AAPI News Bulletin, Vol 23, January 2013

AAPI NEWS BULLETIN Accelerating Agriculture Productivity Improvement (AAPI) Volume 23

A project supported by USAID in collaboration with DAE Notes from Chief of Party, AAPI

Inside this issue:

AAPI Responds to Local 3 Needs with Balanced Fertilizer Deep Placement (FDP) Trials on Local Improved Rice Varieties A Green Revolution in Bakshi

4

Profitability in Guti Urea Business

6

Activity Achievements December 27, 2012 to January 23, 2013

8

AAPI Events in February 2013

8

AAPI News Bulletin is a monthly publication of the AAPI project.

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International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) is a Public International Organization (PIO) based in Alabama, USA. IFDC focuses on increasing and sustaining food security and agricultural productivity in developing countries.

Managing Editor: Ishrat Jahan Resident Representative IFDC Bangladesh Eurasia Division and Project Coordinator, AAPI Design and Layout: Syed Afzal Hossain Data Management Unit, AAPI

Happy New Year! Looking back at 2012, we started well with a good Boro harvest and the year looked promising. But then we suffered from drought in the middle of the year. You will remember that the Aus harvest was well below normal, and even the Aman crop was adversely affected by low rainfall early in the season. Such is the plight of farming, and we should show great respect to farmers who face these difficulties year after year and continue to persevere, ensuring that food is on all of our tables.

This month, it is not rainfall, but cold temperatures that are causing some hardship. Preparing the land for the Boro crop in these low temperatures is not a task to relish. Let us all resolve to make 2013 a good year for the farmer. Certainly, the project is in a good position to again make a significant contribution to food security and income generation.

In this bulletin, we have an article by Mr. Mahmood Hussain who shares our experiences with farmer training. Mr. Mainul Ahsan has an article on the research we have carried out on the responses of local improved rice varieties to urea deep placement (UDP) technology and Mr. Nurul Islam has presented a sound set of calculations that show the profitability of a Guti urea business. We also have

January 31, 2013

an article on the changes that are occurring in Bakshi village in Pirojpur, one of our Model Villages. *** Effective Farmers’ Training for the Promotion of Guti Urea Farmers’ training on UDP, popularly known as Guti urea, is an effective tool to educate and motivate farmers for its use. It is a vital task of the AAPI project as well. Therefore, ensuring the efficiency of such training is crucial in expanding Guti urea, which increases yields and lowers production costs. AAPI experience shows that there are certain procedures for effective farmers’ training. These are briefly narrated below.

Selection of Farmers The first step in farmers’ training is farmer selection. In AAPI, one batch of the participants is comprised of 40 farmers; 50 percent of them are women. The sub-assistant agriculture officers (SAAOs) of the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) usually select the farmers. Field Monitoring Officers (FMOs) of the AAPI project also cooperate with SAAOs in the farmer selection process. Selection criteria are:

The views expressed in this bulletin do not necessarily reflect views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government

AAPI NEWS BULLETIN AAPI News Bulletin Contact Persons: Ishrat Jahan Grahame D. Hunter Address: Dhaka Office: Road No. 62, House No. 4B, Apt-B2 Gulshan - 2, Dhaka -1212 Bangladesh Tel: 880-2-9894288 880-2-8817391 Fax: 880-2-8826109 Website: www.aapi-ifdc.org www.ifdc.org Barisal Office: “Zohora” 834 (New) Police Line Road, Barisal Tel: 0431-2176566 Jessore Office: 1351 Police Line Road Talikhola, Puraton Kasba Jessore Tel: 0421-60986 AAPI Management: Ishrat Jahan, Project Coordinator; Grahame D. Hunter, Chief of Party; Md. Mofizul Islam, Sr. Agriculture Specialist; Dr. Shaharuk Ahmed, Md. Fozlul Hoque, Md. Iqbal Hossain, Dr. Badirul Islam, Agriculture Specialists; Md. Shamsul Alam, Abul Hossain Mollah, Mahmood Hussain, Dr. AKM Farhad Training Specialists; Dr. Md. Abdul Mazid Mia, Mainul Ahsan, Soil Scientists; Md. Nurul Islam, Market/Business Development Specialist; Ram Proshad Ghosh, Mechanical Engineer; Dr. Abdul Wohab, Agriculture Engineer; Rubina Islam, Gender Specialist; Syed Afzal Mahmood Hossain, Senior Data Management Specialist; Farin Islam, M&E Specialist; AFM Saleh Chowdhury, Chief Accountant; Bishnu Rup Chowdhury, Administrative and Procurement Officer

Volume 23  Select real farmers who have not received IFDC training on UDP technology earlier.

 Make sure that the women participants are farmers themselves, or are the spouses of real farmers and involved in the agriculture of the farm.

 Select farmers who are progressive, ready to adopt and propagate the new technology and willing to actively participate in the training sessions.

 Give preference to various groups engaged in farming such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM)/Integrated Crop Management (ICM) clubs, irrigation group members, common interest group (CIG) members and farmers’ cooperative groups.

AAPI avoids undue local interference in the selection process, receives advice and cooperation from the Upazila Agriculture Officers (UAOs) of DAE.

Venue The training venue should be appropriate for the adult training process. In most cases, AAPI selects primary schools as training venues.

Classroom facilities like black board, chalk, power supply, toilet facilities, and a piece of land for the practice of placing Guti urea need to be available. The plot size is prepared to a minimum of 6ʹx6ʹ (36 square feet).

Timing Farmers’ training is a day-long activity taking six hours; the training starts at 10:00 am and closes at 4:00 pm. Farmers need to be motivated to attend the program in time and stay 2

until the end. Both FMOs and SAAOs need to generate interest and enthusiasm among participants to ensure punctuality and the full-time stay of participants in all training sessions.

Program The program is prepared by the AAPI training unit. It opens with a review of the program, the objectives and role of participants and the administrative issues and arrangements for the day. The training sessions are divided into two parts: theoretical and practical.

Theoretical Session After registration, the instructors deliver the theoretical part of the program that includes information on soil, seed, alternate wetting and drying (AWD)/irrigation and UDP technology. The trainers spend more time on UDP technology, as it is the major topic, and spend comparatively less time on topics like soil, seed, irrigation and crop protection. They are advised to avoid technical details and direct lectures and to discuss topics in simple language. All participants are encouraged to participate in urea deep placement practice.

Trainers use a flip chart provided by the project. These display diagrams and graphics that help the trainer explain the topics. Time for questions and answers follows each topic. The female attendance has been good, but trainers note that their participation in questions and answers requires special attention by the trainer to help overcome shyness. Trainers take feedback from male and especially the female participants on the topics discussed to ensure that they

AAPI NEWS BULLETIN

Volume 23 (374,163 men and 155,076 women). As per IFDC policy guidelines, FMOs make all efforts to ensure that participation is 50 percent women in each batch; during the last quarter (October-December 2012), the participation of women was more than 49 percent.

understand the topics clearly and are able to communicate the topics to their spouses and other farmers of the area.

Practical Session The practical session runs for two hours. It starts before the lunch/prayer break. The land for the practical session may be an open field near the venue or an actual crop field. The size of the selected plot for the practice session needs to be 6ʹx6ʹ so that all participants can easily move in the plot when placing Guti urea. The participants are divided into four to five groups to ensure that all members take part in the practice session.

Efforts are made to procure seedlings for practice, but if that is not possible, sticks, clumps of straw or grass are used as proxy-seedlings.

Sufficient amounts of Guti urea are made available for placement by participants.

*** AAPI Responds to Local Needs with Balanced Fertilizer Deep Placement (FDP) Trials on Local Improved Rice Varieties Deep placement of urea briquettes (Guti urea) has now become a proven technology in enhancing rice productivity, particularly for modern rice varieties.

Normally, there are three pre-conditions for the adoption of the technology, requiring modern varieties, line transplantation and proper plant spacing. The AAPI block survey for the Aman season 2011 indicated a total of 167,858 hectares (ha) of high-yielding (HYV/Hybrid) varieties were brought under FDP technology in the AAPI upazilas.

Follow up Active and regular follow-up of training is crucial, especially during paddy transplantation and setting up of UDP blocks. In AAPI, FMOs in cooperation with the SAAOs make regular follow-up visits with trained farmers to ensure that they buy Guti urea from briquette owners/ Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation (BCIC) dealers/retailers and use it after transplantation of seedlings. They also maintain regular follow-up with briquette owners to ensure that they produce and sell Guti urea to the farmers during the cropping seasons. For effective follow up, FMOs are advised to form groups of three to five leaders (three men, two women) for each training batch and contact them later to ensure the use of Guti urea after transplantation of the crop.

Beyond modern varieties, there are a considerable number of promising local improved varieties (LIVs) that are now cultivated in different seasons under various agro-ecological zones (AEZs) within the AAPI project area. Among those varieties are Munsoor, Abdul Hai, Fizer and Bitlop in Aus season; Guti Sharna, Tepu, Bamboo, Jamaibabu and Pajam in Aman season; and Bhajan, Punjab Minikit and Saiful in Boro season.

All varieties are cultivated in different AAPI locations. The characteristics of these varieties are similar to those of modern varieties. Some of these varieties are capable of producing higher yields under UDP/FDP technology. If FDP technology can be used in LIVs along with modern rice varieties, it will undoubtedly have a positive impact on efforts to grow more food, and it will support the small and marginal farmers to increase their productivity.

It must be kept in mind that the ultimate goal of the farmers’ training is to educate and motivate farmers so that they use Guti urea and expand the technology in their area.

AAPI Progress in Farmers’ Training

Considering this, the AAPI project has initiated a series of on-farm research trials at different locations under different AEZs in the Aman 2012 season. The main objective of those trials is to develop appropriate urea recommendations as well

The AAPI project has a target of 20,000 batches over its five-year term, 2010-2015. As of December 2012, it had completed 13,236 batches, with 529,239 farmers attending 3

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Volume 23

as nitrogen, phosphate and potash (NPK) fertilizer management practices for sustainable improvement of soil health and crop production with LIVs of rice crop. Since July 2012, under the AAPI project, 10 FDP field trials have been carried out in the Aman season. Six varieties – Guti Sharna, Tepu, Jamaibabu, Bamboo, Dud Kalam and Pajam – were selected for the field trial. Treatments of broadcast urea, 0.9 gram (g) and 1.8g urea briquettes and 2.4g NPK briquettes were used. The research results show that the use of fertilizer through deep placement considerably increases the efficiency of LIV over broadcast application. Significantly higher grain and straw yields and increased nitrogen and phosphate use efficiencies were observed with FDP over broadcast treatment.

lodging and lower yields for Dud Kalam and Pajam.

In coastal areas under AEZ 13, farmers generally do not use phosphate and potash fertilizers in Aman season. Through broadcast application of fertilizers under a high tidal flooding condition, it is very difficult to increase fertilizer use efficiency.

Fertilizer deep placement may be the alternate effective approach to increase fertilizer use efficiency through balanced fertilization in tidally flooded non-saline and saline coastal areas.

Balanced fertilization not only accelerates rice nutrient uptake and maintains soil nutrient balance, but also increases grain yields and farmers’ incomes. In coastal areas, UDP as well as NPK deep placement will be the effective tools for maintaining sustainable soil health. During FDP field trials in LIV rice crops, slightly higher yield was observed in NPK treatment plots over UDP plots (0.5-14.7 percent); this is likely due to the efficient utilization and uptake of P and K.

Yield Difference between UDP Plot and Broadcast (Bdcst) Urea Plot Location

Sadar, Narail Kaliganj, Satkhira Sadar, Satkhira Amtali, Barguna Kalapara, Patuakhali Bakerganj,Barisal Sadar, Jessore Gangni, Meherpur Monirampur, Jessore Trishal, Mymensing

LIV Varieties

AEZ

Guti Sharna Guti Sharna Jamaibabu Bamboo Tepu (Sylhet IRRI) Dud Kalam Guti Sharna Guti Sharna Guti Sharna Pajam

Yield (kg/ha)

Yield Difference kg/ % ha

Bdcst Urea Plot

UDP Plot (1.8 g)

13

2,384

2,795

411

14.7

13

4,331

5,565

1,234

22.2

13

3,636

4,875

1,239

25.4

13

3,341

3,874

533

13.8

13

3,883

4,040

157

3.9

13

3,486

3,392

-94

-2.8

11

4,616

5,362

746

13.9

11

3,670

4,602

932

20.3

11

4,157

5,251

1,094

20.8

9

4,604

4,516

-88

-1.9

The non-replicated FDP rice field trial at Kalapara, Patuakhali.

These trials are only a preliminary investigation in a single season and a more systematic scientific investigation is warranted.

Note: Kilogram (kg)

A considerable number of farmers in the southwestern part of the country (AEZ 11 and 13) cultivate the Guti Sharna variety in Aman season.

Responding to their needs, the result of the trials indicated that UDP increased yields from 13.9 percent to 22.2 percent. Overall, the yield increment ranged from 3.9 to 25.4 percent, except for Dud Kalam and Pajam varieties. These are tall varieties, and vigorous vegetative growth caused

*** A Green Revolution in Bakshi The land that once remained fallow during the winter is now full of greeneries. Those who never imagined that farming could transform their fate are excited about the change today. And it would 4

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Volume 23 Provash Mistri, 50, another farmer, said that under the traditional cropping system, he could grow only about 15 maunds of rice per year on 68 decimals of land, but now it has increased to over 50 maunds. In addition, he grows potato, maize, sunflower, green chili, okra, brinjal and bitter gourd. He used Guti urea in all of these crops.

not be wrong in anyway if one termed the rise of Bakshi village as a green revolution. “It is a radical change,” says Dilip Kumar Mistri, a leading farmer of the Pirojpur community in Nazirpur upazila, a southern district of Bangladesh.

Most of them, mainly small and marginal farmers of the village, had lived on subsistence agriculture until 2009. Despite the introduction of many highyielding rice varieties introduced decades ago, they continued to cultivate local low-yielding varieties – Shatia, Shada Mota, Lal Mota and Nashpati – that grew only in Aus and Aman seasons. Some of the farmers grew either grass pea or mung bean after Aman, but the majority of the land remained fallow during the winter season.

“Fifteen maunds of rice was only enough to feed my family for six months. Now we have enough for the whole year, and I can even sell rice,” he said, adding that the vegetables he produces now bring him good earnings, and are a good supply of food for family consumption. He also has no need to buy edible oil, as he gets it from sunflower seed.

“The financial constraints that I had earlier are now over with the new interventions in farm activities,” Provash Mistri said, giving much of the credit to IFDC and DAE SAAO Noni Gopal Majumder for the improvement.

“Rice yields of local varieties used to be 22-24 maunds per acre,” says Dilip Kumar, 55. The scenario began to change when the local SAAO of the DAE introduced high-yielding rice varieties, BRRI-49, 40, 41, BINA-7 and-8 and some vegetables in 2009. At the same time, the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) introduced the hybrid rice Aloron, and sunflower and maize. With hands-on training from the SAAO, farmers started growing these highyielding varieties.

With the new interventions, the cropping intensity increased between 250 and 400 percent in most cases. They grow high-yielding or hybrid rice varieties during Aus and Aman seasons. During Boro season, some grow rice, but most others grow vegetables and winter crops.

However, farming in Bakshi village gained greater momentum when IFDC, through the AAPI project, introduced Guti urea (UDP) in winter of 2011 and helped the farmers find better potato seeds and the short-duration rice variety BINA-7.

Following a Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), AAPI took initiatives to turn Bakshi into a model village.

Maize and sunflower are friendly crops to potato, meaning that they plant potato and maize or potato and sunflower in a field almost simultaneously and harvest the two crops in a single season.

With Guti urea, the yield of maize is 60 maunds and sunflower seeds yield 30 maunds per acre, which is about 20 percent more than that of prilled urea-applied crops.

The yield of the high-yielding rice varieties ranged between 40 and 45 maunds (1.0 maund is equal to 37 kg) per acre in 2009 and 2010, but with the use of Guti urea, it climbed to 60 maunds, said Dilip Kumar, president of a local IPM Club.

Dilip Kumar said that his potato yield per acre was 225-230 maunds last winter, but this year it is expected to be 450 maunds due to a better potato variety.

AAPI demonstrations of BINA-7 in the last Aman season revealed that the rice matures in 90 days.

Farmers grew BINA-7 on around 20 acres during Aman season, and will produce it on most of the land in the next Aman season to ensure that they can plant winter crops in time, farmers said.

Asit Kumar Mandal, 40, a science teacher at Shaikhmatia High School, said that with the advent of new technologies, especially Guti urea, he started farming with new inspiration because of its profitability.

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Volume 23 and non-governmental organizations to assist them in addressing the challenge.

Bipul Majumder, a young farmer, said that last year, farmers of Bakshi village used Guti urea on 30 percent of the land, but this winter season almost 99 percent of 94 hectares of cultivable land in the village came under Guti urea use.

*** Profitability in Guti Urea Business Guti urea has become a brand name in Bangladesh’s agriculture for its contribution to increased yields and cost efficiency. Many farmers now apply the technology in over 800,000 ha of land. Apart from rice cultivation, Guti urea (UDP) is also being used in many other crops during cultivation, including a number of vegetables.

These facts suggest the huge prospects of the UDP technology in Bangladesh, where farmland scarcity and food security are national concerns.

This is more or less the perspective of the farmers and the government. Additionally, a calculation by AAPI suggests that the UDP briquetting business is much more profitable than that of prilled urea.

Bipul Majumder and Sudipta Mistri take care of cabbage at Bakshi village in Pirojpur.

Before going into detail, let us first get to know the supply chain of urea fertilizer. BCIC appoints dealers who buy urea from the government and sell to the retailers and farmers. Traditionally, farmers apply prilled or granular urea in their crop fields using the broadcasting method. In recent years, many farmers have been using Guti urea, which is being promoted by AAPI-IFDC in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) through DAE – with funding from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) – and is getting 15-20 percent yield increases with a 30 percent reduction in the use of urea. IFDC is providing fertilizer briquetting machines to the interested BCIC dealers, retailers, ICM/IPM clubs and individual entrepreneurs at a reduced price in AAPI project areas as an incentive to expand the technology.

“Following us, neighboring villages – Uttar Bakshi, Paschim Bakshi and Ramvadra – are also adapting Guti urea technology,” he said.

Dilip Kumar said, “As Bakshi has been named a model village, all the farmers of the village are in a competitive mood to do their best in farming and show others that they are a model.”

Noni Gopal Majumder, SAAO of Shaikhmatia, said that only three years ago, he found many farmers borrowing for survival, but now they have the capacity to lend. “This is a great change.”

There are even some landless farmers who are changing their fates by sharecropping or leasing land to produce crops with the new technologies, he noted.

Typically, fertilizer businesses sell a variety of products such as prilled urea, Guti urea, diammonium phosphate (DAP), muriate of potash (MOP), etc. They also offer pesticides and seeds in their shops. However, most businesses do not track the profitability of individual products, and this practice prevents them from focusing on the products that earn them the highest profit. A comparative analysis by AAPI has found that the production and sale of Guti urea is much more profitable than prilled urea.

The villagers, however, said that they face problems in irrigation. They use low-lift pumps to irrigate their land from the canals or river through plastic pipes, which they said is quite troublesome.

Constructing cemented irrigation channels could greatly help them, they observed.

The other problem is the shortage of good quality seeds locally, they said, urging the government 6

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Volume 23

Profit and Loss Statement

rates are made based on that typical for a normal business in the project area. The calculation below portrays the difference between trading of Guti urea versus prilled urea.

The scenario in the following Table assumes the business has a command area of farmers growing rice during Aman, Boro and Aus seasons, but with different areas of cultivation for each season. The assumption on average area under Guti urea per machine is based on the average of actual production of Guti urea in the three rice seasons, i.e., Aus and Aman 2011 and Boro 2011-2012, per machine. Assumptions on price and application

The calculation reveals that if an entrepreneur produces and sells 193 MT of Guti urea in three seasons, he/she can make a profit of BDT 307,072 (1.59/kg). On the other hand, for exactly the same market area, if he/she buys and sells 253.43 MT of

Comparative Statement on Profit under Guti Urea and Prilled Urea Businesses Particulars (Guti Urea)

2011-2012

Sales Revenue (BDT) Aus to supply 198.2 ha of rice cultivation Aus application = 111 kg/ha Quantity (MT) Rate BDT/MT Amount (BDT) Aman to supply 378.38 ha of rice cultivation Aman application = 111 kg/ha Quantity (MT) Rate BDT/MT Amount (Tk) Boro to supply 758.82 ha of rice cultivation Boro application = 170 kg/ha Quantity (MT) Rate BDT/MT Amount (BDT) Total Sales Revenue (Aus+Aman+Boro) Cost (BDT) Prilled urea Quantity including short weight bags @1 kg/bag (MT) Rate BDT/MT Amount (BDT) Labor cost including operator Assumes 2 person for 170 days @ 300/day Shop/factory Rent Per Month @ 1,000 Diesel 724 liter @ 3.75/liter and Tk. 62/liter Grease Gear Oil Engine Oil Advertising and Promotion Communication Incidental expenses Repair and Maintenance Interest on Loan 10% on BDT 150,000 Miscellaneous cost Depreciation 15% Total Cost Net Profit (Total Sales-Total Cost) Total Investment Required Return on Investment (ROI) Profit Per MT Profit Per Kg

Particulars (Prilled Urea)

2011-2012

22 22,000 484,000

Aus application = 150 kg/ha

42 22,000 924,000

Aman application = 150 kg/ha

56.76 20,000 1,135,200

Boro application = 220 kg/ha

166.94 20,000 3,338,800 5,068,600

129 22,000 2,838,000 4,246,000 196.86 19,000 3,740,340 102,000 12,000 44,888 200 1,000 2,000 4,000 300 5,000 3,000 15,000 3,500 5,700 3,938,928 307,072 150,000 205% 1,591 1.59

Quantity (MT) Rate BDT/MT Amount (BDT) Assumes 1 person for 250 days @ 300/day1 Per Month @5,0002

29.73 20,000 594,600

253.43 19,000 4,815,170 75,000 60,000

300 5,000 10% on BDT 2,000,0003

200,000 5,000 5,160,470 -91,870 2,000,000 -4.59% -362.50 -0.36

Note: BDT=Bangladeshi currency in Taka; MT= Metric ton 1. The labor days are higher for prilled urea because the dealers sell prilled urea on a continuous basis.

2. The rent of prilled urea business is high because they need separate godown for storing urea as they procure a large quantity at a time.

3. As dealers procure a large quantity at a time, the investment cost is also high compared with Guti urea business.

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Volume 23

prilled urea, his/her loss will be BDT 91,870 (-0.36/kg). It may be noted, however, that along with prilled urea, the BCIC dealers also sell other fertilizers at large quantities compared with Guti urea producers. The bottom line is that the production and sales of Guti urea are more profitable than that of prilled urea.

AAPI Events in February 2013 In the month of February 2013, AAPI is concentrating its activities for Boro paddy. In this month, the following activities will be carried out.  302 batches of training for Boro rice farmers  1 batch of training for briquette producers

So, it is a good reason for entrepreneurs to focus on the production and sales of Guti urea instead of trading prilled urea. However, they must undertake certain promotional activities to be successful, like making posters, banners, leaflets, providing incentives and discounts to the large buyers, establishing demonstration plots, organizing field days, keeping adequate stocks of Guti urea in shops and encouraging farmers to use Guti urea for better yields at a lower cost. Such strategies will not only increase farmers’ productivity, but will also increase Guti urea producers’ profitability.

 1 small business management training  1 local mechanic training  66 field demo established  2 field trial established  32 motivational meetings with old farmers  1 motivational meeting with SAAOs  8 special workshops with urea briquette producers

***

*** Activity Achievements December 27, 2012 to January 23, 2013

From December 27, 2012 to January 23, 2013, AAPI successfully completed activities as shown in the following Table.

Indicator

Unit

Season Target

Achievement in January 2013

Season Total

% of Target

Boro season UDP coverage of Boro

Ha

759,466

62,044

64,029

8%

Farmer training Extension staff meeting Field demonstration (Total) Trials (Total)

Batches No. No. No.

2,823 39 356 25

919 17 86 6

2,419 47 140 15

86% 121% 39% 60%

Motivational field trips Stakeholder workshops

Batches Batches

42 34

2

35 31

83% 91%

Sale of briquette machines Briquette owner training

No. Batches

82 22

2

70 10

85% 45%

422 36 50 870

5 1 1

551 28 65 868

131% 78% 130% 100%

Aman crop cut Rice demonstration harvest Rice trials cut Field days Crop cut in farmers field

No. No. No. No. *** 8