Rank 4

Rank 5

Total

293

114

70

22

1

500

58.6%

22.8%

14.0%

4.4%

.2%

100.0%

43

82

59

158

158

500

8.6%

16.4%

11.8%

31.6%

31.6%

100.0%

108

101

123

85

83

500

21.6%

20.2%

24.6%

17.0%

16.6%

100.0%

64

44

115

140

137

500

12.8%

8.8%

23.0%

28.0%

27.4%

100.0%

125

137

99

46

93

500

25.0%

27.4%

19.8%

9.2%

18.6%

100.0%

Mode 1 4 3 4 2

It is evident from the table 1 that TV was the most preferred medium of advertising with mode value 1, followed by internet with mode value2, followed by newspaper with mode value 3. Radio and magazines were found to be least preferred media of advertising with mode value 4.

(2) Effectiveness of different Media of Advertising In this part of the study, respondents were asked to express their opinion about the effectiveness of different media(TV, radio, newspapers, magazines and internet) on the basis of certain parameters i.e. attractiveness, accessibility, message clarity, credibility and influencing power. (a) Attractiveness of different Media of Advertising Respondents’ opinion about the attractiveness of different media of advertising has been analyzed and statistically verified.

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics for Attractiveness parameter Media

No. of Respondents

Mean

Std. Deviation

TV

500

3.6100

1.18351

Radio

500

3.0420

1.08563

Newspaper

500

3.4880

1.07339

Magazines

500

3.3240

1.11423

Internet

500

3.5800

1.07046

Total

2500

3.4088

1.12489

It is evident from table 2 that mean value is highest for TV i.e. 3.6100. It shows that TV is the most attractive medium for advertisements followed by internet, newspapers and magazines. Radio is found to be least attractive medium of advertisements.

Table 2.1: ANOVA for Attractiveness parameter Attractiveness

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Between Groups

108.898

4

27.225

22.246

.000**

Within Groups

3053.308

2495

1.224

Total

3162.206

2499

Austerely to verify the statistical significance of attractiveness of different media of advertising, ANOVA test was applied and following hypothesis was framed: Ho: There is no significant difference in the attractiveness of different media of advertising HA: There is significant difference in the attractiveness of different media of advertising The computed value of F is 22.246 which is highly significant i.e. 0.000 at 95% confidence level. This shows that null hypothesis is rejected and it can be concluded there is significant difference in the attractiveness of different media of advertising. (b) Accessibility of different Media of Advertising Respondents’ opinion about the accessibility of different media of advertising has been analyzed and statistically verified.

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Dr. Rajesh Kumar, American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 10(1), March-May 2015, pp. 41-46

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics for Accessibility parameter Media

No. of Respondents

Mean

Std. Deviation

TV

500

3.4740

1.16621

Radio

500

3.4340

1.19687

Newspaper

500

3.4520

1.21600

Magazines

500

3.2240

1.12977

Internet

500

3.4380

1.14402

Total

2500

3.4044

1.17363

It is evident from table 3 that mean value is highest for TV i.e. 3.4740. It shows that TV is the most accessible medium for advertisements followed by newspapers, internet and Radio. Magazines were found to be least accessible medium of advertisements.

Table 3.1: ANOVA for Accessibility parameter Accessibility

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Between Groups

20.830

4

5.207

3.797

.004**

Within Groups

3421.322

2495

1.371

Total

3442.152

2499

Austerely to verify the statistical significance of accessibility of different media of advertising, ANOVA test was applied and following hypothesis was framed: Ho: There is no significant difference in the accessibility of different media of advertising HA: There is significant difference in the accessibility of different media of advertising The computed value of F is 3.797 which is highly significant i.e. 0.004 at 95% confidence level. This shows that null hypothesis is rejected and it can be concluded that there is significant difference in the accessibility of different media of advertising. (c) Message Clarity of different Media of Advertising Respondents’ opinion about the message clarity of different media of advertising has been analyzed and statistically verified.

Table 4: Descriptive Statistics for Message Clarity Media

No. of Respondents

Mean

Std. Deviation

TV

500

3.6780

1.13882

Radio

500

3.2040

1.19886

Newspaper

500

3.5680

1.14717

Magazines

500

3.2960

1.11124

Internet

500

3.5680

1.14717

Total

2500

3.4260

1.17246

It is evident from table 4 that mean value is highest for TV i.e. 3.6780. It shows that TV is the most effective medium for advertisements in terms of message clarity followed by newspapers, internet and Radio. Magazines were found to be least effective medium of advertisements in terms of message clarity.

Table 4.1: ANOVA for Message Clarity parameter Message clarity

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Between Groups

75.808

4

18.952

14.075

.000**

Within Groups

3359.502

2495

1.346

Total

3435.310

2499

Austerely to verify the statistical significance of message clarity of different media of advertising, ANOVA test was applied and following hypothesis was framed: Ho: There is no significant difference in the message clarity of different media of advertising HA: There is significant difference in the message clarity of different media of advertising The computed value of F is 14.075 which is highly significant i.e. 0.000 at 95% confidence level. This shows that null hypothesis is rejected and it can be concluded that there is significant difference in the message clarity of different media of advertising. (d) Credibility of different Media of Advertising Respondents’ opinion about the credibility of different media of advertising has been analyzed and statistically verified.

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Table 5: Descriptive Statistics for Credibility parameter Media

No. of Respondents

Mean

Std. Deviation

TV

500

3.5700

1.12054

Radio

500

3.4980

1.25903

Newspaper

500

3.5440

1.11829

Magazines

500

3.1540

1.14582

Internet

500

3.3140

1.21258

Total

2500

3.4160

1.18233

It is evident from table 5 that mean value is highest for TV i.e. 3.5700. It shows that TV is the most credible medium for advertisements followed by newspapers, Radio and internet. Magazines were found to be least credible medium of advertisements.

Table 5.1: ANOVA for Credibility parameter Credibility

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

11.444

.000**

Between Groups

62.936

4

15.734

Within Groups

3430.424

2495

1.375

Total

3493.360

2499

Austerely to verify the statistical significance of credibility of different media of advertising, ANOVA test was applied and following hypothesis was framed: Ho: There is no significant difference in the credibility of different media of advertising HA: There is significant difference in the credibility of different media of advertising The computed value of F is 11.444 which is highly significant i.e. 0.000 at 95% confidence level. This shows that null hypothesis is rejected and it can be concluded that there is significant difference in the credibility of different media of advertising. (e) Influencing Power of different Media of Advertising Respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; opinion about the influencing power of different media of advertising has been analyzed and statistically verified.

Table 6: Descriptive Statistics for Influencing power parameter Media

No. of Respondents

Mean

Std. Deviation

TV

500

3.6940

1.12734

Radio

500

3.1760

1.25226

Newspaper

500

3.3900

1.12803

Magazines

500

3.3600

1.12647

Internet

500

3.6020

1.07606

Total

2500

3.4444

1.15734

It is evident from table 6 that mean value is highest for TV i.e. 3.6940. It shows that TV is the most influencing medium for advertisements followed by Internet, newspapers and magazines. Radio was found to be least influencing medium of advertisements.

Table 6.1: ANOVA for Influencing Power parameter Influencing power

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Between Groups

84.630

4

21.157

16.179

.000**

Within Groups

3262.642

2495

1.308

Total

3347.272

2499

Austerely to verify the statistical significance of influencing power of different media of advertising, ANOVA test was applied and following hypothesis was framed: Ho: There is no significant difference in the influencing power of different media of advertising HA: There is significant difference in the influencing power of different media of advertising The computed value of F is 16.179 which is highly significant i.e. 0.000 at 95% confidence level. This shows that null hypothesis is rejected and it can be concluded that there is significant difference in the influencing power of different media of advertising.

VI. Conclusion and Future Scope Since media plays a crucial role in advertising effectiveness, the present study was aimed at assessing the impact of different media of advertising. The importance of TV as advertising medium in creating consumer awareness cannot be denied even after the invasion of modern media of advertising like internet. TV is still the most preferred media to watch advertisements. Internet has shown its significant presence as it was found the second most preferred medium by the respondents. TV was found to be the most effective medium of advertising on the basis of attractiveness, accessibility, message clarity, credibility and influencing power. For future scope,

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outdoor media and some new unusual media of advertising like mobile advertising can also be researched in order to increase the scope of media research. In addition to this in-depth analysis of medium like intent could be made with special focus on the effectiveness of social media advertising.

VI. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

[15] [16]

[17]

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Belch George E, Belch Michael A, and Purani Keyoor (2012), “Advertising and Promotion”, 7 th Edition, Tata Mcgraw Hill Eduaction Private Limited, New Delhi, pp. 8.

Decrop Alain (2007), “The influence of Message Format on the effectiveness of Print Advertisements for Tourism Destinations”, International Journal of Advertising, vol. 26(4), pp. 505-525.

Dutta Kirti (2009), "Consumer Beliefs and Attitudes Towards Advertising Media", Indian Journal of Marketing, Vol. 36 (12), pp.

23-28.

Janssens Wim and Pelmacker Patrick De (2005), “The effectiveness of different types of Radio Commercials”, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 24(3), pp. 373-394.

Kotler Philip, Armstrong Gary, Agnihotri Prafulla Y, and Haque Ehsan ul (2010), “Principles of Marketing”, Pearson Education Private Limited, New Delhi, pp. 373.

Kumar Renjith R (2007), “An Evaluation of TV Advertisements of Masala Powder in Pollachi", Indian Journal of Marketing, Vol. 37(4), pp. 13-19.

Mehta Abhilasha (2000), “Advertising Attitudes and Advertising Effectiveness”, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 40 (3), pp. 67-72.

Mittal Banwari (1994), "Public Assessment of TV Advertising-Faint Praise and Harsh Criticism", Journal of Advertising Research, pp. 35-53.

Okazaki Shintaro and Barwise Patrick (2011), “Has the time finally come for the medium of the future? Research on Mobile Advertising”, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 51(1), pp. 59-71.

Pongiannan K. (2011), “Viewers’ perception towards advertisements on TV media as a promotional strategy in the current Marketing scenario”, Indian Journal of Advertising, Vol. 41(4), pp. 39-45.

Prenderfast Gerard and Wah Chan Lai (2005), “The effectiveness of Cinema Advertisements in Hong Kong”, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 24(1), pp. 79-93.

Robinson Helen., Wysocka Anna, and Hand Chris (2007), “Internet Advertising effectiveness”, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 26 (4), pp. 527-541.

Srivastava Vinita and Mishra Sanjeev Kumar (2012), “A study on the effectiveness of Internet Advertisements”, Indian Journal of Advertising, Vol. 42(6), pp. 37-46.

Steyn Peter, Ewing Michael T., Heerden Gene Van., Pitt Leyland F., and Windisch Lydia (2011), “From whence it came: Understanding Source effects in Consumer-generated Advertising”, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 30 (1), pp. 133160.

Veloutsou Cleopatra and O’Donnell Claire (2005), “Exploring the effectiveness of Taxis as an Advertising medium”, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 24(2), pp. 217-239.

Yilmav Cengiz, Telci E Eger, Bodur Muzaffer, and Iscioglue Tutku Eker (2011), “Source characteristics and Advertising Effectiveness: The roles of Message Processing Motivation and Product Category Knowledge”, International Journal of Advertising, 2011, Vol. 30 (5), pp. 889.

Zigmond Dan and Stipp Horst (2010), “Assessing a new Advertising effect: Measurement of impact of TV commercials on Internet search queries”, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 50 (2), pp. 162.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

A Theoretical approach on the moderating effect of competitive positioning on consumer reactions to Corporate Social Responsibility *Preetha.R, Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce and Management, Amrita School of Arts and Sciences, Kochi, Kerala, INDIA **Gopika.G, Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce and Management, Amrita School of Arts and Sciences, Kochi, Kerala, INDIA Abstract: In the changing global scenario, consumers are cautious, inter- connected, and empowered by the information revolution. The predominant environmental and societal issues such as pollution, over depletion of natural resources and endangered sustainability, man-made diseases, and global poverty are the major threats posed by the nations worldwide. In this background, corporate for the maximization of stakeholder’s wealth and to withstand the market competition is incorporating Corporate Social Responsibility to the bloodline of the organization. Nowadays Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is the path that paramount companies strategize in their business for deep-rooted benefits. This paper is merely a theoretical approach focusing on two aspects; (a) what corporate social responsibility means and (b) what are its direct and indirect effects on consumer attitudes and behaviors.

Keywords: Stakeholder’s wealth, Corporate Social Responsibility, endangered sustainability I. Introduction Corporate social responsibility is an integral part of the marketing arsenal to open doors to the governmentorganized mass media, to public administrators and even to the hearts and minds of the consumers globally. In today's business environment, concerns related to social responsibility and sustainability are soaring popularity, especially in the commercial arena. Business mission and vision are indissoluble from the micro and macro variables within which they function. Recent studies proved that CSR is the only apparatus that ensures the long-term sustainability of the business enterprises.

Over a period of time, consumers are observing a remarkable growth on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).

Now CSR flourishes more sturdily across many segments signifying that modern conglomerates realize the necessity to provide to their business a more holistic sagacity. The focus of this paper is to concentrate on the effect of CSR initiatives on consumer behavior.

II. Objective of the Study This paper throws light into the key areas of CSR, which projects the impact of the CSR initiatives on consumer’s perception. More specifically, the study is streamlined to envisage a probable answer to the problem as to “Whether a consumer obtains any superfluous benefit in the procurement of a product or availing a service from a firm that capitalize in CSR?” The perseverance of this paper is to gather facts from the end user about their acquaintance of Business practices and to discover how much their outlooks are influenced.

III. Conceptual Framework Conventionally marketing managers have conceptualized marketing performance in terms of sales, profit, market share goals in relation to a particular product or service within a stipulated time. Nevertheless, a stakeholder outlook is increasingly gaining opinion, and companies are forced to exhibit good corporate citizenship in each country in which they operate (Pinkston & Carroll, 1994), both in marketing and general managerial terms. Public discourse indicates that companies today are more than ever supposed to fulfill their economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary obligations not only in relation to their shareholders but increasingly also towards employees, customers, other stakeholders, and the community at large (Sen. &Bhattacharya, 2001).

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has thus become a popular concept with practitioners as well as academics (Brown & Dacin, 1997; Handelman & Arnold, 1999).

Kolter (2011), in his article “Reinventing Marketing to Manage the Environmental Imperative,” concluded that, “increasing numbers of people will prefer to buy from companies that care. Companies will need to add an environmental dimension to their profile. They do not want to appear indifferent to larger economic, social, and political concerns. Word of mouth is becoming a growing force in shaping consumer decisions. Consumers can

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be e-mailing, blogging, and tweeting to their friends and acquaintances good things or bad things about a company. Companies are increasingly swimming in a highly transparent fishbowl.”

.

Source: Carroll, A. B. (1991), "The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility: Toward the Moral Management of Organizational Stakeholders" CSR as Paraphernalia: Undeviating and incidental stimulus on Consumer’s Attitudes and Behavior Prior studies examined to explore what the consumer’s attitude was towards corporations that devote in CSR. Brown and Dacin (1997) in their survey found out that CSR has a positive impact on consumer’s perception for the company’s products as well as brand image. It has been revealed by the researchers that a product marketed by the companies capitalizing in CSR has more market and the buyers are inclined to such products.

(Bhattacharya and Sen, 2004). Sen and Bhattacharya (2001) are of the opinion that CSR’s impact on buying behavior is significant as the consumer’s support to social causes is countless in which the company participates.

Clandestine studies approved this, indicating the prominence of consumers’ valuation regarding societal activities maintained by organizations (Mohr and Webb, 2005; Auger et al., 2003). The attitude of the customer in relation to the CSR initiatives and the pricing criteria is undoubtedly a reason of concern; i.e. the consumers are eager to pay a higher value for products of companies endorsing CSR events.

The CSR strategies would implicate sustaining purchasers’ desires allied to product’s physiognomies, and eventually, reap the benefits of investment; Furthermore conception of a healthier society. It can be proposed that the moderating effect of competitive positioning on consumer reactions to Corporate Social Responsibility can be generalized through a theoretical model of observed assessment. The following table shows the contribution of the top Indian corporates towards CSR along with their profits before tax.

IV.

Source: archive.financialexpress.com

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V. Conclusion It can be concluded that several studies have emphasized on the ethical facet of CSR and consumer behavior affirming that the buyers are willing to pay a higher price for those companies endorsing CSR initiatives as a part of the branding activity. Even though critical studies have been conducted in this arena which has only focused on the humanitarian aspect, this paper gives a brief outline as to the direct and indirect effect of the consumes’ perception for buying the products of companies initiating in CSR strategies as a part of their legitimate framework. Hence, the contemporary work shows that CSR is a key instigator for the companies for retaining and regaining customers through enhanced brand image.

References [1].

[2].

[3].

[4].

[5].

[6].

[7].

[8].

[9].

Auger, P., Burke, P., Devinney, T. and Louviere, J. (2003), ‘‘What will consumers pay for social product features?’’, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 42, pp. 281-304.

Bhattacharya, C. and Sen, S. (2004), ‘‘Doing better at doing good: when, why, and how consumers respond to corporate social initiatives’’, California Management Review, Vol. 47 No. 1, pp. 9-24.

Brown, T. and Dancin, P. (1997), ‘‘The company and the product: corporate associations and consumer product responses’’, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 61, pp. 68-84.

Carroll, A. (1999), ‘‘Corporate social responsibility: evolution of a definitional construct’’, Business and Society, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 268-95.

J. Handelman, S. Arnold , “The role of marketing actions with a social dimension: Appeals to the institutional environment”, Journal of Marketing, 63 (3) (1999), pp. 33–48 Mohr, L. and Webb, D. (2005), ‘‘The effects of corporate social responsibility and price on consumer responses’’, The Journal of Consumer Affairs, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 121-47.

Pinkston, T. S. & Carroll, A. B. (1996). A Retrospective Examination of CSR Orientations: Have They Changed? Journal of Business Ethics, 15[2], p. 199-206.

Sen, S. and Bhattacharya, C. (2001), ‘‘Does doing good always lead to doing better? Consumer reactions to corporate social responsibility’’, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 38, pp. 225-43 Philip Kotler (2011) Reinventing Marketing to Manage the Environmental Imperative. Journal of Marketing: July 2011, Vol. 75, No. 4, pp. 132-135.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

A cross-sectional study on behaviour and social aspects of deaf and dumb children in Ahmedabad 1

Dr. Krunal G. Varia1, Dr. Niti J. Talsania2 Assistant Professor, Dept. of Community Medicine, Pacific Medical College and Hospital, Udaipur, Rajasthan, INDIA. 2 Professor, Dept. of Community Medicine, B.J. Medical College, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, INDIA.

Abstract: Introduction: Deaf people were considered mentally and educationally deficient due to their inability to hear and speak. The social development depends on communication. That’s why deaf and dumb children frequently face some behaviour and social problems in their life.

Methodology: It was an institution based cross-sectional study covering 687 children from 3 deaf and dumb institutes in Ahmedabad. Pre-design proforma was used to collect information on their demographic profile, causes of deafness, social perceptions and behaviour problems. Data was analysed in Epi-info 7.

Results: Out of Total 687 deaf and dumb children there were 415 (60.41%) boys and 272 (39.59%) girls.

Most of the children 412 (59.97%) suffers from deafness due to genetic causes. 153 (22.27%) children were depressed while 306 (44.54%) children had aggressive nature. 68 (9.89%) children had geographical restriction imposed by their parents.

Conclusion: Most of deaf and dumb children have aggressive nature. They need more social support and warmth at home and at institute by parents, faculties as well as from community.

Key words: Deaf and dumb children, causes of deafness, Behaviour problems, Social perceptions.

I. Introduction Deafness is one of the disabilities seen in all age group. Deafness in younger age group is an emerging health problem in our country. There are 32 million (9%) children in the world with disabling hearing loss.[1] Prevalence of deaf and mute children in India is 10.8 and 6.8 in rural and urban areas respectively. [2] Many researches were done on deaf-dumb children about their physical health, causes of deafness, cochlear implantation, degree of hearing loss, etc. But about their social life, behavioural changes, communication problems, very few researches were conducted. These are the untouched problems faced by deaf-dumb children.

Permanent childhood hearing impairment can have a devastating impact on communication skills, educational attainment and quality of life, with a high cost to society. Education of parents has also significant effect on development of the deaf children. Social problems were seen in the children with low education level of parents.

Deaf children are more vulnerable to mental health problems than hearing children. The prevalence of mental health problems in community samples of deaf children is approximately 40%.[3] So, present study is conducted to collect baseline information related to their social and behaviour problems.   

II. Objectives To know the demographic background of the deaf and dumb children.

To know the etiology of deafness in deaf and dumb children.

To assess various behaviour and social problems in deaf-dumb children.

III. Methodology This Institution based Cross – Sectional epidemiological study was carried out during the period September 2012 to August 2013 at 3 deaf and dumb institutes in Ahmedabad. All available students were selected as study subjects during visit period from these three deaf and dumb institutes. Thus total 687 children formed the sample size for this study. No Ethical issues were raised from this study as the whole study was carried out using the pre-designed standard questionnaire regarding their demographic details, causes of hearing loss, social relationship, behaviour problems, etc. Data entry was done in Microsoft Office Excel Database. Data were validated and analysed on Epi info software version 7.

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IV. Results Table 1: Age and Sex wise distribution of deaf and dumb children [n = 687]: Age (years) 5-9 10-14 >14 Total

Boys (%) 138 (33.25) 224 (53.97) 53 (12.78) 415 (100.00)

Girls (%) 82 (30.14) 165 (60.66) 25 (09.20) 272 (100.00)

Total (%) 220 (32.02) 389 (56.62) 78 (11.36) 687 (100.00)

X2 = 1.44, df = 2, p > 0.05 Table-1 Shows, that out of Total 687 deaf and dumb children were studied; there were 415 (60.41%) boys and 272 (39.59%) girls. Majority of the children 389 (56.62%) were in the age group of 10 to 14 years. Boys: Girls ratio is1.53:1 in the present study. Mean age was 11.10 + 2.45 years.

Table 2: Demographic profile of the deaf and dumb children: Demographic Profile Religion Hindu Muslim Others Total Cast Open SEBC SC/ST Total Education Primary Secondary Total Family type Joint Nuclear Total SE class SE Class 1 SE Class 2 SE Class 3 SE Class 4 SE Class 5 Total No. Of siblings 0 1-2 >2 Total

Frequency

Percentage

342 210 135 687

49.78 30.57 19.65 100.00

296 235 156 687

43.08 34.20 22.72 100.00

617 70 687

89.81 10.19 100.00

412 275 687

59.97 40.03 100.00

58 100 241 214 74 687

8.44 14.56 35.08 31.14 10.78 100.00

210 256 221 687

30.56 37.26 32.16 100.00

Table 2 shows demographic profile of the children. Among all children 342 (49.78%) were Hindu, 210 (30.57%) were Muslim and 135 (19.65%) were from other religions. 296 (43.08%) were in open category while 156 (22.72%) children were in SC/ST category. 617 (89.81) children were having primary education while 70 (10.19) were having secondary education. 412 (59.97%) children were coming from joint family and 275 (40.03%) were from nuclear family. Majority children were from socio economical class 3. 159 (38.08%) boys were from class 3 while 114 (41.91%) girls were from class 4. 256 (37.26%) children were having 1 or 2 siblings and 221 (32.16%) were having more than 2 siblings.

Figure 1: Distribution of causes of deafness in urban area [n = 403]:

2%

3% 2% 8%

Urban Area Genetic Infection Malnutrition

22% 63%

Trauma Drug induced Unknown

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Figure 1 shows that 63% children had hearing loss due to genetic defects, 22% children had hearing loss due to infections, 8% had hearing loss due to trauma during or after delivery.

Figure 2: Distribution of causes of deafness in rural area [n = 284]: Rural Area 1% 5% Genetic 4%

9%

Infection Malnutrition Trauma

56%

25%

Drug induced Unknown

Figure 2 shows that 56% children had hearing loss due to genetic defects, 25% children had hearing loss due to infections, 9% had hearing loss due to trauma during or after delivery while 5% had deafness due to unknown reasons.

Table 3: Sex wise distribution of emotional reactivity among children [n = 687]: Emotional reactivity Anxious Depressed Aggressive Dull Total

Boys (%) 68 (16.38) 81 (19.51) 204 (49.15) 62 (14.93) 415 (100.00)

Girls (%) 46 (16.91) 72 (26.47) 102 (37.50) 52 (19.11) 272 (100.00)

Total (%) 114 (16.59) 153 (22.27) 306 (44.54) 114 (16.59) 687 (100.00)

X2 = 10.33, df = 3, p < 0.05 Table 3 shows sex wise distribution of emotional reactivity among children. 114 (16.59%) children were anxious in nature, 153 (22.27%) children were depressed, 306 (44.54%) children had aggressive nature and 114 (16.59%) children were dull. The difference between boys and girls regarding to their emotional reactivity was found statistically significant.

Table 4: Social perception at home: Social perception Relation with family members Interaction with siblings Acceptance and concern by parents Any geographical restriction by parents or self

Boys (n=415) Good 369 (88.91) 273 (65.78) Yes 312 (75.18) 32 (7.71)

Bad 46 (11.09) 37 (8.92) No 103 (24.82) 383 (92.29)

Girls (n=272) Good 242 (88.97) 143 (52.57) Yes 198 (72.79) 26 (9.55)

Bad 30 (11.03) 24 (8.82) No 74 (27.20) 246 (90.44)

Note: Figures in parenthesis shows percentage.

Table 4 shows relation of deaf and dumb children at home. 369 (88.91%) boys had good relation among family members. Relation with siblings was good among 273 (65.78%) boys. 32 (7.71%) boys had geographical restriction imposed by their parents. 242 (88.97%) girls had good relation among family members. 143 (52.57%) girls had good relation with their siblings. 26 (9.55%) girls had geographical restriction imposed by their parents.

Table 5: Social perception at institute: At institute Relation with faculty members Relation with deaf-dumb children in institute Fear of going to institute Difference in mood/behaviour at home and institute

Boys (n=415) Good 372 (89.63) 366 (88.19)

Bad 43 (10.37) 49 (11.81)

Girls (n=272) Good 245 (90.07) 248 (91.17)

Bad 27 (9.92) 24 (8.82)

Yes 89 (21.44) 123 (29.63)

No 326 (78.56) 292 (70.37)

Yes 66 (24.26) 78 (28.67)

No 206 (75.74) 194 (71.33)

Note: Figures in parenthesis shows percentage.

Table 5 depicts that 372 (89.63%) boys had good relation with faculty members, 366 (88.19%) boys had good relation with other deaf and dumb children in institute. 89 (21.44%) boys had fear of going to institute. 123 (29.63%) boys had difference in mood at home and institute. Similarly 245 (90.07%) girls had good relation with faculty members, 248 (91.17%) girls had good relation with other children. 66 (24.26%) girls had fear of going to institute. 78 (28.67%) girls had difference in mood at home and institute.

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Table 6: Distribution of children regarding the extent of social adjustment: Extent of social adjustment Developing friendship with normal children Liking to attend functions Uneasiness and shyness in meeting strangers

Boys (n=415) 88 (21.20) 149 (35.90) 288 (69.40)

Girls (n=272) 65 (23.90) 75 (27.57) 176 (64.70)

Total (N=687) 153 (22.27) 224 (32.60) 464 (67.54)

Note: Figures in parenthesis shows percentage.

X2 = 3.19, df = 2, p > 0.05 Table 6 shows that total 153 (22.27%) children were good at developing friendship with normal children. 224 (32.60%) children were attending social functions. 464 (67.54%) children were feeling uneasiness and shyness in meeting strangers.

V. Discussion & Conclusion Deaf and dumb children have difficulties with the expression and understanding of emotions. That’s why in deaf and dumb children we can see relatively large amount of distrust, stubbornness and other behaviour problems.

In this study there were 49.78% Hindus and 30.57% Muslims where as in Bittles et al [4] there were 32.30% Hindus and 17.71% Muslims in Punjab. Religion has not much influence on deafness. There were no studies found that correlate religion with the deafness. 31.14% children were from socio economic class 4 and 10.78% children were from socio economic class 5, while in Lasisi et al[5] 69% children were from low socioeconomic class. Children from lower socio economic class have higher prevalence of ear infections due to lack of hygiene and prevalence of under nutrition is also higher among them.

Present study shows 59.97% children had hearing loss due to genetic causes while Alexandra et al [6] found only 26% children with hearing loss due to genetic cause which is much lower than the present study. 69.84% children had hearing loss due to genetic causes in Feinmesser et al[7] and 55% in Kankkunem et al[8] which favors the findings of the present study.

In present study 44.54% children were aggressive in nature whereas study by Backett et al [9] shows16.95% children had aggressive behaviour and Tesfay et al[10] found 16.67% children with aggressive behaviour which were lower than the present study. Eldik et al[11] shows 19% among deaf children had aggressive nature which is again very less than the present study. In this study 11.06% children facing problems in their relation in family while Backett et al[9] shows 72.88% children had problems in their relation in family which is much higher. 21% children had social problems according to study conducted by Eldik et al [11] while in present study 11.06% children had social problems. 11.81% children had withdrawn themselves and were not mixing with other people. Similar finding (11%) was seen by Eldik et al[11] in their study conducted in Netherland. The difference between findings of the various study related to social problem might be due to overall difference in cultural settings of European countries and India. In order to overcome the social challenges as well as to enhance the opportunities of the deaf children, the intervention would require an extensive input in the home, child, school, and the local community.

References [1].

[2].

[3].

[4].

[5].

[6].

[7].

[8].

[9].

[10].

[11].

WHO global estimates on prevalence of hearing loss. Mortality and Burden of Diseases and Prevention of Blindness and Deafness WHO, 2012 Jamie B. Deaf Community – India Rapidly Developing Deaf Community. http://deafness.about.com/od/internationaldeaf/a/indiadeaf.htm (accessed on 12 March 2013).

Hindley P, Kitson N, Child and adolescent psychiatry, Mental health and deafness. London: Whurr’s; 2000: 75–98.

A. H. Bittles, S. G. Sullivan, L. A. Zhivotovsky. Consanguinity, Caste And Deaf-Mutism In Punjab, J. Biosoc. Sci; 2004; 36: 221– 234.

Lasisi, Sulaiman, Olayinka A.; Afolabi, Olushola. Socio-economic status and hearing loss in chronic suppurative otitis media in Nigeria. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics: International Child Health: 2007; 27(4); 291-296.

Alexandra Q, David B, Ivette C, Carolyn S, Mary G, Melissa B. Parenting Stress among Parents of Deaf and Hearing Children: Associations with Language Delays and Behavior Problems. NIH Public Access, Parent Sci Pract. 2010 April 1; 10(2): 136–155.

Moshe Feinmesser, Lilly Tell, Haya Levi. Consanguinity among parents of hearing-impaired children in relation to ethnic group in the Jewish population; Jerusalem; 1989; 28:268-271.

Kankkumen A. Preschool children with impaired hearing in Goteborg. Acta Otolaryngol 1982; 1: 391.

E. Maurice Backett And A. Elizabeth Brown. Some Social Aspects Of The Medical Care Of Deaf Mutes Brit. J. Prev. Soc. Med. ; 1956; 10: 92-97.

Tesfay Woldu Berhie. Social Opportunities And Challenges Of The Deaf: A Case Study Of The Adigrat School For The Deaf In Eastern Zone Of Tigray, Ethiopia; 2002: 45-150.

Theo Van Eldik, Philip D. A. Treffers, Jan W. Veerman And Frank C. Verhulst. Mental Health Problems of Deaf Dutch Children As Indicated By Parents’ Responses To The Child Behavior Checklist. American Annals of The Deaf; 2004; 148(5): 390-395.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Word Structure in Gondi

Thota Venkata Swamy Assistant Editor, Centre for Publications, Dravidian University, Kuppam – 517 426, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA I. Introduction In terms of numerical strength Gonds are a very dominant tribe of central India. Their habitation includes five different states, namely, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chattisgarh, Odisha and Telangana. The Gond population according 2011 census in these states is as follows: (i) Andhra Pradesh - 1,44,259 (Now Telangana) (ii) Chhatisgarh - 8,06,254; (iii) Madhya Pradesh - 6,75,011; (iv) Maharastra - 4,41,203 and (v) Odisha - 51,948.

The total Gond population is 21,24,852. Out of the total population of India 0.25% is the Gond population.

8,99,567 Gonds are bilinguals knowing two languages (42.34%) and 1,34,156 Gonds are trilinguals knowing three languages (6.31%).

As they are spread in a vast area, they have heterogeneously stratified society. They exhibit a cultural variation which is from most primitive to the advanced states. The northern region of Gond habitat shows varying degrees of acculturation whereas the southern region is comparatively less exposed to the external influences. The Gond society consists elements of both the southern and northern social system including kinship norms.

II. Derivational Word Structure of Gondi The derivational word structure depends on the abstract system of definitions such as: (a) The word form is a root plus one or more inflectional affixes, (i) A root (ii) A root plus a derivational affix (iii) A root plus another root (iv) A word plus a derivational affix (v) A word plus another word.

According to Motsch (1988) if I assume that inflectional affixes, derivational affixes and roots are separate categories of word structure, then inflectional morphology, derivational morphology, and compounding may be considered as different branches of morphology, dealing respectively with three separate types of systematic relations between words and inflectional affixes, between bases and derivational affixes, and between words within a word. But there are several problems with this distinction. Lieber (1980) argues that both inflectional word structure and derivational word structure require the same sort of formal processes.

The literature available on morphology makes it clear that from a grammatical point of view derivatives are considered to be the products of rules. A word structure rule tells that the set of words on which it can operate.

This set is known as the “base” of that rule. Every word structure rule gives, furthermore, a unique phonological operation performed on the base, which usually consists of the attachment of an affix. A word structure rule, therefore, is a mechanism, which takes a base as its input and gives an output. The rule has to account for all the differences between input and output. The status of word structure rule is somewhat different from the status of other rules of the grammar in the sense that they can be considered ‘once only the rules’. This means speakers do not apply a word structure rule every time they use a complex word; instead once a new complex word is found it is stored in the lexicon. In Aronoff’s (1976) terms word structure rules have two functions: they not only account for ‘new’ words but they also account for the internal structure of already existing words. From this it is evident that word structure rules are structure building rules. This means that at every step they add structure.

The formal description of derivational processes has to give the following sorts of information: (i) Phonological form of the affix (ii) Syntactic category and sub-category frame of the derivative (iii) Restrictions defining the class of bases available to the affix (iv) Diacritical features of the derivative (v) Semantic form of the derivative.

As (ii) and (v) show significant relations to the same so of information in the representation of the corresponding bases it is necessary to analyse in detail the systematic aspects of argument inheritance or the rebuilding of argument structures in derived words, as well as types of semantic amalgamation. The traditional linguistic approaches to derivational words postulated a separate component dealing with word structure.

An attempt is made in this paper to study the word formation through derivational process in Gondi. In Gondi, new words are formed by adding the derivational suffixes to nouns, adjectives, or verbs. The paper tries to describe the derivational processes and the productivity within the framework of Aronoff (1976:37).

Aronoff (1976) proposes “to reduce the issue of productivity to that of compositionality. Any word where properties can be exhaustively predicted from the properties of existing words together with the set of word

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formation rules is implicitly possible, on this view and its existence need not be further stipulated. In so far as the word formation rule is systematically incomplete, though, or the word has some idiosyncrasy of form, meaning, or syntax, it must be explicitly given in the lexicon. The mere idiosyncratic a given formation is, the less information can be extracted in the formulation of a rule for it, and hence the less productive it will be ..."

(Quoted in Anderson 1992). With this background in view, I propose to look at certain aspects of word structure in Gondi. The following are the derivational suffixes in Gondi: III. Nominals Derived from Verbs x] - mä®]n

(Lexical item mä® is preceded x which represents several items of that category in their combination they provide intended)

Gerundival nominals are formed through a process of word structure rule. The rule applies to almost all verbs without any exception. This is the most productive process of word structure rule in Gondi. The gerunds so formed indicate the meaning of action indicated by the verb stem.

Verb

a†† sëy nësk üΔ kars

Meaning ‘to cook’ ‘to sweep’ ‘to breath’ ‘to swing’ ‘to play’

suffix

gerund     

-mä® -mä® -mä® -mä® -mä®

a†† mä® sëymä® nëskmä® üΔ mä® karsmä®

meaning ‘cooking’ ‘sweeping’ ‘breathing’ ‘swinging’ ‘playing’

x]V(t) - väl.

Another very productive process of word structure rule is that of affixing -väl to a transitive verb. The X]V(t) has the shape of (C)VCC type. The nominal so derived has not only the meaning denoting the action of the verb stem but also the one performing the action.

Verb

vär tin ënd un a††

meaning ‘to sing’ ‘to eat’ ‘to dance’ ‘to drink’ ‘to cook’

suffix

gerund     

-väl -väl -väl -väl -väl

värväl tinväl ëndväl unväl a†† väl

meaning ‘singer (one who sings)’ ‘eater (one who eats)’ ‘dancer (one who dances)’ ‘drinker (one who drinks)’ ‘cook (one who cooks)’

X]V(t)-näl This word structure rule is constrained by certain constituent structure conditioning rule in that the nominalising suffix (-näl) is added to the verb to form the gerund provided this suffix is further followed by the postposition (-vëri).

Verb

meaning

Nominaliser

Post position

meaning

so

‘to go’

-näl

vëri  sonnäl vëri

‘until (one)goes’

vä

‘to come’

-näl

vëri  vänäl vëri

‘until (one) comes’

veh

‘to tell’

-näl

vëri  vehnäl vëri

‘until (one) tells’

Nominal Derived from Adjective X]Adj –yäl]n X] The endings in [-i] are de-adjectivalised by the -yäl rule whereas the other take the -äl.

Adjective

meaning ‘yellow’ ‘white’ ‘black’

kamka dhävra käri

Suffix

Noun  

-äl -äl -äl



kamkäl dhävräl käryäl

meaning ‘yellowness’ ‘whiteness’ ‘blackness’

Adjectives Derived from Nouns X]N –mën]Adj This rule acts as a denominaliser and forms adjectives. These are quantifiers. There are more than twenty such adjectives derived from nouns.

Noun meaning Suffix Adjective meaning

burri

‘pot’

-mën



burrimën

‘potful’ (Te.kun∂e∂u)

ko®o

‘manika’

-mën



ko®omën

‘measure of volume equal to four

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mänikäs full’

(a measure)

kü†a

‘eight inches’

-mën



kü†amën

‘a measure of eight inches full’

passa

‘palm’

-mën



passamën

‘palmfull’

IV. Compounds Nominal compounds are quite common in Gondi than the words formed through Derivation. Most of the compounds so structured are endocentric type. Some of the compound words structured through the derivation are listed below.

Attributive Compounds 1.

“A” is a descriptive adjective and “B” is a noun (head)

raggäl tö∂i tikkäl yër cu∂∂ur kän∂i kank räjin 2.

3.

‘red soil’ ‘white water(lit)’ ‘(clean water)’ ‘small boy’ ‘bamboo sticks’

“B” is made up of “A”

tö∂ita bu∂∂i sönetän gäjulin

‘clay pot’ ‘gold bangles’

“A” is the cause and “B” is the result

rüsita pun∂u

‘wound formed due to cutting with a knife’

knife wound (lit) 4.

“B” refers to some specific item of class “A” (common) such as flora and fauna marka pan∂i ‘mango fruit’ surjo pungär ‘sunflower’ jä†a ∂äri ‘a kind of pulses’

Copulative Compounds ( dvandva samäsa) novrä novrï dädäl tammür

‘bridegroom and bride’ ‘elder brother and younger brother’

V. Conclusion The present study I tried to bring out the important word structure rules in major Dravidian tribal language Gondi. There are variations within Gondi itself. Therefore the Gondi language needs further investigation and an in-depth study.

References

Anderson, Stephen R. 1992. A-Morphous morphology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Aronoff, M. 1976. Word formation in generative grammar. Massachusetts: MIT Press.

Hassan, S.S.1920.The castes and tribes of H.E.H., The Nizam's Dominions: Hyderabad State. Bombay: Government Central Press.

Lieber, R.1980. On the organisation of the lexicon. MIT dissertation. Published, Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club. 1981.

Motsch, W.U. ed. 1988. The contribution of word structure theories to the study of word formation. (Linguistische Studien, Reihe A, 179) Berlin: Zentralinstitut fur Sprachwissenchaften, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR. Singh, K.S. 1994. The Scheduled Tribes. People of India National Series, Volume III. Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India and Oxford University Press.

Subrahmanyam, P.S. 1968. A descriptive grammar of Gondi. Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.

Umamaheshwar Rao, G. 2008. A comparative grammar of the Gondi dialects. Kuppam: Dravidian University.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Necessity for Sustainable Environmental Considerations in Corporate Decision making Processes Pranav Sharma, Swarita Sharma, Rina Kumari and A K Tiwari IBS Business School, ICFAI University, Dehradun, Rajawala Road, Central Hope Town Selaqui, Dehardun, Uttrakahnd, India Abstract: Holistic concepts of environmental factors and their sustainability are of utmost relevance to all modern corporate practitioners today. The paradigm to exploit resources for human development and growth need to be revisited with care, caution, concern and wisdom. Present generation of corporate practitioners must leave behind resources for survival and growth of future generations. The impacts of environmental trends on corporate processes are no longer future concern. These concerns are affecting corporate today, both positively and negatively. Those corporate leaders who understand environmental trends and consider them in their business strategies are likely to be in a better position.

Key words: Environment Bio-diversity, Stake holders, Green corporate, Companies priorities, Human existence etc.

I. Introduction The paradigm of corporate practices and that of the Environment look somewhat akin to each other.

Environmental considerations vary from longitude to altitude, from under-water depths to the mountainous heights, from sea to deserts and then to high bio-diversity spots, from warm to extreme cold climate and from the habitats of aborigines to the highly advanced cities of high rising societies. So many variations exist in the corporate practices also that this domain could be as complex as the environment. Corporate practices vary from culture to cultural practices, from a small conservative society to a large multi-racial, multi-cultural social set up, from a closely knit primitive group to a much open and wide knowledge driven enterprising clusters and so on so forth. Like Environmental considerations, corporate practices are also a vast and open field. Each variable in this corporate world, small or big, has a decisive role to play and therefore requires to be mapped with prudence and high degree of skill. All corporate practices are time dependant- whatever is applicable now, may be or may not be applicable in future. The cardinal principle of Forest conservation is to harvest to the extent of annual increment without disturbing the capital stock much is in similarity with the environmental management practices. Standard tailor-made corporate packages may not necessarily fit well in all similarly available situations. Nonetheless, such repository of inputs would certainly be of help in drafting and designing corporate practices for similar class of corporate situations. Regular learning and periodic adjustments of required corporate practices, including all environmental considerations, would be of help in moving towards desired goals and objectives and thus also leaving resources behind for posterity. There is no specific mathematical prescription quantifiable in its output to describe corporate practices across the globe.

Since time immemorable, human societies stayed together in groups and jointly pooled their resources to tap what all was available to them from the environment. Environmental resources, whether known or unknown till then, were tapped regularly for evolution of human society. Natural Resources on or below the earth, underwater or in the sky have been continuously exploited to make human living easier and comfortable. People all over the globe progressed as per their natural surroundings and resembled and varied with each other depending upon similarity or divergence in their respective environment. People of adjoining countries have numerous similarities where as people from countries far off from each other resemble least. Environmental considerations have played vital role in evolution of the society and that of a country. All societies have learned that their Societies will have to adapt their life styles strictly in accordance with the available environmental resources to ensure their sustainability. Had the adaptation mechanism of human societies been contrary to the otherwise required considerations, human societies would have been slowly and gradually eliminated. Certain species of animals and plants, over centuries, have become extinct. Like human societies, all corporate resources, visible or invisible, are drawn from the environment. Holistic understanding of the environmental wealth is as important as is the conceptual understanding of the corporate processes and practices. Considerable diversity exists in the

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management of corporate affairs and so is the case with the environmental management. Both these paradigms are simple to look at but are difficult to be understood holistically. A decade ago, environmental concern was merely a matter for legal compliance for most companies. But after the earth Summit in Rio in 1992, sustainable development appeared on the agenda of many multinationals. It first appeared in the guise of “Eco-efficiency” – which represented a link between environmental improvement and financial savings. Later, in the 1990s, it became apparent to business that sustainable development had a social dimension as well. The pursuit of sustainable development is a learning process. For business, this process includes among other things the involvement of employees at all levels, learning and reflection, stakeholders dialogue and partnerships, and public reporting (European Environment Agency; Feb 2001).

In the growth and development of the corporate world much has been extracted and applied to from the existing socio-corporate environment. Practices, models and structures with special reference to corporate practices have been adopted, modified and improved as per objectives of the organisations. Environmental influence plays a very vital role in formulation and design of corporate practices to cater to the desired goals of the system.

Environmental considerations are not static but are dynamic in nature and keep changing with the times. What all is applicable and relevant today may not be applicable to that degree in future. A continuous and sustainable system may require minimum changes for adoption in to the changing corporate requirements.

Global cultures, across nations, play a pivotal role in maintaining efficient business practices by influencing customer preferences, values, beliefs and behaviour of the employees. Thus the realisation of the cultural connectivity is seen in both internal and external perspectives of management, including cost analysis.

Understanding the treasure of various corporate strategies and practices available is relatively easy; managing and adopting them within the cultural heritage environment of the organisation is the difficult part. Competitive advantage through people processes is difficult to achieve and even more difficult to sustain, but once achieved, it is not easy to duplicate (Tayeb, 2004). With increasing globalisation, MNCs are becoming stateless players, detached from individual nation states which are visible through strategic international alliances and joint ventures, cross national mergers, the rise of business divisions headquarters outside the home country and so on.

Nonetheless, the home country continues to be the priority destination (Ferner). Professionals controlling flow of organisational processes in different institutional, legal and cultural environment have to be aware not only of what is allowed and what is not allowed in different nations and regions of the world, but should also understand what makes cost effective management practices. Industrial relations are also influenced by the strategies of major firms and their approach to labour management. Considerable diversity exists in corporate practices all over the globe yet some practices are similar in nature and prescription, in one way or the other. Conceptual gap of social dynamics coupled with clear cut understanding of entrepreneurial processes is pre-requisite to formulate sound corporate policies. Corporate dynamics vary between country of origin of the company and that of the foreign locations where it has extended its business operations. Local factors play a vital role in success or failure of an enterprise, especially, towards its corporate practices. The interest and controlling stake of the MNCs, including their paternal HR practices, play a dominant role in decision making processes. Devising specific HR format to keep a tight balance amongst various influencing parameters require not only a high degree of conceptual analytic skill and power but also knowledge to appreciate and accommodate amicably the importance and weightage of these functions in the best interest of the organisation.

Firms operating in international markets face different conditions and competitions. These companies have to cope with large flows of components, product resources, people and information among its subsidiaries, while simultaneously recognising the specialised resources and capabilities of each individual input of business processes including holistic view on external and internal environment. All corporate practitioners usually need to monitor the external environment in order to deal with the challenge and opportunities faced by it. The most important external analysis tool used to assess the environment is the PESTEL (Wikipedia). The impact of Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental and legal factors on human resource practices is immense. Political factors refer to the state’s control over tax policy, tariffs and political stability. Economic factors refer to economic parameters such as growth, inflation, exchange and interest rates etc. Social factors include health, population, age-distribution and safety and security etc., Technological factors include R&D activities, innovations and automation etc. Environmental factors include climate, topography, weather & climate change etc. Legal factors deals with all kinds of laws such as consumer, employment, health & safety etc. Environmental strategies of organisations within developing countries vary from opportunistic compliance to voluntaries (Ozen and Kushku, 2009).

With the advancement of transport systems and convergence of telecommunication, internet and information technology, the world has become a global village. International agreements on trade and tariff at WTO and the end of cold war has accelerated the globalisation process. Research and Development, Globalisation, IT revolution, sustainable development, CSR, gender equality etc. are some of the important parameters which exercise considerable influence in the decision making ability and process of the present day corporate planners and managers. It is the wisdom of the corporate experts to devise format and mechanism to be made applicable

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to the company so as to keep its interests and objectives intact and render conducive environment for healthy and robust growth of the company.

Sustainability has become a key focus for many organisations as climate change, regulatory pressures and societal demands for greater environmental and social responsibility have increased. Alongside economic considerations of growth and profit, organisations should be held accountable for their impact on society and the environment.. In additions, they should assess social and environmental risks and opportunities when making all business decisions. Sustainability is often defined as the “ability to meet need of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs”. Going beyond environmental sustainability, this concept now includes all types of social and environmental impacts. As sustainability becomes a key focus for more organisations, employers must develop a new way of doing business. In addition to focussing on financial benefits, sustainable companies must also consider social and environmental impacts when making business decisions.

Growing global environmental concerns and development of international environmental standard are creating the need for businesses to adopt formal environmental strategies and programs (Daily & Huang, 2001). A further aspect of sustainable HRM is the way HRM supports the “Greening” of the organisation. Term such as “ Green employee”, “Green Careers” and “Green Jobs” are more common today. HRM must stay abreast of sustainable business needs and of the sustainability recruitment and career landscape. As organisations are increasingly required not only to disclose sustainability performance but to improve it, more organisations now recruit environmental specialists to support environmental strategy development. Environmental regulation is gaining in depth and breadth in many countries, and employers need to be in a permanent regulation-ready state as new requirements emerge. In additions, large organisations now require suppliers to disclose data as a condition of supply. Walmart and Proctor & gamble, for example, issue questionnaires on sustainability to their suppliers and evaluate supplier’s sustainability performance. Implementation of corporate green management initiatives require a high level of technical and management skills among employees due to the facts that the company will develop innovation-focussed environmental initiatives and programs that have a significant impact on the sustainable competiveness of the firms. (Callenbach et al 1993). Green management initiative becomes an important factor in forwarded thinking businesses around the world. Researchers argued that employees must be inspired, empowered and environmentally aware of greening in order to green management initiatives. Corporate green management requires a high level of technical and management skills in employees, since the company will develop innovation-focussed environmental initiatives and programs that have significant managerial implications (Sudin, 2011).

Insatiable demand for exploitation of natural resources to cater to the ever increasing societal demands to meet standards of rising lifestyles of the people all over the globe are the reasons for environmental destabilisation.

Over the last 50 years in particular, environmental degradation has expanded from a local scale to global scale.

The consequences of this acceleration are clear: while economic growth and prosperity have improved the quality of life for billions of people, they are also destabilising the climate and degrading the world’s natural resources – the foundation on which future prosperity depends. The ramifications of these changes on business are sweeping. In a rapidly changing world, future projects of the corporate will be greatly influenced by climate change, carbon emission and auditing and availability of water and natural resources. Global Environmental trends are creating new risks and new opportunities for business in every industry. Indeed the transition to green economy, now in its early stages, will open up great opportunities for companies that understand the implications of these trends and account for them in their planning and business strategy. Conversely, companies that fail to understand the changes, or that act too slowly, will put value at risk. Perpetual growth is the operating principle, reinforced by our current economical and political systems, on which many of world’s business leaders, policy makers and investors make decision every day. As a result, the gap between our current level of consumption and what the global environment can support on a sustained basis continues to widen.

(United Nations Environment Program: GEO-5 for Business; 2013).

The integration of the environment in to the activities of economic sectors is a key step on the road towards sustainable development. Corporate environmental performance reporting and ranking is at the interface between the business and financial sectors. Today, a number of companies are working on integrating environmental, ethical and social responsibility into their corporate governance structures. It is becoming more and more common to deal with a broader business agenda that focussed not solely on shareholders, but also on stakeholders. In fact, there is every reason to believe that this way of viewing business in a more holistic, qualitative framework is more than a trend, but is here to stay. Progressive companies, politicians and NGOs have embraced the concept of sustainable development. The financial community is also beginning to take notice. Understanding environmental trends is of critical importance to business leaders. Just as social, economic, market and technological trends- and company responses to those trends - influence the success of businesses, so to do environmental trends .Current and future environmental conditions affect operating costs, raw material availability, regulations, consumer preferences, reputational considerations, and demand for

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products. Physical, social, political and business landscapes are changing rapidly. How companies assess the risks and opportunities and respond to the changing landscapes will shape how successful they will be in future.

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

Monir H. Tayeb 2004: International Human Resource Management: Oxford University Press.

Anthony Ferner 1997: HRM journal, Vol7,No.1, p19-37.

Suhaimi Sudin 2011: International conference on Sociality and Economics Development; IPEDR Vol. 10 IACSIT Press, Singapore.

United Nations Environment Program 2013: GEO-5 for Business: Impact of the changing Environment on corporate sector @ 2013; : ISBN : 978-92-807-3344-0 ; DEW /1686/NA. Ozen, S and Kushku, F 2009. Corporate Environmental Citizenship Variation in Developing Counties: An institutional framework, Journal of Business Ethics, 89(2), 297-313.

Callenbach, E, Capra, F., Goldman, L.,Lutz, R,.and Marburg, S 1993: Eco-Management: The Elmwood Guide to ecological Auditing and sustainable business, Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, CA.).

Daily B F and Huang S 2001. Achieving sustainability through attention to human resource factors in environmental management .International Journal of Production and Management ,21(12), 1539-52.

Wikipedia.org/wiki/PEST analysis.

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

The Impact of Colonisation on Women in ‘Child of All Nations’ Hamid Farahmandian Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra, MALAYSIA Abstract: The aim of this paper is to scrutinize the three influential characters (Nyai Ontosoroh, Surati and Annelis) in the novel in in order to explore and look into their portrayal, in hope to detect any form of resistance of the female characters, their acceptance and rejection of their relationship with either the colonial power in general or male characters (either husband, father or son) and to deduce whether colonialism is the core cause for such phenomenon. The paper would then try to infer the significance of the relationship between colonialism and Indonesian women by figuring out why these female characters perform certain actions and the state of empowerment they were in at the moment.

Keywords: Colonisation, Double Colonisation, Indonesian Literature, Women, Autonomy I. Introduction South East Asian fictions are distinctive for their precision in depicting reality and intense social consciousness thus, constructing a new order of history for its constituents. Possessing a history constructed by migration and colonialism, Indonesian novelist shoulder the challenge of recreating the experience and at the same time create the ideals of which can be contested and criticised. Since the ideals lack in strength and foregrounding, the task of a fiction writer is made complex, where the depiction of the characters have to somehow relate to the sociological norms and act as though they are forever conscious of the task in defining their society based on their social contextual setting.

Pramoedya addresses this issue and reasons the urge to write: “Following the events of 1965, I lost everything or, to be more accurate, all the illusions I had ever owned. I was a new born child, outfitted with the only instrument a newly born baby finds necessary for life: a voice. Thus like a child my only means of communication was my voice: my screams, cries,whimpers, and yelps. What would happen to me if my voice, my sole means of communication, were to be taken from me? Is it possible to take from a man his right to speak to himself?” (Toer, The Mute's Soliloquy) The broken system and failed attempts which horrifies Pramoedya are not merely of people where they may have been stilled or mimic others (usually colonisers) but the lack of depth in themselves. The degradations of Indonesia have been endured, yet the attempt serves to be irrelevant. The Indonesian literature remains inseparable from the country’s political realities and any attempt to distinguish both remains futile. It is undeniable that the construction of Indonesian literature is closely intertwined to the developing national identity. One of the major contributing factor remains that the creation of its literature employs an ideal that is pseudo-native heavily influenced by Western traditional literary values via colonialism.

Child of All Nations is perhaps one of the best examples to show this stoic nature of Pramoedya towards Indonesia. He offers a dry-eyed resilience towards the tragic nature of his home and transmits clearly his concerns and perhaps his futility of the ill-fated conditions of his land through the novel. In the customary literary scene, scholars lament and even question can justice be created when women’s are narrated by men?

Personally, adequate justice can be inferred in order to comprehend the paradoxical setting when women’s stories are narrated by Pramoedya-a man. He perhaps offers the best rationale when he reasons, “My mother was a person of inestimable value, the flame that burns so bright it leaves no ash. Do not be surprised, therefore, that when I look back at the past I see the Indonesian revolution embodied in the form of a woman-my mother.”

(Toer, The Mute's Soliloquy) Women have often overlooked in the history of struggle of the Indonesian nation. In the history books of the nation, readers are more familiar with male heroic figures than female, thus, undermining women’s roles in the establishment of a nation called Indonesia. This then solidifies Pramoedya’s reason to carve out strong female characters in his novel. He presents a range of Indonesian women from the strong-hearted, determined ones to docile and innocent ones. This paper attempts to categorize and investigate to what extend has colonialism played its part in contributing to this scenario.

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It is however, to my utmost concern to discuss of colonialism and its correlation towards Indonesian women in order to fulfil the requirement of this paper. In order to do so, I have attempted to read and treat Pramoedya’s Child of All Nations as a case study rather than merely treating it as another literary work. Hence, I have endeavoured to nail down the essence of this novel in parallel to my research and correlate them to my selection of framework of “double colonialism” (Postcolonial Theory) and “female resistance” (Feminist Theory). This attempt is made in relation to highlight the urgency of this paper in quintessence to Indonesian literature and role of women under the influence of colonialism in general.

As Razif Bahari argues in his book entitled ‘Pramoedya Postcolonially’, the tetralogy and its literary and social context may provide valuable insights regarding the force (colonialism) which drives the main character to obtain power and freedom, and could answer some of the questions regarding the construction of history, language, and gender within postcolonial literature literary studies (Petri, 2009). I do admit that these four main characters from Pramoedya’s novel could not encompass the entire population of the Indonesian women and perhaps could not even be taken as absolute representatives of women in the entire society. However, my argument here to rationalize my selection of the characters to be studied as these characters’ behaviour and reaction towards the circumstances or situations are general ones and this story was made on the merit of the diverse characteristics that they possess due to the influence of colonisation.

In late colonial period of Dutch colonisation in the Indies, reformative policies in education and marriage potentially opened up more room for women’s autonomy. These policies challenged the full autonomy of indigenous men. However, the growth of the nationalist spirit of the period had the effect of re-asserting hegemonic masculinity. The ambivalences and ambiguities accompanying the interference of the colonial authority in gender-related matters, such as marriage and education for girls, can be seen in the representation of male protagonists in three novels written in the late phase of Dutch colonisation.

Edward Said offers the following distinction: ‘“imperialism” means the practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan centre ruling a distant territory; “colonialism”, which is almost always a consequence of imperialism, is the implanting of settlements on distant territory’ (Said 1993: 8). Colonialism, then, is a form of cultural contact which is influential in the construction of gender relations. Beside Indian and Islamic influences, European influences brought about by Dutch colonialism were pivotal in the construction of gender relations during the process of state formation that eventually resulted in the modern nation state of Indonesia.

(Ashcroft, Key Concepts) Double colonisation is a term coined in the mid-1980s, and usually identified with Holst-Petersen and Rutherford’s A Double Colonization: Colonial and Post-Colonial Women’s Writing published in 1985.

(Ashcroft, Key Concepts) The term refers to the observation that women are subjected to both the colonial domination of empire and the male domination of patriarchy. In this respect empire and patriarchy act as analogous to each other and both exert control over female colonial subjects, who are, thus, doubly colonized by imperial/patriarchal power. The rising awareness of women’s rights as one of the impacts of modernity introduced by Dutch colonisation needs to be taken into account. The awareness emerged as Dutch colonial policies to reform the well-being of indigenous people were institutionalised in the late phase of colonial period.

These reformative policies affected woman’s identity and how they challenged indigenous masculinities in the late stages of the colonial encounter.

In late colonial period, both in Indonesia and elsewhere, female colonial subjects often became the object and site of the imposition of reformative colonial policies. In the minds of reformist such as Pramoedya, he respect is ever evident for the real life character, Kartini mentioned in his novel in lines, “This feeling developed in Kartini's heart, because she knew that in the field of progress, she was their valid heir. She felt called by history to work for eternity, to serve the people (rakyat) of her country. Without a doubt, it is clear that this call, indistinct or clear, had also been heard by her forebears.” (Pramoedya, Panggil Aku Kartini Saja, 1: 32) Feminist studies in the field of literary studies are still at its infancy in South East Asia leave alone Indonesia, as represented by the marginalization of women and their issues from literary criticism. This paper has categorized the significant female characters in the novel into three main categories; “The Loud One”, “The Silent One” and “The Muted One”. One might ponder the urgency to do this, and perhaps the best justification is that even though these characters live under one roof- the same setting- colonial Indonesia, they possess character traits that are convergent.

At the exposition of the novel, the Nyai Ontosoroh is introduced as an exceptional native woman, the concubine of a Dutch property owner called Herman Mellema, and to her beautiful daughter, Annelies. One example of a culturally-marked word containing an important socio-cultural reference in the novel is the term “Nyai”. Nyai originally refers to a respectful form of address to a Javanese woman. However, the form undergoes a considerable change of meaning when it is adapted used into Indonesian. It becomes a “euphemistic, pejorative, and disrespectful term” referring to a historical stereotype of a native concubine or mistress in a colonial Dutch East Indies household and implying the inherent social attitude behind the notion “nyai” (Petri, 2009)

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The moral level of the families of nyais were always associated with the terms “low”, “dirty”, “without culture”, “moved only by lust”. They were the families of prostitutes; they were people without character, destined to sink into nothingness, leaving no trace. All social classes had passed judgment on the nyai; also all races: Native, European, Chinese, Arab (This Earth, 54). The Dutch colonialism has thus, forged the positive notion of “nyai” to a term associated to the concubine-cum-servants/slaves of male Dutch colonialists. Nyais were a necessary evil, and considerations of profit outweighed "moral" ones (not that colonialism was moral in the first place).

Nyai Ontosoroh is one of the leading female characters in the novel where Pramoedya equates her as the representation of women who were born and live in the nation before of independence of Indonesian nation.

Although born from the lowest class in the structure of Indonesian society and never earned the right to attend school, Nyai Ontosoroh has a large role in the Indonesian struggle until the establishment of an independent Indonesian nation.

Hence, it is apt to put her into the category of ‘The Loud One’ for the purpose of my discussions. Some of the questions that provoke the reader who attempts to understand this novel in perspectives of women and colonialism would be: what is Nyai Ontosoroh’s role in the struggle of the Indonesian nation. One main conclusion would be that Nyai Ontosoroh is a representation of women in Indonesia who has a big role in realizing national independence of Indonesia. Her role is not only in the form of concrete action, but her conviction to have more faith in the native’s own strength than to rely on foreign strength like the Dutch colonial government.

Over time, Nyai Oentosoroh becomes an important figure in Minke's life, his personal life mentor and spiritual mother. When Nyai discovers that Minke wants to be a writer, she tells him to "Write always about humanity, humanity's life, not humanity's death. Yes, whether it's animals, ogres, gods, or ghosts that you present, there's nothing more difficult to understand than humanity. That's why there is no end to the telling of stories on this earth.”

The story of her origin, how she was sold into “concubinage” by her father, her rise in position as the overseer of her master's entire estates and businesses, as well as the fate of her daughter, Annelies. The vital role of Nyai Oentosoroh in Minke's life, as the person who is mostly responsible for Minke's growing awareness of the oppression oppressive of the Dutch colonial towards rule over him and his fellow countrymen, in some way, represents in some way the indispensable role of language in growing nationalism in Indonesia. The Dutch education system has thus, directly and indirectly acted as a catalyst in moulding Nyai Ontosoroh. The account of Nyai Oentosoroh's life, her extraordinary characteristics and excellent ability in to absorbing the knowledge given by her Dutch master and using use it to climb up from the bottom to the top rank of the colonial society, may have an indirect association with the historical development of the Indonesian language and its elevated status as a national language today.

Bearing in mind, Nyai Ontosoroh’s social status as a ‘Nyai’ (due to Dutch social classification), she has always presented strong opinions concerning the Dutch and the colonization of the Indies. Throughout the novel she can be seen lecturing Minke on different subjects, especially when it comes to the Dutch colonists and how the Native people are being treated. She tries to show him a perspective he would not have known in his Dutch schooling. Despite her strength, the death of her daughter and departure of her disgraced son Robert have left her feeling lonely and dependent on Minke as her only remaining family. Not only does she continuously give him advice and her opinions, but she is also a living example of the oppression of the Javanese.

Another unique character that’s worth to be mentioned here is Surati, the daughter of Sastro Kassier. She is resilient in her own ways, adhering to her father’s rulings yet attempts to defy them to some extent. This characteristic of her enables me to label her as ‘The Silent One’. She was once beautiful, but lost her beauty to smallpox. Her father was tricked into selling his daughter as the only way to maintain his position as paymaster.

Traditionally, female’s opinion is not valued, as demonstrated by Sastro's response to his wife's protests, telling her, “What does a woman know? Your world is no more than a tamarind seed."

The entire Chapter Seven highlights the different kinds of power relationships imposed on female within the novel. The unfortunate story of Surati provides a microcosm of the situation for not only Javanese women but the native people in general. Tuan Besar Kuasa, also known as “Plikemboh,” orders Sastro to give him Surati so she can become his mistress. The only reason he wants to have her is because she is a beautiful virgin. The very idea that he wants to “have” her shows the position of women in this society as women are objectified throughout the entire novel. Even if Surati had refused to go to Tuan Besar Kuasa, she knew it would make no difference. She was to be obedient to her father.

However, she does take matters into her own hands as she contracts smallpox for the expressed purposed of infecting Tuan Besar Kuasa, trying to kill herself and him. However, only Tuan Besar Kuasa dies. But Surati’s story does not only show the plight of native women, but also of natives as a whole, as Tuan Besar Kuasa takes advantage of his position over Sastro Kassier. Kuasa steals money from Sastro’s cashbox at work and then threatens to ruin him if he cannot produce the money. However, he says he will pay the debt in exchange for Surati.

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It is made obvious colonialism has made the people’s status as Natives defines their role in society, and as such some as forced to yield to the wishes of those in authority over them, whether that person be their father or their manager. It is understood that, “ in a case like this where two people are accused, one a Pure-blood manager…and the other is a Native, the Native is in the wrong place and the Pure is in the right (Toer 143).

This incident alone is sufficient in pinpointing the stratification of the Indonesian society which directly lead to subjugation of their women due to colonial law and order.

Annelies is perhaps a meek character apt to be categorized as the Silent One. Colonialism has stripped off her rights to speak and decide for her own being by imposing laws in favour to the colonial masters. Minke falls in love with Annelies, whom he eventually marries according to his native customs. However, because of the family dispute over Mellema's inheritance, Annelies had to annul her marriage to Minke by the order of the Dutch colonial court. At the end of the novel, Annelies is forced to leave her mother and her husband Minke, and go to the Netherlands to live with her legal guardian, despite all the efforts made by Nyai Oentosoeroh and Minke to resist the decision of the Dutch courts. An important point to note is that although Annelies has already died by the second chapter (another distinct style of writing by Pramoedya), she is often mentioned throughout the story. For other female characters in the novel, their resistance towards the colonial masters are apparent while in Anenelies’ case is vague. Ideologies and the implementation of the colonial law has somewhat made Annelis appears to be docile and submissive.

The strength and love of family are apparent throughout the novel; particularly in the beginning as Minke and Nyai become closer with the death of Annelies. During the rest of the novel, Nyai constantly supports Minke’s actions and mentors Minke on life lessons. Due to imperialism that forced the country to poor social security and government support, the values of family are emphasized during this time period of Indonesia. In the various aspects of life, family places a great importance throughout this novel. Nyai treats Minke as her own child, and she sees him more of her son than she sees Robert. Nyai tries her best to bring the most out of Minke by teaching him and lecturing him. She says to Minke, "'Child, you are all I have left in the world now. I am alone in the world now,'" and she knows how empty it is to feel without Minke around her. Nyai understands that if Minke leaves her, she will have no one else to live for.

In the novel, we see both sides of women’s rights: the empowered, independent women and the oppressed, illtreated women in three distinct categories; The Loud One, The Silent One and The Muted One. After her father’s death, Annelies is taken from her family due to her lack of rights in the Netherlands. Also we see Surati daughter of Sastro Kassier have to be Tuan Besar Kuasa's concubine against her will. Nyai on the other hand, is a wise and insightful woman and runs her business with minimal help from Minke. Throughout the novel, women are shown to be competent, intelligent, and fully capable. Unfortunately these women are objectified and are seen as nothing but playthings for many men in the story. This treatment of women was regarded as normal, although there were still outcries of unfairness and disgust.

II. Conclusion In a nutshell, this paper has chartered new terrains in literary studies by looking at the representations of women and correlating them to the impacts of colonialism, Dutch in particular. This paper has attempted to advocate the observation of women in literary discussion. Also, this paper reveals that women are represented in the novel as suppressed and dominated by men through marriage, attire, motherhood and other domains. A resultant from marriage is motherhood which inevitably leads to domestic responsibilities such as providing food. In addition, women are represented as victims of male aggression in which they become the recipients of violent acts such as forced marriage system, concubine system and verbal abuse.

Yet, one important point to take note is that viewing women solely as victims of patriarchal aggression will result in the projection of monolithic images of women-as-victims. Pramoedya has brilliantly attempted to defy the norm by presenting strong female characters such as Nyai Ontosoroh and Surati. This paper has tried to pinpoint that women can concurrently be strong, powerful and decisive. They are not always the passive victims for they can be initiators, decision-makers or controllers of men and their circumstances. Finally, this paper also recommends that further studies are justified so as to add more knowledge to feminist studies which will be a means of empowering women and contesting patriarchal suppression.

Works Cited [1] [2]

[3] [4]

Ashcroft, B., G. Griffith and H. Tiffin. Post-Colonial Studies: The Key Concepts. London: Routledge, 2000.

Hartadi, Yohanes. "The Colonial Doubling, or the Challenge for Colonial Authority." Kritika Kultura (2009): 145158.Liukkonen, Petri. "Pramoedya Anata Toer." Books and Writers. 2008. Ari Pesonen, Kuusankosken, Web. 19 Sep 2009. <http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/pram.htm>.

"Pramoedya Ananta Toer Biography." Notable Biographies. 2008. The Gale Group, Inc., Web. 19 Sep 2009. <http://www.notablebiographies.com/supp/Supplement-Sp-Z/Toer-Pramoedya-Ananta.html>.

Toer, Pramoedya Ananta. Child of All Nations. New York, NY, USA: Penguin Books USA, Inc., 1996. Print.

Schultz, Daniel F. and Maryanne Felter. "Education, History, and Nationalism In Pramoedya Toer`s `Buru Quartet`." An Indisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies (2002): 143-175.

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From Stockholm to Rio to Rio+20: Green Economy and the Road Ahead.

1

Dr. Shobhalata Udapudi, 2Mr. Fakkiresh S. Sakkarnaikar 1 Professor , 2Assistant Professor Gujarat National Law University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat (INDIA) Abstract: The International Environmental Law has had a long and a bumpy ride from 1972 Stockholm Conference to the recent Rio+20, 2012 Conference. Many a principles were made in the process. Stockholm Conference set the platform for the International activities at the regional and the global level, also influenced legal and institutional developments both direct and indirect, to UNCED and even beyond. From Stockholm to Rio 1992, to Johannesburg in 2002 giving the millennium development goals, and nor Rio-20 has the Green Economy efforts are on the protect the Mother Earth.

Key Words: Stokholm Conference, Rio and Sustainable Development, Johannesburg and Millennium Development Goals, Rio-20 and The Green Economy.

The International Environmental Law has had a long and a bumpy ride from 1972 Stockholm Conference to the recent Rio+20, 2012 Conference. Many a principles were made in the process. 1 Although the Charter of United Nations does not specifically mention the environment or sustainable development, the Charter states that the United Nations is determined “to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom”2, while one of the basic purposes of the United Nations is “to achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion” 3.

The Stockholm Conference was convened by the UN General Assembly in December 1968.4 Preceding this, in July 1968, a resolution was passed, noting that ‘the continuing and accelerating impairment of the Quality of the human environment’, recommending that the General Assembly consider5 it desirable to convene a UN Conference. 6 The proposal was first made by Sweden.

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment7 took place in Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 19728 and led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the lead programme within the UN working on environmental issues. It was attended by 114 States, large number of International institutions and nongovernmental observers, under the Chairmanship of Mr Maurice Strong.9 The conference adopted 3 non-binding instruments namely: A resolution on institutional and financial arrangements.

1

F Hinsley, Power and the Pursuit of Peace: Theory and Practice in the History of Relations between States (1963); F Walters,A History of the League of Nations (1960) passim 2 Charter of the United Nations: Preamble. (n.d.). Welcome to the United Nations: It's Your World. Retrieved September 29, 2012, from http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/preamble.shtml 3 Charter of the United Nations: Chapter I: Purposes and Principles. (n.d.). Welcome to the United Nations: It's Your World. Retrieved on September 29, 2012, from http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter1.shtml 4 At its 23rd session the General Assembly adopted resolution 2398 (XXIII) of 3 December 1968 convening a United Nations Conference on the Human Environment noting the “continuing and accelerating impairment of the quality of the human environment” and its “consequent effects on the condition of man, his physical, mental and social well-being, his dignity and his enjoyment of basic human rights, in developing as well as developed countries,” thus relating the Charter to emerging environmental issues. The resolution also recognized that “the relationship between man and his environment is undergoing profound changes in the wake of modern scientific and technological developments”.

5 The United Nations first considered environmental issues at the 45th session of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), when in resolution 1346 (XLV) of 30 July 1968 it recommended that the General Assembly consider convening a United Nations conference on “problems of the human environment”.

6 ECOSOC Resolution 1346(XLV) takes note of the report submitted by the WHO(E/4482) to and the ECOSOC and FAO(E/4458) 7 Dinah Shelton, “Human Rights, Environmental Rights, and the Right to Environment” (1991) 28 Stan.J. Int’l. L. 103, at 110 [Shelton, “Human Rights, Environmental Rights”].

8 Declaration of the United Nations on the Human Environment, 16 June 1972, UN Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1, 11 I.L.M. 1416 [Stockholm Declaration].

9 Klaus Bosselmann, “Human Rights and the Environment: Redefining Fundamental Principles?” inBrendan Gleeson and Nicholas Low, eds., Governing for the Environment: Global Problems, Ethics and Democracy (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2001)

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1.

A declaration containing 26 principles.

2.

An Action Plan containing 109 recommendations. 10 According to a commentator, 11 ‘Stockholm’ enlarged and facilitated means which were previously limited by inadequate perceptions of environmental issues and restrictive concepts of national sovereignty to international action. The significant elements of innovation are in respect of12: 1.

Redefinition of international issues.

2.

The rationale for cooperation.

3.

The approach to international responsibility.

4.

The conceptualization of International orgnisational relationship. 13 The Declaration of Principle for the Preservation and Enhancement of Human Environment was based on a draft declaration prepared by the Preparatory Committee. 14 It was intended to provide ‘a common outlook and…..Common principles to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and enhancement of the environment.’15 The legal tone of the document is found in provisions in principles 21, 22, 23, 24.

Principle 21 affirmed the responsibility of states to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control don’t cause damage in another state or beyond national jurisdiction such as outer space or on the high seas. It is extended to activities under the states’ control as those carried out by its national or by or on ships or aircrafts registered in its territory.16 Principle 22, States shall cooperate to develop further the international law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage caused by activities within the jurisdiction or control of such States to areas beyond their jurisdiction.

Principle 23 saw a limited role played by the International regulations and suggested that certain standards would have to be determined nationally on the basis of the value system in each country and their social costs and the need for different environmental standards in different countries. 17 The Stockholm Principles are weak on techniques for implementing environmental standards as EIA 18, access to environmental information and availability of administrative and judicial remedies.

Principle 2419 simply calls for International Orgnisations to play a coordinated, efficient and dynamic role.

The Draft Declaration prepared for the Preparatory Committee had included a third important legal principle which was originally to be Principle 20 stating as: Relevant information must be supplied by states on activities or developments within their jurisdiction or under their control whenever they believe, or have reasons to believe, that such information is needed to avoid the risks of significant adverse effects on the environment beyond their jurisdiction.20 10

Report of United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, UN DOC.A/CONF.48/14 at p. 2-65

11

Sumudu Atapattu, “The Right to Life or the Right to Die Polluted: The Emergence of a Human Right to a Healthy Environment Under International Law” (2002) 16 Tul. Envtl.L.J. 65 at 70 [Atapattu].

12Atapattu observes: ‘It is ironic that at the time of the Stockholm Conference, the United States--which vehemently opposed the inclusion of a similar right twenty years later in the Rio Declaration- -proposed the inclusion of a specific right to a clean environment in the Stockholm Declaration. The formulation proposed by the United States reads as follows: “Every human being has a right to a healthful and safe environment, including air, water and earth, and to food and other material necessities, all of which should be sufficiently free of contamination and other elements which detract from the health or well-being of man.” The conference participants, particularly those from developing countries, however, preferred the indirect formulation in Principle 1; therefore, the American formulation was rejected.’

13 L.K Caldwell, International Environmental Policy (Durham, N.C. Duke University Press), 1984.

14 Layla A. Hughes, “Foreword: The Role of International Environmental Law in the Changing Structure of International Law” (1998) 15 UN DOC.A/CONF.48/PC.17 16 Principle 21: States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

17 Principle 23 Without prejudice to such criteria as may be agreed upon by the international community, or to standards which will have to be determined nationally, it will be essential in all cases to consider the systems of values prevailing in each country, and the extent of the applicability of standards which are valid for the most advanced countries but which may be inappropriate and of unwarranted social cost for the developing countries.

18 Environment Impact Assessment - EIA 19 Principle 24, International matters concerning the protection and improvement of the environment should be handled in a cooperative spirit by all countries, big and small, on an equal footing.

Cooperation through multilateral or bilateral arrangements or other appropriate means is essential to effectively control, prevent, reduce and eliminate adverse environmental effects resulting from activities conducted in all spheres, in such a way that due account is taken of the sovereignty and interests of all States.

20 UN Doc. A/CONF.48/4, Annex,para. 20,at 4(1972)

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This proposal prepared by the Preparatory Committee failed because of the concerns that it implied acceptance of a no fault or ‘strict liability’ for environmental harm. Certain states made clear their views that that liability to pay compensation would only arise where there had been negligence attributable to the state concerned. 21 Due to the objections of the many of the developing countries, this principle was not agreed at the conference, but is now recognized by the International Law Commission and finds place in many conventions, as a basic requirement.

The Developing countries feared that the obligation to consult might be abused by the developed states to impede development projects.

The other principles were in non-legal language. Principle 1 22 links environmental protection to Human rights norms.23 Other principles are grouped into themes Principles 2, 3 & 5 guidelines for safeguarding the natural resources for the present and the future generations.

Principles 4,6 and 7 identifying specific environmental threats, special responsibility to safe guard the habitat and wild life, halt the discharge of toxics, heat and other substances causing serious and irreversible damage.

Principles 8 to 15 addressed the relationship between environment and development.

Principles 16 to 2024 recognised the need for appropriate demographic policies.

From Stockholm to Rio: (1972 - 1992): Stockholm Conference set the platform for the International activities at the regional and the global level, also influenced legal and institutional developments both direct and indirect, to UNCED and even beyond. 25 Conspicuously the developments can be listed as:  Establishment of a large number International Institutions.  The existing Institutions took greater efforts to address environmental issues  Organisations developed new sources of environmental obligations  Establishment of new environmental norms26  New techniques for implementing environmental standards including EIA and access to information.  Formal integration of Environment and Development, especially with respect to international trade and development assistance.27 Ten years post the Stockholm Conference in 1982 28 , the UN General Assembly through its resolution 37/7 29 , adopted the World Charter for Nature. It set forth ‘principles for conservation by which all human conduct affecting 21

UN DOC.A/CONF.48/PC.12, Annexure 1 at 15(1971).

22Preparatory Committee for the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, U.N. Doc.A/Conf.48/PC/17 (1972), cited in Rodriguez-Rivera, See also Neil Popovic, “In Pursuit of Environmental Human Rights: Commentary on the Draft Declaration of Principles on Human Rights and the Environment” (1995-1996) 27 Colum.H.R.L. Rev. 487 at 504. He contends that Principle 1 of the Stockholm Declaration contains an “expansive statement of environmental rights.”

23 Principle 1 Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations. In this respect, policies promoting or perpetuating apartheid, racial segregation, discrimination, colonial and other forms of oppression and foreign domination stand condemned and must be eliminated.

24 Principle 20: Scientific research and development in the context of environmental problems, both national and multinational, must be promoted in all countries, especially the developing countries. In this connection, the free flow of up-to-date scientific information and transfer of experience must be supported and assisted, to facilitate the solution of environmental problems; environmental technologies should be made available to developing countries on terms which would encourage their wide dissemination without constituting an economic burden on the developing countries.

25 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Human Rights Council Res. 2006/2, UN Working group of the Commission on Human Rights to elaborate a draft declaration in accordance with paragraph 5 of the General Assembly resolution 49/214 of 23 December 1994, (2006) at art. 29 (establishing unique environmental rights of Indigenous peoples) [provisional], online: Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights <http://www.ohchr.org/english/issues/indigenous/ docs/declaration.doc>. See also, Convention on the Rights of the Child at arts. 2(c), 2(e) (establishing environmental rights of children).

26 World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (1989); see also report of the UNCED's Legal Expert Group on Environmental Law, Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development (1987). The General Assembly welcomed the establishment of a special commission of concerned governments and suggested the terms of reference for its work - see GA Res 165, 38 UN GAOR (102nd mtg), UN Doc A/Res38/165 (1983); 'Process of preparation on Environment and Development (1985) 14 Environmental Policy and Law 4. For the UNCED's progress see 'The World Commission on Environment and Development' (1985) 14 Environmental Policy and Law, 4; 'Legal Principles Approved by Experts Group' (1986) 16 Environmental Policy and Law 140. The UNCED report was debated in the UN General Assembly on 19 October, 1987; for details see 'UNEP/WCED' (1989) 19 Environmental Policy and Law 218.

27 P.Sands, Principles of International Law Second Edition, Cambridge University Press. page 40 28 F Hinsley, Power and the Pursuit of Peace: Theory and Practice in the History of Relations between States (1963); F Walters,A History of the League of Nations (1960) passim.

29 UNGA Res.37/7, 28th October 1982

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nature is to be guided and judged.’ The Charter is not binding. As Caldwell puts it, the Charter being ‘an important symbolic expression of an intent among nations to achieve a more harmonious and sustainable relationship between humanity and the rest of the biosphere – between mankind and earth’.30 In 1983 the General Assembly by resolution 38/161 of 19 December 1983 welcomed the establishment of a special commission to report on "environment and the global problematique to the year 2000 and beyond".

In 1983 an independent body, World Commission on Environment and Development - WCED was set up by the United Nations. 31 It was headed by the Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland and her team of 21 representatives of the Developing and the Developed countries. The task of the WCED was to fashion a global agenda for change; ensuring that without bankrupting the resources for the future generation, progress would be sustained through Development.32 The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) submitted its report i.e. The WCED33 Report, “Our Common future,” voicing its environmental and economic concerns, to the General Assembly, and was published in 1987 (also known as the “Brundtland report”)34. The report, based on a four-year study, developed the theme of sustainable development, the type of development that “meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.

WCED appointed a group of legal experts providing a legal framework formulating 22 legal principles and 13 proposals for strengthening the legal and the institutional framework. WCED suggested for convening a global conference to address the global environmental problems.

Pursuant to the report of the World Commission, the General Assembly adopted resolution 44/228 of 20 December 1988, convening the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (also known as the “Rio Conference” or the “Earth Summit”) to “elaborate strategies and measures to halt and reverse the effects of environmental degradation”.35 The resolution listed nine areas “of major concern in maintaining the quality of the Earth's environment and especially in achieving environmentally sound and sustainable development in all countries”.

In 1991, a successor to the ‘World Conservation Strategy-Caring for the Earth’ was created. It defined the actions for achieving the goal of Sustainable Development.

In 1991, the ‘Caring for the earth’ Strategy was created. It restated the thinking about conservation and development with two basic aims:  Securing a commitment to sustainable living  Translating its principles into practice36 In pursuance to the recommendations of the WCED, the United Nations convened a Conference on Environment and Development-UNCED at Rio de Janeiro in 1992 attended by 176 states, 37 more than 50 intergovernmental organizations and several thousand corporations and non-governmental organizations. The purpose of the conference was to ‘elaborate strategies and measures to halt and reverse the effects of environmental degradation in the context of strengthened national and international efforts to promote sustainable and environmentally sound development in all countries.’38 Taking stock of the primary documents emanating from the UNCED are as follows:  Rio Declaration on Environment and Development.39  Agenda 2140 30

L.K Caldwell, International Environmental Policy (Durham, N.C. Duke University Press), 1984., 92 Thacher, 'The Role of The United Nations' in Andrew Hurrell and Benedict Kingsbury (eds), The International Politics of the Environment, Actors, Interests and Institutions (1992) 183-211, 190; Annex II to UNEP GC decision 15/2, May 1989 32 World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development, prepared by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) with the advice, co-operation and financial assistance of UNEP and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF, now known as the World Wide Fund for Nature) in collaboration with FAO and UNESCO (1980); see also the updated version prepared for the UNCED, Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living ( 1991 ) 33 WCED – World Commission on Environment and Development.

34 World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987).

35 Hague Declaration on the Environment, 11 March 1989, 28 I.L.M. 1308.

36 IUCN,UNEP and WWF, Caring for the Earth: a Strategy for Sustainable Living(1991) 37 See UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division of Sustainable Development: Documents, Online: Visited on 5/7/2013 <http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/index.htm>.

38 UNGA Res.44/228, para. 3.

39 UN Conference on Environment and Development, 14 June 1992, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/5/Rev.1 (1992), 31 I.L.M. 874 (1992) [Rio Declaration].

40 Agenda 21, UN Conference on Environment and Development, 14 June 1992, UN Doc.A/CONF. 151/26/Rev.1, online: Visited on 5/7/2013 <http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/agenda21toc.htm>.

31

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 Convention on Bio-diversity – CBD  Convention on Climate change41  Statement of Principles for Global consensus on Management, Conservation and sustainable Development.42 Building on the Stockholm Declaration, the Rio Declaration, which contains 27 principles, introduces the mandate of Sustainable Development mentioning procedure and means to operationalise the same. The 21 Principles of Rio Declaration guides the behaviour of nations towards more environmentally sustainable patterns of development. The Declaration is a delicate compromise between developing and developed countries and was tortuously crafted at the preparatory meetings and was adopted without negotiations due to fears that further debate would jeopardize any agreement.43 The Declaration proclaims that poverty is the main culprit for environmental degradation and aims at complying with the mandate of intergenerational and intragenerational equity. It projects the role of women, youth and indigenous people in achieving Sustainable Development.

Agenda 21 adopted the implementative programme of action for the Sustainable Development. It dealt with the Social and economic dimensions of Environmental problems. It provides that in order to meet the challenges of environment and development. It is a decision to establish a new global partnership. Agenda 21 provides that the Economic policies of individual countries and the International Economic relations, both together have great relevance to Sustainable Development. The Report suggests that the International economy should provide a supportive International climate for achieving environment and development goals by: 1.

Promoting Sustainable Development through trade liberalization.

2.

Making trade and environment mutually supportive.

3.

Providing adequate financial resources to developing countries and dealing with international debt.

4.

Encouraging macro-economic policies conducive to environment and development.

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), which took place in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992, led to the establishment of the Commission on Sustainable Development. At the Conference three major agreements were adopted: Agenda 21 a global plan of action to promote sustainable development; the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, a series of principles defining the rights and responsibilities of States and the Statement of Forest Principles, a set of principles to underpin the sustainable management of forests worldwide. In addition, two legally binding instruments were opened for signature: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Earth Summit called for several major initiatives in other key areas of sustainable development, such as, a global conference on Small Island Developing States; negotiations began for a Convention to Combat Desertification and for an agreement on highly migratory and straddling fish stocks.

It is suggested that UNCED’s endorsement of Sustainable Development could undermine ‘the autonomy of environmental law as a body of rules and standards designed to restrain and prevent the environmentally destructive effects of certain kinds of economic activity’, and resean to fear that Rio Conference constituted ‘the beginning of the decline of international environmental law as an autonomous branch of International law’ 44 The Rio Declaration represents a series of compromises between the developing and developed states and balance between objectives of environmental protection and economic development. Apart from the different principles 45 of Polluter Pays, Precautionary Principle 46, Intergenerational and Intragenerational Equity, Common but Differentiated Responsibility, it comprises of 27 Principles. 47 Other matters addressed by the Rio Declaration include: the Relationship between environmental protection and free trade obligations; development of national and International law regarding liability and compensation for victims of Pollution and other environmental damage; need to eradicate 41

See Generally, J Barrett, 'The Negotiation and Drafting of the Climate Change Convention' in R Churchill and D Freestone (eds), International Law and Global Climate Change (1991) 183-200. The work contains the text of many relevant documents, presented in chronological order under sub-headings, at 211-436. The growing involvement of the UN and its specialised agencies, and the complementary effect on the UN of decisions and measures of other international bodies, are thus easily discerned.

42 Don C. Smith “The European Union’s Commitment to Sustainable Development: Is the Commitment Symbolic or Substantive in the Context of Transport Policy” (2002) 13 Colo. J. Int’l Envtl. L. &Pol’y 241 at 244 (“[T]he EU has established a world leadership position with respect to sustainable development”).

43 Singh GurdipEnvironmental Law in India; Macmillan India Ltd 2005 at 36.

44 D.Wirth, ‘ The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: Two Step Forward and One Step Back, or Vice Versa’,29 Georgia Law Review 599(1995).

45 David Kriebel et al., “The Precautionary Principle in Environmental Science” (2001) 109 Environmental Health Perspectives 871 at 875.

46 Paul Harremoës et al., eds., The Precautionary Principle in the 20th Century: Late Lessons from Early Warnings (London: Earthscan Publications, 2002).

47 Lynda M. Collins, “Strange Bedfellows? The Precautionary Principle and Toxic Tort: A Tort Paradigm for the Twenty-First Century” (2005) 35 Environmental Law Reporter 10361.

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poverty and decrease disparities in standards of living; and the reduction and elimination of ‘sustainable patterns of production and consumption.’ It supports participation of youth, women and indigenous people. Rio, as a package, includes provisions which are more specific as compared to those in Stockholm Declaration. 48 Agenda 21 is a non-binding blue print and action plan for a global partnership for Sustainable development. 49 It reflects a global consensus and political commitment at the highest level.

To mark the tenth anniversary on UNCED, The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) was held in Johannesburg in September 2002.The summit was well attended with 100 Heads of States and Government as well as around 22,000 participants.50ShriYashwantSingha, the External Affairs Minister, led the Indian Delegation to the Summit.

The purpose of the summit was to evaluate the obstacles to progress and the results achieved since the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held at Rio de Janerio. The summit was expected to present “an opportunity to build on the knowledge gained over the past decade and provide a new impetus for commitments of resources and specific action towards global sustainability”. . Its main purpose was to take stock of the implementation of Agenda 21, adopted at the Rio Conference in 1992.

The Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development: The declaration contains some broad statements. It reaffirms the commitment to sustainable development. 51 The declaration assumed collective responsibility to advance and strengthen the interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars of sustainable development – economic development, social development and environmental protection – at the local, national, regional and global levels. 52 The declaration identified certain challenges. It recognized poverty eradication, changing consumption and production patterns, protecting and managing the natural resources base for economic and social development, as overarching objectives of the essential requirements for sustainable development. 53 The ever-increasing gap between the developed and developing worlds pose a major threat to global prosperity, security and stability. 54 The global environment continues to suffer. Globalization has added a new dimension to those challenges. The benefits and costs of globalization are unevenly distributed with developing countries facing special difficulties in meeting the challenges.

The declaration contains a section entitled ‘our commitment to sustainable development’.

The eight Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) are as follows: 1) Eradicate extreme hunger and poverty.

2) Achieve universal primary education.

3) Promote gender equality and empower women.

4) Reduce child mortality 5) Improve maternal health.

6) Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases.

7) Ensure environmental sustainability.

48

P.Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law, p56.

UNCED Report, A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1(Vol.I)(1993).

Around 10,000 delegates i.e. Participants from Member States, inter-governmental organizations, official observers, specialized agencies and related organizations and associated members of regional commissions were accredited by the United Nations in Johannesburg to attend the summit. In addition some 800 0 representatives of major group organization. The major groups are women, children and youth, Indigenous people NGOs Local Authorities, Workers and Trade Unions, Business and Industry, Scientific and Technological Communities and Farmers.

4000 media were accredited to summit. A large number of additional people were also in Johannesburg at the same time to attend parallel events associated with the summit.

Visited Web site, on 7/3/2013 < http;//www.Johannesburg.org/html/basic-info/fags.html=joburg>.

51 For an explanation and critical analysis of sustainable development, see generally Graham Mayeda, “Where Should Johannesburg Take Us? Ethical and Legal Approaches to Sustainable Development in the Context of International Environmental Law” (2004) 15 Colo. J. Int’l Envtl. L. &Pol’y 29 [Mayeda]; Christopher D. Stone, “Deciphering ‘Sustainable Development’” (1994) 69 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 977.

See also Lynda M. Collins, “Revisiting the Doctrine of Intergenerational Equity in Global Environmental Governance” (2007) 30 Dal. L.J. BosireMaragia, “The Indigenous Sustainability Paradox and the Quest for Sustainability in Post-Colonial Societies: Is Indigenous Knowledge All That Is Needed?” (2006) 18 Geo. Int’l Envtl. L.Rev. 197.

52 'The Environment Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond' (1988) 18 Environmental Policy and Law 37 53 See Generally Report of the IMO to the Commission on Sustainable Development in fulfilment of GA Res 191, 47 UN GAOR (70th plenmtg), UN Doc A/Res/l91 (1992), IMO DOC, MEPC 37/Inf. (1995) andFollow-Up Action to UNCED, MEPC 37/10/1,23 March 1995.

54 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development: Statement of Principles for a GlobalConsensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of all Types of Forests; (1992) 31 ILM 881.

49 50

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8)

Develop global partnership for development.

The world committed to eight MDGs55 at a special UN conference in 2000. Though many termed MDGs as mild and framed without any consultation, the goals did influence development priorities of countries. As per an assessment of MDGs in July, the world has met three targets on poverty, slum population and access to water, while the rest five have to be realized. But with less than 3 years to go, there is a general belief that these five targets would not be met. In 2010, the member countries asked the UN secretary general to take up annual monitoring of progress of MDGs to enable an informed decision on the targets after 201556 The last two years have seen the idea of a “green economy” float out of its specialist moorings in environmental economics and into the mainstream of policy discourse. It is found increasingly in the words of heads of state and finance ministers, in the text of G20 communiques, and discussed in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication.57 At the Los Cabos G-20 Summit leaders agreed to promote prosperity through inclusive green growth. For them growth was the bottom line and all things green were to help stimulate economics and jobs for the future.

The first big push for the Concept of green economy came when the global financial meltdown forced governments to fall upon the Keynesian idea to spend huge amounts of public money got spent on all those things which would improve the environmental sustainability of countries, it would go a long way in building the foundation for the new- age world. Soon it was understood that governments sent little on ‘greening economies’.

However the idea was too attractive to let it go. It was discussed in every conceivable global forum till it gathered sufficient momentum to reach the negotiations.On December 24, 2009, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution58 to organize the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The General Assembly identified two themes of focus for the conference: First, “a green economy within the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication”; and second, “aninstitutional framework for sustainable development.”59 UNEP’s work started with the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity (TEEB), an international research project.

The principle was simple-learn to value nature and its goods and services and use this valuation in policy decisions and investments. The example often cited is forests or water where improper pricing leads to discounting of the real role of the resources in national income accounting. Nature is destroyed. “Currently, legitimise overexploitation of nature because we attach zero value to in it national policies and systems of national accounts. That needs to change,” explains Achim Steiner, head of UNEP. UNEP advocates targeted investment in key economic sectors, from energy to agriculture, to move the world towards this transition. It defines green economy as one that results in “improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcity.” It also suggests that a transition to green economy can contribute to eradicating poverty as a number of sectors with green economic potential are important for the poor.

OECD is a firm believer in opening of markets, also has a strong view on the idea of a green economy. It has played a key role in advising G-20 governments on their position and then took the matter to Rio+20. Its 2011 reports, Towards Green Growth: Monitoring Progress, proposes 25 indicators to define green economy- from biodiversity to measures on the objective and subjective dimensions of environmental quality. These measures provide evidence if economic growth is becoming greener; if greening of economy is opening new sources of growth. Ministers of the organization countries asked it then to develop “headline” indicators for green growth. These include the following:  CO2 productivity: demand and production based;  Non-energy material productivity by material group;  Measure of natural resources stocks.

The basic contention is that green growth is a win-win option, which has little financial costs. This is what developing countries find objectionable. UNEP, for instance, has argued that the transitional will only require some two per cent of the global GDP. Developing countries also worry about the fact that the policies and measures, suggested as enabling tools to drive green growth, would become perspective and so jeopardise national options for developmental strategies. But more importantly, they remain concerned as the use of these policies, measures and

55

MDG Monitor: Tracking the Millennium Development Goals. (n.d.). MDG MONITOR :: Tracking the Millennium Development Goals.

Retrieved September 29, 2012, from http://www.mdgmonitor.org/browse_goal.cfm 56 Down to Earth September 1-15, 2012, p 18.

57 The “Rio+20” agenda has adopted “green economy” as a key theme in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication.

58 UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/64/236 59 UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/64/236, adopted 24 December 2009.

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indicators becoming conditionalities that will become a playground for unilateral trade measures. The European Union’s aviation tax is their fear-refrain.

Green Economy un-negotiated: At Rio+20, the idea of green economy was not contested. What was fought over was a global prescription for what constitutes green economy and the enabling measures and tools that would take the world to a greener tomorrow.

The idea also got linked to the agenda of preparing sustainable development goals which were seen as ways to measure progress on this matter.

Negotiations were contested. At one stages, G-77 and China withdrew from negotiations saying that not enough progress was being made on their demands. The EU text was seen as too prescriptive. Switzerland then suggested compromise language for the transition towards sustainable development. G 77 and China wanted more emphasis on social inclusion and for linkage between sustainable consumption and production with green economy goals. The US did not want references to the financial and technology burden on green economy goals on developing countries.

The industrialised country delegates also “expressed difficulty” with the mention of lifestyle change. The EU, the US and Japan insisted on a qualifying references to conditionalities on aid by inserting the word “unwarranted”. In other words, warranted conditions on aid and finance can be applied in the context of green economies.

The final agreement was to recognise that there are different approaches, visions, models and tools available to each country to achieve sustainable development. Green economy was accepted as one such tool. The outcome read, “We consider green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication as one of the important tool available for achieving sustainable development and that it should provide options for policy making should not be a rigid set of rules”.

Governments agreed to tie themselves up in knots of words. Green economy is now a question for the future; when and how remain unanswered.

UNEP 60 defines a green economy as one that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecologicalscarcities. In its simplest expression, a green economy can be thought of as one which is low carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive.

In a green economy, growth in income and employment are driven by public and private investments that reduce carbon emissions and pollution, enhance energy and resource efficiency, and prevent the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.

The concept of a “green economy” does not replace sustainable development, but there is now a growing recognition that achieving sustainability rests almost entirely on getting the economy right. In a green economy, growth in income and employment should be driven by public and private investments that reduce carbonemissions and pollution, enhance energy and resource efficiency, and prevent the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.

These investments need to be catalysed and supported by targeted public expenditure, policy reforms and regulation changes. The development path should maintain, enhance and, where necessary, rebuild natural capital as a critical economic asset and as a source of public benefits, especially for poor people whose livelihoods and security depend on nature. The concept of a “green economy” does not replace sustainable development, but there is now a growing recognition that achieving sustainability rests almost entirely on getting the economy right. .Decades of creating new wealth through a “brown economy” model have not substantially addressed social marginalization and resource depletion, and we are still far from delivering to the Millennium Development Goals. Sustainability is still a vital long-term goal, but we must work on greening the economy to get us there.

The policies for green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication should be guided by and in accordance with all the Rio Principles, Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation and contribute towards achieving relevant internationally agreed development goals, including the Millennium Development Goals.The green economy policies in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication should:61 (a) Be consistent with international law; (b) Respect each country’s national sovereignty over their natural resources taking into account its national circumstances, objectives, responsibilities, priorities and policy space with regard to the three dimensions of sustainable development; (c) Be supported by an enabling environment and well-functioning institutions at all levels with a leading role for governments and with the participation of all relevant stakeholders, including civil society; 60 61

United Nations Environmental Programme.

814 UNCSD REPORT final revs p 10 para 57.

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(d) Promote sustained and inclusive economic growth, foster innovation and provide opportunities, benefits and empowerment for all and respect of all human rights; (e) Take into account the needs of developing countries, particularly those in special situations; (f) Strengthen international cooperation, including the provision of financial resources, capacity-building and technology transfer to developing countries; (g) Effectively avoid unwarranted conditionalities on official development assistance (ODA) and finance; (h) Not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on international trade, avoid unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing country, and ensure that environmental measures addressing trans boundary or global environmental problems, as far as possible, are based on an international consensus; (i) Contribute to closing technology gaps between developed and developing countries and reduce the technological dependence of developing countries using all appropriate measures; (j) Enhance the welfare of indigenous peoples and their communities, other local and traditional communities and ethnic minorities, recognizing and supporting their identity, culture and interests, and avoid endangering their cultural heritage, practices and traditional knowledge, preserving and respecting non-market approaches that contribute to the eradication of poverty; (k) Enhance the welfare of women, children, youth, persons with disabilities, smallholder and subsistence farmers, fisher folk and those working in small and medium-sized enterprises, and improve the livelihoods and empowerment of the poor and vulnerable groups in particular in developing countries; (l) Mobilize the full potential and ensure the equal contribution of both women and men; (m) Promote productive activities in developing countries that contribute to the eradication of poverty; (n) Address the concern about inequalities and promote social inclusion, including social protection floors; (o) Promote sustainable consumption and production patterns; (p) Continue efforts to strive for inclusive, equitable development approaches to overcome poverty and inequality.

What is the position and status of India with respect to Rio + 20? It does not have the liberty to industrialise and pollute first and then try to clean up later as it needs to cater to the needs of its huge population for a healthy environment. India has to build its indigenous economy protecting the natural resources. India needs to achieve its Right to Development with the Right Development.

The International community too has come to decisive period to put its efforts towards achieving Sustainable Development, else this precious earth!!!

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

Available online at http://www.iasir.net

ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Reverse Merger as a Method of Going Public: Regulatory Approach in U.S. Chaitra R. Beerannavar, Research Scholar, Symbiosis International University, Pune, India Dr. Shashikala Gurpur, Fulbright Scholar, Director & Dean, Faculty of Law, Symbiosis International University, Pune, India Abstract: Reverse Mergers have grown as viable and profitable means of attaining public status in U.S. With a tightening of the laws surrounding the technique, the prospects of fraud have become minimal and reverse mergers have become a promising vehicle to take small companies public in U.S. In this direction the American markets Model for the small business issuer sets an example. The present article analysis the regulations in U.S. in detail with focus on compliance issues.

Keywords: Reverse Merger, Shell Company, SEC, SOX, IPO I. Introduction In Global capital markets, IPO have been the traditional and predominant path to go public. However the recent developments have created opportunities for alternatives to IPOs. The most popular alternative has always been the Reverse Merger. Because of the unique features of the Reverse Merger commonly known as backdoor listings are complex inter-corporate transactions by which unlisted private-held companies achieve a listing status through merger with the publicly-listed shell companies. Though a Reverse merger transaction is usually structured as a takeover of the private firm by the public company but in essence, the vendors of the private firm obtain control of the enlarged public shell at the conclusion of the event, therefore a case of Reverse Merger.

This unique transaction represents two perspectives on the same. First From the public company’s perspective, Reverse Merger represents major corporate restructurings which typically involve a change of name, business activities, board of directors and management. Second, from the private company’s perspective, Reverse Mergers are also an alternative route for going public.

In U.S., a Reverse Merger is looked as a fast-track method by which a private company becomes a public company. Reverse mergers are also commonly referred to as Reverse Takeovers, or RTO's in U.S. Any Reverse Merger transaction in U.S. will begin with identifying a 1934 Exchange Act shell company (the “Public Shell Company”) which has no or minimal operations and is listed on the OTC Bulletin Board. The actual transaction begins when Public Shell Company and the private Company enters into a letter of intent indicating the parties preliminary intentions to engage in a reverse merger transaction subject to the satisfactory completion of due diligence by both parties. Pursuant to this, In an share exchange, the private Company will exchange all of its shares of stock for shares of the Public Shell Company. As a result of the share exchange, the private Company will become a wholly owned subsidiary of the Pubic Shell Company.

After completing the reverse Merger transaction, the Company must have to file its two years of audited financial statements prepared in accordance with Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (“GAAP”), up to date reviewed quarterly statements. These financial statements must be filed in a “Super 8-K” with the SEC within four days of the closing date of the transaction. The “Super 8-K” must include among other things, the terms of the transaction, a description of the operations of the Company and the financial statements. The shareholders of the Company will now control the OTC Bulletin Board company which has its shares quoted on the OTC Bulletin Board. If the shell intends to trade on a major exchange such as NASDAQ, then in that case a shareholder approval and a full proxy under exchange rules is must. Even most exchanges require a “new listing” application following a name change. This is nothing but complying with all the initial listing standards following the merger. Thus a straight forward Reverse Merger intending to get listing on recognized stock exchanges of U.S. makes the entire process complicated and onerous. Therefore most of the shells delist from NASDAQ and move to the OTC Bulletin Board prior to the merger in order to avoid stringent regulatory compliance.

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II. Regulatory Approach As far the regulatory regime is concerned in U.S. The reforms began with passing of Penny Stock Reform Act in 19901. This prescribed disclosure norms for offerings by blank check companies and to impose disparate treatment on these offerings. In pursuance to the same Rule 419 was passed by SEC, which is considered to be corner stone of .US. regulatory mandate for Reverse Meager shells. Rule 419 specifically addressed a situation where a founder of a blank check company wanted to use it to first raise money in a public offering, and then look for a company with which to complete a reverse merger. Rule 419 sought to eliminate the four major concerns about abusive blank checks: promoters milking the shells for cash, abusive trading practices, and no time limit existed to find a Reverse Merger candidate, and investors were not generally given an opportunity to review or vote on a proposed merger 2.

A phenomenal changes were , transfer of money raised in public offering to be transferred in escrow account until a merger is undertaken, completing the merger within 18 months from the date of offering, creation of optout option for those investors who did not like the proposed merger . And if the 80% did not opt in then the merger could not be completed. However this 80 percent approval is rather vague and at times inconsistent. In addition to this opt out the blank check has to prepare, file, and obtain SEC approval of a prospectus-like document providing detailed information about the company (including audited financial statements) that will merge into the blank check company. The rule also laid down specific requirements to be met for a particular merger to “qualify” for release of the funds, including the fact that the value of the private business merging in must be equal to at least 80 percent of the amount being raised in the blank check’s IPO. Further exemptions were also created under the rule specifying thresholds 3.

This Rule 419 had a dramatic and positive effect on abusers of Reverse Merger transactions, eliminating many bad players from the market. At the same time many genuine transactions and quality players were also hurt by it. This gave birth to new trends in U.S. such as, merging with public shells that had been created through the sale or liquidation of operating public companies since they were not restricted by Rule, Birth of SPACs, and filing of Form 10-SB, under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, rather than conduct an public offering that would be subject to Rule 419. And interestingly merger with a Form 10-SB shell was accepted to be legal and viable option by the authorities.

Later SEC gradually started to comment upon the reverse Merger Transactions .In 1999, it was clarified under the Exchange Act that, Within fifteen days of the reverse merger (the "Fifteen-Day Notice Window"), the issuer was supposed to file a report on Form 8-K containing notice of the transaction along with audited financial statements of the pre-transaction private company covering the three most recently completed fiscal years.

Unaudited interim financial statements as well as pro forma financial data demonstrating the effects of the transaction were also to be included on Form 8-K. If the pre-transaction private entity's financial statements were unavailable, the post-transaction reporting company had a sixty-day grace period from the date of the initial Form 8-K (the "Sixty-Day Grace Window") during which it had to file the requisite financial information.

Combining the Fifteen-Day Notice Window with the Sixty-Day Grace Window (or subsequently, the Four-Day Notice Window with the Seventy-One-Day Grace Period), issuers had a total of seventy-five days after a reverse merger to file audited financial statements. During that seventy-five day period, stockholders could have had little or no information from which to determine the value of their securities 4.

In early 2005, the SEC made significant comments to Rule 419 shells, but allowed Form 10-SB shells to effectively sail through registration with few or no comments. Thus Form 10-SB shells were more preferred than shells under Rule 419. Later Passage of SOX in 2002 brought major changes in the securities market of U.S. by making public companies more transparent and accountable. For the same it brought more stringent auditing and compliance regulations for public companies. In 2004 SEC proposed set of new amendments to SOX to regulate the Reverse Merger transactions. This included Form S-8, Form 8-K and Form 20-F, all together known as 2005 SEC rule making .

The SEC’ 2005 Rules had four major parts: First, it defined “shell company” as a company, that has: (A) No or nominal operations; and (B) Either: (1) No or nominal assets; (2) Assets consisting solely of cash and cash equivalents; or (3) Assets consisting of any amount of cash and cash equivalents and nominal other assets 5 ; however the term “nominal” was left unexplained by the SEC. This vagueness in the definition encourages many small companies to enhance their operations and assets so that they can fall out of the term “nominal ’’ and avoid being a shell company. Though 1

David Franklin Levy , The Impact Of The Remedies Act On The Sec's Ability To Obtain Inunctive Relief, THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [Vol. 44:645), 1994, Pp-676-677.

2 Use of Form S-8 and Form 8-K by Shell Company, 17 CFR Parts 230, 239, 240 and 249 [Release Nos. 33-8407; 34-49566; File No. S719-04] RIN 3235-AH88, Securities and Exchange Commission, available at http://www.sec.gov/rules/proposed/33-8407.htm (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

3 ESCROW AGREEMENT, Exhibit 99a, Securities Exchange Commission, available at http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1513904/000107878211003344/s1a4_ex99.htm (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

4 Aden R. Pavkovtt , Ghouls and Godsends? A Critique of "Reverse Merger" Policy, 3 BERKELEY BUS. L.J. 475 2005-2006, Pp 499-500.

5 Rule 144, available at http://www.rule144solution.com/shellcompany.asp (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

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footnote 326 added little clarification by including transaction which places assets or operations within an entity with the intent of causing that entity out of the definition. But footnote 1727 by providing that “Even having the simplest of operations is enough for a company to avoid being deemed a shell” ended up making shell companies as actually a zero operations company only. Since then Footnote-32/172 shells have been manufactured by less than reputable parties and these attempts through Footnote 32/172 Shell Company hurt the reputation of legitimate blank check vehicles, Rule 419 blank check companies and Form 10 blank check companies and reverse merger transactions which are important component to capital markets.

Second, it prohibited use of Form S-8 under the Securities Act by reporting shell companies, however a company that ceases to be a shell company or a former shell company must wait for 60 days it changes its status to use Form S-8. This prohibition was very appropriate because use of Form S-8 by a shell company would be inappropriate and would pose significant risks to the market 8.

Third, it brought an amendment to Form 8-K, requiring a shell company, when reporting an event that causes it to cease to be a shell company, to file with the Commission the same type of information that it would be required to file to register a class of securities on Form 10 or Form 10-SB under the Exchange Act, such as risk factors and management’s discussion and analysis. And all this needs to be filed immediately within four days of closing the transaction. As a result of this rule, shell companies would no longer have a waiting window for filing financial information about the company. Filing of prompt and detailed disclosure in Form 8-K filings would provide required and relevant information to the investors of the merged entity after the Reverse Merger transaction. Eventually this requirement would also control the possibilities fraudulent and manipulative activity by shell companies and makes Reverse Merger transactions more transparent and accountable 9.

Fourth, Amendment was made to the definition of “succession” under the Exchange Act for transactions involving shell companies. This included a change in control of a shell company. As a result of this, a private entity that acquires a reporting shell company would succeed to the reporting obligations of the shell company and become a reporting company. This made the back door registration transactions or Reverse Merger transaction more codified and clear. Interestingly Form 8-K has to be filed even if there is mere change in the control of a shell, even when there is no Reverse Merger.

Fifth, Amendment to Form 20-F: According to this rule, some foreign private issuers 10 that are registered with the Commission would come within the proposed definition of "Shell Company." Therefore Shell companies which are foreign private issuers would be subject to the use of Form S-8 Similarly like a domestic shell company, in case if a foreign private shell company loses its foreign private issuer status after engaging in a transaction with a domestic operating business, the surviving entity would have to file a Form 8-K within four days upon completion of the transaction. As a result of this rule, foreign private issuer shell companies will have the same disclosure requirements as those for domestic shell companies. Therefore four business compliance is mandatory for foreign private issuers no matter what form they use to report.

In 2008, an amendment was brought in order to prohibit the use of Rule 144. As per the rule, shareholders of a shell could sell their shares starting on year after a Reverse Merger and release of the form 8-K. This appeared 6

Footnote 32 of SEC Release Nos. 33-8587; 34-52038; International Series Release No. 1293, says that, “We have become aware of a practice in which a promoter of a company and/or affiliates of the promoter appear to place assets or operations within an entity with the intent of causing that entity to fall outside of the definition of “blank check company” in Securities Act Rule 419. The promoter will then seek a business combination transaction for the company, with the assets or operations being returned to the promoter or affiliate upon the completion of that business combination transaction. It is likely that similar schemes will be undertaken with the intention of evading the definition of Shell Company that we are adopting today. In our view, where promoters (or their affiliates) of a company that would otherwise be a shell company place assets or operations in that company and those assets or operations are returned to the promoter or its affiliates (or an agreement is made to return those assets or operations to the promoter or its affiliates) before, upon completion of, or shortly after a business combination transaction by that company, those assets or operations would be considered “nominal” for purposes of the definition of shell company.”

Use Of Form S-8, Form 8-K, And Form 20-F By Shell Companies, [Release Nos. 33-8587; 34-52038; International Series Release No. 1293; File No. S7-19-04], 17 CFR Parts 230, 239, 240 and 249, Securities And Exchange Commission, Pp, 10-11, available at http://www.sec.gov/rules/final/33-8587.pdf (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

7 Footnote no. 172 of SEC Release No. 33-8869, states: “Rule 144(i) does not prohibit the resale of securities under Rule 144 that were not initially issued by a reporting or non-reporting shell company or an issuer that has been at any time previously such a company, even when the issuer is a reporting or non-reporting shell company at the time of sale. Contrary to commenters’ concerns, Rule 144(i)(1)(i) is not intended to capture a “startup company,” or, in other words, a company with a limited operating history, in the definition of a reporting or non-reporting shell company, as we believe such a company does not meet the condition of having “no or nominal operations.”

Revisions To Rules 144 And 145, [Release No. 33-8869; File No. S7-11-07], 17 CFR Parts 230 and 239, Securities And Exchange Commission , available at http://www.sec.gov/rules/final/2007/33-8869.pdf (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

8 Gail Cohen, Demand Media, Differences in S-1 & S-8 Filing, available at http://smallbusiness.chron.com/differences-s1-s8-filing33577.html (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

9 Use of Form S-8 and Form 8-K by Shell Company, 17 CFR Parts 230, 239, 240 and 249 [Release Nos. 33-8407; 34-49566; File No. S719-04] RIN 3235-AH88, Securities and Exchange Commission, available at http://www.sec.gov/rules/proposed/33-8407.htm (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

10 The term "foreign private issuer" is defined in Exchange Act Rule 3b-4(c), 17 CFR 240.3b-4(c). A foreign private issuer is a nongovernment foreign issuer, except for a company that (1) has more than 50% of its outstanding voting securities owned by U.S. investors and (2) has either a majority of its officers and directors residing in or being citizens of the United States, a majority of its assets located in the United States, or its business principally administered in the United States.

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to be critical change and resulted in acceptance of shells and Reverse Mergers by the U.S. regulators. The most significant change to be appreciated was, only former shells have to wait until one year after a merger, whereas non-shells shareholders can began selling them in six months. However , operating companies merging with shell companies and investors purchasing securities from such issuer or otherwise at the time of the reverse merger or after such date will have to wait for the one year anniversary of the filing of the Form 10 information with the SEC before a holder can rely on sales under Rule 144 and availability of under Rule 144 for shareholders of a former shell company was made limited because Rule 144 exemption was made available only to a public company that was a shell company only if the company is current on all of its periodic reports required to be filed with the SEC during the 12 months before the date of the shareholder’s resale 11.

Unfortunately the SEC has not taken any step to amend Rule 144(i), nor has there been any further public guidance for former shell companies trying to comply with their obligations under Rule 144(i) — despite the fact that the SEC itself said that the result of Rule 144(i) was probably not intended. As the U.S. economy continues to recover at a slow pace, more and more businesses may consider returning to the often more streamlined and cheaper reverse merger route of becoming a public reporting company. Yet, without further clarification or modification, Rule 144(i) remains the law of the land 12 Later, due to a trend of Chinese Reverse Meregrs in U.S. SEC established more rigorous conditions for companies going public through a Reverse Merger to comply before they can be listed on the three major U.S. exchanges (i.e., the NYSE Amex, NYSE and NASDAQ).

The additional requirements issued by three major stock exchanges of U.S. in 2011 such as seasoning period, minimum stock price maintenance and disclosure of information were passed by the SEC. As far as seasoning period is concerned the combined entity has to be traded for at least a year in either the U.S. over-the-counter market, on another national securities exchange or on a regulated foreign exchange following the completion of the relevant transaction. For stock price maintenance, Reverse Merger Companies are also required to maintain a certain closing stock price, which is a minimum of US$ 4 for a maintained period of time, which in any event shall not be less than 30 (thirty) of the most recent 60 (sixty) trading days prior to the date of the Reverse Merger Company’s initial listing application with the stock exchange. Besides the above mentioned requirements, there were other requirements specified by the stock exchanges for the Reverse Merger companies in order to be listed through them. These additional requirements were pertaining to the disclosure of information. Such as disclosures under Forms 8-K and 20-F and filing of at least one annual report. 13 The new rules approved by the SEC establish more rigorous conditions that companies going public through a Reverse Merger and also strengthen investors’ confidence and their ability to rely upon. These rules are believed to bring more transparency to issuers and market with regard to Reverse Merger companies and finally will help in reducing the regulators’ concerns over such companies.

Thus Since 2005 the SEC has played a critical role in declaring Reverse Mergers as legitimate and valid in corporate structuring .These rules passed by SEC have made people , who think that Reverse Merger transactions involve only unscrupulous operations to think differently . These SEC’s new rules are designed to strengthen investors’ confidence and their ability to rely upon. These rules are believed to bring more transparency to issuers and market with regard to Reverse Merger companies and finally will help in reducing the regulators’ concerns over such companies Furthermore, the popular and successful reverse Mergers in U.S. such as Blockbuster, Ted Turner, New York Stock Exchange, Actinium Pharmaceuticals, Inc., REO Motor Car, RAE Systems and CKX stand as a testimony to this trend of legality and acceptability of Reverse mergers in U.S. All this seems to have worked. The increased use of Reverse Merger transactions by both the domestic and foreign companies in America suggest a revitalized vies of the benefits of the method .In particular, the Chinese’s companies and the German biotechnology companies have been ailing this technique of going public in U.S. with increased number .

III. Conclusion Reverse Mergers have grown as viable and profitable means of attaining public status in U.S. With a tightening of the laws surrounding the technique, the prospects of fraud have become minimal and reverse mergers have again become a promising vehicle to take small companies public in U.S. Perhaps the American markets Model for the small business issuer sets an example. But in 2007, it was observed by many American financial analysts that, American securities markets were losing the competitive edge they once held globally. This challenges America’s growth ability both domestically and internationally. One of the key reasons cited was 11

Laura Anthony, Rule 144 Seller’s Representation Letter, available at http://www.reverse-merger.com/tag/restricted-stock (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

12 Julie Holden, SEC Still Quiet On Rule 144(i) Evergreen Requirement, Law 360, a LexisNexis® Company, available at http://troygould.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Pub-065.pdf (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

13 Self-Regulatory Organizations; New York Stock Exchange LLC; Notice of Filing of Proposed Rule Change Amending Sections 102.01 and 103.01 of the Exchange’s Listed Company Manual to Adopt Additional Listing Requirements for Companies Applying to List After Consummation of a “Reverse Merger” with a Shell Company, SEC, Release No. 34-65034; File No. SR-NYSE-2011-38) , August 4, 2011

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downfall of IPOs. It is significant note that highest onerous for such a downfall was placed on the over regulation of American Securities market because compliance with the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was considered to be too onerous, which had forced companies to spend more on accountants than the research . Not surprisingly, the Interim Report also claimed that regulatory burden and section 404 of SOX as heavy factors behind the sol-called decline. Thus in U.S. regulation is being implemented too zealously.

Hence the U.S. regulatory Regime is a classic example of Over- regulation of Capital market. May be because investor’s protection is the hall mark of U.S. securities Law. However by providing a legal mechanism and conditions of operation, U.S. regulators have been able to hold on their small companies, which play a critical role in job creation and sustainability of capital markets. This needs to be appreciated and U.S. continues to have standardized bench mark for regulation of Reverse mergers in the globe inspiriting many such as Canada, U.K., Australia, and Sweden.

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f) g)

h) i) j) k) l)

IV. Suggestions There has been much “hand-wringing” over the current condition of America’s capital markets and their growth ability both domestically and internationally. The recent concerns are based on observations that foreign competitors have been absorbing a larger portion of the “public market pie” than in past years, despite America’s reputation as one of the leading financial centers in the world.

The reasons for the downward trend in foreign investments in the U.S. and the increase in American investments abroad remain a subject of discussion, but the focus of the blame seems to be the American regulatory process therefore a fresh look at section 404 of SOX in terms of relaxing certain provisions is needed. However investor protection being the hall mark of the American securities market cannot be compromised at any cost The biggest primary challenge is that, as per the definition of a shell company, shell is one with no or nominal operations, and the question is what exactly does the term “nominal” mean? Surprisingly The SEC has not made any efforts in clarifying what “nominal” would mean. This vagueness in the definition encourages many small companies to enhance their operations and assets so that they can fall out of the term “nominal ’’ and avoid being a shell company. Therefore the term “nominal” should be clearly defined quantitatively by the SEC. This clarification may be quite helpful in defining what cannot be done by the companies in order to evade being a shell since shell companies have greater obligations in US. Form 8-K by placing requirements for disclosure of information by a company which ceases to be a shell company along with elimination of 71 days window for providing financial information is a major help in preventing frauds .But the legitimate payers continue to be burned and affected by these rules.

Therefore instead of prohibition a better alternative can be provided by the SEC. The 2011 requirements such as seasoning period, minimum stock price maintenance and disclosure of information are a mile stone in US as far legitimizing reverse mergers are concerned and to minimize the occurrences of frauds provided their impact upon the genuine and bona fide payers is observed and mitigated by the SEC through creating some exceptions for them.

Since the condition to the availability of Rule 144 provided in Rule 144(i)(2) does not apply to shares of a public companies that was not a shell company. This makes a reverse merger into a public shell company unattractive. Therefore this provision must be reconsidered by the SEC A new venture exchange should be set up for OTC securities with a blue sky preemption For Regulation A+ aftermarket trading there should be a blue sky preempted and there should also be a speedy path to full SEC reporting after a Regulation A+ offering and no limit to be imposed on how much one can invest key holding period for Rule 144 should be shortened to 3 months There should be a simplified SEC regulations or none for the Private placement brokers (“finders”).

Form 8-K for “current reporting” should be eliminated for smaller reporting companies (SRCs) XBRL financial reporting should be optional for SRCs due to the cost with minimal benefit 14 As far as the accredited investor are concerned , the income and net worth minimums should remain the same , but accredited investor status be expanded to those who pass an exam or are licensed attorneys, accountants, registered reps, financial advisors, etc.

References

[1].

Aden R. Pavkovtt , Ghouls and Godsends? A Critique of "Reverse Merger" Policy, 3 BERKELEY BUS. L.J. 475 2005-2006, Pp 499-500.

14

David Feldman on Nov 24, 2014 in Congress, Reverse Mergers, Regulation A+ and IPO Alternatives, SEC, Small and Microcap, from the final report of SEC-Government Business forum on small business capital formation . http://www.davidfeldmanblog.com/category/reversemergers-and-ipo-alternatives.

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[2].

[3].

[4].

[5].

[6].

[7].

[8].

David Franklin Levy , The Impact Of The Remedies Act On The Sec's Ability To Obtain Inunctive Relief, THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [Vol. 44:645), 1994, Pp-676-677 ESCROW AGREEMENT, Exhibit 99a, Securities Exchange Commission, available at http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1513904/000107878211003344/s1a4_ex99.htm (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

Gail Cohen, Demand Media, Differences in S-1 & S-8 Filing, available at http://smallbusiness.chron.com/differences-s1-s8filing-33577.html (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

Julie Holden, SEC Still Quiet On Rule 144(i) Evergreen Requirement, Law 360, a LexisNexis® Company, available at http://troygould.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Pub-065.pdf (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

Laura Anthony, Rule 144 Seller’s Representation Letter, available at http://www.reverse-merger.com/tag/restricted-stock (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

Self-Regulatory Organizations; New York Stock Exchange LLC; Notice of Filing of Proposed Rule Change Amending Sections 102.01 and 103.01 of the Exchange’s Listed Company Manual to Adopt Additional Listing Requirements for Companies Applying to List After Consummation of a “Reverse Merger” with a Shell Company, SEC, Release No. 34-65034; File No. SRNYSE-2011-38) , August 4, 2011 Use of Form S-8 and Form 8-K by Shell Company, 17 CFR Parts 230, 239, 240 and 249 [Release Nos. 33-8407; 34-49566; File No. S7-19-04] RIN 3235-AH88, Securities and Exchange Commission, available at http://www.sec.gov/rules/proposed/338407.htm (Last accessed February 7, 2015).

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American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Peculiaris Lepores: Grotesque as Moment in British Literature 1

Sambhunath Maji, 2Dr. Birbal Saha Assistant Professor, 2Associate Professor & HOD 1 Department of English, 2Department of Education, Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University, Purulia P.O- Sainik School, Dist.- Purulia, West Bengal 1

Abstract: Beauty has its countless faces to delineate itself. The most familiar face of beauty, in its presentation in literature, is reliable, consistent and coherent. Aquinas defined beauty as visa placenta (‘the sight that pleases us is beautiful’). Joyce’s Dedalus envisioned another version of beauty. The gratification of beauty, says he, all depends on the organ with one perceives it. The other face of beauty is very queer and strange. It is, to some extent, misleading and vague. Alexander Pope used a weird appellation (‘aweful beauty’) to sum up Belinda’s grace. In Easter 1916 Yeats had more substantiate view of beauty, which originated from the forfeit of Irish patriots: “All that changed, utterly changed, a terrible born”. This indistinct and blurred face of beauty can justly be comprehended as something, which is grotesque. This research paper aspires to locate some grotesques as moment that has peculiar charms (Peculiaris Lepores) in itself.

Keywords: Beauty, Blurred Face, Grotesque, Literary Reception

There are few of us who have not sometimes wakened before dawn, either after one of those dreamless nights that make us almost enamoured of death, or one of those nights of horror and misshapen joy, when through the chambers of the brain sweep phantoms more terrible than reality itself, and instinct with that vivid life that lurks in all grotesques, and that lends to Gothic art its enduring vitality, this art being, one might fancy, especially the art of those whose minds have been troubled with the malady of reverie.

Oscar Wilde, “The Picture of Dorian Gray”( p-131) I. INTRODUCTION Beauty has its own parameter to narrate itself. Modern interpretations of beauty may not sound sweet and satisfying. Distortion, it seems, can be the other unpopular face of beauty when one is thinking its modern presentations and interpretations. Such distortion and disorder, when got a chance to impress, impressed us all, mostly to some selected literary artists. Distortion of beauty usually begets a name for itself. Yes, your guess is just and right. I am talking about grotesque. “Grotesque is the vulnerable, pathetic fantasy we distort in our simultaneous search for love and property”(Bloom, p.11). British literature is rich with many famous and unmatched grotesque moments. The presentations of such grotesque moment have the chances of bearing of individual distinctiveness. In those cases, some of the writers and poets may really leave their stamps of originality. Though absurdity and distorted reality and its presentations in literature are belated phenomenon Germany, many date back the cradle of grotesque at Expressionism. Some of the close worshippers of Freud can fabricate a different assumption. The subjective anxiety, ill and ignored libido, fractured mind are handy enough to condense the literary cloud for the evacuation of grotesque. Distortion, blurred, smudge, blistered are the other sister words of grotesque. The inclusions of such perpendicular vocabulary expand and widen the horizon of grotesque. The political critique of Easter Rising and Yeats’ enamoured idea of ‘terrible beauty’ becomes the just meeting ground of beauty where it is perceived from newer and afresh standpoint. This is where beauty loses her all chances as being coherent and full of symmetrical pattern. Beauty loses its colour as being standby and stereotype. The unfamiliar face of beauty becomes a new a face for tomorrow, and that makes the deformation more subjective acceptable.

II. GROTESQUE IN SHAKESPEARE The fair and the beautiful were not always his business. William Shakespeare has remained the pioneer artist in the successful use of grotesque. The close reading of the literary career of Shakespeare may prove effective in the discussion of this issue. There are numerous passages in the few selected plays of Shakespeare that contain so many enigmatic passages that reveal the dark corners of the artist’s heart. The comedies like Measure for Measure and All’s Well That Ends Well very reasonably titled as the dark comedies or sombre comedies. These dark comedies of Shakespeare inform the darkness of the artist’s heart. David Moody is not wrong in his obser-

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vation: The epigraph from Measure for Measure locates the Limbo the voice comes from; the dry, barren, blocked situation the old man Inhabits is invaded by promises of rejuvenation, which are grotesque and inadequate; memories of what might have been recreate an illusion whose temptations only under line failure (112).

These enigmatic passages in the sombre plays give the hints of the absurdity of the relevance of such passages if they are really harmonious with the chief argument of the play. The entry of two enigmatic characters in the 154 sonnets of talks much about the dark and unknown corners of Shakespeare’s heart. Scholars have laboured a lot in revealing the truths of the entry of these unknown characters. In a given situation, the unnatural dealing of Petruchio with his wife Catherina in the play Taming of the Shrew can be cited as the most explicit moment of psychic absurdity. In his Critical Companion to William Shakespeare, Charles Boyec has rightly observed it: This forces the audience to think about Petruchio’s ploys rather than simply watch them and emphasizes that Petruchio’s shrew-taming is a kind of education: he teaches Katherina that her evil-tempered ways are not desirable and that another behaviour pattern is superior. He is training Katherina as he would a hawk, as he describes in 4.1.175–198, and the conceit, although comically grotesque, becomes ametaphor for the socializing process ( p-542). Caliban, the half savage and half beast figure in The Tempest is a fleshly version of grotesque.

His blind acceptance of Stephano and Trinculo as heavenly gods is the suitable moment that can be catalogued as the most successful grotesque in Shakespeare. Besides, all the clown characters, their manners, their talks and appearance and unorthodox interpretation of human affairs are enough to authenticate the grotesque in Shakespeare. English as a language had achieved such a rich flavour in the hands of Shakespeare that such expertly managed language had also a bizarre effect in the mind of the audience: Though most Jacobean tragicomedies are obsessed with grotesque rhetoric and bizarre acts of violence, in a fashion far removed from Shakespeare’s work, a number of his plays may nevertheless be classed as tragicomedies in a structural sense, especially Measure for Measure, Cymbeline, and The Winter’s Tale (Boyce, p-928). When night distances itself from the day, today distances itself from the tomorrow, art changes the most accepted face. It assumes a different level. It may not always sound sweet and satisfactory. Bizarre as an art form writes its own genesis. William Shakespeare is the just and the best among his contemporaries to establish bizarre and grotesque as the most accepted face of literature.

III. FRANKENSTEIN AND THE ART OF NEW GROTESQUE Mary Shelley knew well and understood well that experimental science is good. It may bring new possibilities to the development of humankind. Her hero in the novel Frankenstein believed in the very thing and in the immense prospect of modern experimental science. He went too far with this. He started visiting the charnel houses, slaughterhouses and hospitals to understand the each pulsation of human life. He was keen on understanding the secret principles of life. He invested his days and nights in making the creature with his new experimental science. Finally, when the stitches were done and the thunder came as expected. There was born a new creature with yellow and wrinkle skin. The terrible look of the monster frightened the creator himself. He abandoned the creature sooner. The observation of the Da Lacey family by the creature made him bitten with sorrow. His life without a companion was becoming a complete isolation. The creature of Frankenstein was looking for female creature to remove its alienation. The love yearning of the creature is somewhat queer and bizarre. When Frankenstein was making a female companion for the creature, the laboratory smelt strange and blistered. The moment Frankenstein was disarming the prepared female companion at the suggestion of Henry Clerval, laboratory really looked more as blurred figure. In the final scene of the novel, when the monster killed Elizabeth Lavenza, Frankenstein was making the most sincere effort to bring animation in the dead of body of her. Finally, he did it with discontent. The monster came and demanded her as the mistress. In the most pathetic scene, Elizabeth as newly created character ruined herself, though the reason is partially known. Such meaningless and unexplained corners in Frankenstein prepare the right mood for grotesque. Feminist reader like David Punter has smelt the same peculiarity in the bond of the leading characters in Frankenstein.

Despite its overt bond with feminism, the film focuses heavily on the Victor/Creature/Walton/Waldman dynamics. Even the commingling of Waldman’s brain with his murderer's body creates a male/male relationship, just as the female rivalry between Justine and Elizabeth over Victor is grotesquely resolved in the monstrous combined female creature (207).

When the creature of Victor was rejected and alienated by the society and the creator himself, he looked pale, helpless, and most suffered from the sense of the guilt of birth why it had with him. This was the case with Marry Shelley herself. Her mother died just after eleven days of her birth. This entire episode survives itself as painful memory in her life. The misery of Mary and the predicament of the creature might seem equal. One thing is understandable for both. When the creation is rejected by the creator and the daughter with her birth has taken the life of her mother, each day comes as trauma. Each night looks bizarre and grotesque.

IV. OBSCURITY AS GROSTESQUE IN BROWNING “Grotesqueis the mystery we eliminate to create the revolt of simple things, goods, that desire mystery.

Grotesqueis what we become when we seclude ourselves in the suburban community closed to wonder,

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the mechanical mirage of technological comfort”(Bloom, p.11).Obscurity always hangs in the skirt of Brownian dramatic monologues. Browning endeavoured from all absolute corners to contribute in improvising such touch obscurity. In his mostly read poem The Laboratory Browning has created such complex situation.

Once again we encounter a woman with disturbed psyche. A love-starved wife comes to a chemist to prepare a chemical compound. She knows well that husband is hankering after a woman with beautiful face. By preparing such chemical compound she wants to create a beauty-based panic so that her husband does not dare to approach to any other beautiful face. In that case, this deprived woman is proved another woman with strange and odd desire. She looks for an absurd revenge. Such abnormal appetite of this love-starved woman establishes her female gothic, if to the society, at least to her own husband. The Last Rider Together is another poem Browning with the same touch of obscurity. This poem also focuses on the unusual desire of another frustrated male lover. He does not wish marry the woman he really loves. Rather he wishes to ride with her for a moment.

Such unusual desire for riding with the beloved instead of marrying her for ever doubtlessly raises him as a gothic. A Bishop Orders His Tomb deals with the same unusual appetite of a Bishop. The strict profession of the bishop has kept him aloof from the earthly desires. At his death bed he wishes his son to set up tombstone on his grave with a black stone upon it. This black stone will become an eternal plea for the hidden urges of this religious man. This black stone may also suggest the secret erotic desire of this bishop. Here the bishop is a religious man with unusual death wish. This abnormal final wish of the bishop raises him from the common judgement and the wish of ordinary man. Here, the bishop is a religious man with a bizarre desire. “For me, the great modern master of the Grotesque was the now rather neglected Victorian poet Robert Browning (18121889). Our era dumbs down with shocking ferocity, and the neglect of Browning largely reflects his intellectual energy and the authentic, achieved difficulty of his best poems. His particular masterpiece in the Grotesque mode is the superb Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came, a dramatic monologue that is also an internalized quest-romance”(xv).

V. DICKENS AND GROTESQUE IN FEMALE GOTHIC Grotesque may not always ridicule. “Though caricature is traditionally satiric, exaggerating grotesque or ugly features, Dickens did not always employ such exaggeration for ridicule (Davis, p-486). Charles Dickens is a master artist in creating such grotesque situation in literature. He did it successfully and effectively. In his most popular novel Great Expectations he has experimented with this in a female character, Miss Havisham. She was secretly in love with Compeyson. She made up her mind to marry the she loved. On the wedding day she waited for her man to turn up. The man remained absent in that wedding day. Miss Havisham decided her mind to retain her same wedding decorations, same wedding dress, wedding candle, wedding doll, the disordered clock etc. In the time being, she decides to burn the wedding decorations and the wedding dolls. During the heavy rain she did this intentionally. Such intentional action creates enough ground for grotesque. The burnt wedding decorations, wedding dolls and the disordered clock have been picked by literary critics as the suitable moment for grotesque. Whole action of Miss Havisham may sound somewhat absurd and awkward. Her later moves are proved more meaningless and more strangely unknown and unfamiliar. She adopts a girl Estella, and trains her in such a way so that latter can break the hearts of many. One man has broken the heart of Miss Havisham, and she wishes to break the hearts of many taking Estella as tool. Such abnormal desire of punishing the male gets no immediate explanation. Such jealousy may sound strange and unknown. At this juncture, Miss Havisham is proved to be a female gothic. She is a woman who has become a source of fear for the whole male race. In creating fear among the race she experiments successfully when she adopts Pip. Nobody can ever forget the moment when Estella, a budding female gothic prepared by Miss Havisham, heartlessly receives Pip at the castle gate. “Universal made a talking picture in 1934, an adaptation by Gladys Unger directed by Stuart Walker, in which the grotesque elements in the novel are given realistic treatment; Miss Havisham wears her wedding dress, for example, only on each anniversary of the day on which she was jilted”(David, p-147). The treatment of the children in Little Dorrit held another side of grotesque. “These staples of the inheritance plots that produced the happy endings in so many of Dickens’s earlier novels are parodied in the grotesque exaggerations in the story of Arthur’s parentage and the codicil that improbably makes Amy an heiress” (177).

VI. HARDY AND DISTURBED MALE AS GROTESQUE Along with Roman Jacobson, the entire school of Russian formalist believed that every literature talks of the angst of the age. If any good literary artist remains faithful to art, the angst of the age will automatically be reflected. Russian formalists had their complete in the art’s capability of defamiliarization. Successful art cannot create anything new. It is not answer to any crisis. Art is mere imitation. Art is an improvement upon nature.

Successful artists know how to stoop and conquer a moment so that they can present it in its most unknown form with the help of the literary dominants of the concerned age. If orphanism, prostitution, extramarital love, failed marriages were the angst of the Victorian England, Industrialization was the social dominant.

Industrialization ruined the greenness of the agricultural England. It is a great disorder to the natural rule of nature. This great abnormality in nature echoed effectively in the fictional works of Thomas Hardy in the guise

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of human psychic disorder. Far from the Madding Crowd is an early fiction by Hardy and it talks much of this great disorder in human mind. Mr. William Boldwood is a well-to-do gentle, decided to remain unmarried even in his forties. The sudden arrival of valentine letter functions as a spark in the mind of Boldwood. Each day and night appears to him almost as the other sides of misery. His nightmarish experiences of the night come almost as shock to him. One love letter kills the peace of mind of a man. This ruin of peace is a disturbance of human sanity. It is a kind of primordial instability to the male identity which finally becomes the disturbed equilibrium of a confirmed bachelor. A time comes in his life when he is maddened by his unrestrained emotion for Bathsheba and ultimately kills Sergeant Troy. During his asylum days he is proved to be a human being with strange mind. Society calls such human being as grotesque. Charles E. May is very judicious in his observation of Victorian grotesque: In a typical Hardy pastoral novel, such as Far from the Madding Crowd, nature is not divinely ordered, as it is in the classical pastoral. Although on the surface the story seems to fit the pastoral mode—it is set in a rural community, the main character is a shepherd, and the inhabitants seem content with their lives—the clash of Hardy’s atheistic view with the traditional pastoral creates a grotesque inversion of the form. ( Magill’s, p1133). Tess of D’ Urbervilles is another novel by Thomas reminds us of such moment which is beyond explanations. Alec is a young man with evil working within him. Tess is already ruined by him. And in the being, he goes to kiss to Tess and the latter rejects the kiss. At this rejection, he does neither respond nor does he react in anyway. The moment where Alec remains un-responded can be picked as the moment beyond explanation. Hardy in novel has very often proved himself as the most successful maker of grotesque art: Moreover, the accidents and coincidences that dominate the plot have been the source of much critical disagreement, called both the fault of weaknesses in the characters and the result of Hardy’s philosophic determinism, while the framework of magic and superstition that surrounds the action of the work has been termed both grotesque parody and animistic gratuitousness (1135).

VII. EMILY BRONTE AND NIGHTMARISH DREAM AS GROTESQUE Even female writers like Emile Bronte did not far from the air of using grotesque in fiction. In her only Wuthering Heights Mrs Bronte set up the right ambience of creating gothic sentiment. She balanced it well. She utilized old and broken temples as its location. Bloodshed and murder, hide and seek, appearance and disappearance of the ghostly figures are frequently seen in it. They are quite fitting with the purpose. But, the moment she favoured any one of these aforesaid devices gothic crosses boundary of its own, where gothic ends, grotesque begins. Mrs Bronte took a moment from history which was a recent past for him. She accommodated two narrators to picturize the story. Mr. Lockwood is the newcomer tenant in the Wuthering heights. He is the proposed narrator in the novel. In the opening day as newly come tenant in this aforesaid place he saw the vision of a girl who started smothering her hands on broken window glass. The more the hands were bleeding the more intensely she was repeating the same. The episode sounded to Lockwood as somewhat unnatural and gothic.

Gilbert and Gubar are not wrong in their observation: If we understand all the action that takes place at Thrushcross Grange between Edgar, Catherine, and Heathcliff from the moment of Heathcliff’s reappearance until the time of Catherine’s death to be ultimately psychodramatic, a grotesque playing out of Catherine’s emotional fragmentation on a “real” stage, then further discussion of her sometimes genteelly Victorian, sometimes fiercely Byronic decline becomes almost unnecessary, its meaning is so obvious (p-60).

The deeper brooding over such kind incident will madden anybody. The revenge motives of Heathcliffe will never sound to any as expected and a poetic justice. He is a slum, who was wronged his childhood. The maltreated childhood gifted such manhood with grotesque kind of mind. His intention marrying Isabella instead of Catherine, his beloved is another unnatural response of mind. Nancy Armstrong observed the same: “Given that the family history in this novel is also a genealogy of political myths, this grotesque combination of features can only represent what results from the interpenetration of capitalism and the process of dynastic succession”(99).

VIII. ELIOT AND THE ART OF GROTESQUE Some critics have identified modernism the spirit of which is essentially comic and grotesque. In Eliot “the seductive power of life, for example, finds its own parody and grotesque debasement in the seductive power of sexuality for sexuality’s sake” (Murphy, p- 466). Eliot made the thorough use of poetry to establish grotesque as standard form of art that can give literature a better flavour. The Prelude by Eliot is the most successful poem in the matter of establishing the authenticity of grotesque as art. It was a foggy evening, says Eliot. The streets were less peopled or half deserted. Lonely men in shirts and sleeve were seen smelling the nocturnal odour of the evening. Streetwalkers were making some gossips. The drizzling rain of the evening added extra flavour to the oddity of the atmosphere. A lonely cabhorse was resting by the wallside. The skin of it was spouted with rain. Eliot’s “strategy indeed exploits the disjunction between wanting and doing, and, by exploiting it consciously, pushes sentiment and melodrama into irony and the grotesque”(Moody,p-110). Eliot as a modernist experimented a lot with the technical qualities of modern poetry. Such experimentation finally upgraded the

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standard of modernist poetry. What configures a successful modern poetry is its technical innovation and newness. Allusion, intertextuality, backgounding, foregrounding, imagism etc are so rampant in the poetry of Eliot.

Who can say? The overuse of such innovative technique and newness has created a sense of burden. This very feeling of burden has generated a new pace in modernist poetry. This gives birth of new sense of feeling of beauty, which is peculiar and to some extent grotesque. In Eliot technical newness and ‘the tissue of allusion and quotation becomes too heavy for the burden of meaning and replaces it with something merely grotesque and disgusting’ (Moody,p-115). The death of the drowned Phinician sailor, in The Waste Land, is both poetry and a peculiar charm. At the same time, this alludes to the macabre end of the businesspersons who were headed fully by trade and commerce. Eliot executed the same ‘the grotesque intensity of every element in Sweeney’ (p173). In Sweeney, Eliot experiment a lot even with the musical and sonorous quality. This trick did a miracle for him. The richness and cadences of Sweeney are ‘at times arrested by snatches of rich melody rising from the general grotesqueness with an effect as much of oddity as of beauty, as if saxophones were suddenly soaring in ecstasy’ (Howard, p-265).

IX. CONCLUSION Grotesque as an art form might have been experimented first in the field of painting. The greater serious concentration on the grotesque has widened the horizon of its use. In our days, the use of grotesque has become inter-artistic. Other branches of learning have liberally accepted grotesque as temporal relief from the chronic boredom of description and narration. By the word relief, I simply mean a kind of improvement through refreshments. All good literature is an improvement upon the existing look that everything has. Some Russian formalist might have discovered another possibility here in the very making of grotesque. Defamiliarization is the word that my argument hints. As it is deeply believed by the Formalist that genuine literature cannot create anything new. If literature is an improvement upon the existing thing, defamiliarization is the easiest way that any artist can look for. A diabetes patient becomes an old familiar face to a dewdrop. However, an artist notices a dewdrop, imitates it, and then makes an improvement upon it by defamiliarizing the familiar. The grotesque presentations of human situations in literature seem me more than reality-effect. This is made possible when we feel that even grotesque is also a kind of partial defamiliarization of the familiar. What happens when a thing is presented as grotesque? A grotesque is both defamiliarization of the familiar and distortion of the fair. Therefore, the presentations of the grotesque moments in literature really teach and surprise us like a lamppost with two lights different colours that removes the mist and penetrates the retina.

Works Cited [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33]

Ackroyd, Peter.T. S. Eliot: A Life.New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984. Print.

Barasch, Frances K. The Grotesque. Paris: Mouton, 1971. Print.

Bloom, Harold, ed.Charles Dickens. New York: Chelsea House, 2006. Web. Bloom, Harold, ed.The Grotesque. New York: Bloom’s Literary Introduction, 2009. Web. Bradley, Andrew Cecil. Shakespearean Tragedy. Cleveland: World, 1964.print.

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Coleridge’s Criticism of Shakespeare. Edited by R. A. Foakes. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1989.

Cooper, John Xiro.The Cambridge Introduction to T. S. Eliot. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Web. Drakakis, John, ed. Alternative Shakespeares. New York: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, 1985.print.

Drew, Philip.The Poetry of Browning: A Critical Introduction. London: Methuen, 1970. Print.

Dutton, Richard, and Jean E. Howard, eds.A Companion to Shakespeare’s Works. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2003.web.

Frank, Katherine. A Chainless Soul: A Life of Emily Brontë.Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990. Print.

Fripp, Edgar I. Shakespeare, Man and Artist. 2vols. London: Oxford University Press, 1938.print.

Glen, Heather, ed.The Cambridge Companion to the Brontës. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.web.

Guerard, Albert, ed. Hardy: A Collection of Critical Essays.Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963. Print.

Hawlin, Stefan.The Complete Critical Guide to Robert Browning. New York: Routledge, 2002. Print.

Jones, Peter. Reading Ovid: Stories from the “Metamorphoses.” New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Print.

Jordan, John O.The Cambridge Companion to Charles Dickens. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Web. Kayser, Wolfgang. The Grotesque in Art and Literature. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1963. Print.

Kiely, Robert. “Frankenstein: Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley.” In The Romantic Novel in England, pp. 155-73. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972. Web. Kramer, Dale, ed.The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Hardy. Cambridge, England: The University Press, 1999. Web. Knox, Peter E. Oxford Readings in Ovid. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Print.

Meindl, Dieter, American Fiction and the Metaphysics of the Grotesque. Columbia: University of Missouri Press,1996. Web. Mellor, Anne K. Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters. New York and London: Routledge, 1988. Print.

Meyer, Michael J., ed. Literature and the Grotesque.Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995.Web. Muir, Kenneth. Last Periods of Shakespeare, Racine, and Ibsen. Liverpool, Eng.: Liverpool University Press, 1961.print.

Northey, Margot. The Haunted Wilderness: The Gothic and Grotesque in Canadian Fiction.Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976. Print.

Page, Norman, ed.Oxford Reader’s Companion to Hardy. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2000. Print.

Rubenstein, Marc A. “‘My Accursed Origin’: The Search for the Mother in Frankenstein.”Studies in Romanticism15, no. 2 (spring 1976): 165-94. Web. Sanders, Andrew. Charles Dickens. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.print.

Schoenbaum, Samuel.William Shakespeare: A Documentary Life.New York: Oxford University Press, 1975. Print.

Seymour, Miranda. Mary Shelley. New York: Grove Press, 2000. Web. Spurgeon, Caroline. Shakespeare’s Imagery.Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1975. Print.

Tate, Allen, ed.T. S. Eliot: The Man and His Work. New York: Delacorte Press, 1966. Print.

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80-85 [34] [35] [36] [37] [38]

Thomas, Ronald R. “Demons and Disease in Frankenstein.” In Dreams of Authority: Freud and the Fictions of the Unconscious, pp. 81-99. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990.web.

Torgerson, Beth E.Reading the Brontë Body: Disease, Desire, and the Constraints of Culture. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. Web. Wells, Stanley, and Lena Cowen Orlin.Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.web.

Wells, Stanley, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies.Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1986.web.

Wilde, Oscar. The Picture of Dorian Gray, Ed. D. Lawler, New York, Norton, 1987. Print.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

Abortion: A Study Based on Case-Studies of South 24-Parganas, West Bengal Arunima Dhar Assistant Professor Vidyasagar School of Social Work, Vidyasagar University, DD-18/4/1, Salt Lake City, Kolkata-700064, West Bengal, INDIA Abstract: Abortion is a public health issue. Abortion may be induced or spontaneous, but influences an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life in many aspects and the society at a larger context. This study is an attempt to understand the socio-cultural aspects of abortion which influence women's abortion seeking behaviour and their pathways of seeking services. The paper is based on six different case studies covering both spontaneous and induced abortion. It also tried to explore the possible situation. It has thrown light on how the abortion seeking behaviour of the individuals are influenced; it is also an effort to explore the different factors with the preference for traditional unqualified providers and the reasons for accessing this type of service. Finally the paper has been synthesized with some suggestions and recommendations for further research.

Keywords: abortion, induced abortion, spontaneous abortion, service provider, reproductive health, high risk

I. Introduction From time to time, the perspective of abortion has changed worldwide with respect to social and political structure. Abortion is considered as a sensitive issue; perhaps it has become the 'most divisive women's health issue' for policy makers and planners (Babu, Nidhi, & Verma, 1998). Different religious views also influence abortion and the various action pertaining to it (Duggal & Barge, 2004). The reason behind it lies on the multifaceted effect of abortion on the structure and functions of our society. Yet abortion is not merely an

issue of political and legal conflict but of social, cultural and moral conflict as well (Jesani & Iyer, 1993).

Studies on spontaneous abortion reveal the beliefs, attitudes and practices of the family as well as the women who have undergone spontaneous abortion. In addition, studies on women undergone induced abortion reveal the abortion seeking behaviour of the beneficiaries and their families. Typically both are linked to a set of myth and beliefs, therefore various taboos are associated with their actions.

The alarming effect of induced abortion, also known as 'sex-selective' abortion is clearly reflected when 2001 and 2011 census is compared. Children under 6, there are only 914 girls per 1000 boys whereas 927 girls per 1000 boys were found in the last census, i.e. 2011 census report (Contractor, 2011). A qualitative study based on eight different studies of different geographical area has pointed out the different reasons for abortion seeking behaviour; for example- abortion as an instrument to limit the family size and maintain spacing of the children, non-use as well as failure of contraceptives, different perceptions regarding the use of contraceptives, abortion perceived as a safe instrument, abortion as an instrument for desired sex composition of children, abortion as a measure to better economic situation, physical and psychological violence etc (Visaria, Ramachandran, Ganatra, & Kalyanwala). Additionally, complications of spontaneous abortion also contribute to maternal morbidity; an estimated five percent of pregnancies in India end in spontaneous abortion (Banerjee, Andersen, & Warvadekar, 2012). Undoubtedly, abortion study has occupied the importance in the area of public health.

II. Objective The objective of the study is primarily intended towards providing a better understanding of the abortion seeking behaviour of the married respondents who have undergone either type of abortions. The assumption used here is that there are different socio-cultural factors associated to that particular action, therefore the attitudes and experiences in different medical abortion services vary. Besides this, the study intends to give an in-depth understanding of the different trends associated with abortion.

III. Methodology The study was conducted in two villages, namely- Ramnagar and Dulalpur of Bishnupur Block II, South 24 Parganas, West Bengal. Respondents were identified with the help of the local health worker of that particular

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block. To understand the above mentioned objectives, about thirty three women were selected for the interview.

The recall period was followed as two years at the most. Snowball sampling technique was used to reach the desired number of respondents to form the sample. Only those women who were married and consented to be interviewed were included for the in-depth interviews. The focus of the study was to ensure collection of qualitative data regarding the respondents' experience. Therefore the sample size was kept limited. A semistructured interview schedule was used as a tool to collect the data.

IV. Findings and discussion Findings from the in depth interviews reported here yield considerable insight into the context of abortion and its related issues among women in the study area. Contrary to general impressions about abortion seeking behaviour and services, the study evidenced the strong decision making role of the women regarding this particular issue. It is an effort to add depth and contextuality to the particular issue; six different case studies have been presented below.

Case -1 Interviews revealed that myths and superstitions influence the perception regarding abortion and different actions associated to it.

I have been married to Mr. Abusuddin since a year; 'everything is fine, I don't have anything to complain'.

(Runa Bibi, Muslim, 18 years old, works as daily labour in bidi making, Dulalpur, South 24 Parganas) Later from her grandmother it came out that Runa used to work for bidi making in Abusuddin's house. As time passed by they started liking each other and developed a relationship. Later they got indulged into a physical relationship; Runa became pregnant but she feared to face the worst situation and felt shameful and ultimately kept quiet for five months. When the situation became worse, she had to confess. Both the families could not accept the relationship. The Gram Pradhan was involved in the situation and finally they got married. Ruma gave birth to a premature low birth weight (LBW) baby-boy.

Ruma spoke out, 'my mother in law started misbehaving with me and never used to let me touch my son. One day while I was working in the kitchen, I heard my baby crying and came running. But my mother in law did not allow me to go near him until I finished all my kitchen work. When I came back, I found my baby lying silently'.

Ruma broke down in tears and continued; 'After the death of my son, fear got embedded in my mind and I started getting bad dreams. So when I conceived once again, my family members gave me a 'Tabiz' (a type of lucky charm) so that no harm could come to me. It had imposed a type of restrictions on me; I wasn't supposed to go to any 'Asauj' (grief ceremony) or be near anyone who was in 'Asauj'. When I was carrying for two months, my sister in law who had a new baby of couple days and was suffering from 'Asauj' unintentionally entered my room; that night I started bleeding and had a spontaneous abortion. Later on my relatives also explained to me that I am paying for all the curse of the elders while I got married and having such tragedies in my life.

Case -2 Interviews with women also suggested that strong preference for male child, decision making role of the husbands and poor economic condition are critical factors which influence the occurrence of abortion I had eloped with Insan and got married at an early age of 14 years. I got pregnant on the same year and continued to have a good relationship with my husband. But after the delivery of my first daughter, he turned to be very harsh towards me and started listening to his mother and at the same time started ignoring me. Two years after my daughter's birth, I became pregnant again. During my second pregnancy, my husband misbehaved with me and used to beat me. The baby boy died after an hour of the delivery. I never adopted any family planning method and had lost my menstrual cycle once more by the ninth month. The pregnancy test proved that I was carrying. When I was in my early second trimester, my husband beat me up and I started bleeding. It continued for two to three weeks but I wasn't allowed to consult any doctor. I never adopted any family planning method. After this spontaneous abortion, I had started taking 'Sukhi' pills for five to six months but when my husband came to know about it, he opposed and I stopped taking it, fearing about him misbehaving with me. I might go for just one more male child which is also preferred for betterment of my economic condition and then willing to go for any type of family planning method. (Asmina Bibi, Muslim, 22 years old, illiterate, annual family income about Rs.14000) Case -3 It is also noted that abortions which took place later in the pregnancy have put the women at higher risk of post abortion complications and reproductive health problemsI have a love marriage but both the families had opposed to this marriage. I had attempted suicide and Bapi went against his family. Later both the families accepted our marriage. When I was pregnant for the first time, I

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wasn't sure about my pregnancy as I used to have irregular menstruation cycle. The delivery took place at home and was attended by Auxiliary Nurse Midwifery (ANM). My menstruation cycle started at the very next month of my delivery. Again by the third month after my first delivery, I started feeling giddy and started throwing up. I was in my second trimester when I fell down and had a spontaneous abortion. The bleeding continued for couple of days and wasn't stopping. Later Bapi took me to a doctor at Amtala without informing the other family members. As long as I remember, the doctor had applied something inside my uterine and had to take out some flesh from inside with an instrument and had prescribed me with some capsules of Rs.200 worth. I had to continue with the medications for couple of months until I felt better and was able to control the sudden bleeding and abdominal pain. (Latika Mistri, Hindu, 18 years old, completed VI grade, home maker) Case -4 Women who experienced abortion reported that two main factors, i.e. cost consideration and confidential environment played an important role in choosing abortion servicesI had an arrange marriage with Mr. Kalimuddin Molla when I was 15 years old. I became pregnant within six months of my marriage. Within 13 years of marriage, I gave birth to six children; three daughters and three sons. Their ages are 13 years, 11 years, 10 years, 9 years, 8 years and 3 years, respectively. All of my deliveries were full term normal deliveries. In all the cases, the deliveries took place at home, attended by untrained dais.

After the birth of my youngest son, I started taking 'Sukhi pills' as a contraceptive. Before that no one told me about family planning. Since I wasn't regular in taking my pills, I conceived once again. Cooperated by my parents and without the concern of my husband, I went and aborted my two months pregnancy. Later I convinced my husband saying that it might be difficult to run a big family and my husband agreed to the fact.

The cost for the abortion service was Rs. 700 which my parents had provided for me. It was easy and economical to go to the local hospital for the same service but we preferred to go to the private doctor as they were more comfortable and had a lady doctor there. My parents were ready to pay more to provide me a confidential environment for abortion service. (Ajmira Bibi, 28 years, Muslim, illiterate, daily labour) Case -5 Yet another factor that is lack of awareness about better medical facilities for abortion care was also pointed out, influencing the abortion seeking behaviourI had lost my mother when I was three years old and my father also passed away when I was 13 years old. My uncle and my grandfather got me married to Ansar Mallick of Ramnagar very next year. After nine months of my marriage, I conceived for the first time. Now I have two daughters (16 years and 7 years old) and two sons (13 years and 10 years old). After giving birth to my fourth child, I had started taking medicines prescribed by the quacks as a family planning method. While continuing with the family planning medications, I conceived once again. I was feeling helpless and didn't know whom to go and see. My neighbours suggested to see a doctor at Bibirhut for Rs. 60 and get an abortion but weren't sure about the doctor's chamber. Later on I went to Rashidadadi, a local untrained dai and got it aborted. (Yasmina Bibi, 31 years, muslim, illiterate, daily labour) Case -6 The preference for traditional unqualified provider was quite high; especially for the second or higher parity women who always have the preference for male child; following the restrictions laid by professionals was another reason to avoid institutional careI was married at an early age, I was only 13 years old when I got married to Mr. Surat Seikh. My parents had started searching a groom for me before I reached my puberty. I had my menstrual cycle only once when I got married. By the end of the seventh month of my marriage, I conceived, I gave birth to a full term baby girl. Since it was my first pregnancy, my in-laws had taken me to the nearby private doctor. After a year and a half of my delivery, I became pregnant again. This time my in-laws also expected a son and took me to the quack. I had my younger daughter at home by an untrained dai. I thought not to conceive again and started using birth control pills. But when my family came to know about it, they asked me to stop taking them-" If you get a male child, we don't want you to have any more children". I conceived again and during my fourth month of pregnancy, one day at around 2.30 am, I started bleeding. I took 'shikor'(root) to prevent the flow but it continued. I had consulted Dr. Nantu, a local practioner (quack) who gave me medicines and the bleeding stopped only after three weeks. When asked the reason for not opting institutional care, Miskina added" How will I manage to go for the 'operation'? Even though my in-laws are there at home, they won't be able to let me rest for a longer period. Who will do all the household chores? (Miskina Bibi, 20 years, Muslim, primary educated, homemaker) V. Conclusion Due to the small size of the sample, it is not possible to generalize the issues related to abortion. But the attempt to bring out different issues and have a better insight to the situation, would obviously give immense

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opportunity for further research in this area. The study depicts different factors played important role in different situation related to abortion seeking behaviour, attitude and practice. For the convenience of the understanding, it is presented as follows Understanding the root problem......

In most of the cases, women were the sole authority to take decision regarding abortion; in some cases, the decision was made along with the husbands. A woman may make the decision to abort a pregnancy but often the decision-making role was taken by husbands, mothers-in-law or other household members. Decision makers may support a womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s choice, pressure her for an abortion or raise objection.

The preference for the 'quacks' leads to the situation of unsafe abortion, endangering the health and life of the women. Still the preference was quite high as they were usually within the reach of the women, reachable in terms of geographical location and after all relatively affordable. Therefore, respondents had developed strong linkages with the 'quacks' or local doctors to access the easy way of abortion, which, on the other hand, was cost effective. Sometimes these quacks were female service providers which again made it a better choice for the women to go for it.

Poor quality of care including poor support by the families during abortion and post abortion care, makes the situation difficult for the women to seek institutional care in regard to abortion care services. Moreover, lack of knowledge and lack of proper facilities to handle abortion care was another challenge that women in that area had to face. ....therefore effectively handling the issueCounseling and referral are important services that need proper emphasis while providing services. The provision of information is important in providing quality care for abortion services; for example- advising in regard to daily routine of the married couple, follow-up services of abortion care, contraceptive use, couple therapy regarding reproductive health etc. Irrespective of the type of abortion, both must ensure service delivery in a confidential environment; again pre and post abortion service, both need special attention. Spontaneous abortion needs appropriate counseling and deserves to get option on fertility treatment. Both the types of abortion have evidenced heavy bleeding and unbearable pain. Proper mapping of referral services, in case of any complications, is also very important.

To combat the poor level of awareness, it is important to expand the community-based education on women's reproductive health through right-based approach. Women along with their husbands and family members should form the target population to break down the superstitions and myths associated with abortion care to serve the community. The study prevailed that women were quite aware about the complications of abortion, but that reason did not stop them to go for abortion. Therefore this situation needs special attention too. Different stakeholders of abortion services should also be included in the target group, ensuring awareness at different level.

The stigma attached to abortion is the result of the poor perception and different superstitions; the cultural aspects of our society, like-strong preference for son still exists in families. This particular aspect affects the route of service path; women prefers to choose the easy way of consulting local doctors and try to get rid of the pregnancy, with or without determining the sex of the unborn to avoid any unfavourable situation and give poor importance to their health. This issue cannot be neglected and needs prior attention. Training and advocacy in this area should be practiced without wasting any time. Therefore the study would be helpful for local advocacy at different levels to promote safe and accessible practices of abortion services.

Bibliography [1] [2]

[3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

Babu, N. P., Nidhi, & Verma, R. K. (1998). Abortion in India: What does the National Family Health Survey tell us? The Journal of Family Welfare , 44 (4), 45-54.

Banerjee, S. K., Andersen, K. L., & Warvadekar, J. (2012). Pathways and consequences of unsafe abortion: A comparison among women with complications after induced and spontaneousabortions in Madhya Pradesh, India. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics , 118 (Supplement 2), 113-120.

Contractor, S. (2011, July-September). Abortion and sex selection: Contentious issues in the campaign against sex selection. The Urban World, special issue on sex selection and PCPNDT act , 4 (3), pp. 13-17.

Duggal, R., & Barge, S. (2004). Abortion Services in India Report of a Multicentric enquiry. Mumbai: CEHAT. Jesani, A., & Iyer, A. (1993, November 27). Women and Abortion. Economic and Political Weekly , 2591-94.

Johnston, H. B. (2002). Abortion Practice in India a review of lierature. Mumbai: Centre for Enquiry into Health and Allied Themes (CEHAT).

Visaria, L., Ramachandran, V., Ganatra, B., & Kalyanwala, S. Abortion in India: Emerging Issues from the Qualitative Studies.

Cehat.Mumbai: Cehat.

Williams, M. E. (Ed.). (2002). Abortion Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, CA, USA: Greenhaven Press, Inc.

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ISSN (Print): 2328-3734, ISSN (Online): 2328-3696, ISSN (CD-ROM): 2328-3688 AIJRHASS is a refereed, indexed, peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary and open access journal published by International Association of Scientific Innovation and Research (IASIR), USA (An Association Unifying the Sciences, Engineering, and Applied Research)

The impact of Interior Design in educational spaces for children with Autism Dr. Inas Hosny Ibrahim Anous Lecturer / Department of Interior design and Furniture Faculty of Applied Arts / Helwan University Arab Republic of Egypt Abstract: Many descriptions of autism describe people like as “not wanting contact with others” or “preferring to live alone” , how can interior design intervenes to affect on the autistic behavior ? Interior design, as profession, is responsible for creating environments that accommodate the needs of all types of users. Special needs individuals should not be exempt from such accommodation. Without any doubt, autism is one of the most complex disorders Medicine and Psychology have confronted.Interior designers play an important role in creating spaces that may help individuals with Autism better understand their place in the environment with spatial designs sensitive to their needs. Learning environment is important in promoting the development of autistic children. Environments can attract and timulate their interest when they participate skill enhancing activities. This research gives an overview of the different approaches to designing learning environment and illustrates the environmental factors , special design considerations concerning various space which enhance autistic children’s development for a better future of individuals with autism.

Keywords: Autism, Autism Spectrum Disorders , Autism Friendly Design, Sensory design, Educational Spaces for Autism.

I. Introduction The interior design for buildings of autistic users is a major topic for research. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, one in every 88 children is affected by autism. Autistic behavior is characterized by repetitive behavior, limited communication skills, challenges in social interaction and introversion,Creating an appropriate environment plays a significant role in the overall success of the behevior, education and care of individuals affected by autism. Autism may be a result of a malfunction in sensory perception, so the sensory environment and its relationship to autistic behavior seems to be the key that designing for autism revolves around. “Nuero-Typical” approach and "the Sensory Design Theory" are the two polar opposite approaches to designing for autism .

II. Research problem The Research problem is related to the lack of research which discuss the impact of interior design on the behavior of autistic patients. Failure to apply the correct interior design criteria in the small number of centers which will reflect negatively on the development of an autistic child's behavior.

III. Research objectives This research aims to illustrate the impact of interior design elements on autistic behavior, study the interior design criteria and special design considerations for Children with autism care centers to be appropriate therapeutic environment for them, Shed light on this marginalized group of society and give it the attention it deserves. Extend a bridge of communication between patient with autism and the world around him in order to adapt to the community, participate in it for a better quality of life of those individuals.

IV. Methodology The paper is divided into five sections: the first explains some Fundamental concepts about Autism. The second includes the interior design considerations in buildings for people with Autism .The third section gives an overview about the most recent design approaches for Autism treatment centers and educational spaces. The fourth section explains two cases studies for famous schools for autism. The last sections discuss how to design an ASD friendly learning spaces including Classroom Design, Specialized Therapy Spaces and Outdoor Learning Spaces. The researcher follow the inductive approach through access to the latest scientific literature and websites related to the subject of research and the analytical approach by the study and the analysis of the interior design of some projects for autism.

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V. General concepts about Autism A. What is Autism?

[AW-TIZ-UHM] from Greek"Autos: SELF. Autism is a complex neurobehavioral disorder characterized by impairment in reciprocal social interaction, impairment in communication, and the presence of repetitive and stereotypic patterns of behaviors, interests and activities [1]. In addition, sufferers often struggle with sensory sensitivity to visual, auditory, tactile, proprioceptive, gustatory and olfactory stimuli. Some sufferers may be able to live relatively independently, others will require lifelong continuous support [2]. Autism is regarded as the most severe psychiatric syndrome of early childhood. Because the disease cannot be fully treated, the autistic child becomes the autistic adult, its condition depending on the severity of the syndrome and mostly on the treatment process. Since any person will spend about 75% of his life as an adult, the task of autism treatment is to prepare children to gain independence and to insure integration into society [3]. Autism can be obviously seen when children are three years old. The severity of impairment varies from individual to individual , this can be categorized into three levels: mild autism, moderate autism and severe autism. Autism of each level leads to various behaviors and different levels of sensory perception impairment [4]. Although autism affects the functions of the brain, the specific cause is not known [5]. Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD) became the usual name of what we know, generally speaking, as autism.[ 6] . In 1970 and 1980, the rate of autism was one out of every 2000 children. Now the centers for Disease control and prevention (CDC 2013) estimates the rate is closer to 1 out of every 50 children in the United States [7] B. Autism Spectrum Disorder( ASD) Autism is not a single disorder, but a spectrum of closely-related disorders with a shared core of symptoms [8].

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is an increasingly popular term that refers to a broad definition of autism including the classic form of the disorder as well as closely related disabilities that share many of the core characteristics. Although the classic form of autism can be readily distinguished from other forms of ASD, the terms autism and ASD are often used interchangeably [5]. Autism is a spectrum disorder, meaning that there is a wide degree of variation in the way it affects people. Every child on the autism spectrum has unique abilities, symptoms, and challenges [8].

C. The Autist person ( who is the autist) “Is autistic that person to whom other people become opaque and unpredictable, that person who lives like absent –mentally absent– towards people present, and whose conduct these latter feel incompetent to rule by means of communication” [9].

D. The logo of autism The logo of Autism is puzzle, because Puzzle indicates the mystery and complexity of Autism; Each puzzle piece indicates the children with Autism waiting to complete the picture and give it a meaning. Each puzzle piece is different and unique but gives a meaning when put together properly in the big picture. It indicates the diversity of the individuals effected with Autism [10].

E. Autism Symptoms The severity, frequency, and grouping of the following symptoms will determine where (if at all) an individual will fall on the autism spectrum ; Repetitive behaviors (may want to watch the same program over and over again). Unresponsive to commands or questions ("in their own world"). Delayed speech & language development (non-verbal, especially by age 3). Lack of imitation of others or imaginative play. Indifferent to the feelings of others. Hypersensitivity to light & sound (covers ears when music is played or covers eyes when going outside).Self-stimulatory behaviors (e.g., rocking, jumping up and down, hand flapping).

Echolalia (Repetition or echoing of a word or phrase just spoken by another person). Unusual emotional responses (inappropriate laughing or crying). Frequent temper tantrums / meltdowns. Responds adversely to physical affection, hugs, kisses, etc. shows no interest in making friends. Does not initiate conversation. Very poor diet (may eat only starches). Frequently walks on tip-toes as a toddler. Socially withdrawn or socially awkward. Shows little expressive language. Clumsiness (falls or trips often). Improper use of pronouns, statements, and questions. Unusual tone or rhythm of speech. Self Injurious Behavior (head banging, scratching/biting self). Frequently makes irrelevant remarks. Difficulty with abstract language and concepts. Be preoccupied with one or only a few narrow interests. Need for sameness (adheres to routines).Severe tantrums when routines are disrupted. Shows an attachment to unusual objects such as car parts, branches, leaves, etc. Fascination with spinning objects or spinning one’s self. Very good at rote memory tasks such as repeating lists of items or facts [5].

F. The triad of Autism impairments People with autism see that the world, is a mass of people, places and events which they struggle to make sense of, and which can cause them considerable anxiety. The characteristics of autism vary from one person to another but are generally divided into three main groups: Difficulty with social communication, Difficulty with social interaction, Difficulty with social imagination. The first impairment means that people with autism have difficulties with both verbal and non-verbal language. Many have a very literal understanding of language, and

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think people always mean exactly what they say .The second impairment means that people with autism often have difficulty recognising or understanding other people's emotions and feelings, and expressing their own, which can make it more difficult for them to fit in socially. The third impairment means that people with autism find it hard to: understand and interpret other people's thoughts, feelings and actions, predict what will happen next, understand the concept of danger [11].

G. Three theories explaining Autism (1)Theory of mind: Consider that people with autism lack a “Theory of Mind”, so that they are incapable of assigning mental states (emotions, thoughts, etc.) to other people. This absence of a Theory of Mind would explain, social impairments observed in people with ASD and the difficulty to participate in a normal social interaction.(2)Theory of central coherence: considers people with autism would present an impairment of the cerebral mechanism that confers coherence to the wide range of stimuli we receive.(3)Theory of executive functions: considers that people with autism lack control over these executive functions. This impairment would also be the origin of stereotyped and repetitive behaviours, which would not be correctly governed by an executive or supervisory system[4].

VI. Interior Design Parameters in buildings for people with Autism A. The eighteen ‘design parameters’ by Khare & Mullick Children with autism are found in all countries in the world of different cultural expectations, different attitudes to education and disability and very different levels of resources [12 ].A study by Khare & Mullick in 2009 identifies eighteen ‘design parameters’ that defines the enabling environment for autism and acts as a measurable quantity in the study [13]:(1) Provide Physical Structure: organize environment with clear visual and physical boundaries. These will help to create a definite context for each activity in association with a given space .(2) Maximize Visual Structure: organize visual environment by means of concrete visual cues. This would comprise aspects as colour coding, numbers, signs, labels, etc.[9](3) Provide Visual Instructions: is a way of giving necessary instructions or sequence of steps to follow an activity, using visual mode[13].(4) Offer Opportunities for Community Participation refer to involvement in the community activities in every day occupations.(5) Present Opportunities for Parent Participation: involves parents in school activities, thus aiding to address pupils’ educational needs.(6) Present Opportunities for Inclusion: provides an environment for children with autism that allows them to interact with their peers.(7) Maximize Future Independence: an environment that supports self help, domestic, vocational and independent living training help children with autism to live with dignity in future. (8) Offer Generous Space Standards: these will help children with autism to face social demands, since they are rather wary about their personal space.(9) Provide Withdrawal Spaces: quiet areas in which pupils with autism can retire to avoid or mitigate the stress they can feel in certain moments, when they are in spaces where socially demanding situations may occur [14].(10) Maximize Safety: refers to minimizing threats to the pupil within the school buildings due to their own condition, including, in many cases, the misperception of dangers. For safety in educational environment there may be concerns for escapes, sharp edges ,non toxic materials etc.(11)Maximize Comprehension: clear arrangement of spaces, direct routes between them, neat zoning, use of simple forms, and uncluttered interiors help children with autism to perceive –and to apprehend– their school environment.(12)Maximize Accessibility: impairments in movement coordination and balance, epilepsy, restricted attention span, and other difficulties demand that the building be physically accessible.(13)Provide Assistance: Majority of the children with autism need aide in regular classroom, for 1:1 teaching, parallel teaching or group teaching, and a good numbers of teaching assistants are present in the teaching spaces with the lead teacher.(14) Maximize durability and minimize maintenance costs: equipment, furnishing, fixtures, fittings, and materials and systems in general should be durable –especially taking into account possible aggressions and misuse by pupils– and require little and inexpensive maintenance. This is possible when architects design easy to clean surfaces, robust finishes, strong furniture and equipments and fittings, those are serviceable and cheap to replace. (15) Minimize Sensory Distractions: interior designer through his design has control over this input and he can design calm and Least Distractible Environment conducive to learning. (16) Provide Sensory Integration: include multisensory stimuli within the environment, providing opportunities to roll, jump, spin, as well as vibrations, music, visual experiences.(17) Provide Flexibility: environment has to be flexible enough to accommodate a wide range of functional skills and different teaching paradigms.(18) Provide Monitoring for Assessment and Planning : it is necessary to control or monitor pupils with the lesser degree of distraction and intrusion, in order to assess them, grant their safety and plan activities, teaching strategies, etc [14], [9], [13]. Environmental factors such as cultural acceptance, early intervention and educational programs have already been shown to substantially improve the quality of life for those on the autism spectrum [15].

B. The eight ‘design criteria’ by Simon Humphreys Simon Humphreys,an architect with a wide range of experience in designing for autism, including designing a home for his brother who has autist.Humphreys (2008) sketches a variety of criteria to be considered when designing buildings for people with ASD.(1) Calm, Order and Simplicity .(2) Minimal Detail and Materials. (3)

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Proportion .(4) Natural Light . (5) Proxemics: individuals with ASD may need more space for social relationships, and this has to be taken into account in the design process –including classrooms, corridors, halls, dining-rooms.(6) Containment: this concept refers to the need to monitor children with ASD, but, simultaneously, to the opportunity for them to wander ,create a safe place where a child with ASD can walk freely. (7) Observation: as noted before, this will fulfil the need of supervision, but avoiding, at the same time, excessive intrusion in the child’s activities or interactions.(8) Acoustics: people with ASD often have to make an enormous effort to differentiate sounds, and are more sensitive than other people to noises. The acoustic properties of materials and constructive elements and systems must be taken into account [9].

Thomas Bewick Autism School by Humphreys The architect Humphreys designed the Thomas Bewick Autism School in Newcastle, United Kingdom''Fig.1'' .

The idea was that the Junior and Senior schools are separated by the main communal and administration departments. The classrooms for each school are located off a courtyard, defined by the Golden Spiral. It is this courtyard that provides a constant source of reference when you circulate around the building or exit a classroom. The intention being that you are always connected with this source of reference and able to easily locate yourself at any point within the building therefore providing a source for calm, order and clarity [16].

A B

Fig. 1: Fig 1 a shows the plan of Thomas Bewick Autism School by Humphreys . It is an all age specialist provision in Newcastle upon Tyne for children and young people with autism (3-19 years) Fig 1.b: The diagram at the right shows the golden spiral in operation creating a series of rectangles which can be used in plan and section. This proportion can help achieve well balanced spaces.

VII. Recent Design Approaches for Autism Treatment Centers and Educational Spaces Present design methods for autism treatment centers concentrate either on skill development (Sensory Design Theory) [17] or rigid adaptation to day-to-day circumstances (Neuro-Typical Approach) [ 18]. In accordance with treatment plans, the two major design approaches have been created, both based on the perception issues of people with autism, and also possessing features almost opposite to one another [19].we must first discuss about Sensory Integration and relation between Autism and Sensory environment.

A. Sensory Integration and Sensory environment A.1 Definition of Sensory Integration Autistic children frequently have difficulties with sensory integration which are the senses that are experienced through sight, touch, sound, taste and smell [20].Sensory integration is the organizing of all the information that comes in from the senses. In conclusion , sensory integration is a child-directed, sensory enriched therapy that depends upon a specialized environment. It can be both playful and fun, while being active and flexible. Most therapists consider it to be both an art and a science [21]. Sensory processing refers to our ability to take in information through our senses (touch, movement, smell, taste, vision, and hearing), organize and interpret that information, and make a meaningful response [22].

A.2 Autism and Sensory environment The key to designing for autism seems to revolve around the sensory environment and its relationship to autistic behavior. The sensory environment has been part of the autism dialogue, this dialogue hypothesizes that autistic behavior may be a result of a malfunction in sensory perception. This malfunction may take the form of hypersensitivity or hypo-sensitivity, in its various degrees and across the scope of all the senses, leaving individuals with autism with an altered sensitivity to touch, sound, smell, light, color, texture etc. Sensory Design Theory is based on the concept of the sensory environment as a major role player in the process of perception and behavior development[17]. When designing areas for children on the autism spectrum, it is important to have knowledge and understanding of how they experience the environment and the people and objects within it [23].

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B. Two approaches for Autism Treatment Centers and Educational Spaces B.2 The first Approach :Neuro-Typical Design The Neuro-Typical Approach is centered on direct integration to different typical urban and public situations .It proposes the immersion of the autistic user in as typical and stimulating an environment as possible, in order to encourage adaptation to the overstimulation so typical of the disorder and to replicate the level of stimulation found in the real world. It would best prepare the autistic user for the generalization of his or her skills, particularly those acquired in a learning environment, to the outside world [17]. It offers High stimulus environment, inadequate for severe autism, focused on adapting to environment. Results are relevant on a long term therapy, limited skill development, and underestimates autistic sensory deficiencies [19].

B.1 The second Approach: Sensory Design The Sensory Design Theory, which stipulates that favorably altering the sensory environment, can be conducive to positive and constructive autistic behavior, particularly in learning environments [17]. It focuses on creating a controlled sensory environment that makes autistic people feel comfortable, therefore facilitating skill acquirement. It offers Low stimulus environment, adaptable to severe autism and focused on skill acquirement.

It may limit integration for less severe cases and requires more effort and well trained therapists but insufficient for real world situations [19]. (a) The Autism ASPECTSS™ Design Index Dr.Magda Mostafa, associate professor in the Department of Construction and Architectural Engineering at the American university in cairo , created the Autism ASPECTSS™ Design Index, which outlines seven architectural design criteria that allow individuals with autism to focus better and improve their skills [24]. The Autism ASPECTSS Design Index,is a unique tool that assesses architectural environments for people with autism. It was developed with the input of teachers, parents, and caregivers and is now being applied to other projects internationally [25]. (b)The principles of The Autism ASPECTSS™ Design Index 1. Acoustics: are the most influential feature of the sensory environment upon autistic behavior [17]. A sense of calm will encourage better behaviour and a feeling of well-being amongst residents and staff. It influences the choice of materials and so the look and warmth of the building.[26] This calls for the reduction of internal and external noise sources through various means such as cavity walls, sound proofing and sound absorbent materials, spatial configuration to reduce echoes and isolation of sound emitting building systems and avoidance of sound-emitting fixtures such as fluorescent lighting [27]. On the floor , a new type of floor covering was suggested for the ASD specific house based on a Flotex design; a robust and durable product [27].This does not call for the complete soundproofing of spaces. Consequently this would allow for the generalization of skill in non-acoustically managed spaces in the real world [28]. Activities of higher focus, or according to Sensory Design Theory, those taking place in “low stimulus zones”, should be allowed a higher level of acoustical control to keep background noise, echo and reverberation to a minimum [14]. In order to rise the level of integration for people with autism , there needs to be a gradual transition from high controlled environments, towards more stimulating situations that simulate the urban environment scenarios [29].

2. Spatial Sequencing: This criterion is based on the concept of capitalizing on the affinity of individuals with autism to routine and predictability [17]. It calls for the alignment of the sequential organization of space and the daily routine of the users, through a series of smooth transitions from one space to another, in a manner that follows the typical daily schedule of users [ 28]. Spatial Sequencing requires that areas be organized in a logical order, based on the typical scheduled use of such spaces [17].

3. Escape Space: The objective of such spaces is to provide respite for the autistic user from the overstimulation found in their environment [14]. These spaces should be intimate in scale and can range from the completely physically and visually enclosed to the subtly defined [28].

4. Compartmentalization: The philosophy behind this criterion is to define and limit the sensory environment of each activity, organizing a classroom or even an entire building into compartments [17].This criterion outlines the organization of spaces in a series of mono-functional compartments, allowing for single activities and smaller numbers of users. An architectural opposite of the universal open-plan space, this approach tries to reduce the sensory and social input an autistic user has to deal with to the minimum required to carry out their activity. These compartments can be defined using various means- from complete enclosure using walls and partitions, to moderate enclosure using carefully placed furniture and variances in levels, to a minimalistic definition using perhaps colour, pattern and finishing material to define each space[28].

5. Transition Spaces: Working hand in hand with Spatial Sequencing and Sensory Zoning, this criterion allows for the sensory shift from one activity to another, or one sensory level to another, and helps avoid abrupt changes in function and stimulation. It helps ensure the seamlessness required when circulating from one zone to the next [28].

6. Sensory Zoning: This criterion proposes that when designing for autism, spaces should be organized in accordance to their sensory quality, rather than the typical architectural approach of functional zoning. Grouping spaces according to their allowable stimulus level, spaces are organized into zones of “high-stimulus” and “low

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stimulus”[17]. Sensory zoning calls for the grouping of spaces with similar sensory stimulation levels together, into high, moderate and low stimulation zones. Transition spaces should be used between these zones, and circulation should be planned following the daily routine as called for by the spatial sequencing criterion[ 28].

7. Safety: is even more of a concern for children with autism who may have an altered sense of their environment [17]. Behavioural problems are also frequent in children with ASD, and may lead to aggressive conduct, meaning that the elements in the built environment have to be designed , so safety considerations should be taken with all building systems [30] : material choices, surfaces, bathroom fittings, electrical devices, metaldoor fittings, banisters and railings, exterior carpentry, tiles , protective barriers, furniture, fixtures etc. It is best that most spaces also be visually accessible to allow safe monitoring of children [28]. Using soft surfaces for furniture and floors could lessen this potential for physical injuries . It is recommended avoiding glass surfaces for tables [31].

VIII. The analytical study A. Applying the Neuro-Typical approach : A case study of the Developmental Learning Center (DLC) A.1 The project description (DLC) The Developmental Learning Center (DLC)in Warren, New Jersey (2007)is a unique, specialized learning center providing for the special needs of students with autism and related disorders. At 168,000 square feet, the building construction is designed more traditionally residential than institutional with a ground level entrance, core student level, and an administrative office level, covered walkways, peaked roofs and skylights. The building maintains a student population of 200 – 250 and is divided into three main sections targeted to specific ages: a preschool/primary wing (ages 3-5, 5-8), an intermediate wing (ages 9-13), and a secondary wing (ages 14-21). The facility contains classrooms, learning labs, atrium, health & fitness facilities, cafeteria and diner, kitchen, administrative offices, storage and mechanical/electrical rooms [32].

A.2 Architecture and interior design philosophy USA Architects’ concept for (DLC) “was to replicate the environments and social settings that students would normally travel “off-campus” to experience and so students can learn in ‘real’ world settings if they will ever have a chance to use their acquired skills outside of the classroom[33] ''Fig 2", ''Fig 3".

Fig . 2: ShowsThe Developmental Learning Center (DLC)in Warren, New Jersey

Fig.3: Fig 3a shows Plans with represented functions, Fig 3b , 3c show The heart of the facility : “Main Street,” the central corridor of the school with its Natural light sources such as skylight. The main corridor is designed as a “replica of a typical American main street.” It includes the Commerce Bank, Warrenville and Berkeley Hardware Store, Carmen’s Barber Shop, Ferratti’s Plant Nursery, Towne Deli Diner, Manufacturing lab, ShopRite, and a mock Apartment complete with living and dining room, kitchen, bedroom, laundry and game rooms.

A

B

C

A.3 "A real world "in every interior space

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(a) The layout of the facility: itself was strategic by creating a core level for the students that is simple and easy to navigate. Spaces have logical adjacencies and flexible configurations to minimize travel. Way-finding elements were placed throughout the facility to visually guide children to their proper place [32]. (b) The Vocational Room :of the intermediate wing, through both individual and group instruction, students will learn general vocational trade skills and workplace culture. The goal of the Vocational Room, is to provide students with independent skills needed in workplace environments. These skills incorporate manufacturing tasks and simulated office work like filling off-site work orders from area businesses and establishments. (c)The school cafeteria: the center features a â&#x20AC;&#x153;dinerâ&#x20AC;? environment, Rather than creating the typical school cafeteria ,including the checkerboard touches and several style booths consistent with a real diner. The diner helps make the students more comfortable with a traditional restaurant setting ''Fig 4 a". (d) Two indoor swimming pools: which are developmentally appropriate for both beginner as well as advanced swimmers. The pools provide the natural environment for swimmers to overcome their fear of water while improving their muscle strength and endurance through aquatic therapy[33] ''Fig 4 b", Fig .4: Fig 4a shows the Cafeteria area in the DLC, Fig 4b shows an interior view of the Pool area B

A

(e) Light and colour: A calming ambient environment by natural and artifial light , acoustic control and thermal comfort, pleasing exterior and interior colors, as well as tactile surfaces and indirect lighting fixtures [32].The center have a highly efficient geothermal heating and cooling system that consumes less fossil fuel and emits less pollution. Its passive solar design incorporates energy-efficient lights, clear-story windows that provide abundant natural daylight, and a general building orientation and angled roofs intended to maximize the advantage of the sun [33].

B. Applying the sensory design theory and Autism aspects design index: A case study of the Advance Special Needs Education Center, Egypt B.1 The project description It is the first building to apply 'sensory design theory' to its architecture . Principal architect Ashraf Tawfik translates this evidence based research into a creative and conducive environment for children with autism[34]. The center is located in a newly developed suburb of greater Cairo, Egypt, as part of New Cairo in the Qattameya district ''Fig 5". The total plot is approximately 4200 m2 with a permissible footprint of 30% or 1200 m2. The maximum allowable height is 13 m or 3 stories, creating a maximum built-up area 3600 m2 above ground. When completed the center should provide full-time educational services to 70 students, as well as parttime support and supervision to at least 50 others [17]. In addition to classrooms, the design provides therapy areas, a diagnostic centre, sports centre, sensory garden and assisted living residence for up to 20 students [35].

Fig. 5: View of the overall organization of building

B.2 Architecture and interior design philosophy

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The 7 principles of the Autism aspects design index were the driving force behind the programming and development of design criteria at all levels: detailed program development; contextual consideration related to site location, surrounding activities and community participation with the center; whole-school issues related to zoning, spatial organization, proxemics etc.; classroom configurations; furniture layouts and finishing specifications B. 3 The sensory design theory and Autism aspects design index in Whole School Issues (a) Context and Community The commercial outlets create an opportunity for student interaction with society. They are kept visually and spatially separate and organized. Natural lighting , natural ventilation are used as much as possible.Noise exposure is kept to a minimum in “high focus” areas : computer stations in the business center or accounting stations in the other outlets. The assembly hall can also be utilized to encourage inclusion : awareness campaigns, parent home program training sessions, parent support groups, teacher training seminars, school organized shows and school assemblies . (b) zoning Spatial groupings should follow “autistic” logic and involve sensorial compatible functions. They should be accessed through a one-way circulation system, emphasizing “routine”. For example high-stimulus functions like music, art, crafts and psychomotor therapy, requiring a high level of alertness can be grouped together, while low stimulus functions or “high focus” areas like speech therapy, one to one instruction and general classrooms, requiring a high level of concentration, can be grouped together ''Fig 6". Services, which are usually high-stimulus, including bathrooms, kitchens, staff-rooms and administration, should be separated from the student areas. Buffer areas such as gardens, free-play, sensory curriculum rooms and some other open spaces may act as transitional areas between the low-stimulus “focus” zones and the high-stimulus “alertness” zones.

Transition zones also play a role in easing such shifts [17].

Fig. 6: Entry-level plan and Division of space in sensory zones - The Advance Center for Autism, Qattameya,

(c). Way-finding, Navigation, Circulation and Spatial Sequencing A “one-way” circulation scheme that builds on the special needs user’s affinity to routine is employed throughout this building. Transition zones such as gardens and sensory curriculum rooms may assist when this one-way circulation is not possible. The use of a circular node, in the form of a cylindrical tower, between the two main circulation axes, create a transition zone between the two sensory zones and will aid the student in independent navigation. Visual aids such as color , pattern, written word and signage are employed in circulation areas to assist way finding . Pictorial language displayed, with written language will help develop skills .Various colors and themed symbols are used to indicate different functions in the school. Various textured materials are also used to indicate circulation areas, changes in levels and for the creation of interesting sensory experiences. The lighting used in all circulation spaces is natural with placement that avoids glare and silhouetting. The use of contrasting materials in various elements-floor, wall, ceiling, doors- helps visually define and differentiate, helping to clarify the visual qualities of circulation areas. Overstimulation, however, is avoided [17]. (d) Fire safety and evacuation The evacuation strategy proposed involves insuring the safe and effective movement of the challenged individual from any point in the building under various fire location scenarios (progressive horizontal evacuation), to a safe spot or refuge. This refuge should be secure and located away from the evacuation flow.

An appointed faculty or staff member will meet the individual at this assigned refuge and proceed to evacuate him/her .

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IX. Designing Autism (ASD) friendly learning spaces Designing learning spaces includes: General Classroom Design , Specialized Therapy Spaces and Outdoor Learning Spaces and also includes what furniture, light and colour must be used.

A. General Classroom Design The classrooms are located in the low-stimulus area of the school. Each classroom has an average of 7 students with at least 3 teachers and assistants. Acoustically, they are designed to reduce external noise as well as internal echoes. It is designed in a compartmentalized fashion [17]. Each activity is allocated to a “station” which can be physically and visually separated from the remainder of the classroom by low partitions, levels or different flooring materials and colors [14] ''Fig 7". These stations are organized in the classroom according to their sensory requirements with high focus functions like fine motor skills, matching, sorting and academics located in well-lit areas allowing alertness without distraction. Natural lighting is introduced with above eye-level sills to allow indirect sunlight in without visual distractions. These windows are north facing to avoid glare and direct light, can only be opened and closed by staff and located so as to encourage cross ventilation [26] . For each activity an optimum and distinct furniture and equipment layout is used consistently [17]. Open areas for floor play are included as provisions for group work. Resources must be organized to avoid distraction to the child. Closed storage cupboards or open shelving with neutral boxes are ideal. Autistic children need a quiet space to control their temper tantrums and which helps them in being calm and organize their behavior [10].

This area must be included and located in the lowest stimulus area of the classroom. It is a small partitioned area where a child may seek refuge whenever over-stimulated or overwhelmed. This space is intimate and partially enclosed to limit the sensory environment the child needs to deal with. It is designed as a sensory neutral space with various items close at hand, like a small Snoezelen sensory curriculum room so that the child can have the space customized according to his or her sensory needs . These items may include cushions of various textures, brushes, sand paper, small tents, blankets, fiber optic lights, music headphones and perhaps aromatherapy oils.

This area can also be used at the beginning and end of classes to help children calm down and prepare to be more receptive to the upcoming tasks. Joint observation rooms are made available directly adjacent to the classrooms. These are small rooms with one-way mirrored windows looking directly into the classes, with a/v equipment for taping sessions. These can be used as part of teacher training courses as well as parent awareness and home program training [17].Avoid air fresheners and perfume because students with autism can be very sensitive to smells . Children with autism pay attention to details and can miss the big picture. Wall charts and posters can distract them. While teaching, professor tries to teach in front of a blank background[35] . Eight design standards and solutions gathered from interviews with people most directly affected by autism - parents, teachers, and therapists, as well as college students and adults with autism: (1)Flexibility , (2) Non-Threatening, (3)Non-Distracting , (4)Predictability , (5) Controllability , (6) Sensory-Motor Attuned , (7)Safety ,(8) NonInstitutional [16]. Keith McAllister identifies the design criteria for ASD friendly classroom as Simple layout : calm , ordered , low stimulus spaces, no confusing large spaces, indirect lightning , no glare , subdued colors; good acoustics , avoiding sudden/ background noise , robust materials , tamper- proof elements [31].

Fig . 7: Shows different ways for the interior design of autistic children classroom A

B

C

B. Specialized therapy spaces design A center for autism may provide various specialized spaces for speech, occupational, psychomotor therapy etc..All these spaces, with the exception of speech therapy, are considered the high stimulus functions and should be grouped accordingly in that sensory zone. Each function, is kept acoustically separated from the others using high quality wall systems. Lighting, is natural and indirect, from a source above eye-level to avoid visual distraction. Fluorescent lighting, which emits a low hum and flickers, is avoided. Shared resource and preparation areas, as well as observation rooms are also provided . The speech therapy rooms, being high-focus activities requiring a low-stimulatory environment, should be located as part of the low-stimulus zone. as an acoustical control ,They may be soundproofed rooms.The art therapy area incorporates various activities including painting, printing, sculpture and pottery, these different activities are organized in stations kept partially visually and spatially separate. The vocational workshops incorporate activities like woodwork, bamboo, candle making, tapestry and computers. The workshops are furnished with adjustable stools and tables with durable surfaces [17]. The sensory room "Fig. 8" called “snoezelen” (pronounced SNOO-ze-len), it is

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based on Snoeselen, a concept developed in the Netherlands nearly forty years ago. The word Soneselen blends two Dutch verbs: “snuffelen,” which means to seek out or explore, and “doezelen,” which means to relax. The room helps students with autism and other disabilities better regulate the amount of sensory stimulation they experience. The room is filled with special equipment and tools such as a vibrating platform, speakers, an LED projector, a motorized mirror ball, beanbag chairs and bubble tubes, all of which be adjusted by the student to meet his or her needs . Kijeong Jeon, a Chico State University associate professor of art who provided the interior design of a sensory room where used multicolored fiberoptic lighting, lava lamps that change colors, bubble mirrors and a cork floor that absorbs sound. A fountain in the center of the main sensory room creates the sound of rhythmic water dropping, and a “3-D wall"-a multilayered, boxed platform- on which movies can be projected, giving them a kind of broken or underwater effect [38]. “The room lets students ‘listen’ with their bodies and their minds,” said Dr. Geraldine Gibbia, co-founder and Executive Director of The Phoenix Center [37]. The enclosed swimming pool and hydrotherapy can be located at the farthest possible location from the classrooms and the low-stimulus zone. The hydrotherapy is comprised of a sensory pool that activates various jets at different parts of the body to provide tactile stimulation [17].

Fig. 8: Shows the sensory room offers a Multi-Sensory Environment (MSE) for students

C. Outdoor Learning Spaces design Outdoor spaces are an essential part of any individual’s environmental awareness and can play an essential role in learning [4] . They can enjoy the freedom without the feeling of being obtrusively observed [8]. the small outdoor classroom courtyards may help create the opportunity for small-group social interactions between students and the larger playground area may allow for larger scale interactions [17]. The outdoor area allows the autist child for a few minutes to perform a sensory readjustment to prepare for the upcoming task. Variety of spaces made available like : A sensory garden ,formal vocational garden and A formal playfield.For the sensory garden , it can be comprised of textured pathways, water-play, ball pools, sand pits and an aromatherapy herbal garden is the core of this space. Water features, a free-standing expression wall painted with blackboard paint allows the students to articulate themselves artistically and various shaded seating alcoves. The formal vocational garden is another essential outdoor learning spaces where students can learn various skills. In addition to gardening, small projects can be carried out including herbal packaging, floral arrangements, organic produce and others. The formal playfield is used for organized sports is also provided [17]. In 2002, Herbert gives the Guidelines for Designing a Therapeutic Garden for Autistic Children: Design for Security, Safety, and Supervision. Provide a “Corner of the World”.Create A Variety of Specialized Spaces. Design Space for Sensory Integration Activities. Stimulate Gross Motor Activities. Stimulate Fine Motor Skills. Provide Spaces with Loose Parts for Manipulation. Provide Activities for Physical Exertion.

Design Spaces for Directed Play Therapy or Self-Help Skills. Provide Visual Cues for Orientation. Design with Special Lighting Conditions in Mind. Provide a Safe and Nurturing Entry.Design for Future Spatial Flexibility.

Design to Accommodate all Children. Provide Organizational/Informational Feature. Choose Appropriate Site Furniture. Design for Maximum Nature Interaction. Choose Appropriate and Stimulating Plants. Provide Adequate Storage. Establish Strong Indoor/Outdoor Connection. Create Clear and Unambiguous Layout (Design Intent). Design for Ease of Maintenance [21].

D. Furniture Items The furniture items used inside a treatment center for autistic need to posses certain characteristics. Because the majority of patients will be less than 7 years old, the objects need to be selected in accordance to their standards.

Furthermore, sensory deficiencies will be responsible for other features that furniture items will have. Also, they should be easy to perceive from the other elements present in the room/ building. The shapes should be simple, adapted to the form of therapy and should not contain pieces that can harm the patients. As is the case for walls and floors, the texture needs to be rudimentary, and the color neutral so it will not distract attention. The materials that can be used are diverse, such as wood and textile, though reflective surfaces and glossy metal should be avoided. A specific furniture element required inside treatment centers for people with autism is the refuge space. This can be designed in numerous ways, usually in the shape of an armchair and it is destined to

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provide patients with a calm environment when overstimulating episodes appear. This object needs to possess the capacity to adapt to different deficiencies and patient preferences. In relation with the progress of therapy, the furniture elements need to be replaced with day-to-day items in order to encourage the integration to typical household scenarios [29].

E. Lighting The most important issue raised by school staff was the type and quality of artificial light used [31]. A high proportion of children and adults with autism show marked differences in their sensory profile and that this includes sensitivity and adverse reactions to certain forms of artificial lighting [39]. This range of sensory problems includes an aversion to very bright fluorescent lighting can affect their visual field [27].Care should be taken to avoid flickering fluorescent lighting as this can be disturbing to people with ASD. Compact fluorescent is acceptable but the specification always needs to be checked to make sure that fittings are fitted with the appropriate diffusers .It is common for children and adults with ASD to sleep with the light on but a lighting level suitable for waking hours may not be suitable at night. Flexibility is the key here so that the lighting level can be reduced [26].

F. Color Perception in Children with Autism Colour can play an important part in the ‘feel’ of a building. Suffice it to say that there are neutral colours, calming colours, disturbing and stimulating colours. Careful choices have to be made to ensure a good balance between the common and private spaces [26].Children with autism appear to be less accurate at color memory, search and chromatic target detection than controls matched on age and non-verbal cognitive ability. One potential explanation is that the difference arises from differences in the anatomical and functional organization of the brain in autism [40]. When selecting color for children’s spaces; Researchers have found that autistic children’s rods and cones (components of the eye) have changed due to chemical imbalances or neural deficiencies. Colors appear more vibrant to autistic children. Of the autistic children tested, 85% saw colors with greater intensity than non-autistic children. The color red for example, looks fluorescent and vibrates with intensity [20]. Children diagnosed with autism perceive colors differently, they have reported headaches caused by the color of the walls, food that is served, or clothing that people wear. In addition, studies have found that overstimulation caused by the changes in color intensity have produced a negative effect on the behavior of these children , we can use earth tone colors and avoid busy patterns because children with autism often have difficulty processing complex patterns. [31]. Environments with too much stimulus on walls, floors and counter surfaces can wreak havoc in neurologically delayed individual’s minds [20]. Interior designer Carolyn Feder encourages parents to paint their autistic child's room in a tranquil hue, such as pale blue, soft green or muted purple [41]. the brain automatically responds to softer colors on a subconscious level. As a result, the relaxing colors help encourage calm emotional responses and appropriate behavior. Pink is a good room color for children , both gender with learning disabilities, like autism. We must opt for a lighter version of the favorite color of autisic child, rather than a bright or vivid hue, to avoid overstimulation. soft neutrals are a good option.

Ivory, beige, light mocha, muted teal and soft gray are muted colors that work well in various interior designs, while reducing the amount of visual stimulation. Even though white is a neutral color, avoid stark white paint colors because they aren't soothing and might remind your child of unpleasant doctor's visits. Stay away from busy curtain patterns, colorful wall decorations, and complex furniture designs[41] .

X. Conclusion 1. Children with ASD are a significant group of the population, which requires attention from society.

2. The classroom is an important element in school, if comfortable and relaxed, may be the secure starting point for those venturing into the bustle of the wider school environment with their peers.

3. Autistic behavior can be influenced favorably by altering the sensory environment resulting from the physical architectural surroundings (color, texture, ventilation, sense of closure, orientation, acoustics); behavior may be improved, or at least a more conducive environment created, for more efficient skill development.

4. The interior design can affect positively or negatively on the the autistic child's psychology. Make the lives of those people better, can assist caretakers, and can even affect the course of the disorder.

XI. Recommendations 1. Raise the society awareness of those marginalized group of autistic children.

2. Supporting research about design/human behavior relationship and also on designing for people with autism, to positively change people’s lives through the power of design.

3. Interior designers and researchers must collaborate to document measurable outcomes of their design solutions and share findings with the design industry, building the body of knowledge and advancing educational spaces design for children with ASD.

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